Алешина Ю.С. Новоселова А.А Крюкова О.А. Парпура О.А. Английский язык
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МИНИСТЕРСТВО СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования «АЛТАЙСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ АГРАРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ» Ю.С. Алешина, О.А. Крюкова, А.А. Новоселова, О.А. Парпура АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Методические указания и контрольные задания по основным разделам грамматики для студентов заочной формы обучения факультета природообустройства Барнаул 2012 УДК 811.111 (072) Рецензенты: к.п.н., доцент АлтГПА Г.А. Хаустова; к.п.н., доцент АлтГТУ О.А. Иванова. Английский язык: методические указания и контрольные задания по основным разделам грамматики для студентов заочной формы обучения факультета природообустройства / Ю.С. Алешина, О.А. Крюкова, А.А. Новоселова, О.А. Парпура. – Барнаул: РИО АГАУ, 2012. – 64 с. В методическом издании объединены профессиональноориентированные тексты для чтения и перевода со специальной лексикой и упражнения, способствующие формированию умений специалистов общаться на английском языке в сфере природопользования. Предназначено для студентов I-II курсов всех специальностей (направлений подготовки) факультета природообустройства. Рекомендовано к изданию методической комиссией центра гуманитарного образования Алтайского государственного аграрного университета (протокол № 2 от 12 октября 2012 г.). © Алешина Ю.С., Новоселова А.А., Крюкова О.А., Парпура О.А., 2012 © ФГБОУ ВПО АГАУ, 2012 Содержание Введение…………………………………………………………….…4 Контрольная работа №1 ……………………………………………..7 Контрольная работа №2……………………………………………..21 Грамматический справочник с упражнениями …………………...37 Упражнения для закрепления изученного материала………………..57 Темы устной речи ………………………………………………...60 3 Введение Цель и задачи обучения Основной целью курса «Иностранный язык» в неязыковом вузе является обучение практическому владению разговорно-бытовой речью и языком специальности для активного применения иностранного языка как в повседневном, так и в профессиональном общении. В процессе достижения цели обучения иностранному языку решаются профессиональные, общеобразовательные и воспитательные задачи. Студентам рекомендуется использовать литературу по специальности, а также материалы периодической печати. При обучении проводится работа по развитию следующих видов речевой деятельности: чтение, аудирование, говорение. Перевод (устный или письменный) на протяжении всего курса используется как средство обучения, способ контроля понимания прочитанного, способ передачи информации, полученной при чтении текста. Структура курса В соответствии с действующими учебными планами АГАУ на курс обучения иностранному языку на заочном отделении факультета природообустройства отводится 216 часов самостоятельных и обязательных аудиторных занятий (по направлению «Землеустройство и кадастр»), 324 часа самостоятельных и обязательных аудиторных занятий (по направлению «Природообустройство и водопользование»). За весь период обучения студент выполняет контрольные работы, сдает тексты дополнительного чтения, получает зачет и экзамен. Требования на экзамене На экзамене оценивается уровень практического владения иностранным языком, соответствующий цели обучения и количеству часов, отводимому на обязательные аудиторные занятия и самостоятельную работу. Каждый билет, предлагаемый студентам на экзамене, включает в себя несколько заданий: 1. Чтение со словарем текста, освещающего вопросы, связанные с будущей специальностью студента и перевод определенного абзаца или предложения. Объем текста - из расчета 1000 печатных знаков за 0,5 академического часа. 4 2. Чтение без словаря текста, содержащего изученный языковой материал и отвечающего профилю вуза, пересказ его содержания на родном языке или ответы на иностранном языке на ряд вопросов экзаменатора. Объем текста - из расчета 600 печатных знаков за 10 минут. 3. Беседа с экзаменатором по предложенным темам. Виды самостоятельной работы включают в себя выполнение учебных заданий в урочное время, речевое общение на специальных занятиях под руководством преподавателя, выполнение учебных заданий во внеурочное время, внеаудиторное (домашнее) чтение. Выполнение контрольных заданий и оформление контрольных работ 1. Контрольные задания составлены в пяти вариантах. Номер варианта следует выбирать в соответствии с первой буквой фамилии студента. Начальная буква фамилии студента № варианта А, Б, В, Г, Д 1 Е, Ж, З, И, К, Л 2 М, Н, О, П, Р 3 С, Т, У, Ф, Х 4 Ц, Ч, Ш, Щ, Э, Ю, Я 5 2. Все задания выполняются поочередно. К каждому последующему можно приступать только после того, как исправлены ошибки в предыдущем. 3. Письменные контрольные задания оформляются в отдельной тетради. 4. Контрольная работа должна быть выполнена чернилами, аккуратно, четким почерком. В тетради для замечаний, объяснений и методических указаний рецензента необходимо оставить широкие поля. 5. В конце работы должна быть поставлена подпись студента и дата выполнения задания. 6. Материал контрольных заданий, следует располагать в тетради по следующему образцу: ЛЕВАЯ СТРАНИЦА ПРАВАЯ СТРАНИЦА Поля Английский текст Русский текст Поля 5 7. Для проверки и рецензирования выполненную контрольную работу необходимо предоставить в установленные строки. 8. Если контрольная работа выполнена без соблюдения указаний или не полностью, она возвращается студенту без проверки. Оформление титульного листа МИНИСТЕРСТВО СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ «АЛТАЙСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ АГРАРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ» Контрольная работа по английскому языку № ___ Вариант № ____ Выполнил: Студент ___ курса факультета природообустройства, специальность «___» Иванов А.Г. Шифр:_____ Проверил: ФИО преподавателя Барнаул 20___г. Исправление работы на основе рецензий При получении рецензии на проверенную контрольную работу необходимо ознакомиться с замечаниями рецензента, проанализировать отмеченные ошибки и еще раз проработать учебный материал. Все предложения, в которых были обнаружены орфографические и грамматические ошибки или неточности перевода, нужно переписать еще раз и поместить в конце контрольной работы. Отрецензированные контрольные задания являются учебными документами, которые необходимо сохранять. Во время зачета или экзамена проверяется качество усвоения материала, вошедшего в 6 контрольные работы. КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ №1 Для того чтобы правильно выполнить задание №1, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы курса английского языка по рекомендованному учебнику. 1. Имя прилагательное. Степени сравнения имен прилагательных. Конструкции типа the more... ,the less. 2. Видовременные формы глагола: активные залог- формы Indefinite (Present, Past, Future), формы Continuous (Present, Past, Future), формы Perfect (Present, Past, Future). 3. Модальные глаголы: а) модальные глаголы, выражающие возможность: can (could), may и эквивалент глагола can- to be able to; б) модальные глаголы, выражающие долженствование: must и его эквиваленты- to have to, to be to. 4. Простые неличные формы глагола: Participle I (Present Participle), Participle II (Past Participle) в функции определения, обстоятельства и части сказуемого. Образец выполнения I задания: The great Russian poet Великий русский поэт Pushkin loved Moscow and spent Пушкин любил Москву и провел there nearly a third of his life. там почти треть своей жизни. Loved- Past Indefinite Active от стандартного глагола to loveлюбить; Spent -Past Indefinite Active от неправильного глагола to spendпроводить. Образец выполнения IV задания: 1.The man working in the room Человек, работающий в комнате, is my brother. мой брат. Working- Participle I, определение, переводится причастием. Когда вам дадут книгу, прочитайте статью об охране окружающей среды. (when)given- Participle II, обстоятельство, переводится придаточным предложением времени. 2. When given the book read the article about environment protection. 7 Вариант №1. I. Перепишите предложения, определите степени сравнения прилагательных или наречий, переведите на русский язык. 1. They discussed the most important problem. 2. He is the best chess-player in our group. 3. Everest is the highest mountain in the world. 4. The more we study, the more we know. 5. It is warmer now than it was yesterday. II. Перепишите предложения, определите видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. My friend worked at a computer centre. 2. We will go to the library next week. 3. The students are planting trees in the garden. 4. The University had already trained many young specialists by 1990. 5. He has visited my village many times. III. Перепишите предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. He could do this work yesterday. 2. Our farmers will be able to grow different crops. 3. My friend is to come at 5. 4. He must work more at his English. 5. It may rain today. IV. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастия, установите функции каждого из них (определение, обстоятельство, часть сказуемого). Переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. Being in Moscow she visited her friend. 2. They will be playing chess when we come. 3. A reading student is my friend. 4. Going to the University I met my friend. 5. The known writer wrote this book. 8 V. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A HOW TO BECOME A SURVEYING OR MAPPING TECHNICIAN Learning to master the equipment is a big part of the training for surveying and mapping technicians. Surveying technicians usually need only a high school diploma. However, mapping technicians often need formal education after high school to study advances in technology such as GIS. Surveying technicians generally need a high school diploma, but some have postsecondary training in survey technology. Postsecondary training is more common among mapping technicians. An associate’s degree or bachelor’s degree in a relevant field, such as geomatics, is beneficial for these workers. High school students interested in working as a surveying or mapping technician should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, mechanical drawing, and computer science. Knowledge of these subjects will help in finding a job and in advancing. Important Qualities: Decision-making skills. As assistants to surveyors and cartographers, surveying technicians must be able to exercise some independent judgment in the field because they may be working away from team members and need to meet tight deadlines. Listening skills. Surveying technicians work outdoors and must communicate with party chiefs and other team members across distances. Following spoken instructions from the party chief is crucial for saving time and preventing errors. Stamina. Surveying technicians usually work outdoors, often in rugged terrain. Physical fitness is necessary to carry equipment and to stand most of the day. Teamwork. Survey and mapmaking technicians work as part of a team, so they must be able to work well with other people. Technical skills. Surveying and mapping technicians need to operate specialized equipment. They must be precise and accurate in their work. 9 Text B WATER Water is the most common liquid on Earth. It covers about 71.4% of the Earth. Pure water has no smell, taste, or color. Lakes, oceans, and rivers are made of water. Rain is water that falls from clouds in the sky. If water gets very cold, it freezes and becomes ice. Frozen rain can be ice or snow if conditions permit. If water gets very hot, it boils and becomes steam. Water is very important for life. However, some studies suggest that by 2025 more than half of the people around the world will not have enough water. Water is a fluid. Water is the only substance that exists in all three aggregate states. When water freezes, its volume expands by about 9%. Uses of water Plants and animals (including people) must drink water to live. It gives a medium for chemical reactions to take place, and is the main part of blood. It keeps the body temperature the same by sweating from the skin. Water helps blood carry nutrients from the stomach to all parts of the body to keep the body alive. Water also helps the blood carry oxygen from the lungs to the body. Saliva helps animals and people digest food. Water helps make urine. Urine helps remove bad chemicals from the body. The human body is 60–70% water. Water is the main component of drinks like milk, juice, and wine. Each type of drink also has other things that add flavor or nutrients, things like sugar, fruit, and sometimes alcohol. Water that a person can drink is called "potable" (or "drinking") water. The water in oceans is salt water, but lakes and rivers usually have unsalted water. There is only about 3% fresh water on earth, the rest is salt water. Вариант №2. I. Перепишите предложения, определите степени сравнения прилагательных или наречий, переведите на русский язык. 1. The climate in India is hotter than in our country. 2. France is larger than England. 3. Moscow has the largest population in our country. 4. Autumn is the wettest season in the year. 5. It was the coldest day in winter. 10 II. Перепишите предложения, определите видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. The weather changed yesterday. 2. The farmers will harvest crops in time. 3. Farm machinery has changed life and work on our farm. 4. Now I am reading a very interesting book about London. 5. Today it is not so cold as it was yesterday. III. Перепишите предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. They were able to do this work. 2. I am to see him tomorrow. 3. You must come tomorrow. 4. I had to read this book. 5. I can help you. IV. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастия, установите функции каждого из них (определение, обстоятельство, часть сказуемого). Переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. I am going to the library. 2. Building this house they used new materials. 3. He sat at the table playing chess. 4. The opened book is on the table. 5. The method used is important for the experiment V. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A WORK ENVIRONMENT FOR SURVEYING AND MAPPING TECHNICIANS Surveying technicians work wherever they are needed to help the surveyors. Most surveying and mapping technicians work for firms that provide engineering, surveying, and mapping services on a contract basis. State and local governments also employ these workers in highway and planning departments. 11 Surveying technicians work outside extensively and can be exposed to all types of weather. They often stand for long periods, walk considerable distances, and may have to climb hills with heavy packs of instruments and other equipment. Traveling is sometimes part of the job, and surveying technicians may commute long distances, stay away from home overnight, or temporarily relocate near a survey site. Mapping technicians work primarily indoors on computers. However, mapping technicians must sometimes conduct research by using resources such as survey maps and legal documents to verify property lines and to obtain information needed for mapping. This task may require traveling to storage sites housing these legal documents, such as county courthouses or lawyers’ offices. Surveying and mapping technicians typically work full time but may have longer hours during the summer, when weather and light conditions are most suitable for fieldwork. Construction-related work may be limited during times of harsh weather. Text B WATERWAY A waterway is any navigable body of water. Waterways can include rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, and canals. In order for a waterway to be navigable, it must meet several criteria: The waterway must be deep enough to allow the draft depth of the vessels using it; The waterway must be wide enough to allow passage for the beam width of the vessels using it; The waterway must be free of barriers to navigation such as waterfalls and rapids, or have a way around them (such as canal locks and boat lifts); The current of the waterway must be mild enough to allow vessels to make headway. Vessels using waterways vary from small animal-drawn barges to immense ocean tankers and ocean liners, such as cruise ships. Canals. Canals are artificial waterways that are constructed to provide a new path of travel for vessels (as opposed to improving a natural waterway along its current course). At one time, canals were built mostly for small wooden barges drawn by horses or other draft animals. Today, major canals 12 are built to allow passage of large ocean-going vessels (see Ship canal) to connect harbours with or create a shortcut between seas and existing waterways, such as the Kiel Canal between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, which is the most heavily used canal worldwide. Blueway. A blueway or water trail is a water path or trail that is developed with launch points, camping locations and points of interest for canoeists and kayakers. Blueways are typically developed by state, county or local municipalities to encourage family recreation, ecological education and preservation of wildlife resources. Вариант №3. I. Перепишите предложения, определите степени сравнения прилагательных или наречий, переведите на русский язык. 1. In spring the days are longer and warmer than in winter. 2. The Ob is one of the longest Siberian rivers. 3. This is the highest building in our town. 4. This collective farm is the richest in our region. 5. Baikal is the largest fresh-water lake in Europe and Asia. II. Перепишите предложения, определите видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. We went to this farm last year. 2. He has made three experiments today. 3. I have seen this film. 4. We will begin our work next week. 5. They had finished their lessons by 7. III. Перепишите предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. You must come tomorrow. 2. He was to speak at the meeting. 3. You should read this book. 4. He can translate this text. 5. They had to go to the library 13 IV. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастия, установите функции каждого из них (определение, обстоятельство, часть сказуемого). Переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. We see growing plants. 2. What are you doing? 3. Working at this problem they had to read many books. 4. The work done by the students is very interesting. 5. The translation made without a dictionary was very good. V. Прочитайте переведите текст. Text A WHAT SURVEYING AND MAPPING TECHNICIANS DO Surveying technicians assist surveyors in taking accurate measurements outdoors. Surveying and mapping technicians assist surveyors, cartographers, and photogrammetrists. Together, they collect data and make maps of the earth’s surface. Surveying technicians visit sites to take measurements of the land. Mapping technicians use geographic data to create maps. Duties Surveying technicians typically do the following: Operate surveying instruments, such as electronic distancemeasuring equipment, to collect data on a location Visit sites to record survey measurements and other descriptive data Search for previous survey points, such as old stone markers Set out stakes and marks to conduct the survey, and then retrieve them Enter the data from surveying instruments into computers, either in the field or in an office Surveying technicians assist surveyors in the field on teams, known as survey parties. Then, in the office, they help to process the data collected in the field. A typical survey party consists of a party chief and one or more surveying technicians and helpers. The party chief, either a surveyor or a senior surveying technician, leads day-to-day work activities. Mapping technicians typically do the following: Select needed information from relevant databases to create maps 14 Produce maps showing boundaries, water locations, elevation, and other features of the terrain Update maps to ensure accuracy Assist photogrammetrists by laying out aerial photographs in sequence to identify areas not captured by aerial photography Mapping technicians help cartographers and photogrammetrists produce and upgrade maps. They do this work on computers, combining data from different sources. Text B CANALS Canals are man-made channels for water. There are two types of canal: Waterways: navigable transportation canals used for carrying ships and boats shipping goods and conveying people, further subdivided into two kinds: Those connected to existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. Included are inter-basin canals, such as the Suez Canal, Erie Canal, and the Panama Canal. Those connected in a city network: such as the Canal Grande and others of Venice Italy; the gracht of Amsterdam, and the waterways of Bangkok. Aqueducts: water supply canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human consumption, municipal uses, and agriculture irrigation. Canals are created in one of three ways, or a combination of the three, depending on available water and available path: Types of artificial waterways. A canal can be created where no stream presently exists. Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by piling dirt, stone, concrete, or other building materials. The water for the canal must be provided from an external source like other streams or reservoirs. Examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land, like Canal du Midi and Canal de Briare. A stream can be canalized to make its navigable path more predictable and easier to maneuver. Canalization modifies the stream to more safely carry traffic by controlling the flow of the stream with 15 dredging, damming, and modifying its path. Examples include Basse Saône, Canal de Mines de Fer de la Moselle, and Aisne River. Riparian zone restoration may be required. When a stream is too difficult to modify with canalization, a second stream can be created next to the existing stream. This is called a lateral canal. The existing stream usually acts as the water source and its banks provide a path for the new body. Вариант №4. I. Перепишите предложения, определите степени сравнения прилагательных или наречий, переведите на русский язык. 1. London is the largest city in Europe. 2. He is the youngest in our family. 3. She speaks English better than he. 4. Tree is one of the largest and oldest plants on the Earth. 5. This farm has the poorest soil in our region. II. Перепишите предложения, определите видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. He did not go to the country. 2. We will go to the library in the evening. 3. We went home as it was cold. 4. They had done much work by 7 o'clock. 5. They have seen them this month. III. Перепишите предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. I am to be at the library. 2. She is to come. 3. You must look through this journal. 4. May I take your dictionary? 5. He could play chess well. IV. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастия, установите функции каждого из них (определение, обстоятельство, часть сказуемого). Переведите предложения на русский язык. 16 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Preparing for the examination she worked at the library. Speaking she entered the room. It was not snowing. A reading student is my friend. I am going to the library now. V. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A WHAT URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNERS DO Urban and regional planners develop plans and programs for the use of land. Urban and regional planners identify community needs and develop short- and long-term plans to create, grow, or revitalize a community or area. For example, planners may examine plans for proposed facilities, such as schools, to ensure that these facilities will meet the needs of a changing population. As an area grows or changes, planners help communities manage the related economic, social, and environmental issues, such as planning a new park, sheltering the homeless, or making the region more attractive to businesses. When beginning a project, planners work with public officials, community members, and other groups to identify community issues or goals. Using research, data analysis, and collaboration with interest groups, planners formulate strategies to address issues or meet goals. They also may help carry out community plans, oversee projects, and organize the work of the groups involved. Projects may range from a policy recommendation for a specific initiative to a long-term, comprehensive area plan. Planners use a variety of tools and technology in their work, including geographic information systems (GIS) tools that analyze and manipulate data. GIS is used to integrate the data with electronic maps. For example, planners may use GIS to overlay a land map with population density indicators. They also use statistical software, visualization and presentation programs, financial spreadsheets, and other database and software programs. 17 Text B RAIN Rain is droplets of water falling from clouds in the sky that are bigger than 0.5 mm. Droplets of water that are about 0.2mm to 0.5mm big are called drizzle. Rain is a kind of precipitation. Precipitation is any kind of water that falls from clouds in the sky, like rain, hail, sleet and snow. Rain is part of the water cycle. Convectional rain happens in places of the world that are hot and wet. Sometimes, it also takes place in tropical deserts and inland areas during summer, when temperatures are hot. During the day, the sun makes the ground very hot. Air near the ground surface is heated by conduction. The heated air expands, becoming less dense and rises in a strong upwards air current. When the temperature of the rising air falls to the dew point, water vapor shrinks into thick clouds and forms convection rain. Depending on the temperature it may fall as sleet or snow. Relief rain usually happens along coastal areas where a line of hills runs along to the coast. When wet onshore wind from the sea meets a mountain, hill or any other sort of barrier, it is forced to rise along the slope and cools. When the air temperature falls to its dew point, water vapor condenses to form clouds. When the clouds can no longer hold the water droplets, relief rain begins to fall on the windward slope of the mountain. On the leeward slope, air sinks, it is warmed and further dried by compression. Therefore, the leeward slope is known as rain shadow. Moist winds blow in from the sea and are forced to rise over the land. The air cools and the water vapour condenses, forming rain drops. Relief rain is also a very dense and cold mixture of precipitation. Frontal rain is when a cold front meets a warm air front. The less dense warm air rises and condenses forming clouds. These clouds get heavier and it eventually rains. The cold air front tends to come from the north west and the warm air front comes from the south west. A Rainstorm is a sudden heavy fall of rain. It may cause floods on land which is not much above the level of the sea for example, flat coastal land and river basins. Too much water can make rivers overflow and cause floods. Also, landslides may happen. This is bad news as people may drown. For example, over 6 million people died just last year from rainstorms. 18 Вариант №5. I. Перепишите предложения, определите степени сравнения прилагательных или наречий, переведите на русский язык. 1. He is the best student in our group. 2. We discussed the most important problems at the meeting yesterday. 3. August is the most rainy season. 4. Better late than never. 5. He is the younger brother. II. Перепишите предложения, определите видовременные формы глаголов и укажите их инфинитив, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. My sister lived in Leningrad last year. 2. It often rains in autumn. 3. Many different crops have grown on our farm. 4. Farmers had harvested crops by the end of the month. 5. Third-year students will work at the computer centre. III. Перепишите предложения, подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. You must not smoke here. 2. They could start the experiment yesterday. 3. It may rain today. 4. I have to come in time. 5. He is able to play chess. IV. Перепишите предложения. Подчеркните причастия, установите функции каждого из них (определение, обстоятельство, часть сказуемого). Переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. The student translating the text is my friend. 2. He is going along the street. 3. The working man is my father. 4. When done this work will give good results. 5. We saw the houses built many years ago. 19 V. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A WHAT ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS DO Environmental engineers use the principles of engineering, soil science, biology, and chemistry to develop solutions to environmental problems. They are involved in efforts to improve recycling, waste disposal, public health, and control of water and air pollution. They also address global issues, such as safe drinking water, climate change, and sustainability. Environmental engineers typically do the following: Prepare, review, and update environmental investigation reports Design projects leading to environmental protection, such as water reclamation facilities, air pollution control systems, and operations that convert waste to energy Obtain, update, and maintain plans, permits, and standard operating procedures Provide technical support for environmental remediation projects and legal actions Analyze scientific data and do quality-control checks Monitor progress of environmental improvement programs Inspect industrial and municipal facilities and programs to ensure compliance with environmental regulations Advise corporations and government agencies about procedures for cleaning up contaminated sites Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies in which they evaluate the significance of the hazard and advise on treating and containing it. They also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems and research the environmental impact of proposed construction projects. Environmental engineers in government develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Some environmental engineers study ways to minimize the effects of acid rain, global warming, automobile emissions, and ozone depletion. They also collaborate with environmental scientists, planners, hazardous waste technicians, engineers, and other specialists, such as experts in law and business, to address environmental problems and sustainability. For more information, see the job profiles on environmental scientists and specialists, hazardous materials removal workers, lawyers, and urban and regional planners. 20 Text B RIVER A river is a stream of water that flows through a "channel" (or passage) in the surface of the ground. The passage where the river flows is called the riverbed and the earth on each side is called a riverbank. A river begins on high ground or in hills or mountains and flows down from the high ground to the lower ground, because of gravity. A river begins as a small stream and gets bigger, the farther that it flows. The water in a river is called "fresh water". It comes from rain or snow and it can usually be drunk safely, unless it has been polluted. The water in a sea cannot be drunk safely because it is "salt water". Both people and animals often live near rivers, because they need water to survive. The beginning of a river The start of a river is called its "source" or its "headwaters". The part of the river that is near the source is called a "young" or "youthful river". A young river is often in a V-shaped river bed, and flows quickly downhill over stones, and around big rocks. Young rivers often have lots of small waterfalls and rapids. The source of a river may be a spring, often on a hill, mountain, or another high place. A spring is water that flows out from under the ground. The source of a river may be a lake where lots of water from small streams gathers when it rains or snows. A river may begin in mountains where there is snow. The melting snow runs together to form a small stream that runs down the mountain. As more little streams run in, the main stream gets bigger, until it forms a river. Some rivers flow from hills where there is no snow, but lots of rain. Some rivers only flow after there has been rain at the "headwaters". КОНТРОЛЬНОЕ ЗАДАНИЕ №2 Для того чтобы правильно выполнить задание №2, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы курса английского языка по рекомендованному учебнику. 1. Страдательный залог (Passive Voice) видовременных форм Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect. 21 2. Неличные формы глагола. Инфинитив в функции: а) подлежащего, б) составной части сказуемого, в) определения, г) дополнения и е) обстоятельства цели. 3. Сложные формы инфинитива и причастия. 4. Обороты, равнозначные придаточным предложениям: объектный инфинитивный оборот; независимый (самостоятельный) причастный оборот. Образец выполнения 1 задания: The students were given Студентам дали методические указания. methodical instructions. Past Indefinite Passive Образец выполнения 3 задания: We want the method to be applied at their plant. Мы хотим, чтобы этот метод применяли на их заводе. This method is reported to be applied at their plant. Сообщают, что этот метод применяется на их заводе. Образец выполнения 4 задания: 1. Having done a given number of operations, the machine stopped automatically. 2. A given number of operations having been done, the machine stopped automatically. Проделав заданное количество операций, машина автоматически остановилась. После того, как было проделано заданное количество операций, машина автоматически остановилась. Вариант № 1 I. Перепишите предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола- сказуемого, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. Many wonderful discoveries have been made by the scientists. 2. I helped the gardener in the garden. 3. The atomic equipment is being installed in our laboratory. 4. A new house was built near the park last year. 22 5. The problem of mechanization will be discussed at the conference. II. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, найдите и подчеркните инфинитив и причастие, определите функцию инфинитива и причастия в предложении. 1. She never misses a chance to show her importance. 2. Vegetables grown in hot- houses are not very rich in taste. 3. To say such a thing to a child was ridiculous. 4. Knowing how fond he is of good music, I brought him a few records. 5. Our plan was to travel on foot. 6. We stopped to buy her flowers. 7. Look! He is dancing with Olga! 8. In order to speak to Ivanov you must come at 5 o'clock. III. Перепишите предложения, найдите и подчеркните объективный и субъективный инфинитивные обороты, переведите на русский язык. 1. This method is said to have many advantages. 2. The performance is expected to be a success. 3. I felt somebody touch me lightly on the shoulder. 4. They seem to know all about this problem. 5. He made her re-write the letter. IV. Перепишите предложения с независимым причастным оборотом, переведите их. 1. Plants having great importance in our life, we grow them. 2. The professor spoke about agricultural problems, the lecture being illustrated by diagrams. 3. Workers went home, it having begun to rain. V Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A LIFE Evidences suggest that life on Earth has existed for about 3.7 billion 23 years. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction. Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms. In biology, the science of living organisms, "life" is the condition which distinguishes active organisms from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, functional activity and the continual change preceding death. A diverse array of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth, and properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon- and waterbased cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. Living organisms undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce and, through natural selection, adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means. Text B WATERWAY RESTORATION Waterway restoration is the activity of restoring a canal or river, including special features such as warehouse buildings, locks, boat lifts, and boats. In the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States, the focus of waterway restoration is on improving navigability, while in Australia the term may also include improvements to water quality. Due to competition from the railways and the narrow design of most UK canals (which prevented the carriage of economically sized bulk loads), large parts of the UK's canal system were abandoned in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The rise of the leisure industry in the 1950s meant that the complete abandonment of the remaining canals was avoided. The increasing use of canals for leisure purposes led some people to consider restoring some of those that had been abandoned. At first, progress was slow due to the lack of funding, with most of the work having to be 24 done manually by volunteers. As the leisure industry grew, the economic benefits of having a canal became more apparent and some state funding started to appear. At the same time public interest increased the size of various volunteer groups. At the present time, canal restoration in the UK is carried out by a mixture of volunteers and professionals working on a large variety of projects. Вариант № 2 I. Перепишите предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола- сказуемого, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. The construction of this house will be completed in a month. 2. The cargo had been shipped to the town. 3. Which of the four men smoking by the fireplace is Ben? 4. The guide showed some pictures to a group of tourists. 5. Instructions are being given to them now. 6. She smiled remembering the joke. 7. Methods used by the scientist are the most effective. 8. All the business letters will have been answered by noon. II. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, найдите и подчеркните инфинитив и причастие, определите функцию инфинитива и причастия в предложении. 1. The only sound to be heard was the ticking of the grandfather's clock downstairs. 2. To go to the park on that rainy day was impossible. 3. I read the story the second time so as to memorize the details.. 4. The first thing we did was to switch on the computer. 5. To keep the instruments in order we must place them in the instrument box. III. Перепишите предложения, найдите и подчеркните объективный и субъективный инфинитивные обороты, переведите на русский язык. 1. We want this crop to produce good yields. 2. The farm is said to have produced high yield of wheat.. 25 3. They seem to have heard all about this problem. 4. He heard someone call his name. 5. She wanted her children to go to bed. IV. Перепишите предложения с независимым причастным оборотом, переведите их. 1. The experiment being demonstrated, all the students understood everything. 2. I went to Moscow, my friend living there. 3. The farmer having used new equipment, the work on the farm was made very quickly. V. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A NATURAL ENVIRONMENT The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof. It is an environment that encompasses the interaction of all living species. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by components: Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive human intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries. Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clearcut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from human activity. The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment, which comprises the areas and components that are strongly influenced by humans. A geographical area is regarded as a natural environment. It is difficult to find absolutely natural environments, and it is common that the naturalness varies in a continuum, from ideally 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, we take an agricultural field, and consider the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil, we will find that whereas the first is quite similar to that of an undisturbed forest soil, the structure is quite different. 26 Natural environment is often used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the natural environment of giraffes is the savanna. Text B MINE REHABILITATION Modern mine rehabilitation aims to minimize and mitigate the environmental effects of modern mining, which may in the case of open pit mining involve movement of significant volumes of rock. Rehabilitation management is an ongoing process, often resulting in open pit mines being backfilled. After mining finishes, the mine area must undergo rehabilitation. Waste dumps are contoured to flatten them out, to further stabilize them against erosion. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a layer of clay to prevent access of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidize the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid. Landfills are covered with topsoil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. Dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence, to prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with groundwater. Tailings dams are left to evaporate, then covered with waste rock, clay if need be, and soil, which is planted to stabilize it. For underground mines, rehabilitation is not always a significant problem or cost. This is because of the higher grade of the ore and lower volumes of waste rock and tailings. In some situations, stopes are backfilled with concrete slurry using waste, so that minimal waste is left at surface. The removal of plant and infrastructure is not always part of a rehabilitation programme, as many old mine plants have cultural heritage and cultural value. Often in gold mines, rehabilitation is performed by scavenger operations which treat the soil within the plant area for spilled gold using modified placer mining gravity collection plants. 27 Вариант № 3 I. Перепишите предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола- сказуемого, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. These students will be sent to Moscow to take part in the conference. 2. A new foreign film is being watched at the cinema now. 3. The farmers will have planted the crops by the end of the month. 4. The last student was being examined at 3 o'clock yesterday. 5. Engineers are trained at this university. II. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, найдите и подчеркните инфинитив и причастие, определите функцию инфинитива и причастия в предложении. 1. To use new machines on the farms is very important. 2. They passed groups of farmers packing ripe apricots. 3. He had the happy look of a man just returned home after a long absence. 4. To increase the yields farmers use fertilizers. 5. The book to be read is on the shelf. 6. Taking a book from the shelf, he sat down under the floorlamp to read it. 7. Packing was the first thing to be done. 8. To irrigate this area was difficult. III. Перепишите предложения, найдите и подчеркните объективный и субъективный инфинитивные обороты, переведите на русский язык. 1. The Polish dancers were announced to be arriving next week. 2. The discussion seemed to be coming to an end. 3. We didn't expect him to return so soon. 4. They were certain to come to an understanding. 5. He wanted everybody to obey him. 28 IV. Перепишите предложения с независимым причастным оборотом, переведите их. 1. All the exams having been passed, the students had holidays. 2. All the products having been sold, he closed the shop early. 3. The weather being bad, they stayed at home. V Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A HOW TO BECOME A SURVEYOR Surveyors typically need a bachelor’s degree. They must be licensed before they can provide surveying services to the public and certify legal documents. Surveyors who are not licensed can work as survey technicians, but they must work under the supervision of licensed surveyors. Important Qualities Communication skills. On the job, surveyors have to give team members clear instructions. After the work in the field is done, surveyors must be able to explain the job’s progress to developers, lawyers, financiers, or government authorities. Detail oriented. Surveyors must work with precision and accuracy because mistakes can be costly. Interpersonal skills. Surveying is a cooperative operation, so surveyors must be able to work well on a team. Listening skills. Surveyors receive instructions from designers, such as architects, and they must listen carefully. They also depend on others on their team and must allow team members to respond as needed. They are often required to interview land owners about land boundaries and then interpret this information to resolve land boundary issues. Physical stamina. Surveyors traditionally work outdoors and often in rugged terrain. They must have the ability to stand on their feet for many hours and over many weeks. Problem-solving skills. Surveyors must figure out discrepancies between documents showing property lines and current conditions on the land. If there have been changes in previous years, they must figure out why the changes occurred so that property lines can be reestablished. Time-management skills. Surveyors must be able to plan not only 29 their time on the job but also that of their team members. This is critical when there are pressing deadlines or while working outside during winter months when daylight hours are short. Text B RESTORATION ECOLOGY Restoration ecology is the scientific study and practice of renewing and restoring degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems and habitats in the environment by active human intervention and action, within a short time frame. Restoration ecology emerged as a separate field in ecology in the 1980s. The Society for Ecological Restoration defines ecological restoration as an "intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability". The practice of ecological restoration includes wide scope of projects including: erosion control, reforestation, the use of genetically local native species, removal of non-native species and weeds, revegetation of disturbed areas, reintroduction of native species, as well as habitat and range improvement for targeted species. The process of ecological restoration is unique in land management perspectives, in that the goal is to restore the original or historic native ecosystem of a site, utilizing local native plant species, excluding exotic plants, and to restore the ecosystem to a self-sustainable state, within a certain amount of time. The aspect of time and performance standards as part of the definition of ecological restoration, has been controversial since the invention of this new profession—that projects should be completed within a short amount of time, and that the percentage cover of the local native vegetation should be as close to 100% as possible, with less than 1% weed cover. Вариант № 4 I. Перепишите предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола- сказуемого, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. The factories are provided with new machines. 30 2. Several parts of the machine are being reconstructed by the mechanic now. 3. He will send the letter tomorrow. 4. Several jobs were offered to me by the manager. 5. Our experiments will have been finished by the end of the year. II. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, найдите и подчеркните инфинитив и причастие, определите функцию инфинитива и причастия в предложении. 1. The students must work on the farms. 2. Changed into his uniform, he looked younger and slimmer. 3. What we really want is a good critical article revealing our drawbacks. 4. To solve this problem is very important for agriculture. 5. To ski in the forest gives me pleasure. 6. He was playing tennis the whole evening yesterday. 7. He worked hard in order to improve his pronunciation. 8. To write the report he read a lot of literature. III. Перепишите предложения, найдите и подчеркните объективный и субъективный инфинитивные обороты, переведите на русский язык. 1. He hated people to argue about trifles. 2. The book is said to be very popular. 3. He is not sure to change his opinion. 4. She made him repeat her words several times. 5. This treatment is certain to help you a lot. IV. Перепишите предложения с независимым причастным оборотом, переведите их. 1. The work on the farm being very interesting, many students want to work there. 2. The soil having been prepared well, wheat gave a good yield. 3. Nobody being at home, Peter invited his friends. V. Прочитайте и переведите текст. 31 Text A ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE AND WEATHER The atmosphere of the Earth serves as a key factor in sustaining the planetary ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon and other inert gases, such as carbon dioxide. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as clouds. Many natural substances may be present in tiny amounts in an unfiltered air sample, including dust, pollen and spores, sea spray, volcanic ash, and meteoroids. Various industrial pollutants also may be present, such as chlorine (elementary or in compounds), fluorine compounds, elemental mercury, and sulphur compounds such as sulphur dioxide [SO2]. The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes. Climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time. Climate can be contrasted to weather, which is the present condition of these same elements over periods up to two weeks. Text B ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING Ecological engineering is an emerging study of integrating ecology and engineering, concerned with the design, monitoring and construction of ecosystems. According to Mitsch (1996) "the design of sustainable ecosystems intends to integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both". Ecological engineering emerged as a new idea in the early 1960s, but its definition has taken several decades to refine, its implementation is still undergoing adjustment, and its broader recognition as a new paradigm is 32 relatively recent. Ecological engineering was introduced by Howard Odum and others as utilizing natural energy sources as the predominant input to manipulate and control environmental systems. Mitsch and Jorgensen wrote that ecological engineering is designing societal services such that they benefit society and nature, and later noted the design should be systems based, sustainable, and integrate society with its natural environment. Odum emphasized that self-organizational properties were a central feature to ecological engineering. Mitsch and Jørgensen were the first to define ecological engineering and provide ecological engineering principles. Later they refined the definition and increased the number of principles. They defined and characterized ecological engineering. They suggest the goal of ecological engineering is: a) the restoration of ecosystems that have been substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land disturbance, and b) the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. They summarized the five concepts key to ecological engineering as: it is based on the self-designing capacity of ecosystems, it can be a field test of ecological theory, it relies on integrated system approaches, it conserves non-renewable energy, and it supports biological conservation. Ecological engineering can be defined as: utilizing ecological science and theory, applying to all types of ecosystems, adapting engineering design methods, and acknowledging a guiding value system. Вариант № 5 I. Перепишите предложения, определите в каждом из них видовременную форму и залог глагола- сказуемого, переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. New houses are being built in our street. 2. The student was visited at the hospital. 3. The farm bought two new combines last year. 4. Our laboratory will be given some new modern devices. 5. The book had been published by the end of the year. II. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, найдите и подчеркните инфинитив и причастие, определите функцию 33 инфинитива и причастия в предложении. 1. To finish a new canal the workers worked very hard. 2. To work on a farm is necessary for every student of an agricultural university. 3. She will be cleaning the flat from 10 till 12 tomorrow. 4. He hurried so as not to miss the train. 5. Finished with his breakfast, he remained for some time at the table. 6. The work to be done is very important. 7. The house was built in the forest 8. The only thing left was to go home. III. Перепишите предложения, найдите и подчеркните объективный и субъективный инфинитивные обороты, переведите на русский язык. 1. The house seemed not to have been lived in for a long time. 2. The crop was supposed to be rich that year. 3. They think him to be the most outstanding actor. 4. He wanted her to record the film. 5. The article is sure to be a success. IV. Перепишите предложения с независимым причастным оборотом, переведите их. 1. The professor having left the room, we began to discuss his lecture. 2. Farmers harvested good yields, new agricultural machines having been bought. 3. The rain having stopped, they went to the park. V. Прочитайте и переведите текст. Text A WHAT SURVEYORS DO Surveyors establish land, airspace, and water boundaries. They measure the Earth’s surface to collect data that are used to draw maps, determine the shape and contour of parcels of land, and set property lines and boundaries. They also define airspace for airports and measure construction and mining sites. Surveyors work with civil engineers, landscape architects, and urban and regional planners to develop comprehensive design documents. 34 Surveyors typically do the following: Measure distances, directions, and angles between points on, above, and below the Earth's surface Select known reference points and then determine the exact location of important features in the survey area using special equipment Establish official land and water boundaries Research land records and other sources of information affecting properties Look for evidence of previous boundaries to determine where boundary lines are Travel to locations to measure distances and directions between points Record the results of surveying and verify the accuracy of data Prepare plots, maps, and reports Work with cartographers (mapmakers), architects, construction managers, and others Present findings to clients, government agencies, and others Write descriptions of land for deeds, leases, and other legal documents Provide expert testimony in court regarding their work or that of other surveyors In their work, surveyors use the Global Positioning System (GPS), a system of satellites that locates reference points with a high degree of precision. Surveyors interpret and verify the GPS results. They gather the data that is fed into a Geographic Information System (GIS), which is then used to create detailed maps. Text B WATER CRISIS Water crisis is a general term used to describe a situation where the available water within a region is less than the region's demand. The term has been used to describe the availability of potable water in a variety of regions by the United Nations and other world organizations. Others, for example the Food and Agriculture Organization, said in 2003 that there is no water crisis but steps must be taken to avoid one in the future. The major aspects of the water crisis are allegedly overall scarcity of usable water and water pollution. The Earth has a limited supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Sometimes oceans are mistaken for 35 available water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive today, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply derives from desalination. There are several principal manifestations of the water crisis: inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 884 million people; inadequate access to water for sanitation and waste disposal for 2.5 billion people; groundwater overdrafting (excessive use) leading to diminished agricultural yields; overuse and pollution of water resources harming biodiversity; regional conflicts over scarce water resources sometimes resulting in warfare. Waterborne diseases and the absence of sanitary domestic water are one of the leading causes of death worldwide. For children under age five, waterborne diseases are the leading cause of death. At any given time, half of the world's hospital beds are occupied by patients suffering from waterborne diseases. According to the World Bank, 88 percent of all waterborne diseases are caused by unsafe drinking water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene. 36 Грамматический справочник с упражнениями Present Indefinite (Настоящее простое время) Настоящее простое время служит для выражения обычного регулярного действия в настоящем: I go to work every day. (Каждый день я хожу на работу.) Это время часто употребляется также для констатации фактов: Each molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. (Каждая молекула воды состоит из двух атомов водорода и одного атома кислорода.) или для выражения состояния в настоящем времени: She is very beautiful, but sad. (Она очень красивая, но грустная.) В настоящем простом времени часто можно встретить такие слова, как usually (обычно), always (всегда), often (часто), seldom (редко), regularly (регулярно), every day (каждый день) и т.д. Утвердительная форма Утвердительная форма в настоящем простом времени образуется при помощи глагола без частицы "to". В утвердительном предложении всегда прямой порядок слов. I live in Barnaul. (Я живу в Барнауле.) В 3 лице в единственном числе (с местоимениями he, she, it – он, она, оно) к глаголу прибавляется окончание -es: My sister lives in Barnaul. (Моя сестра живѐт в Барнауле.) Отрицательная форма Отрицательная форма в настоящем простом времени образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола "do" или "does" и отрицательной частицы "not", которые ставятся перед смысловым глаголом. "Does" ставится в 3 лице единственного числа, "do" в остальных случаях: I do not live in Barnaul. (Я не живу в Барнауле.) My sister does not live in Barnaul. (Моя сестра не живѐт в Барнауле.) Причѐм следует помнить, что когда употребляется "does", то окончание -es у смыслового глагола убирается: She lives in Barnaul. She does not live in Barnaul. 37 Вопросительная форма В английском языке существуют несколько типов вопросов. Наиболее часто употребляемыми из них являются общие вопросы и специальные вопросы. Общий вопрос запрашивает общую, неконкретную информацию и не содержит вопросительных слов. (Ты любишь кино?) Специальный вопрос запрашивает конкретную информацию и содержит вопросительные слова что, где, почему и т.д. (Какое кино ты любишь?) Список вопросительных слов: What? – Что? Какой? Why? – Почему? Зачем? Who? – Кто? How? – Как? Whom? – Кого? How many? (с исчисл. сущ.) – Whose? – Чей? Сколько? When? – Когда? How much? (с неисчисл. сущ.) – Where? – Где? Сколько? Общий вопрос в настоящем простом времени образуется путѐм постановки вспомогательного глагола "do" или "does" на первое место: Do you live in Barnaul? (Ты живѐшь в Барнауле?) Does she live in Barnaul? (Она живѐт в Барнауле?) В специальном вопросе на первое место выйдет вопросительное слово, на второе - вспомогательный глагол, далее – подлежащее и смысловой глагол: Where do you live? (Где ты живѐшь?) Where does she live? (Где она живѐт?) Сокращения: do not = don't does not = doesn't Past indefinite (Прошедшее простое время) Прошедшее простое время служит для выражения обычного, регулярного действия или ряда последовательных действий в прошлом: Yesterday I got up, washed my face, dressed up, had my breakfast and left home. (Вчера я встал, умылся, оделся, позавтракал и вышел из дома.) а также для выражения состояния в прошлом: I was 25 last year. (Мне было 25 в прошлом году.) В этом времени часто встречаются слова: yesterday (вчера), the day before yesterday (позавчера), last week (на прошлой неделе), last 38 month (в прошлом месяце), 5 years ago (5 лет назад) и т.д. Утвердительная форма В утвердительном предложении всегда прямой порядок слов (см. стр. 3). Чтобы поставить глагол в прошедшее простое время, нужно прибавить к нему окончание -ed, если глагол правильный. Если глагол неправильный, то необходима его II форма: He lived in Barnaul last year. (Он жил в Барнауле в прошлом году.) I saw you yesterday. (Я видел тебя вчера.) (see – saw – seen – три формы неправильного глагола) Отрицательная форма Отрицание в прошедшем простом времени образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола "did" и отрицательной частицы "not", которые ставятся перед смысловым глаголом: He did not live in Barnaul last year. (Он не жил в Барнауле в прошлом году.) Обратите внимание на один весьма важный момент! Сам смысловой глагол в отрицании (а также в вопросе) не стоит в прошедшем времени. Он стоит в форме настоящего времени, т.е. без окончания -ed или в I форме. Почему так, ведь время в данном случае прошедшее? Это происходит потому, что вспомогательные глагол "did" уже сообщает нам о том, что время – прошедшее простое, и нет необходимости изменять смысловой глагол. Сравните: I saw you yesterday. I did not see you yesterday. (Я видел тебя вчера. Я не видел тебя вчера.) Вопросительная форма В общем вопросе (см. стр. 4) на первое место ставится вспомогательный глагол "did", на второе место – подлежащее, далее смысловой глагол и остальная часть предложения. Did he live in Barnaul last year? (Он жил в Барнауле в прошлом году?) Did you see me yesterday? (Ты видел меня вчера?) В специальном вопросе (см. стр. 4) сначала идѐт вопросительное слово, затем вспомогательный глагол "did", далее подлежащее и смысловой глагол: Where did he live last year? (Где он жил в прошлом году?) Where did you see me yesterday? (Где ты видел меня вчера?) 39 Сокращения did not = didn't Future Indefinite (Будущее простое время) выражает обычное, регулярное действие или состояние в будущем: She will go to the south in summer. (Она поедет на юг летом.) В данном времени можно часто встретить слова: tomorrow (завтра), the day after tomorrow (послезавтра), next week (на следующей неделе), in two days (через два дня) и т.д. Все три формы (утвердительная, отрицательная, вопросительная) в будущем простом времени образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола "will": Утвердительная форма He will live in Barnaul next year. (Он будет жить в Барнауле в следующем году.) Отрицательная форма He will not live in Barnaul next year. (Он не будет жить в Барнауле в следующем году.) Вопросительная форма Will he live in Barnaul next year? (Будет ли он жить в Барнауле в следующем году?) Where will he live next year? (Где он будет жить в следующем году?) В придаточном предложении времени и условия будущее время употреблять нельзя, вместо него употребляется настоящее. Придаточные предложения времени начинаются со слов when (когда), while (в то время как), before (до того, как), after (после того, как) и т.д.: Tell me when you come. (Скажи мне, когда ты придѐшь.) Придаточные предложения условия начинаются со слов if (если), unless (если не) и т.д.: If you come, we will watch TV together. (Если ты придѐшь, мы будем смотреть телевизор вместе.) Сокращения: he will = he'll, will not = won't Глагол-исключение to be Глагол "to be" (быть, являться, находиться) отличается от всех 40 глаголов рядом особенностей: во-первых, он может быть и смысловым глаголом (т.е. может переводиться на рус. яз.), и вспомогательным глаголом (т.е. на рус. яз. не переводится, а служит для образования временных форм); во-вторых, он спрягается по лицам и числам, т.е. у него есть несколько форм в настоящем и прошедшем простом времени; в-третьих, будучи смысловым глаголом, он образует отрицание и вопрос не по правилу, т.е. без вспомогательного глагола "do", "did". Настоящее простое время В настоящем простом времени у глагола "to be" три формы: "am" для местоимения "I": I am a doctor. (Я – врач. Я есть врач.) "is" для единственного числа: He is a doctor. (Он – врач.) "are" для множественного числа и местоимения "you": You are a doctor. (Ты – врач.) They are doctors. (Они – врачи.) Утверждение: She is 25 years old. (Ей 25 лет.) Отрицание: She is not 25 years old. (Ей нет 25 лет.) Вопрос: Is she 25 years old? (Ей 25 лет?) Прошедшее простое время В прошедшем простом времени у глагола "to be" две формы: "was" для единственного числа: He was a doctor. (Он был врачом.) "were" для множественного числа и местоимения "you": You were a doctor. (Ты был врачом.) They were doctors. (Они были врачами.) Утверждение: She was 25 last year. (Ей было 25 в прошлом году.) Отрицание: She was not 25 last year. (Ей не было 25 в прошлом году.) Вопрос: Was she 25 last year? ( Было ли ей 25 в прошлом году?) Будущее простое время В будущем простом времени у глагола "to be" одна форма – "will be". Утверждение: She will be 25 next year. (Ей будет 25 в следующем году.) Отрицание: She will not be 25 next year. (Ей не будет 25 в 41 следующем году.) Вопрос: Will she be 25 next year? (Будет ли ей 25 в следующем году?) Формы глагола to be в простых временах Past Present Future Indefinite Was Am Will be Were Is Are Continuous Tenses (Продолженные времена) Продолженные времена служат для выражения длительного, незавершѐнного действия, которое происходит в определѐнный момент в настоящем, прошлом или будущем. Продолженные времена образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола "to be" в нужной временной форме и при помощи причастия I смыслового глагола (см. стр. 3). Present continuous (Настоящее продолженное время) Это время выражает длительное, незавершѐнное действие, которое происходит в данный момент. Чтобы образовать это время, вспомогательный глагол "to be" нужно поставить в настоящее время (см. стр. 6) и прибавить к нему причастие I смыслового глагола. Формула для образования настоящего продолженного времени: am / is / are + глагол+ing Утверждение: He is building the house now. (Он сейчас строит дом.) Отрицание: He is not building the house now. (Он сейчас не строит дом.) Вопрос: Is he building the house now? (Он сейчас строит дом?) Past Continuous (Прошедшее продолженное время) Это время выражает длительное, незавершѐнное действие, которое происходило в определѐнный момент в прошлом. Чтобы образовать это время, вспомогательный глагол "to be" нужно поставить в прошедшее время (см. стр. 7) и прибавить к нему причастие I смыслового глагола. Формула для образования прошедшего продолженного времени: was / were + глагол+ing 42 Утверждение: He was building the house yesterday evening. (Он строил дом вчера вечером.) Отрицание: He was not building the house yesterday evening (Он не строил дом вчера вечером) Вопрос: Was he building the house yesterday evening? (Строил ли он дом вчера вечером?) Future Continuous (Будущее продолженное время) Это время выражает длительное, незавершѐнное действие, которое будет происходить в определѐнный момент в будущем. Чтобы образовать это время, вспомогательный глагол "to be" нужно поставить в будущее время (см. стр. 7) и прибавить к нему причастие I смыслового глагола. Формула для образования будущего продолженного времени: will be + глагол+ing Утверждение: He will be building the house tomorrow evening. (Он будет строить дом завтра вечером.) Отрицание: He will not be building the house tomorrow evening. (Он не будет строить дом завтра вечером.) Вопрос: Will he be building the house tomorrow evening? (Будет ли он строить дом завтра вечером?) Perfect Tenses (Совершенные времена) Совершѐнные времена служат для выражения завершѐнного действия, которое закончилось к определѐнному моменту в настоящем, прошлом или будущем. Совершѐнные времена образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола "to have" в нужной временной форме и при помощи причастия II смыслового глагола. Present Perfect (Настоящее совершенное время) Это время выражает завершѐнное действие, которое закончилось к данному моменту. Чтобы образовать это время, вспомогательный глагол "to have" нужно поставить в настоящее время и прибавить к нему причастие II смыслового глагола. Формула для образования настоящего совершѐнного времени: have / has + правильный глагол+ed / III форма неправильного глагола Утверждение: He has just built the house. (Он только что 43 построил дом.) Отрицание: He has not built the house. (Он не построил дом.) Вопрос: Has he built the house? (Он построил дом?) Past Perfect (Прошедшее совершенное время) Это время выражает завершѐнное действие, которое закончилось к определѐнному моменту в прошлом. Чтобы образовать это время, вспомогательный глагол "to have" нужно поставить в прошедшее время и прибавить к нему причастие II смыслового глагола. Формула для образования прошедшего совершѐнного времени: had + правильный глагол+ed / III форма неправильного глагола Утверждение: He had built the house by last winter. (Он построил дом к прошлой зиме.) Отрицание: He had not built the house by last winter. (Он не построил дом к прошлой зиме.) Вопрос: Had he built the house by last winter? (Построил ли он дом к прошлой зиме?) Future Perfect (Будущее совершенное время) Это время выражает действие, которое закончится к определѐнному моменту в будущем. Чтобы образовать это время, вспомогательный глагол "to have" нужно поставить в будущее время и прибавить к нему причастие II смыслового глагола. Формула для образования будущего совершѐнного времени: will have + правильный глагол+ed / III форма неправильного глагола Утверждение: He will have built the house by next winter. (Он построит дом к следующей зиме.) Отрицание: He will not have built the house by next winter. (Он не построит дом к следующей зиме.) Вопрос: Will he have built the house by next winter? (Будет ли он строить дом завтра вечером?) В предложениях с совершѐнными временами можно часто встретить слова just (только что), already (уже), ever (когда-нибудь, когда-либо), never (никогда), yet (ещѐ). Слова just, already, ever, never ставятся в предложении между глаголами: I have already read the book. (Я уже прочитал книгу.) Слово yet ставится на конец предложения: I have not read the book yet. (Я ещѐ не прочитал книгу.) 44 Сводная таблица по временам Indefinite Past did + S V2 (ed) - S did not V1 ? (What) Did S V1 Глагол-искл. "to be": was/were + S was/ were -S was/were not ? (What) Was/were П Continuous was / were (to be + + S was/were причастие I) V1ing - S was/were not V1ing ? (What) Was/were S V1ing Perfect (to have + причастие II) h ad +S had V3 (ed) - S had not V3 ? (What) Had S V3 Present do / does + S V1 (3k/tl/x/ S) -S do/does not V1 ? (What) Do/Does S V1 Future will + S will V1 -S will not V1 ? (What) Will П V1 Глагол-искл. "to be": am/ is/are +S am/is/are -S am/is/are not ? (What) Am/is/are П Глагол-искл. "to be": will be + S will be - S will not be ? (What) Will S be am / is / are +S am/is/are V1ing - S am/is/are not V1ing ? (What) Am/is/are S V1ing will be + S will be V1ing - Swill not be V1ing ? (What) Will S be V1ing have / has + S have/has V3 (ed) - S have/has not V3 ? (What) Have/Has S V3 will have + S will have V3 (ed) - S will not have V3 ? (What) Will S have V3 Present Participle (Причастие I) образуется добавлением к глаголу окончания -ing: to work (работать) working (причастие I). Причастие Present показывает последующее или одновременное действие с действием в главном 45 предложении. Причастие Perfect показывает предыдущее действие. Причастие I имеет следующие формы: ACTIVE PASSIVE V1+ing coming being being brought PRESENT V3 having having been having been sent PERFECT having V3 asked V3 В предложении может выполнять функции: 1. Функция определения. В этой функции обычно используется причастие Present. Определение обычно находится до или после существительного. На русский язык причастие Present Active переводится причастием настоящего времени с окончанием «ющий, ящая и тд.», например: строящий, идущий. Причатие Present Passive переводить можно либо глаголом на –ся, -сь: рассматривающийся, либо оборотом в страдательной форме несовершенного вида: который рисуют, которую вносят и т.д.: The tree growing in the garden is very beautiful. Дерево, растущее в саду, очень красивое. The letter being written is to my mother. Письмо, которое пишут, предназначено моей маме. 2. Функция обстоятельства. Причастие или причастный оборот находится обычно в начале или конце предложения. На рус. яз. Причастие Active Present переводится несовершенным видом деепричастия (что делая?), оканчивающимся на –ая, например: рисуя, идя. Причастие Passive Perfect переводится совершенным видом деепричастия (что сделав?), оканчивающимся на –в, например: написав, прочитав. Причастие Passive Present можно переводить страдательной конструкцией с глаголом «быть» и кратким причастием: будучи написан, либо можно перевести обстоятельственным предложением страдательной формы несовершенного вида: когда писали, когда рисовали. Going along the street, I met my friend. Идя по улице, я встретил своего друга. Having written the letter she went for a walk. Написав письмо, она пошла прогуляться. Being noticed he couldn’t deny his presence in the place. Будучи замечен он не мог отрицать, что он присутствовал на этом месте. Having been filmed once in a horror film he couldn’t appear in the streets 46 without a mask. После того как он был однажды снят в фильме ужасов, он не мог показываться на улицах без маски. 3. Функция части сказуемого. Причастие находится на 2 месте в предложении. В этой функции причастие I участвует в образовании длительных времѐн и на русский язык переводится обычным глаголом в нужном времени: I am going along the street. Я иду по улице Past Participle (Причастие II) Причастие II – это правильный глагол с окончанием -ed или III форма неправильного глагола: to work (работать) worked (причастие II) to see (видеть) seen (причастие II, Причастие II в предложении может выполнять следующие функции: 1. Функция определения. Определение обычно находится до или после существительного. На русский переводится причастием совершенного вида с суффиксами «енн, ан, тый, мый», например: вымытый, сделанный, приклеенный, любимый: The grown tree is beautiful. (Выращенное дерево красивое.) 2. Функция обстоятельства. Причастие или причастный оборот находится обычно в начале или конце предложения. В русском языке соответствует придаточному предложению, также можно переводить конструкцией типа: будучи написанным: When given the book, read text 2. (Когда вам дадут книгу, прочитайте текст 2.) 3. Функция части сказуемого. Причастие находится на 2 месте в предложении. В данной функции причастие II участвует в образовании совершенных времѐн либо страдательной формы и на русский язык переводится глаголом в нужном времени и в нужной форме: He has built the house. (Он построил дом.) Modal Verbs (Модальные глаголы) Модальные глаголы сами не выражают действие, а лишь выражают отношение говорящего к действию, выраженному смысловым глаголом. 47 Модальные глаголы не употребляются самостоятельно, а только в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола. Они обозначают возможность, способность, вероятность, необходимость совершения действия, выраженного смысловым глаголом. He can do it himself. Он может сам это сделать. They may come tonight. Они могут прийти сегодня вечером. I must speak to him. Я должен с ним поговорить. This work ought to be done at once. Эта работа должна быть сделана немедленно You needn’t do it. Вам не нужно (нет необходимости) это делать. Инфинитив, следующий за этими глаголами, употребляется без частицы to. (Исключение - Ought to). В 3-м лице единственного числа настоящего времени модальные глаголы не имеют окончания –s: He must go there. She may take it. Вопросительная форма образуется без вспомогательного глагола to do; модальный глагол ставится перед подлежащим: May I take it? Must he go there? Ought he to help me? Отрицательная форма образуется при помощи частицы not, которая ставиться непосредственно после модального глагола. При чѐм can пишется с not слитно – cannot: He cannot do it. You need not do it. You may not take it. He ought not to help him. В разговорной речи в отрицательной форме обычно употребляются сокращения: cannot – can’t may not – mayn’t oght not – oughtn’t must not – mustn’t could not – couldn’t might not – mightn’t need not – needn’t Can Употребляется для выражения возможности или способности совершить действие. I can speak English. - Он умеет говорить по-английски. He can finish this work next week – Он может закончить эту 48 работу на следующей неделе. He can swim. – Он умеет плавать. Could –форма глагола can в прошедшем времени. He could speak English when he was a boy. – Он умел говорить по0английски, когда был мальчиком. Глагол can имеет эквивалент to be able to,который употребляется в прошедшем времени наряду с could,а также для выражения будущего времени, т.к. глагол can не имеет формы будущего времени. He was able to swim very well when he was young. = He could swim very well when he was young. You will be able to construct new agricultural machines when you become engineers. May Употребляется для выражения разрешения, предположения. May I come in? - Yes, you may. –Я могу войти? – Да, можете. He may know her address. – Он может знать еѐ адрес. She may come to Moscow in the summer. – Летом она может приехать в Москву. You may not find him there. - Вы можете не найти его там. He may have left Moscow. - Он мог уехать из Москвы. Might – форма прошедшего времени от глагола may. If she called at his office at five o’clock, she might find him there.Если бы она позвонила в его офис в 5 часов, она могла найти его там. В будущем времени употребляется эквивалент глагола may – to be allowed to: If we behave well, we’ll be allowed to go to the cinema. –Если мы будем вести себя хорошо, нам разрешат пойти в кино. Сам глагол may формы будущего времени не имеет. Must Употребляется для выражения приказа, совета, необходимости совершения действия в силу определѐнных обстоятельств. I must do it at once. – Я должен сделать это немедленно. You must go there tomorrow. – Вы должны поехать туда завтра. You must post the letter now. – Вы должны отправить письмо прямо сейчас. 49 You must consult a doctor. – Вы должны проконсультироваться с врачом. А также для выражения предположения с большой долей уверенности: He must know her address. –Он должен знать еѐ адрес. Must not всегда обозначает строгий категоричный запорет и переводится словом «нельзя». You mustn’t smoke here. – Здесь нельзя курить. Глаголы to be to и to have to являются эквивалентами must, т.к. must не имеет форм прошедшего и будущего времени. Present Past Future must have to had to will have to has to is to was to am to were to are to To be to выражает действие, которое должно (или должно было) произойти в результате предварительной договорѐнности, расписания, заранее было запланировано: I was to meet her at the station yesterday. – Я должен был встретить еѐ вчера на вокзале. The train is to arrive at 6 p.m. – Поезд должен прибыть в 6 часов вечера. He was to have finished his work yesterday. – Он должен был закончить свою работу вчера. To have to выражает необходимость совершения действия в результате сложившихся обстоятельств: We had to take a taxi to get to the airport in time. – Нам пришлось взять такси. Что бы добраться до аэропорта вовремя. I have to get up early on weekdays. – Мне приходится рано вставать в рабочие дни. 50 Need Чаще всего употребляется в отрицательных и вопросительных предложениях и переводится словами «нужно», «необходимо», и т.д. You needn’t go there now. – Тебе не нужно идти туда сейчас (нет такой необходимости). Must I come to the office every day? – No, you needn’t. – Я должен приходить в офис каждый день? – Нет, не нужно. Ought to/Should Эти глаголы выражают совет, напутствие, пожелание, моральный долг, и т.д. Переводятся словами «должен», «следует»: You ought to help your parents. – Ты должен помогать родителям. You should me more careful. – Вам следует быть осторожнее. The Passive Voice (Страдательный залог) Если подлежащее обозначает лицо или предмет, подвергающийся действию со стороны другого лица или предмета, то глагол употребляется в форме страдательного залога. The planets are attracted by the sun. - Планеты притягиваются солнцем. “Poltava” was written by Pushkin in 1828. – «Полтава» была написана Пушкиным в 1828 году. Времена страдательного залога образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени и формы причастия прошедшего времени (Participle II) смыслового глагола. => Изменяется только вспомогательный глагол to be, форма смыслового глагола остаѐтся неизменной. I am invited. – Я приглашѐн. I was invited. – Я был приглашѐн. I will be invited. – Я буду приглашѐн. В высказываниях с пассивным сказуемым исполнитель действия чаще всего не указывается, но если говорящий считает нужным его указать, он употребляет предлог by: America was discovered by Columbus in 1492. – Америка была открыта Колумбом в 1492 году. Предлог with стоит перед словом, обозначающим материал или вещество: 51 It was made with simple tools. – Это было сделано простыми инструментами. The ground was covered with snow. – Земля была покрыта снегом. The letter was written with a pencil. - Письмо было написано карандашом. Предлог of стоит перед словом, обозначающим материал, из которого изготовлен предмет: The table is made of expensive wood. – Этот стол изготовлен из дорогой древесины. Таблица видовременных форм страдательного залога. Continuous Indefinite Present is S+ am +PII are It is made of wood. It isn’t made of wood. Is it made of wood? What is it made of? is S+ am + being + PII are Those houses are being built. Are those houses being built? Those houses are not being built. What is being built? Past S+ was/were + PII They were invited. Were they invited? They were not invited. Who was invited? S+ was/were + being + PII Those houses were being built. Were those houses being built? Those houses were not being built. What was being built? 52 Future S+ will be + PII She will be invited. Will she be invited? She won’t be invited. Who will be invited? S+ have/has +been +PII Perfect The doctor has been sent for. Has the doctor been sent for? The doctor hasn’t been sent for. When has the doctor been sent for? S+ had been + PII All the tickets had been sold when we came to the booking office. Had all the tickets been sold when we came to the booking office. The tickets hadn’t been sold when we came to the booking office. S+ will have been +PII All the machines will have been installed by Sunday. All the machines won’t have been installed by Sunday. Will all the machines have been installed by Sunday? The Infinitive. (Инфинитив) Инфинитив (неопределѐнная форма глагола) представляет собой неличную глагольную форму, которая только называет действие, не указывая ни лица, ни числа. Инфинитив отвечает на вопросы: что делать? что сделать? to read - читать, прочесть; to write - писать, написать; to buy - купить, покупать; to sell - продать, продавать. Инфинитив имеет формы времени и залога: Active Indefinite to ask Continuous to be asking Perfect to have asked Passive to be asked to have been asked Инфинитив может служить в предложении: 1. Подлежащим: To skate is pleasant. – Кататься на коньках приятно. 53 2. Именной частью сказуемого: Your duty was to inform me about it immediately. - Вы должны были сообщить мне об этом немедленно. 3. Частью составного глагольного сказуемого: She began to translate the article. – Она начала переводить статью. 4. Дополнением: I asked him to help me. Я попросил его помочь мне. 5. Определением: He expressed the desire to help me. – Он высказал желание помочь мне. 6. Обстоятельством: I went to the station to see off a friend. – Я пошѐл на станцию проводить друга. Gerund (Герундий) Герундий представляет собой неличную глагольную форму, выражающую название действия и обладающую как свойствами существительного, так и свойствами глагола. В русском языке соответствующая форма отсутствует. Функции герундия во многом сходны с функциями инфинитива, также сочетающего свойства существительного со свойствами глагола. Герундий, однако, имеет больше свойств существительного, чем инфинитив. Обладая свойствами существительного, герундий может служить в предложении: 1. Подлежащим: Reading is her favorite occupation. – Чтение – еѐ любимое занятие. 2. Именной частью составного сказуемого: Her greatest pleasure is reading. – Еѐ самое большое удовольствие – это чтение. 3. Частью составного глагольного сказуемого: He finished reading the book. – Он кончил читать книгу. 4. Прямым дополнением: I remember reading it. – Я помню, что читал это. 5. Предложным косвенным дополнением: I am fond of reading. – Я люблю чтение (читать). 6. Определением: I had the pleasure of reading in the newspaper of your success. – Я имел удовольствие прочесть в газете о вашем успехе. 54 7. Обстоятельством: After reading the letter I put it into the drawer. –После того как я прочитал письмо, я положил его в ящик стола. Absolute Participle Construction (Независимый причастный оборот) Независимый причастный оборот – это причастный оборот со своим собственным подлежащим. Предложение с такой конструкцией может строиться по одной из следующих схем: I. S + PI (PII), S + Predicate (Независимый причастный оборот) (основная часть предложения) Rain falling to the land, soil erodes. – При выпадении дождя происходит эрозия почвы. Fertilizers being used, soil fertility is improved. - При использовании удобрений улучшается плодородие почвы. II. S + Predicate, S + PI (PII) (основная часть предложения) (Независимый причастный оборот) I have two friends, one of them studying at the university. –У меня есть два друга. Один из них учится в университете. Many crops are grown by this farm, wheat being the most important.Из культур, выращиваемых на этой ферме, пшеница – самая важная. Complex object (Объектный инфинитивный оборот; инфинитивный оборот «сложное дополнение») Эта конструкция строится по следующей модели: Подлежащее Сказуемое Объектный падеж + инфинитив (в действительном залоге) We Мы them to do it in time. что они сделают это вовремя. expect надеемся, 55 «Сложное дополнение» состоит из существительного или местоимения в объектном (косвенном) падеже и инфинитива. Инфинитив обозначает действие, которое совершает лицо или предмет, выраженный существительным или местоимением, стоящим перед инфинитивом. На русский язык «сложное дополнение» переводится придаточным предложением с союзами что, так, чтобы. При этом, существительное или местоимение переводится подлежащим, а инфинитив – сказуемым. Время сказуемого при переводе определяется временем сказуемого в главном предложении. Эта конструкция в предложении стоит на месте дополнения (т.е. на третьем месте). Конструкция «сложное дополнение» может использоваться только после таких глаголов, как: to know знать, to want хотеть, to expect ожидать, to consider считать, полагать, to think думать, to suppose полагать, to find находить, to believe верить и некоторых других, употреблѐнных в действительном залоге: I want you to work better. Я хочу, чтобы вы работали лучше. После глаголов, выражающих чувства, восприятие (to feel чувствовать, to see видеть, to hear слышать, to watch наблюдать, to observe наблюдать, to notice замечать и др.), частица to перед инфинитивом опускается: We saw them work on the construction site. Мы видели, как они работали на стройке. Complex subject (Инфинитивный оборот «сложное подлежащее») Эта конструкция строится по следующей модели: _______Сложное подлежащее_____________ Подлежащее Сказуемое Инфинитив (существительное (обычно глагол в или местоимение в страдательном залоге) именительном падеже) He is known to go to work to Siberia. Известно, что он поедет работать в Сибирь. Инфинитив (to go) обозначает действие, которое совершает подлежащее (he) и, следовательно, переводится как сказуемое, а формальное сказуемое (is known) переводится вводными словами (как 56 известно, как говорят) или неопределѐнно-личным предложением с последующим союзом что: «Известно, что он поедет работать в Сибирь» или «Он, как известно, поедет работать в Сибирь». Перфектный инфинитив (Perfect Infinitive) обозначает законченное действие и поэтому переводится глаголом в прошедшем времени: He is said to have gone to work to Siberia. – Говорят, что он уехал работать в Сибирь. В качестве «формального» сказуемого в этой конструкции могут употребляться только определѐнные глаголы, а именно: в страдательном залоге (Passive Voice) – to report сообщать, to say говорить, to know знать, to suppose предполагать, to state утверждать, to expect ожидать, to consider рассматривать, считать, to believe полагать, to think думать, to find находить: They are expected to come back in two days. – Ожидают, что они вернутся через два дня. в действительном залоге (Active Voice) – to seem казаться (в составе этой конструкции – «по-видимому»); to happen случаться (в составе этой конструкции «случается», «случалось»); to appear появляться (в составе этой конструкции «по-видимому»); to prove доказывать (в составе этой конструкции – «оказывается», «оказалось»); to be likely вероятно; to be unlikely вряд ли; to be sure, to be certain быть уверенным (в составе этой конструкции – «наверняка»): They are unlikely to come in time. Они вряд ли придут вовремя. The work is proved to be useful. Работа оказалась полезной. Упражнения для закрепления изученного материала 1.Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на независимый причастный оборот. 1. Other things being equal, an increase in wage rates will increase the cost of labour relative to the cost of other factors. 2. The production of the Liberty ships showed similar effects, the first taking many months to build and the last only three days. 3. In order to simplify the analysis we can consider two firms, one being representative of high-cost producers and the 57 other of low-cost producers. 4. Most industries make use of a variety of machines, each machine carrying out a different operation. 5. The principle of action being rather simple, the new device was widely used for different purposes. 6. The selling price must relate to the production cost, which in turn, depends on the quantity sold, this quantity being dependent upon the sales price. 7. It being too late, they decided to stop working. 8. Other things being equal, the demand for a commodity will tend to vary directly as the price of its substitute. 9. The installation was automatized last year, its capacity rising by 20 per cent. 10 All the problems having been solved, they went home. 2.Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на герундий. 1. Discounting is the process of buying a security for less than its face value. 2. So far as temperature is concerned, Britain is fortunate in having warmer winds than any other district in the same latitude. 3. We discussed opening a new business. 4. He risks losing all of his money. 5. His taking part in the development of the new system was a great help to us. 6. We knew nothing about his being sent to London. 7. We knew nothing about his having been sent to London. 8. I heard of the experiment having been started last month. 9. The control of the money supply is probably one of the most important instruments for regulating total demand in an economy. 10. Funding is the way of reducing the supplies of liquid assets available to the banking system. 3. .Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на инфинитив. 1. I am glad to have told you this story. 2. I am glad to have been told this story. 3. I want to introduce you to this actress. 4. I want to be introduced to this actress. 5. I am glad to have met her at the station. 6. I am glad to have been met at the station. 7. We are happy to have invited him to the party. 8. We are happy to have been invited to the party. 9. He will be happy to visit this famous picture gallery. 10. He was happy to have visited this famous picture gallery. 4. Перепишите предложения и переведите их обращая внимание на инфинитив. A. 1. I want my son to go in for sports. 2. I don’t want you to take so much trouble. 3. I would like you to practice your English every day. 4. I 58 don’t think he wanted Bob to lose his temper, he simply wanted him to play according the rules. 5. We want our contacts to increase in the near future. 6. The manager doesn’t want his assistants to do so much routine paperwork any longer. 7. We are friends, and I naturally want him to be perfectly frank to me. 8. The Director General wants us to compare all those projects and say what we think of them. 9. I didn’t expect the discussion to be so tiring. 10. Frankly, we had expected them to find a better place for the exhibition. B. 1. When I entered the gym, I saw a group of girls practicing without their coach. 2. I’ve never seen him lose his temper. 3. I’ve never heard her complain. 4. I heard them quarreling, and decided to go up and ask what the matter was. 5. I heard that Helen was a good pianist, but I have never heard her play the piano. 6. We saw that the conversation was growing tiring and decided to stop before it was too late. 7. We watched the coach giving last-minute instructions to the players. 8. We saw the policeman go up to the driver and say something to him. 9. I’ve never heard him say anything unfair. 10. We heard that after the last injury he was no longer fit to take part in serious competitions. 5. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на сложное подлежащее. 1. Many books are known to be published in our country every year. 2. You are supposed to graduate in four years. 3. Radium is said to be very radioactive. 4. This device was known to have been designed in that laboratory. 5. His invention is considered to be of great importance. 6. The sun is known to represent a mass of compressed gases. 7. The new rocket is reported to go into operation next year. 8. This type of rocket is supposed to have many advantages. 9. For a long time the atom was thought to be indivisible. 10. The helium atom was found to have two electrons. 6. Переведите текст на русский язык, обращая внимание на залог сказуемого. What are the reasons? Many great cities of the world were built hundreds of years ago. During their long history some of them were destroyed several times for one reason or another, and then rebuilt. London, for instance, was burnt down in the great fire of 1666. When Napoleon’s army entered Moscow in 1812, the city was nearly 59 empty and in flames. Most of the houses were soon destroyed by the fire, and many were badly damaged. A lot of beautiful cities were left in ruins after the World Wars. Serious damage is done to cities and villages by floods, hurricanes and earthquakes and still more by wars and industrial pollution. 2. Перепишите предложения, определите в них временную форму сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык. 1. The mail is usually brought at 9 p.m. 2. Are the orders always fulfilled in time? 3. It’s a pity the lecture wasn’t taped. 4. All the machines have been tested, and the results have been written down and filed. 5. The telly hasn’t been switched off, I’m afraid. 6. The appointment has been called off, hasn’t it? 7. Who has been appointed head of the delegation? 8. If we use the old methods, a lot of time may be wasted, and very little will be achieved. 9. When can the new equipment be installed? 10. The experiment will be described in several journals. Темы устной речи MY FAMILY I want to tell you about my family. I have got mother, father, a sister, and a brother; there are 5 of us in the family. First of all I'll tell you some words about my parents. My mother is a teacher of biology. She likes her profession very much. She is a goodlooking woman with fair hair. She is forty-five but she looks much younger. She is not tall but slim. By character my mother is energetic and talkative. My mother keeps house and takes care of us. She is good at cooking. My father is a strong-willed man. My father is a broad-shouldered man with short black hair and grey eyes. He is forty-six. My father often sings and when we are at home and have free time I play the guitar and we sing together. My parents have been married for twenty-six years. They have much in common, but they have different views on music, books, films and sports. For example, my father likes detective stories and my mother likes fantasy. My father is fond of sports. My parents have the same opinion about our education and upbringing. My parents are hard-working people. 60 My sister Helen is twenty-five. She is married and has a family of her own. She works as an accountant in a company. Her husband is a scientist. They have got a daughter and a son. They go to kindergarten. My brother Boris is eleven. Boris takes after his father in appearance and character. He is tall and thin. His features are regular. People find him sociable. He wants to be a pilot but he is not sure yet. We have a lot of relatives. Our grandparents are retired. My aunts, uncles, cousins live in different parts of Russia. On holidays they often come to our place. Our family is very united. We like to spend time together. Sometimes we stay at home and watch TV or just talk, and on weekends we go out of town. We are always happy to be together, and I think that we are a friendly family. MY SPECIALITY (для студентов специальности «Комплексное использование и охрана водных ресурсов») I’m a second-year student of the Faculty of Nature Management. I’m studying to be an engineer in the field of water resources management. Water resources are sources of water that are useful to humans. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. All of these human uses require fresh water. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world. As a specialist in this area I’ll be responsible for the rational utilization of water resources and for the protection of environment. I’ll also take part in the construction and reconstruction of irrigation projects. It is estimated that 69% of worldwide water use is for irrigation. That’s why we study different irrigation methods such as furrow and overhead sprinkler irrigation, drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and some other. We learn how to apply different types of sprinkler systems. Any system that is improperly managed can be wasteful. All methods have the potential for high efficiencies under suitable conditions, appropriate irrigation timing and management. We must learn how to improve irrigation methods and technologies, agricultural water management, and water monitoring. 61 Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today. Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the water. It is very important to find solutions to reduce this problem. Water protection is one of the main tasks for the specialists in water resources management. MY SPECIALITY (для студентов специальности «Землейстройство и кадастры») I study at Altai State Agricultural University. I am a second-year student of the Faculty of Natural Resources Management. I am studying to be an engineer in the field of land surveying. Called "Geomatics" in Canada and much of Europe, land surveying is known as the world's second-oldest profession. It dates back to ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Surveying is the art and science of measuring and mapping land. The main task of the surveyor is determining where people's land boundaries are located. Without this service, railroads could not be built, skyscrapers could not be erected, and individuals could not put up fences around their yards. We also stake out boundaries of roads to be built, monitor skyscrapers to make sure they are being erected vertically, and measure airports so that the runways are perfectly aligned and smooth. Surveying is a vital part of the design and construction process. We perform boundary surveys to tell people where their property is, map the topography of land for engineering design, establish elevations of homesites for flood insurance, perform title surveys for real estate transactions, certify that structures are built according to design. We also map slopes and areas, river bottoms, write legal descriptions that are used to describe pieces of property, map and layout corridors for tunnels, roads, airports, pipelines, cellular networks and railroads, and split up properties into new lots, such as subdivisions. In order to become qualified specialists the students of our faculty every summer get practice in the suburbs of Barnaul. There we learn how to use such devices as GPS or Global Positioning System, a distance meter, and a theodolite. GPS is a tool we use for precise positioning of points. It operates through satellites which send out signals to our receiver. The receiver then transmits those signals to our data collector, which stores the data. After we get it into the office, we download the data into the computer, and the computer software resolves from the data the exact position of our point within a few millimeters. The primary function of the field surveyor is measuring, mapping, and observing. Our most important tool for these purposes is our total 62 station. It's given this name because it incorporates a distance meter for measuring distances and a theodolite for measuring angles into one instrument. I’m sure that my profession is a very promising one. I hope I’ll be able to find a good well-paid job when I graduate from the university in three years. BRITISH AGRICULTURE Agriculture, one of Britain's most important industries, supplies nearly two-thirds of the country's food. British agriculture is efficient, for it is based on modern technology and research. Nearly 80% of the land is used for agriculture. The total agricultural acreage of Great Britain is about 45,000,000 acres. Soils vary from the poor ones of highland Britain to the rich fertile soils in the eastern and southeastern parts of England. Britain is self-sufficient in milk, eggs, to a very great extent in meat, potatoes, wheat. However, it needs to import butter, cheese, sugar and some other agricultural products. There are about 55,000 farms in Britain. They are not large. An average sized farm is about 30-40 acres. There are three main types of farming in Great Britain: pastoral, arable, mixed. 60% of farms are developed mainly to dairying or beef cattle and sheep. Sheep and cattle are reared in the hill and moorland areas of Scotland, Wales, Nothern Ireland and south- western England. Milk production is the first importance in the structure of British agriculture. Pig breeding is carried on in most areas but particularly in southern England, north-east Scotland and Nothern Ireland. Arable farms are mainly in the eastern part of the country. The main cereal crops in Great Britain are wheat, barley and oats. Rye is grown in small quantities for use as cattle fodder. Great Britain produces different kinds of fruit: apples, pears, cherries, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries and others. Potatoes are grown for sale, for fodder and for seed. Modern machines: tractors, combines and other equipment are used on British farms. But today the main tendency in British agriculture is that small traditional farms are gradually disappearing because they cannot compete with big industrial farms. Private woods make up 56% of the total forests area in Great Britain. Woodlands cover nearly 2.2 million hectares. Britain's second major source of food is the surrounding sea. The fishing industry provides about 70% of British fish supplies. 63 Методическое издание АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Методические указания и контрольные задания по основным разделам грамматики для студентов заочной формы обучения факультета природообустройства Авторы-составители: Юлия Сергеевна Алешина, ст. преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков АГАУ; Оксана Анатольевна Крюкова, ст. преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков АГАУ; Алла Аркадьевна Новоселова, доцент кафедры иностранных языков АГАУ; Оксана Анатольевна Парпура, доцент кафедры иностранных языков АГАУ Издается в редакции авторов-составителей Подписано в печать 30.11.2012 г. Формат 60х84/16. Бумага для множительных аппаратов. Печать ризографная. Гарнитура «Times New Roman». Усл.-печ. л. 3,9. Уч.-изд. л. 3,2. Тираж 50 экз. Заказ № РИО АГАУ 656049, г. Барнаул, пр. Красноармейский, 98 тел. 62-84-26
