зачетные задания

ВАРИАНТ I (АРТЕМЬЕВ И)
I. 1. Выберите правильный предлог.
People do this kind of activity … their leisure time.
a) on b) during c) of
2. Выберите глагол в Present Simple
Sports club usually … different kinds of activities.
a) has offered b)offers c) were offered
3. Выберите верный перевод: training of oil engineers
a) подготовка инженеров-нефтянников b) трудоустройство инженеров-нефтянников c) выпуск
инженеров
4. Выберите правильный перевод слова
petroleum reserves –
a)нефтянные рвы b) нефтяные запасы c) нефтяные инструменты
5. . Выберите правильный перевод слова
enterprise
a) здание b) промышленное предприятие c) НПЗ
6. Определите время в предложении
Yesterday they ate vegetables for breakfast.
a)
Past Simple b) Past Continuous c) Future Simple
7. Найдите правильный перевод предложения
В данный момент я представляю своих новых друзей родителям.
a) I am introducing my new friends my parents at this moment.
b) I introduced my new friends my parents.
c) I was introducing my new friends my parents at this moment yesterday.
II. Подберите из правой колонки правильный перевод английских слов и словосочетаний:
1. A parallel circuit has a) parallel branches only.
b) the main line and parallel branches.
2. A parallel circuit is used in
order
a) to have the same value of current in all
the elements.
b) to have the same value of voltage in all
the elements.
3. In a parallel circuit a trouble
in one branch
a) results in no current in that branch only.
b) results in no trouble in the whole circuit.
4. No current in a parallel
circuit
a) results from a trouble in one branch.
b) results from a trouble in the main line.
17
5. The sum of IR voltage drops a) equals the value of voltage in the circuit.
b) is less than the smallest voltage drop.
c) is more than the value of voltage in the
circuit.
ВАРИАНТ 2(ВЫЛЛА Р)
I Переведите текст. Вставьте слова по смыслу в текст (a voltage source,pass through,a low resistance, wire
conductors, temperature, the resistance, an insulator)
Conductors are materials having (1) so that current easily passes through them. The lower the resistance of the material,
the more current can (2) it. The most common conductors are metals. Silver and copper are the best of them. The
advantage of copper is that it is much cheaper than silver. Thus copper 37 is widely used to produce (3). One of the
common functions of wire conductors is to connect (4) to a load resistance. Since copper wire conductors have a very
low resistance a minimum voltage drop is produced in them. Thus, all of the applied voltage can produce current in the
load resistance. It should be taken into consideration that most materials change the value of resistance when their (5)
changes. Metals increase their resistance when the temperature increases while carbon decreases its resistance when the
temperature increases. Thus metals have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance while carbon has a negative
temperature coefficient. The smaller is the temperature coefficient or the less the change of resistance with the change
of temperature, the more perfect is (6) material. Materials having a very high resistance are called insulators. Current
passes through insulators with great difficulty. The most common insulators are air, paper, rubber, plastics. Any
insulator can conduct current when a high enough voltage is applied to it. Currents of great value must be applied to
insulators in order to make them conduct. The higher the resistance of (7), the greater the applied voltage must be.
When an insulator is connected to a voltage source, it stores electric charge and a potential is produced on the insulator.
Thus, insulators have the two main functions: 1. to isolate conducting wires and thus to prevent a short between them
and 2. to store electric charge when a voltage source is applied.
2. Find answers to these questions in the text above: 1. What materials are called conductors? 2. What is the
advantage of copper compared with silver? 3. What is the most common function of wire conductors? 4. Why is a
minimum voltage drop produced in copper conductors? 5. What is the relation between the value of resistance and the
temperature in carbon? 6. What materials are called insulators? 7. What are the most common insulators? 8. What are
the two main functions of insulators
ВАРИАНТ 3(ДЕНИСОВ Н)
I. Задайте к предложению 5 вопросов (общий,специальный,альтернативный, разделительный, вопрос к
подлежащему).
Current transformers are used for operating ammeters, wattmeters, and other measuring devices.
ВАРИАНТ 4 (ЛЮБОВ ПАВЕЛ)
I. Прочтите текст и скажите, какие утверждения не соответствуют тексту.
1.
The history of our oil industry dates back to the old times.
2.
The history of our oil industry dates back to the postwar period.
3.
The oil industry of our country has gone through three stages.
4.
At present 4 million tons are produced in less than four days.
The history of our oil industry dates back to the old times. At that time already oil was for the people the source
of light, fuel and means to cure diseases. The oil industry of our country has gone through two stages of development.
The first was the restoration and technical reconstruction of the old oil-fields of Baku, Grozny and Krasnodar. The
second stage embraces the intensive geological exploration and discovery of oil and gas fields in the eastern and other
parts of the country. The oil industry in this country began its development in 1920 with 4 million tons. At present this
amount is produced in less than four days. The most remarkable achievement of recent years has been the establishment
of new oil-producing centres in Western Siberia.
II. Подберите из правой колонки правильный перевод английских слов и словосочетаний:
inˈductance
быстрый
coil [kɔɪl]
индуктировать
size [saɪz]
индуктивность
unit [ˈjuːnɪt]
единица
fast [fɑːst]
размер
mutual [ˈmjuːtʃuəl]
обеспечить
to induce [ɪnˈdjuːs]
определенный
to provide [prəˈvaɪd]
катушка
to touch [tʌtʃ]
касаться
to bring
приносить, подносить
definite [ˈdefɪnɪt]
взаимный
ВАРИАНТ 6 (БОСУЛАЕВ Р)
1. Подберите из правой колонки правильный перевод английских слов и словосочетаний:
II. Вставьте терминологию (based on, short-circuits,protection devices, industrial, power source)
Fuses Fuses are widely used nowadays as (1). They are utilized in various circuits, electrical equipment and
installations. Fuses serve to protect them against overcurrents and (2). There are different types of fuses in use
nowadays. Of them, quartz-sand fuses serve for voltages up to 500 volts; fuses of this kind are produced with current
ratings of 15 to 60 amp and of 100 to 350 amp. 84 Fuses are commonly used in low-voltage (3) installations rated up to
1,000 V. Fuse protection is (4) a very simple principle: in case of a short-circuit or overcurrent, when the maximum
value of current has been exceeded, the fusible link of a fuse is heated to its melting point. This opens the circuit and
disconnects the circuit from the (5). In case of a fault, one should replace the faulty fusible element by a new one. Fuses
are used both in direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) circuits.
ВАРИАНТ 4
1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них глаголсказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог. Переведите предложения
на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.
а) 1. Quantum mechanics has greatly influenced the nuclear theory.
2. The problem of the structure of matter is constantly occupying the minds of many
scientists.
6) 1. Today many polymeric materials are produced on a massive scale.
2. Many compounds can be decomposed when they are acted upon by different forms of
energy.
П. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle I и Participle II и
установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением,
обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский
язык.
1. Natural rubber is a thermoplastic material that becomes soft when heated and hard
when cooled.
2. Matter composed of any chemical combination of elements is called a compound.
3. The smallest particle having all the characteristics of an element is called an atom.
4. While bombarding the upper layers of the atmosphere, cosmic rays reach the surface of
the earth.
III. Перепишете следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный
глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. Heat can be divided into three different types.
2. A great number of plastics should find their applications in the electrical industry.
3. Chemical means had to be used for the separation of compounds into their elements.
4. The existence of an X-ray laser in the future may be possible.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 2-й и 3-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. Raman - Раман
2. pre-eminent - выдающийся, превосходящий других
3. the Civil Service - государственная служба
4. to appoint to a position - назначить на должность
5. to testify to — свидетельствовать о ...
6. to occupy the chair - возглавлять кафедру, заведовать кафедрой
7. brought - зд. привлек
8. to emerge — зд. проявить себя
СН. V. RAMAN
1. Raman was an Indian physicist, pre-eminent in molecular spectroscopy and acoustics.
He created the Indian Academy of Sciences in 1934 and was its president until his death in
1970. He was justly considered as the father of Indian science and the Indian Government
honoured him with the First of its National Professorships.
2. The son of a teacher and lecturer, Raman entered the College in Madras in 1903 and
achieved the highest distinctions in the examinations for scientific degrees. As scientific
research was at this time almost completely neglected in India, he then entered the Civil
Service and was appointed to a position in the Finance Department in 1907. He retained this
employment for ten years, mostly in Calcutta. When he was eighteen years old he published
his first original optical research in the Philosophical Magazine. He continued scientific work
in his spare time: some thirty papers testified to his ability and energy and helped to make his
name familiar to scientists in Europe and America.
3. In 1917 Raman was offered the professorship of physics at the Calcutta University. He
occupied the chair from 1917 to 1933. Raman brought to Calcutta many talented young
Indians to undertake research into optical phenomena, acoustics and other branches of
physics.
4. During the years in Calcutta Raman emerged as a truly international figure. In 1930 he
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (for his work on the scattering of light and for the
discovery of the effect named after him). Raman was honoured by universities and scientific
institutions in the Soviet Union, Europe and America as well as in his own country.
ВАРИАНТ 5
1. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них глаголсказуемое и определите его видо-временную форму и залог. Переведите предложения
на русский язык. В разделе (б) обратите внимание на перевод пассивных конструкций.
а) 1. Astronomers have measured the exact length of the day.
2. Astronomers find that the day is increasing by 0.002 seconds each century.
6) 1. The chemical properties of an element are determined by the orbiting electrons.
2. As a rule one great discovery is generally followed by numerous others.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните Participle I и Participle II и
установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением,
обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский
язык.
1. The cloud chamber (камера Вильсона) is one of the devices used to detect the
presence of radioactivity.
2. Matter consists of one or a number of basic elements occurring in nature.
3. One can use several modern devices while detecting and measuring radioactivity.
4. When heated to a certain temperature, this alloy increases in volume.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них
модальный глагол или его эквивалент; предложения переведите.
1. We can think of heat as a special form of kinetic energy.
2. A computer should solve complicated problems many millions of times faster than a
mathematician.
3. New types of plastics had to be obtained for space technology.
4. To measure the vast distances between different planets scientists have to use special
instruments.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно переведите 2-й и 3-й
абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. Powell - Пауэлл
2. particle physics — физика элементарных частиц
3. Pugwush Conferences - Пагуошские конференции
4. were determined - были полны решимости
5. won a scholarship - получил (по конкурсу) стипендию
6. position — должность
7. sub-nuclear particle - субъядерная частица
C.F.POWELL
1. Powell was a prominent English scientist noted for his techniques and discoveries in
particle physics. He was also deeply concerned with problems relating to the social
responsibility of scientists. Powell was a leader in the World Federation of Scientific Workers
in the mid-1950s and was a founder of the Pugwush Conferences on Science and World
Affairs in 1957. As a public man and in his published articles Powell stressed the perils of
destructive weapons and the need for international cooperation.
2. Powell was born in December 1903 in England. His parents were poor and they were
determined to give their children a good education to increase their opportunities for a better
life. In 1921 Powell won a scholarship of one of the colleges at Cambridge which he
graduated in 1925 with first-class honours in science. He started his science career at the
Cavendish laboratory headed by Ernest Rutherford. After gaining his scientific degree at
Cambridge in 1928 Powell accepted a position at the new Physics laboratory in the University
of Bristol. Powell spent the rest of his career there advancing to professor in 1948 and director
of the laboratory in 1964.
3. In 1947 Powell Bristol group identified a new particle in the cosmic radiation. Powell
and other two scientists discovered the -meson and demonstrated that this subnuclear
particle was produced directly in nuclear reactions and rapidly decayed in flight, producing
the -meson. The discovery solved a complicated scientific problem and helped open a new
era of particle physics.
4. Powell continued to develop and apply the photographic method of Bristol. His
laboratory became the source of new experimental discoveries in meson physics and an
international training centre for physicists of many countries. In 1950 he was awarded the
Nobel Prize for his development of the photographic method and his meson discoveries.
КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 3
Чтобы правильно выполнить задание № 3, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы
курса английского языка по рекомендованному учебнику:
1. Грамматические функции и значения слов that, one, it.
2. Пассивный залог (The Passive Voice) видо-временных форм Indefinite, Continuous,
Perfect.
3. Функции глаголов to be, to have, to do.
4. Простые неличные формы глагола. Инфинитив в функции а) подлежащего, б)
составной части сказуемого, в) определения,
г) обстоятельства цели.
5. Бессоюзное подчинение в определительных и дополнительных придаточных
предложениях.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 1
Present Perfect Passive
The main question has already been
Главный вопрос уже обсудили.
discussed.
Present Indefinite Passive
His scientific work is much spoken
О его научной работе много
about.
говорят.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2
1. It is necessary to use the latest means
Необходимо использовать в
of control in industry.
контроля.
промышленности новейшие средства
Следует согласиться, что тот
эксперимент имел большое
значение для нашего
исследования.
3. It is hydrogen that will be the main
Именно водород будет сновным source of
energy in the car
источником энергии в
of the future.
автомобиле будущего.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 3
2. One should agree that that expertrnent was of great importance for our
research.
1. What is the name of the book you
Как называется книга, которую
are reading?
ты читаешь?
2. The region we must explore posРайон, который мы должны иссле-sesses great
natural wealth.
довать, обладает огромными
природными ресурсами.
ВАРИАНТ 1
I. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого (см. образец). Переведите
предложения на русский язык.
1. When much material had been looked through and some problems had been solved, the
article was published.
2. Electric cars will be widely used in future.
3. Today plastics are being applied for car bodies (корпус автомобиля) .
4. This lecturer is listened to with great interest.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. It is proved that light needs time to travel any distance.
2. One must take part in scientific work.
3. Specialists consider that in future city transport will reject gasoline.
III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая
внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. You have to come to the language laboratory of the Institute to work at your pronunciation.
2. This material does not possess elastic properties.
3. Scientists had to create new materials for industry.
4. The exam was to start in the morning.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. We know electricity produces heat.
2. The new materials the Soviet chemists developed were used in space technology.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.
1. It is necessary for a modern specialist to know a foreign language.
2. The Soviet scientists were the first to construct and launch the space rocket.
3. Our idea was to design a new device for automatic control.
4. To increase the productivity of labour one must use the methods we have just described.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно – 1-й и 2-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. leap — прыжок
2. cushion — подушка
3. collaboration - сотрудничество
4. recoup — компенсировать
5. magnetic suspension train — поезд на магнитной подвеске
THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY TRANSPORT
1. It has been a long time since train velocities first surpassed the 100 km per hour
limit and they are now approaching 200 km per hour and even higher velocities in some
countries. Is it possible to increase the speed with the help of the traditional wheel at the
present stage in the development of transport facilities? Scientists and engineers in various
countries have come to the conclusion that a new leap in velocity is possible only if the wheel
is replaced with an air or magnetic cushion.
2. After Japan, Germany and France our country took to the business of developing
high-speed ground transport. A number of research centres are carrying out an extensive
programme on high-speed ground transport. The advantages of high-speed ground transport to
be used in future are obvious. At present air and road transport burns three-fourth of all
produced fuels, and the combustion process, naturally, affects the earth's ecology.
3. The future trains must be ecologically clean and noiseless. It has been estimated that
the cost of high-speed ground-transport will be recouped three times faster than with the
railways.
4. The high-speed ground-transport will connect cities and industrial centres to
airports. The first magnetic suspension train is already in operation and is fast advancing.
ВАРИАНТ 2
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видоврсменную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. When much had been done in the study of ecology by our university it became аn
important scientific centre.
2. A curriculum of the new type of secondary school is offered by the Ministry of Education.
3. The research of planets will be developed with the help of cosmic apparatus.
4. This material is unaffected by solar radiation.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. It is necessary to find new sources of cheap energy.
3. It was Einstein who came to the conclusion that the electromagnetic field is influenced by
the gravitational field.
3. This metro station was opened last year, and that one will be put into operation in two
years.
III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая
внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. Man had to learn to obtain electric power directly from the Sun.
2. At present most of the industrial enterprises have their own electric power stations.
3. Specialists do not use solar cells in industry as they are too expensive.
4. The engineers are to study the problem of using cosmic rays.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. The methods we have just described are very effective.
2. The instruments our plant produces help to automate production processes.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива.
1. The teacher told her students to learn the poem by heart.
2. The Soviet Union was the first country to send man into space.
3. To translate a sentence is to discover its meaning.
4. A lot of people all over the world are uniting to fight wars.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 2-й и 3-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. magneto-heat engine —магнитно-тепловой двигатель
2. inexhaustible - неисчерпаемый, неистощимый
SUN-DRIVЕN ENGINE
1. It is of common knowledge that certain metals and their alloys are attracted by a
magnet. After heating, this property vanishes; it is restored after cooling down. A new
magneto-heat engine works on this principle. This invention relates to devices which
transform thermal power, for instance, the power of the sun rays, into a mechanical power of
rotation.
2. We know solar power is inexhaustible and its use does not harm the environment.
That's why such importance is attached to the devices which make it possible to apply the idea
of direct use of solar power, transforming it into mechanical forms of power. The
development of an engine directly driven by a heat source such as solar power, makes it
possible to simplify and make power generation considerably cheaper, in comparison to the
existing thermal engines we use today.
3. The rotor of the new engine is made of an alloy that loses its magnetic properties
already at 100°C. If the rotor is heated on one side, the cold side of the rotor will turn toward
the magnet. Since heating continues, the rotor goes on rotating, too. Thus solar power can be
used as a source of heat in this case. The magneto-heat engine can drive pumps in waterless
districts, can also be widely used for watering greenery in cities and settlements.
4. By using thermomagnetic alloys it is possible to develop a lot of automatic devices,
for example, solar clocks, thermometers, etc. Mention should be made that these devices can
withstand extreme temperatures. To organize the production of the necessary alloys is simple
as there is no need for rare materials or complex technology.
ВАРИАНТ 3
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
I. The radar hаs been used for the automatic control of ground-transport.
2. Today plastics are being widely used instead of metals.
3. The construction of the dam has been completed this month.
4. The alloys were experimented upon in our lab.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. It is the number of electrons within the atom that determines the properties of a substance.
2. The territory of Moscow is larger than that of London.
3. In London one must get used to the left-side traffic.
III. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая
внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. Some substances do not conduct heat.
2. Our plant is to increase the output of consumer goods.
3. Soon our industry will have new and cheap sources of energy.
4. These computers will have to perform millions of operations per second.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. The hostel our students live in is situated not far from the metro station.
2. I think he has made a mistake in his calculations.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.
1. They promised to supply us with the necessary equipment.
2. The purpose of this book is to describe certain properties of metals.
3. The experiment to be carried out is of great importance for our research.
4. To convert chemical energy into electrical energy we must use an electrical cell.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 1, 2 и 3-й
абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. project - зд. новостройка
2. manpower - людские ресурсы
3. coincide to the utmost — зд. предельно совпадать
4. harsh conditions — суровые условия
5. call for — требовать
6. transfer to — перемещать
7. revitalise -- оживить
ECONOMICAL PROGRESS
1. Approximately half the Russia’s territory is economically well developed. The
nearest task is to develop the other half in a planned manner, that is, the tundra in Siberia, the
Far East. Much has already been done in these lands. But no matter what projects are to be
built manpower is always the No. 1 problem.
2. Manpower has to be invited from the more developed areas. Can one induce the
population from the industrialized zone move to the areas needing development? Apart from
investments, our society is vitally interested in making migration, which is necessary for
developing new territories.
3. Our economy needs methods capable of attracting investments in order to revitalise
entire branches of our economy. Large sums are to be spent on attracting a worker to move
and to settle at a new place of work where new production processes can be started. The
securing of investments and manpower resources for the new development are the main tasks
of today.
4. The need to launch projects in harsh conditions calls for special attention not only to
the professional aspect, but also to the physical and moral qualities of the workers. This
makes it necessary to place new criteria on the selection of people who want to come to new
construction sites. They should be judged by their physical and intellectual abilities, the
ability to perform definite functions, capability to adapt to the new conditions of life and
work, their psychological features, etc.
5. These demands are fulfilled best of all when the workers are transferred to the
projects in an organized way within production collectives, formed earlier and having work
experience. ВАМ proved that such an approach is effective. The stability of such collectives
has a favourable influence not only on the activities of the enterprises themselves, but on the
entire system of regional manpower resources.
ВАРИАНТ 4
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. The automatic equipment is being installed in our shop.
2. Radioactive isotopes have been made in nuclear reactor.
3. The construction of this house will be completed in a month.
4. The engineer was asked about the new technology used at the plant.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. The successes in chemistry made it possible to obtain a lot of new materials.
2. One must apply the material that can be machined easily.
3. It is the energy of falling water that is used to drive turbines.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
помня о разных значениях глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. The operators dealing with radioisotopes must have protective suits.
2. The engineers are to study the problem of using solar energy.
3. The chemical industry is one of the leading branches of our national economy.
4. Our fabrics have acquired good reputation abroad.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. I think the drawing will be ready tomorrow.
2. Every substance a man comes in contact with consists of molecules.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.
1. То design new buildings is the work of an architect.
2. To measure volumes we must know the dimensions of a body.
3. Our plant was the first to install the automatic equipment.
4. Architects have built houses to be heated by solar radiation.
VI. Перепишите и устно переведите на русский язык весь текст, а
письменно -- 1-й и 2-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. mechanical engineering — машиностроение
2. power engineering — энергетика
3. Unified Power Grid of the USSR - Единая энергосистема СССР
SOVIET UNION AND RUSSIA
1. Heavy industry formed the basis of the USSR's industrial complex. Its development
was characterised by a high technological level of production, by the emergence of new
branches, including mechanical engineering for nuclear power production.
2. Soviet power engineering comprised high-capacity electric power stations forming
part of the Unified Power Grid of the USSR. New electric power stations such as the Bratsk
Station and the Sayan-Shushenskoye Station were built in the country. Siberia's power system
was included in the USSR Power Grid which was able to serve a large part of the territory of
the Soviet Union.
3. Today oil, gas and coal are largely being exported to foreign countries in order to
earn cash for the state budget which is in desperate need of money to be able to pay wages
and salaries to the state employees and pensions to the retired people.
4. In the Soviet Union the light industry was developing at a fast rate. Some Soviet
fabrics, TV sets, watches and clocks and many other household goods enjoyed good
reputation abroad, others were of poor quality. Today the light industry enterprises are idle
and a lot of its workers are unemployed.
5. There was a highly advanced space technology and industry in the Soviet Union,
and now Russia is barely capable to maintain its space laboratory “Mir” working.
ВАРИАНТ 5
1. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на
русский язык.
1. Many 16-storey houses with all modern conveniences are being built in this part of
Moscow.
2. The sputniks are used for the research of magnetic fields and cosmic rays.
3. The properties of materials are affected by solar radiation.
4. Scientific and engineering progress opens up wide prospects before man.
II. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. It is necessary to obtain accurate data on the possibility of living and working in space.
2. The peoples should know that only their joint efforts can secure peace in the whole world.
3. We had to find new methods of investigation because the old ones were unsatisfactory.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. A programme for the construction of new types of spaceships is to be carried out this year.
2. Soviet people did not pay for medical treatment.
3. We had to change the design of this machine.
4. The speed of electrons is almost the same as that of light.
IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. We know radio and radar systems play a very important role at any airport.
2. The information science gets about other galaxies comes through radiotelescopes.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык,
обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.
1.
The Soviet science was the first to make great contribution to the development of
space technology.
2.
In order to make interplanetary flights in the future it is necessary to know factors
affecting the human organism.
3.
The main purpose of the computers is to solve complex problems quickly.
VI. Прочтите и устно переведите на русский язык весь текст, а письменно - 2, 3 и 4-й абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. fundamental particle - элементарная частица
2. emergence – появление
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS
1. Science has been concentrated lately on the most promising fundamental trends and
fields, on increasing the practical effectiveness of research. The physics of fundamental
particles, the physics of the atomic nucleus, and solid state physics occupy an important place
in modern science.
2. There have been built powerful atomic electric stations and new types of reactors
which open up fine prospects in atomic power industry. Extensive work is now being carried
out on designing nuclear engines to be used for transport. Much attention is being given to the
application of isotopes, radiation and other results of nuclear research in medicine, industry
and agriculture.
3. Scientists have developed large-scale commercial manufacture of artificial
diamonds with properties which surpass those of natural diamonds. The finest crystallographic equipment has been developed making it possible to study the atomic structure of
materials.
4. The emergence of quantum electronics is one of the brightest events in the history
of physics. Our scientists have suggested and developed the ideas of basically new sources of
electro-magnetic emission-quantum generators. At present, they are used in industry for
cutting and welding metals, for high precision treatment of various materials including
diamonds and ceramics.
5. The necessity to conduct extremely fast technical calculations, primarily in atomic
technique, in aviation, rocketry and cosmonautics has led to the development of fast-acting
electronic computers. Computers and other technical means of control are widely used in such
fields as economics, planning and management of production. One should remember that the
wide use of computers signifies a further advance in industry.
6. In recent years we have seen new vast progress in space research. At present new
international projects for studying the outer space and the other planets of the solar system are
being developed.
КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ № 4
Чтобы правильно выполнить задание № 4, необходимо усвоить следующие
разделы курса английского языка по рекомендованному учебнику:
1. Сложные формы инфинитива (Passive Infinitive, Perfect Infinitive). Обороты,
равнозначные придаточным предложениям: объектный инфинитивный оборот,
субъектный инфинитивный оборот.
2. Причастия (Participle 1, II). Независимый (самостоятельный) причастный
оборот.
3. Условные предложения. Используйте образцы выполнения упражнений.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 1
1. Millions of people are recorded to have taken part in elections.
Зарегистрировано, что миллионы людей приняли участие в выборах.
2. We want the new car to be produced by February.
Мы хотим, чтобы новый автомобиль был выпущен к февралю.
3. The device to be bought must be checked beforehand.
Прибор, который нужно купить, следует предварительно проверить.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 2
1.Countries wishing to cooperate with us will always find the necessary understanding.
Страны, желающие сотрудничать с нами, всегда найдут должное понимание.
2. Having visited St. Petersburg the participants of the conference went to Moscow.
Посетив Санкт-Петербург, участники конференции поехали в Москву.
3. New technological processes having been developed, new types of equipment have been
installed in the shop.
Когда были разработаны новые технологические процессы, в цехе было установлено
новое оборудование.
ОБРАЗЕЦ ВЫПОЛНЕНИЯ 3
1. If the installation is put into operation in time, the economic effect will be greater.
Если установка будет пущена вовремя, экономический эффект возрастет.
2. If the system had been perfected, we should have applied it for new calculations.
Если бы система была усовершенствована, мы бы применили ее для новых расчетов.
3. It would be impossible to build spaceships without using new materials and alloys.
Было бы невозможно построить космические корабли без применения новых
материалов и сплавов.
ВАРИАНТ 1
L Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные обороты
соответствуют придаточным предложениям (см. образец выполнения 1).
1. We know Japan to be the second industrial country after the USA.
2. For a long time, special paper impregnated with paraffin was considered to be the main
non-conductor used for manufacturing small capacitors (конденсатор).
3. The metal to be poured into a mold for casting may contract or expand on solidifying.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следуюпще
предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и независимого
(самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец выполнения 2).
1. Having done a number of calculations, our astronomers have shown that the basic mass of
the galaxies is concentrated outside their visible part.
2. A simple laboratory experiment demonstrating this principle is shown in Fig. 29.
3. Ordinary light entering a crystal of tourmaline, the phenomenon of “selective absorption”
takes place.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод условных предложений
(см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If the computer's electronic memory had recorded all the operator's commands, the picture
of deviations from the required parameters would have been produced.
2. If biological experiments are continued, the problem of developing the technology for
growing plants in space conditions will be solved.
3. It would be impossible to protect metal from corrosion without the films.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите Весь текст, а письменно -- 1, 2,3 и 4-й
абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. many times — во много раз
2. combat against — бороться против
3. home-made inhibitors – отечественные ингибиторы
CORROSION
1. During a year almost 200 million tons of metal objects are considered to be
destroyed by corrosion. Considering that about 600 million tons of metal a year are produced
in the world, it is easy to understand the losses of objects without which our life could not be
imagined.
2. The situation is very serious, because not only metal is destroyed but also a great
amount of articles, instruments, and tools whose cost exceeds many times the cost of the
metal used for their manufacture.
3. Cormbatting against the corrosion of metals has now become a key problem in all
industrialized countries. The scientific and technical achievements in the field of raising the
corrosion resistance of construction materials are the basis of technical progress in different
branches of industry, an indicator of the country's economic potential.
4. A large amount of "anti-corrosion" work is being carried out in our country. The
results are evident: Home-made inhibitors, varnishes, paint covers are being well known
throughout the world. Gas pipelines, metal structures, the bodies of atomic reactors and ships,
etc. have been reliably protected against corrosion.
5.Some of our firms also export special equipment and some kinds of technology
designed to weaken corrosion. Anti-corrosion varnishes, paints, insulating materials and
equipment are purchased abroad.
ВАРИАНТ 2
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные обороты
соответствуют придаточным предложениям (см. образец выполнения 1).
1. A number of our scientists believe the Tunguska explosion to have been caused by a
meteorite.
2. Samples of semiconductors with improved properties are reported to be obtained on a new
installation.
3. Scientific discoveries to be practically applied in industry and agriculture are paid special
attention to.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и независимого
(самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец выполнения 2) .
1. This atomic power plant starting to produce electricity in 1958 began industrial using of
atomic energy.
2. Light and food industries have been modernized, much being done to expand the
production of consumer goods.
3. An experiment demonstrating the existence of an ultraviolet and infrared spectrum must be
performed.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как переводятся условные
предложения (см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If liquids expand upon freezing, an increase of pressure lowers the freezing point.
2. If the metal had been heated slowly, the first changes in its appearance would have
occurred at a temperature of lOOOK.
3. It would be impossible to determine the properties of these materials without intensive
studies in our research laboratory.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 1, 2,3 и 4-й
абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. Paton Institute of Electric Welding — Институт электросварки им. Патона (в
Киеве)
2. But they do -А они все-таки имеют(ся)
3. divers - ныряльщики
CREATIVE FIRE
1. All the industries today are in need of new methods of joining metals together. And
not only metals with metals but also joining metals with glass, plastics and many other
materials. The work done by the Paton Institute of Electric Welding in Kiev (Ukraine) is
considered to be the solution of these problems. For example, how to weld a 1,000 km-long
pipeline? The Institute has developed a machine for welding pipelines. The welding section in
each pipe exceeds 100,000 sq. mm. It would take 6-8 hours to perform this work by hand. The
machine does it in two minutes.
2. The machine was tested in production conditions, the results being excellent.
3. It would seem strange to compare the steel constructions that produce oil in the
Caspian Sea with a space station orbiting the Earth. What do they have in common? But they
do - it is the need for making repairs, and repairs mean cutting metal and doing welding work.
4. The rapid development of the oil and other mineral resources of the ocean made the
problem of underwater welding especially up-to-date. The equipment developed by Kiev's
scientists is very effective. New semi-automatic machines for underwater welding increased
divers' productivity by 25-30 times.
5. And what about welding in outer space? The scientists understood that welding had
to be done in conditions of weightlessness, in nearly complete vacuum and within a broad
range of temperatures from 150°C below to 130°C above zero. The equipment, of course,
must be reliable and safe. And the Institute developed such equipment.
ВАРИАНТ 3
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные обороты
соответствуют придаточным предложениям (см. образец выполнения 1) .
1. The Sun and stars are proved to be able to produce great quantities of energy by means of
certain nuclear reactions.
2. For the experiment we need several electrical devices to be connected in series.
3. Lasers are known to have found application in medicine.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и независимого
(самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец выполнения 2).
1. Measurements of solar radiation reaching the Earth each day make it possible to calculate
the surface temperature of the Sun.
2. Having built a new automobile plant, we increased the output of cars and buses.
3. Knowledge being the most valuable wealth of our times, the information theory became of
great importance for the national economy.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как переводятся условные
предложения (см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If the gathered data had been presented in time, the results of the experiments would have
been different.
2. If you had answered six questions in the competition, you would have won the first prize.
3. It would be impossible to carry on a careful study of the process without the new device.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 1, 2, 3 и 4-й
абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1.structure shaped like — структура, имеющая форму
2. seabed — морское дно
3. per side - по сторонам.
4. to bear a resemblance to — походить (быть похожим) на
PYRAMIDS ON MARS?
1. An examination of some of the photos of Mars sent back to Earth by the space
researchers Mariner-9 and Viking-1 provokes a question: was Mars once an inhabited planet?
A group of Soviet scientists from a number of organizations examined the photos and gave
their conclusions.
2. There were discovered formations which have been interpreted as "a field of
quadrangular pyramids". Manner-9 discovered formations which are geometrically correct
structures. Vikings-I photographed something resembling the ruins of Egyptian pyramids.
Nine kilometres east of the "city of pyramids" the photograph shows a stone structure shaped
like a human head, and a strange dark circle.
3. The analyses and physical modelling of the Martian formations were performed.
The Martian surface was compared with that of the Moon, and the shapes of the formations
were compared with those of Egyptian and Mexican pyramids.
The small Martian "pyramids" were found to resemble the recently discovered giant
pyramids, lying on the seabed of the Bermuda Island and the pyramids, 250 m high, found in
the Brazilian jungle.
4. But they are nothing in comparison to the large Martian "pyramids" measuring up to
1.5 kilometres per side at the base and up to one kilometre in height.
The image of the "Martian sphinx", 1.5 km long and 0.5 km wide, lies strictly along
the meridian of the planet.
5. In the opinion of experts, the photographed formations are indeed pyramid-shaped,
and the "oval shaped formation" bears a formal resemblance to a head. But all these strange
figures are of natural origin.
ВАРИАНТ 4
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные обороты
соответствуют придаточным предложениям (см. образец выполнения 1).
1. The crew is reported to have carried out a great deal of scientific experiments.
2. We know the wave theory of light to be first proposed by the English physicist Robert
Hooke in 1665.
3. Nearly all refrigerators to be used at home are based upon the principle that the rapid
evaporation of a liquid or the expansion of a gas produce cooling.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и независимого
(самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец выполнения 2).
1. A curve showing the behaviour of metal is given in Fig. 21.
2. About 100 years ago, a French scientist Pierre Curie subjecting certain crystalline materials
to pressure, observed that they produced an electric charge.
3. The computer's electronic memory recording all the operator's commands, the picture of
deviations was produced.
III. Перепишите и письменно проведите на русский язык следующие
сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как переводятся условные
предложения (см. образец выполнения 3).
1. If one looks at his own face in a mirror, the image observed is technically described as
perverted.
2. If the service life of the instrument had been prolonged, the economic effect would have
been increased many times.
3. It would be impossible to ensure the full supply of energy without atomic power stations.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно --1, 2, 3и 4-й
абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. to play a part - играть роль
2. to their credit — на своем счету
3. means — средство
4. in the order of - порядка (г. e. около ...)
5. closest - ближайший
TODAY'S ELECTRONICS
1. Nowadays, much attention is given to electronics, which is playing a major part in
economic: development. Our scientists and engineers have many achievements to their credit
in this field. One outstanding example is space.
2. Electronics, however, has not only helped us to reach cosmic expanses but has
given us an insight into the world of the most minute organisms — viruses. For instance, a
modem electronic microscope shows the processes taking place in ultra-microscopic
formations of a living cell. Now it is possible to distinguish details being a millionth of a
millimetre away from each other.
3. Electronics is in many ways helping us to solve the problem of the peaceful uses of
atomic energy, and to study atomic nuclei and elementary particles. We know electronics to
have found broad application in industry as a means of automation, control and inspection,
and as a direct means of fulfilling such operations as melting, cutting of superhard materials,
welding, etc:
4. The electron beam acting like a micro-miniature instrument can cut, bore, mill or
plane any material, including tungsten and diamond, with an accuracy to within microns.
Quantum generators can focus light in extremely narrow beams, their angular width being in
the order of a thousandth of a degree. These instruments are called lasers and they can be used
for cutting, drilling, welding and other treatment of materials.
5. The lasers are also used in studying the properties of various substances, in radioengineering, medicine, biology, etc. Scientists believe that such a beam of light will make it
possible to establish contact with the stellar systems closest to our planet.
ВАРИАНТ 5
1. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Помните, что объектный и субъектный инфинитивные обороты
соответствуют придаточным предложениям (см. образец выполнения 1).
1. Now we know neutrino to have a rest mass (масса покоя) of about 30 electron-volts.
2. The properties of the new material are known to be determined next month.
3. Conduction is known to be a process by which heat is transmitted through a substance by
molecular activity.
4. All the changes of temperature and changes of state to be discussed are shown by a graph in
Fig. 2.
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
предложения. Обратите внимание на перевод зависимого и независимого
(самостоятельного) причастных оборотов (см. образец выполнения 2).
1. Working with machines, sharp tools and motors one must always be careful.
2. The stream of electrons moving along the conductor is called electric current.
3. Powerful nuclear ice-breakers having been built in our country, we began a new chapter in
the history of Arctic exploration.
III. Перепишите и письменно переведите на русский язык следующие
сложные предложения. Обратите внимание на то, как переводятся условные
предложения (см. образец выполнения 3) .
1. If you had translated the article, you could have used valuable data in your work.
2. If the quality of the equipment were higher, the results of the experiment would be more
accurate.
3. It would be impossible to explain chemical phenomena without using the laws of physics.
IV. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст, а письменно -- 2, 4 и 5-й
абзацы.
Пояснения к тексту
1. vacuum tube - электронная лампа
2. operating current - рабочий ток
3.transistorized circuitry — цепь, собранная на
транзисторах
4. tunnel diode — туннельный диод
5. ring radio set - радиоприемник, встроенный в кольцо
ELECTRONICS
1. Electronics usually deals with the application of electricity in communications, in
radio, television and other devices where vacuum tubes and transistors are employed. We
know the vacuum tube and the transistor to be major components of various electronic
devices.
2. The many disadvantages of vacuum tubes include high cost, bulky construction,
high amount of operating current, limited life and high operating temperature. However the
vacuum tube is ideal in many situations where electrical energy is readily available and where
heat is no problem.
3. A more recent invention - the transistor - is known to have replaced the vacuum
tube in many situations. The transistor operates on a minimum amount of electrical energy,
emits very little heat and has a long life. Tne transistor is tiny compared to the size of the
vacuum tube of equivalent energy output. This feature has permitted an electronic circuit to be
so small that the electronic technician uses magnifying lenses to aid him in his circuit
construction and repair.
4. Later research has revealed a device which has revolutionized the field of
transistorized circuitry. A Japanese investigator, Lew Esaki, discovered a simple
semiconductor class of crystal that is even more amazing than the transistor. The tunnel diode
as it is called, operates on a negligible amount of electric current, its diameter being some few
thousandths of an inch. With such a transistor man will be able to see telephones to be worn
on wrists, pocket-size TV sets and ring radio sets.
5. Several recent developments in the field of electronics have led to better ways to
communicate efficiently over long distances. The maser and the laser permit man to beam
extremely coherent and concentrated energy with almost no loss of intensity. Lasers and
masers are known to have been used for transmitting power, radio waves and other waves
used in communication.
ADDITIONAL READING
FIBRES
A fibre may be defined as a unit of matter of hair-like dimensions whose length is at loast
200 times greater than its width.
The principal use of fibres is in the manufacture of textile yarns and ultimately textile
fabrics.
Most textile fibres are slender, flexible, relatively strong beams that are elastic, that is they
stretch when put under tension and partially or completely return to their original length
when the tension is removed.
Each fibre has its own unique properties and no one fibre can satisfy all manufacturing or
use requirements.
Fibres are broadly classified as natural or man-made. Natural fibres include those of
vegetable (cellulose base), animal (protein base) or mineral (mineral base) origin. Examples
of each class are cotton, flax, jute (vegetable); wool and silk (animal); asbestos fibre
(mineral).
Vegetable fibres can bi divided into three classes: 1.seed and fruit hair fibres; 2. bast
fibres; 3. leaf fibres.
The first class of vegetable fibres, as their name suggests, are found as hairs on the seeds
or fruit of certain plants. The commonest example of this class of fibres is cotton.
Bast fibres, also called soft fibres, are obtained from the stalks.
Leaf fibres, also called hard fibres, are recovered from leaf portions of some plants. They
are harder and have a larger diameter than bast fibres and are used mainly in cordage. The
most important leaf fibre is abaca (often called Manila hemp).
Animal fibres usually grow from the skin as a protective covering of various animals. They
differ in length, diameter and physical structure with the source of their origin. The most
important animal fibre is wool which forms the fleecy coat of the domestic sheep. Other
animal fibres are derived from the hair or fur of camel, lama, rabbit etc. They are all used in
apparel.
Mineral fibre. The only naturally occurring mineral fibre is asbestos. Its name is derived
from Greek compound word signifying "incombustible", "inextinguishable". It is a fibrous
mineral substance, one of the most remarkable in the mineral world. Known primarily for its
fireproof properties, asbestos has achieved its importance by reason of the many forms in
which it serves and protects man.
Man-made fibres are the achievement of the science of the 20th century. They may be
divided into two classes: rayons and synthetic fibres. Rayons are manufactured by alteration
of natural fibrous substance (for example, cellulose). Synthetic fibres are obtained from the
fibrous matter produced by chemical process called polymerization, in which many units of
simple chemical substances combine to form long-chain molecules. By selecting suitable
simple compounds and controlling the degree of polymerization, it is possible to produce new
substances whose properties can be predicted. This means that it is now possible to produce
entirely new fibres with desired combinations of properties.
COTTON
The term "cotton" refers to the plant which is famous for its fluffy fibre. This term is also
referred to the cotton fibres which consist of unicellular hairs varying in length from a small
fraction of an inch to two inches or slightly over.
Cotton is a tropical plant adapted to temperate zones, growing best with high temperatures,
considerable sunshine, abundant but not excessive moisture and high soil fertility.
Cotton fibres occur attached to a seed about the size of a small pea and have a spiral twist
making them espacially valuable for spinning. One seed contains about 10,000 fibres which
may vary in diameter from 12 to 25 microns depending on the type of cotton.
Microscopic examination of the cross section of a fibre reveals that the fibre is a spirally
twisted tube having a rough surface. Each fibre consists of an outer cell wall and an inner
layer of cellulose comprising the secondary wall.
Cotton is a strong fibre but is not highly extensible (stretchable). Since cotton fibres are
only about 1 in. long they must be spun into continuous yarns. Partly because if its low
extensibility, the cotton fibre does not recover well after stretching and so cotton fabrics do
not exhibit good wrinkle resistance unless chemically treated with crease resistant finishes.
The spirality of a cotton fibre distinguishes it from all other natural fibres and gives it
elasticity and superior value for spinning. No other natural fibre has this feature.
Cotton fibres are about 20% stronger when wet than dry. This property is an obvious
advantage in wet uses, particularly for laundering. Because of its launderability, cotton is
particularly useful for toweling. It can be sterilized by steam of by hypochlorite bleaching;
such treatment enhances its whiteness and makes it of value for surgical and sanitary uses.
The uses of cotton fibres are so widespread that it is by far the most important of all textile
fibres.
FLAX
We know flax to be an annual plant grown in many temperate countries for the production
of linseed and linen fibre. In English-speaking countries both the plant and the fibre are called
flax, while the yarn and fabric produced from flax are called linen. In the United States the
word "linen" is often used to identify tablecloths, towels and similar articles that may or may
not be made of flax fibres.
We know the use of flax to have a greater antiquity than any other commercial fibre. Some
historians claim flax to have been cultivated by the ancient Mexicans in the earliest period of
our civilization. Flax was cultivated in prehistoric times, possibly at first for food. We know it
to have been found in the ruins of the Stone Age lake dwellings of Switzerland and it is
known that the ancient Egyptians made linen cloth from flax fibres. Later flax cultivation
spread through Europe and Asia. It reached the United States during the colonial period where
it was widely grown for fibre before the invention of the cotton gin in 1792 made cotton a
cheaper fabric. The manufacture of linseed oil in the United States began in 1805.
While the plant can be grown in nearly every portion of the temperate world, it is produced
commercially throughout Europe and in portions of Africa and Asia, Japan, Australia, Canada
and the USA. Russia is the world's chief producer of flax fibre; other leading producers
include Poland, France, Ireland.
Flax is harvested for fibre when the leaves have fallen from the lower two-thirds of the
stem . The crop is harvested by pulling the plants from the ground by hand or by pulling
machines.
The disseeded straw (stems) is retted to dissolve the gum that binds the fibres to the
woody portion of the stem. Retting is completed after 7 to 21 days.
There are three methods of retting. Dew retting is the simplest, when the straw is spread
over the field like hay and retted by dew and by the action of elements. Pool retting is
immersing the straw in pools of stagnant water. The pools are dug in the ground for this
purpose. Retting in running water is the third method. The fibres separated by retting are
bailed and shipped to spinning mills.
Flax fibre is strong, lustrous and, when bleached to a sparkling white, produces an
attractive appearance for apparel goods as well as tablecloths and napkins. Because of its high
strength it is also used in fish nets, sewing thread and fire hose. Fineness of the linen yarns is
taken into consideration in choosing them for appropriate end uses. We know fine yarns to be
used in weaving high-quality linen fabrics such as laces, household linens and dress goods.
Coarse yarns are used for fabrics such as rough toweling, or for making cord or rope. Linen is
especially suitable for towels because of its good absorbing power.
WOOL
The thick covering of coat of the domestic sheep consists of a mass of fibres called wool.
Wool fibres grow in tufts of as many as a dozen fibres. Density of fibre varies widely with
the breed and from one part to another of the body of the individual sheep. There are more
than 200 different breeds of sheep in the world, representing all grades of wool from the
finest to the coarsest.
Sheep's wool is classified into five generally recognized types: fine, medium, long,
crossbred and carpet (or mixed). Fine wools are produced by Merino sheep while most
medium wools are produced by English breeds. Fibres to be obtained from Asiatic sheep are
classed as carpet wool.
The sheep is sheared to obtain the wool. The fibres are sheared from the living sheep
(although some wool is "pulled" from slaughtered sheep) and are then sorted and graded for
fibre length, diameter and colour. Wool is sheared from the sheep ordinarily once each year.
The wool to be spun into yarn has to be sorted and washed.
The use of wool for human clothing reaches far back into antiquity, if not prehistory. Its
outstanding qualities of resilience, wrinkle resistance, hygroscopic quality, felting property
and lowe heat conductivity lomg ago gave it a high useful- ness not only for human clothing,
but for blankets, upholstery, floor covering,etc. The wool to be used for clothing must possess
good natural colour. Owing to a whole range of useful proper- ties wool is also used for the
production of industrial fabrikc and articles.
The most striking characteristic of wool fibre is its felting property. It is caused by the
horny scales of the outer layer of the fibre. To convert wool fibres into felt they are subjected
to heat, moisture and mechanical agitation. No other fibres possess this property to such a
marked degree. But this property may be a disadvantage because wool textiles shrink sontinuously if wet laundered. This is why wool garments to be cleaned are treated with organic
solvents rather than with water.
SILK
Silk, the only natural animal fibre that does not grow from the skin as a protective
covering, is extruded as a long continuous filament by the silkworm. Silk filaments are
extruded by the silkworms in spinning their cocoons.
The spinning begins by the insect making first an outer network and then winding the silk
in a continuous thread around its body. The operation of spinning occupies about five days,
during which time the insect usually produces from 2,000 to 3,000 feet of silk.
Within 10 - 12 days after completion of the cocoon, the enclosed insect is ready to emerge.
After moistening one end of the cocoon with enzymes that partially dissolve the fibres the
moth pushes aside the filaments and emerges from the cocoon, lays its eggs and dies. In
performing this operation the insect cuts the silk filament making it unsuitable for application.
When microscopically examined, silk is seen to consist of two blended strands. These are
produced by special glands which extend nearly the whole length of the body.
The silk filament being so fine makes it necessary to reel together several filaments in
order to obtain a thread of sufficient size. This is done in large factories called filatures. Here
the cocoons are placed in basins of hot water near the boiling temperature. The hot water
softens the gum which covers the silk filament and sets the fibre free. After the end of the silk
fibre being found the cocoons are reeled off into hanks.
A single cocoon of good quality may furnish from 400 to 800 yards of reelable filament.
Silk that has been reeled is known as raw silk. The damaged cocoons and the parts of each
cocoon which cannot be reeled are known as waste silk. Waste silks are combed and spun into
spun silk.
Owing to the outstanding properties (high strength, lustre, elasticity and beauty) silk can be
successfully used for the production of different kinds of clothes and for industrial purposes.
THE HISTORY OF MAN-MADE FIBRES
The first person to visualize the possibility of making an artificial fibre by a process
similar to the spinning of the silkworm was Robert Hooke, an English scientist. He included a
discussion of the subject in his book "Micrographia", published in 1665, no concrete
developments along these lines having occurred, however, until the middle of the 19th
century. In 1842 an English silkweaver, Louis Schwabe, exhibited a machine for making
artificial filaments. This machine used nozzles with fine holesthrough which the liquid was
forced in order to form filaments, this being the principle of spinnerets used today. Schwabe
spun his filaments of glass, but was not satisfied with the product and appealed to British
scientists to discover a better material from which to manufacture filaments.
A further development preparing the way for man-made fibres was the discovery of
nitrocellulose by C.F.Schonbein, a Swiss chemist, in 1846.
In 1855 Audemars of Lausanne took matters a liuttle further.He obtained nitrocellulose
from mulberry twigs and dissolved it in a mixture of ether and alcohol with caoutchouc. From
the mass that resulted he drew, with a steel needle, threads that solidified in air, and finally
wound them on a spool. This process is described in British Patent 283 of 1855. But it was too
early then for the process to be developed practically.
The development of man-made fibres as a textile really began with the work of Count
Hilaire de Chardonnet (1839-1924) who is often called the "father of the rayon industry",
rayon being a man-made fibre based on cellulose. He produced his first fibre by what became
to be known as nitrocellulose method in 1884.
The development of rayon represented the first big break fromnature in the production
of fibres. Rayon being based on naturally occurring fibrous material (cellulose), the fibre
cannot be considered as true man-made fibre.Rayons are made by alteration of natural fibrous
substance (cellulose). Further research became centred in producing fibrous material that
cannot be found in nature. It was discovered that chemically fibrous material was composed
of long-chain molecules. These were eventually synthesized from simple materials
(coal,water and air).
A well-known example of synthetic fibres is nylon. It originated in the laboratories of
E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.in 1927. It was first introduced to the public in 1938 as bristles
in tooth brushes. In 1939 hosiery knitted of nylon yarn was produced in limited scale. In 1940
nylon hosiery was offered to the public on a national scale.
The emergence of synthetic fibres means that it is now possible to produce entirely new
fibres with desired combinations of properties.
MAN-MADE FIBRES
There are two types of man-made fibres: rayons and synthetic fibres.
Three processes are used for making rayon fibres: the viscose, cuprammonium and
soponification processes. They differ in their methods of converting cellulose into the soluble
compound that is converted into filaments, the collulosic soluble compound being called
spinning solution. The spinning solution being prepared, it is extruded, or spun, through
perforated plates, called spinnerets. They are made of metal alloys such as platinum and
iridium or platinum and gold. They are parforated with circular, concentrically arranged
openings of almost microscopic size (about 0,1 mm in diameter). The size of the openings
governs the size of the filament extruded.
The basic material used for the production of rayon is wood pulp, though some cotton is
used by some makers. The wood is pulped by the sulphite process and converted into
nitrocellulose. This is dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether, and the solution is filtered
and then aged. When in proper condition, the pulp is forced through spinnerets and converted
into threads.
But rayons cannot be considered as true man-made fibres since they are produced from
naturally accurring fibrous material (cellulose). A further development in the production of
man-made fibres was the emergence of synthetic fibres. They are made by a chemical process
called polymerization, in which many units of simple chemical subctances combine to form
large molecules whose properties are quite different from those of the basic units. For
polimerization to occur, each molecule must contain two potential open ends and monomer
units must join end-to-end into linear polymer. However, if the monomere contain more than
two sites of reaction (e.g. butadiene, phenol), then netlike (cross-linked) instead of threadlike
molecules result.
When certain types of simple compounds are polimerized under special conditions the
units form long chains, long-chain polimers being manufactured into fibres.
The first synthetic fibre to be produced commercially was nylon. It can be made in a
number of ways from carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. The carbon comes from coal,
petroleum or natural gas. Nitrogen and oxygen come from the air and hydrogen from water.
Man-made fibres have made quite remarkable progress in clothing as well as in other
industries over the past 25 years, the best established use for man-made fibres in clothing
industry being, of course, in linings, suits and overcoats.
But no fibre, natural or man-made, is perfect for all uses. Indeed, the very properties
that make a fibre suitable in one type of aplication may reduce its value in another.
Economics
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
Most people work to earn a living, and produce goods and services. Goods are either
produced in the agricultural sector (like milk, vegetable, fruit) or manufactured at plants and
factories (like pen, paper, and cars). Services are such things as education, medicine, and
commerce. They are provided by people who are called employees. Some people provide
goods, some provide services. Some other people provide both goods and services. For
example, in the same garage a car can be bought or some service can be obtained in order to
maintain this car or to repair it.
The work people do in exchange for payment is called economic activity. The economic
system of a town, of a city, of a country, of the world is made up of all economic activities
together of these respective communities. Countries differ in their economic activities. The
work people undertake either provides them with what they need or provide the money with
which they can buy essential commodities. Of course, most people hope to earn enough
money to buy commodities and services, which are non-essential, but which provide some
particular personal satisfaction, like books, visits to the cinema, trips, etc.
There are two extreme forms of economic arrangements of the economic activity:
privately owned economy and State-owned one. The former is often called as ‘free market
economy’; the latter is associated with the term ‘command economy’. This type of economy
dominated in the former socialist countries. If complete freedom of economic activity is
allowed this can create difficulties, because the freedoms of various individuals or individual
companies often conflict. Laws have been created to regulate economic activity, and they are
concerned with working conditions, worker’s health, wages, pensions, and location of places
of work.
Even in the most dedicated free enterprise systems, such as the USA, a need for some
degree of State control of the economy has been felt. Some developing countries are
interested in control and log-term planning. Such countries as India have a number of plans to
guide the economy. They are enacted by the government. Such systems where both private
and public sectors coexist are often called as countries with mixed economy.
PRODUCTION
Production is the means whereby resources are organized to produce the goods and
services which people require for the satisfaction of their wants. In today’s world an
increasing number of people are employed in the service industries such as banking, leisure,
finance and administration, rather than in the manufacturing sector. In order to achieve
production, inputs of factors of production are to be used. The latter are divided into land,
labour and capital.
Land is regarded as a ‘gift of nature’. It includes any valuable mineral deposits. It is
also the basic space requirements within which factories may be sited, foodstuffs can be
grown, or services can be provided.
Labour constitutes an essential element in all forms of production. It represents all
forms human effort, manual and mental, skilled or unskilled which people must deploy.
Capital, in economic terms, may be defined as goods which can be used to produce
other goods. Property such as factory buildings, machinery and raw materials are all forms of
capital which are used in the process of production.
Production activities must be remunerated or paid. The main forms of payment to
employees are wages and salary. Wages are usually paid as a certain sum of money per hour
to manual workers, while a salary is a fixed sum, which may be paid monthly to non-manual
staff.
As for wages they are usually paid on a basic time rate, often agreed by negotiations
between trade unions and management. Pay is expressed as an hourly rate. In addition, there
may be supplements, such as overtime payments, danger money or dirty money for work in
exceptional circumstances.
A salary is usually expressed as a fixed annual sum, and it is not usual to supplement
it, although certain additional benefits may be provided. These are called ‘fringe benefits’ or
‘perks’. They are normally benefits of goods or services such as a company car, membership
of a private health scheme, or a company’s own pension fund. In order to attract right people
to a job a firm may offer help removal expenses or to provide a low-interest mortgage for
house purchase. Recently profit sharing has become popular in recruiting and keeping staff.
The CEOs, chief executive officers, are paid very high salaries. Their annual income,
that is, salaries and perks can amount to numerous millions of dollars. We are informed by the
Journal of Institutional Investor, an American publication of June 30, 2006, that J. Simon, the
top-manager of the Renaissance Technology collected $1.5 billions in 2005, while his
colleague from B.P.Capital Management Т.Pickens made $1.4 billion. It should be
emphasized that these huge incomes produced public outcry among the shareholders of the
respective companies. A number of Congressmen even introduced a bill against this kind of
abuse.
ECONOMICS
Alfred Marshall defined economics as the study of mankind in the everyday business
life. There are other definitions too. But Marshall’s definition draws attention to that unique
feature of human society: that unlike animals, man provides for his everyday needs by means
of a complex pattern of production, distribution and exchange.
We need food, clothes and shelter. If we could get them without working, we probably
would not work. But even when we have these essential things, we may want other things
because they might make life more enjoyable. Human beings certainly have a wide and very
complex range of wants. This everyday business of providing the means of life is called by
the general term ‘economy’.
Economics is the study of economies. The science of economics is concerned with all
that man produces and not just our basic needs like food, clothes and shelter. The science of
economics is based upon the facts of our everyday lives and the general life of our
communities. If we want to understand the whole economic system of which we are part we
have to study carefully the economic activity of the society
Apart from production, distribution of products among various groups in society and
exchange, economics studies the institutions that were created by man to promote economic
development.
Economists are those who observe and study economic facts and produce economic
theories. They try to describe the facts of the economy in which we live, and to explain how it
all works. The economist’s methods should be strictly objective, if it is to be scientific. In
order to understand the evolution of economy economists must study economies of man at
different stages of his historic development. They studied primitive economies, economies of
the ancient and the middle-age societies. But their main interest is being focused on the
economy of the advanced industrial countries. It is not in good shape to-day. It is
characterized by a low growth rate, unstable monetary system, stagnation of the employees’
income and rather high unemployment.
ECONOMIC THEORIES
As we were reading in lesson 1 Alexander came to London to study economics. Now
that he has returned home he is ready to apply his knowledge in his practical work in Russia.
Before coming to London he was sure that market economy was a magic arrangement
enabling to solve all economic problems which arise in society. He also knew that economics
was a science producing accurate understanding and explanation of the workings of the
economy. But now he knows that there are a lot of conflicting sociopolitical theories on many
issues which are covered by economics. He was taught that the most persistent debate in
economics had focused on the degree to which the government was able to improve the
economy’s performance. And he was informed that none of the competing theories had
performed spectacularly well. Indeed few economists have successfully predicted major
economic events. Even annual forecasts of inflation, unemployment and output are regularly
in error. He also learnt that there were never-ending arguments about, for example, what had
caused such dramatic world event as the Great Depression of the 1930s.
Two hundred years ago, Adam Smith convinced most of the world that economy
worked best when it was left alone. During the years of the Great Depression the British
economist John Maynard Keynes forced people to rethink that conclusion. He convinced
people that active government intervention in the market place was the only way to ensure
economic growth and stability. For nearly thirty years this theory dominated the economics
profession and public policy. And for thirty years the economy of the industrial countries
displayed the longest economic boom in the history of these countries. In the early 1970s,
when the economy of all industrial countries was performing badly, most of the economists
were sure that Keynes’ theory would be abandoned. Since 1980s, Milton Freedman’s
monetarist theory was adopted as a guide-line to run the economies of the industrial countries.
Since M.Thatcher in Great Britain and R.Reagan in the USA this theory began to be
implemented in these two countries. Later it was expanded to the rest of the industrial world,
although with differing degrees. As unemployment and inflation rate began to decline,
supporters of this theory claimed victory. But critics pointed to the problems of poverty,
homelessness, budget deficits and inadequate public services. And they emphasized that there
were no signs of improvement.
PEOPLE IN EMPLOYMENT
If an offer of employment is received and is accepted, the employee and the company
for which he or she is to work conclude a contract of employment. The contract specifies the
terms and conditions governing employment. It normally includes such items as pay per hour,
hours of work and pensions.
If either the employer or the employee is not satisfied the contract of employment can
be brought to an end. The period of notice is usually contained in the contract. If it comes to
such cases as dishonesty, serious neglect of duties or absence without good reason, an
employee will be dismissed without notice. If an employee feels that he or she has been
dismissed unfairly, he or she can bring a complaint before an industrial tribunal. The
employee will be reinstated to the job or awarded compensation provided the dismissal is
found as unfair.
If an employee became redundant as a result of the firm’s closure the redundant
employee would become entitled to redundancy pay. And it would depend upon the
employee’s age and length of service.
Those who are employed in civil service, that is in government or public
administration, they feel more secure in their employment. The reason is that the number of
people working in the public sphere is not reduced but steadily increases. Their job in
administration is organized in a hierarchy (i.e., on different levels of seniority). They are
given more authority and material rewards as they rise from bottom to the top of the
hierarchy. Appointments and promotions are made on the basis of experience and
qualification. However, there are disadvantages to government work. The material rewards
are often less generous than those offered by private companies.
A working life normally ends in retirement. The retirement age varies from county to
county. But in all advanced industrial countries it is much higher than in Russia. The
difference amounts to 5 – 7 years.
ROBOTS
FORERUNNERS OF ROBOTS
The word 'robot' is known to have been first used by the Czech writer K.Capek to denote
human-like mechanical creatures. The American writer Isaac Asimov employed this term in
1939 to describe "intelligent" machines, which had been constructed to carry out special tasks
without danger for human beings.
The ancestors of robots, the androids, operated centuries ago and were masterpieces of
mechanical design. The androids are known to have been built by Pierre Jaquet-Doz,
watchmaker of a small town in Switzerland. They were built in 18th century and continued to
arouse considerable amazement until the 20th century. We know Jaquet-Doz to have created
the lady pianist, the writer and the draughtsman. The grace with which these excellent models
performed their activities amazed the society of those days.
In contrast with its forerunners the robot to be employed in industry now has no human
form and from the outside looks like a machine. But in these days it draws men under its spell
exactly as did the androids of some 250 years ago. Wherever they are exhibited, robots seem
always to come up with surprises and attract the visitors like magnets.
Some people attributed the success of the robots to one simple fact: the rising costs of
human labour favour the robot. In their opinion the industrial robots are highly efficient
competitors in factories although they are blind, deaf and dumb assistants with a limited
memory and a restricted capacity for making decisions.
Robots as every kind of machines are introduced into industry whenever they can perform
operations more efficiently and with greater speed than a human being does or they are able to
operate in conditions and environments unacceptable for the human.
The introduction of robots in industry is known to entail important social implications.
For the free market countries this means a massive replacement of the labour force and
increased unemployment. That is why the employees not infrequently regard robots as their
competitors, which endanger their position in the work-force market. The situation is totally
different in the countries with planned economy where the same process of introduction of industrial robots leads to an increased productivity and improved conditions at the work-place.
ELEMENTS OF A ROBOT
Elements of an industrial Robot are known to comprise:
a} An arm completed with gripper or tool mounting facility.
b) A control system to direct the sequence and functions of the arm and to interact with
external environment.
c) A group of control elements to provide the drive power for the system and enable the
interfacing of other equipment to be accomplished without needing to change the robot
control system.
Arm Construction
The robot arm is the articulated arm system to provide the capability to reach a specific
length in the air, to produce an arc about the base and provide a necessary volume.
Two systems of arm exist today: the jointed arm concept and the boom type of system
that telescopes the gripper to position. The control system employs a mini-computer as a heart
of the system together with a Visual Display Unit (V.D.U.) and key-board for function
operation and a hand held portable unit for teaching the robot the position and sequence of
moves.
Control systems may be found to be either complete computer controlled, a solid state
sequence control system, or a relay system providing control commands to the mechanical
arm which in turn moves to pre-set limit switches or mechanical trip dogs.
Tool Centre Point
Two sets of independent rectangular co-ordinate systems are utilized. They comprise a set
of positioning axes which control the In and Out or X motion of the arm, a movement about
the base giving left and right movement called Y Axis and up and down movement which is
the Z Axis.
In addition to positioning the tool or gripper at a particular point in space there is
frequently a need to orientate the robot hand in a particular position to the component to be
processed. This operation is frequently known as Orientation of the Wrist and on a full 6 axis
robot is accomplished by the provision of YAW Motion, which is a rotational movement
about the Z Axis, a PITCH movement, which is rotation about the Y Axis and ROLL, which
is rotation about the X Axis. It is the transformation of this information that requires a
computer to calculate the point in space in 6 axes back to a single set of data storage points.
AUTOMATION
A simple example of automation is the thermostatically controlled heating system in a
home. The furnace provides the heat, but the thermostat automatically turns the furnace on
and off to keep the temperature of the home constant. One machine starts and stops another. A
more elaborate example of automation is the computer complex that controls an automobile
production line or prepares a company payroll.
Automation may be defined as any continuous, integrated operation of a production
system that uses electronic computers or related equipment to regulate and coordinate the
quantity and quality of what is produced. Automatic control of production is achieved in
factories by transfer machines, which move a product from place to place for successive
operations.
Computers, transfer machines, and related equipment use the principle of ‘feedback’ a
concept of control in which the input of machines is regulated by the machines' own output.
Although the use of machines dates back to the steam engine of the 18th century and to the
assembly line of the early 20th century, feedback is a new development truly unique to
automation. (Under this definition, a farm cannot be called automated merely because of the
hugeness of its tractor, since the principle of feedback is lacking.)
Automation covers the output of both physical products and of services. It may be used to
administer work in any large organization, as in manufacturing, to produce automobiles, or in
the insurance industry, to process data on vast numbers of policies. Automation may be used
even by labor unions, churches, and other organizations that are large enough to need and
afford the equipment. It has been reliably estimated that most of the recording activities of the
New York Stock Exchange could be handled by one electronic computer and two operators.
Technology of which automation is a component-is the application of science to practical
uses. Man lived hundreds of thousands of years without it, until the Industrial Revolution in
the 18th century, but only about 10 percent of the people were able to live above minimum
subsistence, and they usually did this by enslaving the rest. Since the first Industrial
Revolution, and during the present-day "automation revolution" the number of people living
in poverty in industrialized countries has fallen to about 20 percent.
Nearly everybody knows that technology can solve a multitude of problems. Spectacular
economic growth has been due in great part to advances in technology. Untold millions of
people, especially in the underdeveloped parts of the world, fully expect science and
technology to solve all of their most pressing problems.
Too few persons recognize that although technology solves countless old problems it also
creates many new ones. Not all technological improvement is a net gain. In the first place,
some new technology is necessary just to cure the ills of previous technology; for example, if
afterburners are perfected for automobile exhaust, then the air will merely be as clean as it
was before the automobile contaminated it. Secondly, some new technology is workable but
not yet economical, as in the case of solar energy. Thirdly, nearly all forms of technology
have enormous potential for human betterment but, if they are not clearly understood, technological advances can do more harm than good. This is especially true of automation.
Mass-production techniques, however, have produced a mental and physical dependency
on machines. The complete effects of this dependence are not yet fully recognized. Although
living standards in the industrialized world are the highest in history, much of industry has become dependent on automated machinery, and as a consequence people generally have
become dependent on automation's products, such as washers, dryers, and automobiles.
Reliance on these machines often tends to make society measure culture not in terms of
intellectual or artistic accomplishment but in terms of such new concepts as automobile horsepower, cigarette mildness, and deodorant durability.
FOOTWARE
Long before history was written shoes were being made. The earliest dawn of
civilization in all the diverse corners of the world has almost invariably seen men
contriving some sort of foot-covering.
Shoes were unnecessary in warm climates. Primitive man perhaps as early as
20,000 B. C., learned to preserve pelts and to bind them about himself or to cut
and sew them together for garments. He also wove strips into baskets and molded
wet leather around a foot or hard core to make shoes.
In ancient Egyptian wall paintings only kings and priests are shown wearing
sandals, made of plaited reeds or, as in the case of Tutankhamen, of finely tooled leather.
People in cooler climates wore shoes much earlier. Egyptian wall paintings at Beni
Hassan (2000 B. c.) and at Thebes (1450 B. c.) depict Syrians, and Minoans from Crete,
wearing an assortment of elaborate sandals and boots. The meticulous art of the
Assyrians has left us detailed designs of their elaborate and sophisticated sandals on the
reliefs from Calah (modern Nimrud) and Nineveh (about 800 B C.).
The general term for different types of foot coverings is footwear. But within this
category there exist a number of articles. Shoe, a form of footgear that covers the foot up
to the ankle and that is intended as a protection from cold, dampness, or rough terrain. In
addition to shoes, other basic types of footgear are sandals, moccasins, boots, slippers,
and mules. The sandal has a flat sole of leather or wood fastened to the foot by straps,
thongs, or a knob between the toes. The moccasin is distinguished by a sole that extends
up around the foot to form some part or all of the upper section of the shoe. This is a
primitive form of footgear that is still worn by hunters because of its flexibility and
because it gives greater protection against dampness than shoes with a seam between the
sole and the uppers. The boot consists of a sole and an upper part that extends above the
ankle to protect the leg from cold, wetness, or dangerous conditions, such as snakebite or
thorny plants. The slipper is a soft shoe, often intended for indoor wear, with uppers
generally made of fabric and sometimes lined for winter wear with wool or fur. Mules are
slippers that consist of a sole and an upper that covers only the toes.
Until the age or cheap mass production, shoes were generally considered a mark of
rank or prestige. Common men walked barefoot, and their feet became callous, helping
them to escape much of the discomfort that would result from not wearing shoes. The
nobility, on the other hand, felt obliged to wear shoes as a proof of gentility, that they
could not bear roughness or dirt. In ancient China, in order to indicate their incapacity for
physical work, upper-class parents bound their daughters' feet to prevent normal growth
and to produce a small, twisted "lily foot." As a result, wealthy Chinese women could
scarcely walk in their tiny shoes.
As the structure of leather is a vast random network of coil-like molecules linked in
fibrous strands, leather is one of the strongest flexible sheet materials known. It resists
tearing and puncture, yet it can be stretched. As a porous substance, it can absorb
moisture and "breathe," and it has insulating qualities. Also, leather is easily worked. It
may, for example, be wrapped, rolled, molded, or folded. It may be puckered, crinkled,
pierced, sewn, embossed, braided, knotted, glued, nailed. In addition, it is abundantly
available in endless variety all over the world.
In view of all these advantages, it is readily seen why leather is widely used for
such things as clothing, shelter, upholstery, hangings, harnesses, saddles, and
bookbindings. Often these utilitarian objects are decorated to produce works of art.
Thick leather is wetted and bent or molded into sculptural forms. In addition,
leather is woven with other materials on looms, built into collages and reliefs, and
tied into macramé-knotted three-dimensional forms.
FROM HIDES TO LEATHER
Many of the unique characteristics of leather are due to its three-dimensional fibre
weave. The raw material (hides and skins) is studied in its normal state and affected
by disease in the living animal. Through the experiences and discoveries of
hundreds of years, various methods of making leather were gradually devised. Now
the processes of making leather are quite the same throughout the world and their
character is similar to that used long ago. The only difference is that the industries
making leather have become highly scientific.
Although there are many variations in leather making because of different
types of hides made into leather, different agents used for tanning and finishing and
different purposes for which leather is to be used, the fundamental processes and
operations are the same. The series of processes by means of which the natural
hides and skins are converted into leather is broadly covered by the term ‘tanning’.
But this denomination is not accurate. Tanning proper is only one of the operations
necessary to produce the finished product. The whole process of leather
manufacture may be divided into three main stages: 1) preparation for tanning, 2)
tanning, and 3) finishing.
Since skins and hides are often transported some distance to the tanneries,
they are given a preserving treatment by drying or treatment with salt as soon as
they are taken from the animal. This keeps them fresh until they arrive at the
tannery. Before tanning, all hide and skins must be thoroughly washed and
cleaned. This cleaning is done in large washing machines. Then each hide is run
through a fleshing machine, which removes flesh and fat. After fleshing the hides
are soaked in a lime solution to loosen the hair so that it can be easily removed by
the machine. This process is called unhairing of depilation. When soft, fleshed
and clean, the skins and hides are ready to be tanned.
In order to be successful in all these operations and processes, good
knowledge of the properties of hides sand skins and processes taking place in them
are important. The only way this can be examined directly is through the
microscope; hence microscopy is useful and indeed essential in many ways. In this
way the influence on the microstructure of putrefaction and other changes is
examined and recorded.
Morphology or structure of the skin has been studied for many years under the
microscope. This wonderful instrument has revealed many secrets of cell formation
and has aided in the explanation of certain known results. The microscope is used to
determine the changes in the fibre structure of the hides at different stages, to
diagnose the causes of any faults in the finished leather and, if necessary, to identify
the source of the material and the type of the process used. Since the properties of
leather depend largely on the properties of the fibres and the way in which they
interweave, it possible, to some extent, to assess the quality of a leather from
microscopical observations. The use of the microscope and the interpretation of
observations made with it do not present problems greater than those encountered
with other methods of control used in tanneries.
SOCIAL WORK
Nature of the Social Work
Social work is a profession for those with a strong desire to help improve people's lives.
Social workers help people function the best way they can in their environment, deal with
their relationships, and solve personal and family problems. Social workers often see clients
who face a life-threatening disease or a social problem. These problems may include
inadequate housing, unemployment, serious illness, disability or abuse. Social workers also
assist families that have serious domestic conflicts, including those involving child or spousal
abuse.
Social workers often provide social services in health-related settings that now are governed
by managed-care organizations. To contain costs, these organizations are emphasizing shortterm intervention, ambulatory and community-based care, and greater decentralization of
services.
Most social workers specialize. Although some conduct research or are involved in planning
or policy development, most social workers prefer an area of practice in which they interact
with clients.
Child, family and school social workers provide social services and assistance to improve the
social and psychological functioning of children and their families and to maximize the family
well-being and academic functioning of children. Some social workers assist single parents;
arrange adoptions; and help find foster homes for neglected, abandoned or abused children. In
schools, they address such problems as teenage, pregnancy, misbehaviour and truancy. They
also advise teachers on how to cope with problem students. Some social workers may
specialize in services for senior citizens. They run support groups for family caregivers or for
the adult children of aging parents. Some advise elderly people or family members about
choices in areas such as housing, transportation and long-term care; they also coordinate and
monitor services. Through employee assistance programs, they may help workers cope with
job-related pressures or with personal problems that affect the quality of their work. Child,
family and school social workers typically work in individual and family services agencies,
schools, or state or local governments.
Job Outlook for Social Workers
Competition for social worker jobs is stronger in cities, where demand for services often is
highest and training programs for social workers are prevalent. However, opportunities should
be good in rural areas, which often find it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. By
specialty, job prospects may be best for those social workers with a background in
gerontology and abuse treatment.
Employment of social workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations
through 2012. The rapidly growing elderly population and the aging baby boom generation
will create greater demand for health and social services, resulting in particularly rapid job
growth among gerontology social workers. Many job openings also will stem from the need
to replace social workers who leave the occupation.
As hospitals continue to limit the length of patient stays, the demand for social workers in
hospitals will grow more slowly than in other areas. Because hospitals are releasing patients
earlier than in the past, social worker employment in home healthcare services is growing.
However, the expanding senior population is an even larger factor. Employment opportunities
for social workers with backgrounds in gerontology should be good in the growing numbers
of assisted-living and senior-living communities. The expanding senior population will also
spur demand for social workers in nursing homes, long-term care facilities and hospices.
Employment of substance-abuse social workers will grow rapidly over the 2002-12 projection
period. Substance abusers are increasingly being placed into treatment programs instead of
being sentenced to prison. As this trend grows, demand will increase for treatment programs
and social workers to assist abusers on the road to recovery.
Employment of social workers in private social service agencies will increase. Employment in
state and local government agencies may grow in response to increasing needs for public
welfare, family services and child protection services.
The American and the Englishman.
The Americans like to "move away", to change homes and jobs. They seem to be constantly
pulling down old and often quite beautiful houses or throwing away things merely because
they are old. They have none of the Englishman's sentimental love for things because they are
old. One often hears of the Englishman's "reserve"; how he likes to "keep himself to himself;
and how on a long railway journey, with four Englishmen in the carriage, often there won't be
a word spoken during the whole journey. That wouldn't be the case in America. The
Englishman thinks it is illmannered to ask personal questions. The American doesn't feel that
at all. The Englishman prizes privacy, the American prefers sociability. The Englishman's
suburban house has its little garden with a hedge or a fence all round it to shut him off from
his neighbours. - "The Englishman's hоme is his, castle". The American houses have no
hedges or fences separating them from the pavement or from each other. There are none of
those little shut-off gardens; generally just a strip of grass with trees on it. The American in
his home doesn't object to being seen by everyone - he actually likes it. And inside the house,
instead of the separate hall, living-room, dining-room so typical of the English house, the
American has the "open plan" house, just one large room where all the family activities
(usually noisy) go on with,, perhaps, a "dining recess" or a "kitchen-breakfast-room". The
American sociability goes with overwhelming hospitality. You get taken to parties at the
houses of your friends; you are invited to theatres, dinners, sports meetings, motor trips;
from.the first minute you are on "first name" terms with the people you meet; they all show
the keenest interest in your affairs and ask you to let them know if they can help you, and ...
by the following week they have forgotten all about you. They like new things - and they get
rid of their friends as they do of their cars. No one strikes up acquaintance sooner than the
Americans do, and nobody finds it harder to make a real friendship."