Ab Imperio 2003 1. Российская империя окраины и границы

Ñîäåðæàíèå/Contents
òåìà ãîäà
2003
annual theme:
Ãðàíè è ãðàíèöû èìïåðèè
Imperial Borders and Liminalities
Ñîäåðæàíèå
Contents
ÐÎÑÑÈÉÑÊÀß ÈÌÏÅÐÈß:
ÎÊÐÀÈÍÛ È ÃÐÀÍÈÖÛ
RUSSIAN EMPIRE:
BORDERLANDS AND FRONTIERS
Ìåòîäîëîãèÿ è òåîðèÿ
I.
Methodology and Theory
8
Îò ðåäàêöèè Ãðàíèöû èìïåðèè: â ïîèñêàõ ïðåäåëîâ ïðèìåíèìîñòè èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ìåòàíàððàòèâîâ
9
From the Editors Probing the Limits of Historical Metanarratives:
Imperial Boundaries
17
Alfred Rieber Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers:
A Comparative Historical Approach
23
Àëüôðåä Ðèáåð Ìåíÿþùèåñÿ êîíöåïöèè è êîíñòðóêöèè “ôðîíòèðà”:
ñðàâíèòåëüíûé èñòîðè÷åñêèé ïîäõîä
Àíäðåàñ Êàïïåëåð Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI–
XVIII âåêàõ
47
Andreas Kappeler The Russian Southern and Eastern Frontiers from the
15th to the 18th Centuries
Äýâèä Ëåéòèí ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî?
65
David Laitin What is a Language Community?
Èñòîðèÿ
II.
History
98
Êëàóñ Øàðô Ïóãà÷åâ: èìïåðàòîð ìåæäó ïåðèôåðèåé è öåíòðîì. Ê ïîñòàíîâêå ïðîáëåìû
99
Claus Scharf Pugachev as Emperor between Center and Periphery: Defining
the Problematic
2
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Ìàðèíà Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå êîíêóðèðóþùèõ
íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïðîåêòîâ: ñîöèî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå ðàçëè÷èÿ ðîññèéñêîé è ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèé êàê ôàêòîð íàöèîíàëüíîé
ïîëèòèêè
113
Marina Vituhnovskaia Karelians at the Edges of Competing National Projects:
Socioeconomic Differences between Russian and Finnish Karelias as a Nationality Policy Factor
Ïàâåë Âàðíàâñêèé Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè:
“íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî” â Áóðÿòèè â 19261929 ãã. â ïðîåêòàõ íàöèîíàëüíîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè è íàöèîíàë-áîëüøåâèêîâ
149
Pavel Varnavskii The Boundaries of the Soviet Buryat Nation: “Cultural Nation-Building” in Buryatia in 1926-29 in Blueprints of National Intelligentsia and National-Bolsheviks
Âëàäèìèð Áîáðîâíèêîâ Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ (ê íîâîé èíòåðïðåòàöèè
“Ïåñíè î Õî÷áàðå”)
177
Vladimir Bobrovnikov Violence and Power in the Historical Memory of a
Muslim Borderland (Toward a New Interpretation of the “Hochbar Tale”)
Èëüÿ Ãåðàñèìî⠓Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”: ïðåñòóïíîñòü
êàê ìàðêåð ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö â Îäåññå íà÷àëà ÕÕ âåêà
(1907-1917 ãã.)
209
Ilya Gerasimov “We Only Kill Each Other”: Mapping the Inter-Ethnic Criminal Violence in Odessa, 1907-1917
Äàðèóñ Ñòàëþíàñ Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå: áåëîðóñû è ýòíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêàÿ ïîëèòèêà Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè íà Çàïàäíûõ îêðàèíàõ â ïåðèîä Âåëèêèõ Ðåôîðì
261
Darius Staliunas Borders in a Borderland: The Belarusians and the Ethnolinguistic Policy of the Russian Empire in Western Borderlands (the Era of
“Great Reforms”)
Curt Woolhiser Constructing National Identities in the PolishBelarusian Borderlands
293
Êóðò Âóëõàéçåð Êîíñòðóèðîâàíèå íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîñîçíàíèÿ â ïîëüñêîáåëîðóññêîì ïîãðàíè÷üå
Suzanne Wertheim Language Ideologies and the “Purification” of
Post-Soviet Tatar
347
Ñþçàí Âåðòõåéì ßçûêîâûå èäåîëîãèè è “î÷èùåíèå” ïîñò-ñîâåòñêîãî
òàòàðñêîãî ÿçûêà
3
Ñîäåðæàíèå/Contents
Àðõèâ
III.
Archive 370
Åëåíà Áåçâèêîííàÿ Ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî Ñòåïíîãî
êðàÿ: Îìñêàÿ îáëàñòü è ïðîáëåìà ãðàíèöû â ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì ñòðîèòåëüñòâå Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè (20 – 30-å ãã. XIX â.) 371
Elena Bezvikonnaia Geopolitical Space of the Steppe: The Omsk Region and
the Problem of Frontier in the Russian Imperial State Building (1820s1830s)
Äîêóìåíòû èç Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà Îìñêîé Îáëàñòè
379
Documents from the State Archive of Omsk Region
Ñîöèîëîãèÿ, ýòíîëîãèÿ,
ïîëèòîëîãèÿ
IV.
Sociology, Ethnology, 394
Political Science
Òàòüÿíà Ñêðûííèêîâà Ðîññèÿ â ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè áóðÿò
395
Tatiana Skrynnikova Russia in Buryats’ Identity Construction
Êèìèòàêà Ìàöóçàòî Ðóñèñòèêà ïîâåðõ ãðàíèö. Ñëàâÿíñêèå èññëåäîâàíèÿ ßïîíèè è ñîöèàëüíûå íàóêè Ðîññèè: ñîâìåñòíûå
ïîèñêè âûõîäà èç èçîëÿöèè
421
Kimitaka Matsuzato Russian Studies across Borders. Slavic Studies in Japan
and Social Sciences in Russia: A Joint Search for Breaking the Isolation
ÀÂÑ: Èññëåäîâàíèÿ èìïåðèè è V.
íàöèîíàëèçìà
ABC: Empire & Nationalism 434
Studies
Îò ðåäàêöèè
435
From the Editors
436
Stefan Troebst “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity
437
Management in the Dniester Valley
Ñòåôàí Òð¸áñò “Ìû ïðèäíåñòðîâöû!” Ïîñòñîâåòñêîå ìàíèïóëèðîâàíèå ñîöèàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòüþ â äîëèíå Äíåñòðà
Ñåðãåé Ìóñòåàöý “Ìû – ðóìûíû?” Ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè â
Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà â ïîñëåäíèå äåñÿòü ëåò
467
Sergiu Musteaþ㠓We are Rumanians?” History Teaching in the Republic of
Moldova over the Last Decade
Àíäðåé Êóøêî, Âèêòîð Òàêè “Êòî ìû?” Èñòîðèîãðàôè÷åñêèé
âûáîð: ðóìûíñêàÿ íàöèÿ èëè ìîëäàâñêàÿ ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòü 485
Andrei Cusco, Viktor Taki “Who Are We?” A Historiographic Choice between
the Rumanian Nation and Moldavian Statehood
4
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Íîâåéøèå ìèôîëîãèè
VI.
Newest Mythologies 496
Ñåðãåé Àáàøèí Àðõåîëîãèÿ ñðåäíåàçèàòñêèõ íàöèîíàëèçìîâ 497
Sergei Abashin The Archeology of Central Asian Nationalisms
Ðåöåíçèè è áèáëèîãðàôèÿ
Èñòîðèîãðàôèÿ
VII.
1.
Book Reviews
Historiography 523
Mark Baker One Man Cannot an “Eastern Europe” Make, but he
Can Certainly Try: Charles Frederick Henningsen and the Ideological Construction of Eastern Europe
523
Ìàðê Áåéêåð Îäèí ÷åëîâåê “Âîñòî÷íóþ Åâðîïó” íå ñîçäàñò, íî ìîæåò
ïîïûòàòüñÿ: ×àðëüç Ôðåäåðèê Õåííèíãñåí è èäåîëîãè÷åñêîå êîíñòðóèðîâàíèå Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïû
Ðåöåíçèè
2.
Reviews 553
Denis J. B. Shaw, Russia in the Modern World: A New Geography
(Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1999). 314 p., paperback edition. £16.99
553
Èãîðü Ìàðòûíþê
Patrick J. Geary, The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of
Europe (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002);
xii+2000 p. Index. ISBN: 0-691-09054-8 (cloth).
558
Emilian Kavalski
Alexander J. Motyl, Imperial Ends: The Decay, Collapse, and Revival of Empires (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001). 128 p.
ISBN: 0-231-12110-5 (cloth).
Paul du Quenoy
569
Claus Scharf. Katharina II, Deutschland und die Deutschen. Mainz:
von Zabern, 1996. 570 S. (Abb.; ohne Abbildungen – Mainz, 1995)
Ìàéÿ Ëàâðèíîâè÷
571
Ë. Ì. Ãàâðèëîâà. Ðóññêàÿ èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ ìûñëü è ìåäàëüåðíîå
èñêóññòâî â ýïîõó Åêàòåðèíû II. ÑÏá.: ÐÈÖ ÑÏá. Ãîñ. ãîðíîãî
èí-òà èì. Ã. Â. Ïëåõàíîâà, 2000. 256 ñ., èëë.
Àíäðåé Ñêîðîáîãàòîâ
578
5
Ñîäåðæàíèå/Contents
Koichi Inoue (Ed.), “Dear Father!”: A Collection of B. Pi³sudski’s
Letters, et alii, Ser.: Pilsudskiana de Sapporo, no. 1 (Sapporo: Slavic
Research Center, Hokkaido University, 1999), 155 p., figures, facsimiles.
Tomasz Kamusella
583
Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer (Ed.), Culture Incarnate. Native Anthropology from Russia (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995), xii, 270 pp.
(Illustr.)
Wim van Meurs
588
À. Í. Çîðèí. Ãîðîäà è ïîñàäû äîðåâîëþöèîííîãî Ïîâîëæüÿ. Èñòîðèêî-ýòíîãðàôè÷åñêîå èññëåäîâàíèå íàñåëåíèÿ è ïîñåëåí÷åñêîé
ñòðóêòóðû ãîðîäîâ ðîññèéñêîé ïðîâèíöèè âòîðîé ïîëîâèíû XVI íà÷àëà XX ââ. Êàçàíü: Èçä-âî Êàçàíñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà, 2001.
704 ñ., 376 èë.
Ñåðãåé Êîðøóíîâ
590
Israel Getzler, Nikolai Sukhanov. Chronicler of the Russian Revolution (London: Palgrave. 2002), xix, 226 p. (Illustr.)
Àëòåð Ëèòâèí,
Àëëà Ñàëüíèêîâà
593
È. Ñ. ßæáîðîâñêàÿ, À. Þ. ßáëîêîâ, Â. Ñ. Ïàðñàäàíîâà. Êàòûíñêèé ñèíäðîì â ñîâåòñêî-ïîëüñêèõ è ðîññèéñêî-ïîëüñêèõ îòíîøåíèÿõ. Ìîñêâà. ÐÎÑÑÏÝÍ, 2001. 496 ñ.
Îëüãà Âåëè÷êî,
Ìàðãàðèòà Îðëîâà
597
Íàøè àâòîðû
603
List of Contributors
606
Ab Imperio – 2002
609
Miscellaneous
622
Êíèãè íà ðåöåíçèþ / Books for Reviews
625
6
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ÎÒ ÐÅÄÀÊÖÈÈ
ÃÐÀÍÈÖÛ ÈÌÏÅÐÈÈ:
 ÏÎÈÑÊÀÕ ÏÐÅÄÅËΠÏÐÈÌÅÍÈÌÎÑÒÈ
ÈÑÒÎÐÈ×ÅÑÊÈÕ ÌÅÒÀÍÀÐÐÀÒÈÂÎÂ
Íàñòîÿùèé íîìåð îòêðûâàåò ãîäîâóþ ïðîãðàììó Ab Imperio, ïîñâÿùåííóþ èññëåäîâàíèþ ïðîáëåì “ôðîíòèðà”, ãðàíèö è ïåðåõîäíûõ
çîí. Ìû ïëàíèðóåì îáñóæäåíèå ýòîé òåìû â êîíòåêñòå òåîðèè íàöèîíàëèçìà è èñòîðèè èìïåðèè è íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé â Ðîññèè, Ñîâåòñêîì
Ñîþçå è ïîñòñîâåòñêèõ ãîñóäàðñòâàõ. Ïðåäëàãàÿ íîâóþ òåìó ãîäà, ìû
ïðîäîëæàåì ýêñïåðèìåíò, íà÷àòûé â 2002 ãîäó, êîãäà âïåðâûå ÷åòûðå
òåìàòè÷åñêèõ âûïóñêà Ab Imperio áûëè îáúåäèíåíû îäíîé ìåòàòåìîé.
 ñâîå âðåìÿ ìû ñîçíàòåëüíî ïîøëè íà ýòîò ýêñïåðèìåíò â îáëàñòè
àêàäåìè÷åñêîé æóðíàëèñòèêè, ïîñêîëüêó òåì ñàìûì äîñòèãàëàñü íàøà
ãëàâíàÿ öåëü: ñîçäàíèå íàððàòèâíîé ñòðóêòóðû äëÿ àêòèâíî ðàçâèâàþùèõñÿ èññëåäîâàíèé íàöèîíàëèçìà è èìïåðèè. Ââåäåíèå ãîäîâîé
òåìû ìîæíî ðàññìàòðèâàòü è êàê íàø ñêðîìíûé âêëàä â ïðîöåññ “âîçâðàùåíèÿ íàððàòèâà” â ñîöèàëüíûå íàóêè è èñòîðèþ. Ìû “âåðíóëèñü”
ê ñòàðîìó è íåêîãäà âëèÿòåëüíîìó â ñîöèàëüíûõ è ãóìàíèòàðíûõ íàóêàõ ãðàíä-íàððàòèâó ìîäåðíîñòè è ìîäåðíèçàöèè, íî ëèøü çàòåì,
÷òîáû êðèòè÷åñêè ïåðåîñìûñëèâ, îáíàðóæèòü â íåì íîâûå ãðàíè, â
òîì ÷èñëå è òå, êîòîðûå âîçíèêëè ïðè ïåðåñå÷åíèè îïòèêè ìîäåðíèçàöèè è ìîäåðíîñòè ñ ïðîáëåìàòèêîé íàöèîíàëèçìà è èññëåäîâàíèé
èìïåðèè.
9
Îò Ðåäàêöèè, Ãðàíèöû èìïåðèè...
Ðàçìûøëÿÿ î ñêâîçíîé òåìå 2003 ãîäà, ðåäàêòîðû æóðíàëà îáñóæäàëè ñëåäóþùèé âîïðîñ: à ìíîãî ëè ñóùåñòâóåò “ãîòîâûõ” ìåòàíàððàòèâîâ (ñîïîñòàâèìûõ ñ óíèâåðñàëüíûì è ãëîáàëüíûì “ìîäåðíèçàöèîííûì”), ê êîòîðûì ìîæíî îáðàòèòüñÿ äëÿ àêòóàëèçàöèè êîíêðåòíûõ
èññëåäîâàòåëüñêèõ ïðîáëåì? Â ýòîì ñâåòå íàø ýêñïåðèìåíò ñ ââåäåíèåì ãîäîâûõ òåì ïðèâíîñèò äîïîëíèòåëüíóþ èíòðèãó: ôîêóñèðóÿñü
íà ôðîíòèðå, ãðàíèöàõ è ïåðåõîäíûõ çîíàõ, ìû ïðèãëàøàåì àâòîðîâ è
÷èòàòåëåé Ab Imperio èçó÷èòü âîçìîæíîñòè ñîçäàíèÿ íîâûõ ìåòàíàððàòèâîâ è êîíêðåòíî, – ïðåâðàùåíèÿ îáîçíà÷åííûõ íàìè ïðîáëåìíûõ
ñôåð â ñâîåãî ðîäà ìåòàíàððàòèâ, êîíöåïòóàëüíûé ìåäèàòîð, ñïîñîáñòâóþùèé îñìûñëåííîé è êîãåðåíòíîé îðãàíèçàöèè íàó÷íûõ èññëåäîâàíèé âñåãî ñïåêòðà ÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî îïûòà è ìåíÿþùèé “òî÷êè ðàññìîòðåíèÿ” ýòîãî îïûòà.
Ïðîáëåìà, ðàçóìååòñÿ, çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî èìåííî ñ òàêèìè êîíöåïòàìè, êàê ôðîíòèð, ãðàíèöà èëè ïåðåõîäíàÿ çîíà, â ñîöèîëîãè÷åñêèõ è èñòîðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ ñâÿçûâàåòñÿ ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèå ìåòàíàððàòèâàì. Íåñêîëüêî èíîé áûëà ñóäüáà ó êîíöåïòà ãðàíèöû â ôèëîñîôñêîé è ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé òðàäèöèÿõ. Ñ âîçíèêíîâåíèåì è ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèåì â ãóìàíèòàðíûõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ íàóêàõ ñòðóêòóðàëèñòñêîé
ïàðàäèãìû, âñåãäà ñòàâèâøåé â ïðèâèëåãèðîâàííîå ïîëîæåíèå êîëëåêòèâíûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè (òàêèå, êàê êëàññ èëè íàöèÿ), â èññëåäîâàíèÿõ
÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ îáùåñòâ ñòàëà äîìèíèðîâàòü “áëî÷íàÿ” êàðòèíà ìèðà, î
êîòîðîé ïèñàë Ý. Ãåëëíåð.  ðàìêàõ ýòîé êàðòèíû ìèðà îñîáîå çíà÷åíèå ïðèîáðåòàåò ïîíÿòèå ãðàíèöû, êîòîðîå ñòàíîâèòñÿ ñèñòåìîîáðàçóþùèì. Åùå â ñîññþðîâñêîì îïðåäåëåíèè ñòðóêòóðû ïðèíöèïèàëüíûì áûëî îòíîøåíèå ìåæäó ýëåìåíòàìè, ÷òî ñòàâèëî â ïðèâèëåãèðîâàííîå ïîëîæåíèå ïîíÿòèå ðàçëè÷èÿ. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, òåîðèÿ ñèìâîëè÷åñêîé ãðàíèöû Ôðåäåðèêà Áàðòà áûëà ëîãè÷åñêèì ïðîäîëæåíèåì
ñòðóêòóðàëèñòñêîãî ïîäõîäà ê êîíöåïöèè ãðàíèöû.
Êðèòèêà ñòðóêòóðàëèñòñêèõ ìåòîäîâ è ïîâîðîò ê ïîñòñòðóêòóðàëèçìó ïîâëèÿëè íà âèäåíèå ðîëè ãðàíèöû è ïîçâîëèëè èçìåíèòü ôîêóñ èññëåäîâàíèé òàê, ÷òî öåíòðàëüíûì ñòàëî íå îïèñàíèå êðóïíûõ
îáùåñòâåííûõ åäèíèö è èäåíòè÷íîñòåé, íî îòíîøåíèå èíäèâèäóóìîâ
ê ýòèì èäåíòè÷íîñòÿì. Èííîâàöèîííàÿ ðàáîòà Ïèòåðà Ñàëèíñà1 ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàëà, ÷òî ïðîöåññû íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà â ïîãðàíè÷íûõ
ðàéîíàõ ïðîòåêàþò ïîä âîçäåéñòâèåì ìíîæåñòâà ôàêòîðîâ è ÷òî êîíPeter Sahlins. Boundaries: the Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees. Berkeley,
1989.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
öåïöèÿ ãðàíèöû êàê íåïðîíèöàåìîé ëèíèè ñ òðóäîì ïðèìåíèìà äàæå
ê òàêèì, êàçàëîñü áû, ëèíåéíûì ïðîöåññàì, êàê ôîðìèðîâàíèå ãðàíèöû ìåæäó äâóìÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêèìè íàöèÿìè. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, íà ïåðâîå
ìåñòî âûõîäÿò âîïðîñû ñîöèàëüíîé ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè è êðèñòàëëèçàöèè ïðåäñòàâëåíèé î íàöèîíàëüíîé èëè ýòíè÷åñêîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè,
ò.å. âîïðîñû àêòèâíîãî ó÷àñòèÿ èñòîðè÷åñêèõ àêòîðîâ â ïðîâåäåíèè,
êîððåêòèðîâêå è äåìîíòàæå ãðàíèö, â ñèëó ÷åãî èñòîðèÿ ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ “÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ” ãðàíèö ïåðåñòàåò áûòü ïðåäîïðåäåëåííûì èñòîðè÷åñêèì ôàêòîì, à ñàì âîïðîñ î ãðàíèöå ñòàíîâèòñÿ â öåíòð àíàëèçà,
òàê êàê â íåì âûðàæàåòñÿ ñóùíîñòü ÷åëîâå÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ïî êîíñòðóèðîâàíèþ ñîöèàëüíîãî ìèðà è ïðèäàíèþ åìó ñìûñëà.
 òî âðåìÿ êàê êðèòèêà ñòðóêòóðàëèçìà ïîñòàâèëà ïîä âîïðîñ ïðèìåíåíèå ñòðóêòóðàëèñòñêèõ âåðñèé ãðàíèöû â ïîëèòè÷åñêîé è ñîöèàëüíîé èñòîðèè, â êóëüòóðíîé èñòîðèè ýòà êðèòèêà âûëèëàñü â äåìîíòàæ ãðàíä-íàððàòèâîâ åâðîïåéñêîé ìîäåðíîñòè. Îäíèì èç âåäóùèõ
íàïðàâëåíèé òàêîãî äåìîíòàæà ÿâëÿåòñÿ èññëåäîâàíèå ïðîöåññîâ, ïîñðåäñòâîì êîòîðûõ êîíñòðóèðóåòñÿ èäåíòè÷íîñòü ñîâðåìåííîãî îáùåñòâà è ïðîâîäÿòñÿ ãðàíèöû (à òàêæå ïðèäàåòñÿ ñìûñë è ìåñòî â èåðàðõèè) áîëüøèì èñòîðè÷åñêèì ðåãèîíàì (Åâðîïà, Âîñòî÷íàÿ Åâðîïà,
Áàëêàíû). Ñèìâîëè÷åñêàÿ ãðàíèöà çäåñü ïåðåñòàåò áûòü áàðòîâñêîé
ëèíèåé ðàçäåëà, ñàìîïîðîæäàþùåéñÿ â åæåäíåâíîì îáùåíèè ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé îäíîé ñîöèàëüíîé ãðóïïû ñ ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿìè äðóãîé, êîòîðàÿ
ëó÷øå âñåãî ðåêîíñòðóèðóåòñÿ “âçãëÿäîì ñíèçó” è â ëîêàëüíîì ìàñøòàáå. Ìåíòàëüíàÿ ãåîãðàôèÿ áîëüøèõ êóëüòóðíûõ ðåãèîíîâ òåñíî ñâÿçàíà ñ âîïðîñîì âëàñòè è èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé è êóëüòóðíîé ãåãåìîíèåé,
ïðè åå àíàëèçå íåëüçÿ èçáåæàòü “âçãëÿäà ñâåðõó”. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, êîíöåïöèÿ ãðàíèöû èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ñîâðåìåííûìè èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè â ðàçíûõ, ïîðîé ïðîòèâîðå÷èâûõ çíà÷åíèÿõ. Îäíàêî ýòîò ôàêò ïîçâîëÿåò
íàäååòñÿ, ÷òî âíóòðåííÿÿ ãëóáèíà è ðàçíîñòîðîííåå ñîäåðæàíèå òåðìèíà ñäåëàþò âîçìîæíûì äèàëîã ìåæäó ðàçëè÷íûìè ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêèìè òî÷êàìè çðåíèÿ è ðàçíîîáðàçíûìè ýìïèðè÷åñêèìè èññëåäîâàíèÿìè.
Äëÿ èññëåäîâàòåëåé Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè è ÑÑÑÐ âîïðîñ î ôîðìèðîâàíèè ëèíèé ðàçäåëà ïðèîáðåòàåò îãðîìíóþ âàæíîñòü. Ýâîëþöèÿ è
ðàñïàä ýòèõ ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ îáðàçîâàíèé àêòóàëèçèðîâàëè ëèíèè ðàçäåëà â íàèáîëåå âèäèìûõ ôîðìàõ – â ôîðìå ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ãðàíèöû
è ëèíèé ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèÿ â âîîðóæåííîì êîíôëèêòå. Èìåííî ýòà ðåãèîíàëüíî-èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ îñîáåííîñòü óñëîæíÿåò, íî âìåñòå ñ òåì ìàêñèìàëüíî àêòóàëèçèðóåò êðèòè÷åñêîå îñìûñëåíèå êîíöåïöèè ãðàíèöû â
11
Îò Ðåäàêöèè, Ãðàíèöû èìïåðèè...
èññëåäîâàíèÿõ èñòîðèè Ðîññèéñêîé/ñîâåòñêîé èìïåðèè è íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà.
Ñòàòüÿ À. Ðèáåðà, îêòðûâàþùàÿ ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêóþ ðóáðèêó íîìåðà, ñòàíåò âàæíîé îòïðàâíîé òî÷êîé è èñòîðèîãðàôè÷åñêèì ïîäñïîðüåì äëÿ òåõ, êòî ñòðåìèòñÿ ñåðüåçíî ðàáîòàòü ñ êîíöåïòîì “ãðàíèöû”,
èñïîëüçóÿ âåñü åãî ïîòåíöèàë. Ñòàòüè À. Êàïïåëåðà è Ä. Ëåéòèíà, òàêæå ïîìåùåííûå â ðóáðèêå “Ìåòîäîëîãèÿ è òåîðèÿ”, ãëóáîêî, ïîäðîáíî è íîâàòîðñêè ïðåäñòàâëÿþò è îñìûñëèâàþò êîíêðåòíûå òðàêòîâêè
ãðàíèöû, îòìå÷åííûå Ðèáåðîì (ïîòåíöèàë ïðèëîæåíèÿ òåðíåðîâñêîé
êîíöåïöèè “ôðîíòèðà” ê ðîññèéñêîìó ìàòåðèàëó – ó Êàïïåëåðà, ãðàíèöû ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà – ó Ëåéòèíà).
Ìàòåðèàëû èñòîðè÷åñêîé ðóáðèêè ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò îá àêòóàëüíîñòè òðàäèöèîííîãî ïîíèìàíèÿ ãðàíèöû íàöèîíàëüíîé îáùíîñòè, ïðè÷åì â îñîáûõ óñëîâèÿ íàöèåñòîèòåëüñòâà ñîâåòñêîãî âðåìåíè ïðîáëåìà ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö òåñíî óâÿçûâàåòñÿ êàê ñ ïðîáëåìàìè êîíòðîëÿ çà ïîãðàíè÷íûìè ïðîöåññàìè ñî ñòîðîíû áîëüøåâèñòñêîãî öåíòðà,
òàê è ñî ñòðåìëåíèåì èñïîëüçîâàòü íàöèîíàëüíûå ïðîöåññû äëÿ ïðîäâèæåíèÿ êîììóíèñòè÷åñêîãî ïðîåêòà çà ïðåäåëû ÑÑÑÐ (ñì. ñòàòüþ
Ï. Âàðíàâñêîãî). Ïðîáëåìàòèçàöèÿ ãðàíèöû â êîíòåêñòå èìïåðèè ïîçâîëÿåò âçãëÿíóòü íà íåå êàê íà ïðîèçâîäíóþ îò äåéñòâèÿ äâóõ (èëè
áîëåå) ñîðåâíóþùèõñÿ ïðîåêòî⠖ íàöèîíàëüíîãî(-íûõ) è èìïåðñêîãî. Ñîðåâíîâàíèå ýòèõ ïðîåêòîâ ïðîèñõîäèò â ãðàâèòàöèîííîì ïîëå,
ñîçäàâàåìîì ñîöèàëüíîé è ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé ìîäåðíèçàöèåé. Òàêîé èññëåäîâàòåëüñêèé ïîäõîä îáúåäèíÿåò òðàäèöèîííîå ëèíåéíîå ïîíèìàíèå ãðàíèöû íàöèîíàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ ñ òðàêòîâêîé
ãðàíèöû êàê çîíû âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ðàçëè÷íûõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ ñèë (ñì. ñòàòüþ Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêîé). Èìåííî â ðóñëå ýòîé òðàêòîâêè ôðîíòèðà êàê îñîáîé ñèòóàöèè, îòêðûâàþùåé âîçìîæíîñòü äëÿ
äåéñòâèÿ ìíîæåñòâà ôàêòîðîâ (“êîëîíèàëüíîãî” àíêëàâà, ôðîíòèðíîé
ìåíòàëüíîñòè, îòñòàëîñòè ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî àïïàðàòà), è ñîçäàþòñÿ
ïðåäïîñûëêè äëÿ óíèêàëüíûõ ïðîöåññîâ ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè íàñåëåíèÿ
è ïåðåñå÷åíèÿ ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ ãðàíèö, ÷òî äåìîíñòðèðóåò èññëåäîâàíèå îäåññêîé åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè íà÷àëà
ÕÕ âåêà (ñì. ñòàòüþ È. Ãåðàñèìîâà). Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ôðîíòèð – çîíà
îòíîñèòåëüíîé ñâîáîäû â åå âçàèìîäåéñòâèè ñ èìïåðñêèì öåíòðîì êàê
âîïëîùåíèåì íîðìàòèâíîñòè – îêàçûâàåòñÿ åùå îäíèì ïëîäîòâîðíûì
ïîäõîäîì ê ïðîáëåìàòèêå ãðàíèöû â èññëåäîâàíèÿõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ è
èìïåðñêèõ ïðîåêòîâ (ñì. ñòàòüþ Ê. Øàðôà). Íàêîíåö, êàê ñâèäåòåëü12
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ñòâóþò ìàòåðèàëû íîìåðà, èçó÷åíèå ïðîöåññà êîíñòðóèðîâàíèÿ ñèìâîëè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå äèíàìè÷íî ðàçâèâàþùèõñÿ àñïåêòî⠓ïîãðàíè÷íîãî” ìåòàíàððàòèâà (Ñì. ñòàòüè Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâà, Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâîé, Ñ. Àáàøèíà, Ì. Áåéêåðà è äð.).
 ýòîé ñâÿçè îñîáî õî÷åòñÿ âûäåëèòü áëîê ìàòåðèàëîâ, â êîòîðûõ
èññëåäóåòñÿ ïðîáëåìà ÿçûêà â ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîì îáùåñòâå. Ñðåäè
ìíîæåñòâà ýëåìåíòîâ ñèìâîëè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö, âûñòðàèâàþùèõñÿ ìåæäó ãðóïïàìè ëþäåé, ÿçûêîâàÿ ãðàíèöà â îáûäåííîì îáùåíèè âûñòóïàåò êàê íàèáîëåå ÷åòêàÿ è î÷åâèäíàÿ. Ðîìàíòè÷åñêèå èäåîëîãèè íàöèîíàëèçìà, óòâåðæäàâøèåñÿ íà ïðîòÿæåíèè XIX âåêà, ñî âðåìåí Âèëüãåëüìà Ãóìáîëüäòà ñâÿçûâàëè ÿçûê, îòðàæàþùèé “äóõ” íàðîäà, ñ ñàìûìè îñíîâíûìè “åñòåñòâåííûìè” õàðàêòåðèñòèêàìè “íàöèè”.  îïðåäåëåííîì ñìûñëå ïðîäîëæåíèåì ýòîé ðîìàíòè÷åñêîé òðàäèöèè ìîæíî ñ÷èòàòü ñîâðåìåííûé ïðèíöèï íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèÿ,
êîòîðûé â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè îñíîâûâàåòñÿ íà ýòíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ õàðàêòåðèñòèêàõ ïðåòåíäóþùåé íà ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå ãðóïïû.
 ïîñëåäíèå äåñÿòèëåòèÿ â ãóìàíèòàðíûõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ íàóêàõ
âûðàáîòàëñÿ åäèíûé âçãëÿä íà ÿçûê êàê íà ñðåäñòâî êîíñòðóèðîâàíèÿ
ñîöèàëüíîé ðåàëüíîñòè, è, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, èìåííî ðåïðåçåíòàöèè –
ÿçûêîâûå ðåïðåçåíòàöèè ïðåæäå âñåãî – ñòàëè îáúåêòîì èññëåäîâàíèÿ. Ïîñëå “ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîãî ïîâîðîòà” âòîðîé ïîëîâèíû ÕÕ âåêà íå
òîëüêî àíòðîïîëîãè, íî è ñîöèîëîãè è èñòîðèêè ïðèçíàëè ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêîå ëèäåðñòâî ëèíãâèñòèêè. Ïðè ýòîì ÷àñòî çàáûâàåòñÿ, ÷òî ÿçûê
íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ îíòîëîãè÷åñêîé ïîñòîÿííîé, ÷òî îí ñàì åñòü îáúåêò è ïðîäóêò äèñêóðñîâ, ÷òî îí êîíñòðóèðóåòñÿ è èçìåíÿåòñÿ âî âðåìåíè.
Åñëè ÿçûê íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ êîíñòàíòîé è ïîäâåðæåí âëèÿíèþ, ïðèíöèïèàëüíîå çíà÷åíèå ïðèîáðåòàåò èññëåäîâàíèå äèñêóðñîâ î ÿçûêå, îòðàæàþùèõ íå òîëüêî îáùóþ ýïèñòåìîëîãè÷åñêóþ êàðòèíó ýïîõè, íî
è âïîëíå êîíêðåòíûå è îãðàíè÷åííûå ñîöèàëüíûå è ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ïðîöåññû. Ïîñëåäíèå îñîáåííî çàìåòíû â ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîì ãîñóäàðñòâå, ãäå ëþáîé äèñêóðñ î ÿçûêå ïî îïðåäåëåíèþ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêèì, îòðàæàÿ ëèáî ñòðåìëåíèå ê âîçâåäåíèþ ÿçûêîâûõ ãðàíèö, ëèáî –
ê (íàñèëüñòâåííîé) ÿçûêîâîé àññèìèëÿöèè. Îáîçíà÷åííàÿ àëüòåðíàòèâà, áåçóñëîâíî, íå èñ÷åðïûâàåò âîçìîæíûå ïîäõîäû ê èíòåðïðåòàöèè
äèñêóðñîâ î ÿçûêå.
Çàäàâøèñü âîïðîñîì î âîçìîæíîñòè ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà, ò.å. òàêîãî ñîîáùåñòâà ëþäåé, ãäå ñóùåñòâóþò óñëîâèÿ óñïåøíîé êîììóíèêàöèè äâóõ ñëó÷àéíî âçÿòûõ èíäèâèäóóìîâ, Äýéâèä Ëýéòèí îáíàðó13
Îò Ðåäàêöèè, Ãðàíèöû èìïåðèè...
æèâàåò, ÷òî ñîâðåìåííàÿ ëèíãâèñòèêà (ïîñòîëüêó, ïîñêîëüêó îíà âîîáùå èíòåðåñóåòñÿ ýòèìè âîïðîñàì) ñ åå êîíöåïöèåé ãåíåòè÷åñêîãî ðîäñòâà ÿçûêîâ íå ïðåäëàãàåò àäåêâàòíîãî èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî èíñòðóìåíòàðèÿ äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ ýôôåêòèâíîñòè ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ. È äåéñòâèòåëüíî, íàëè÷èå íà îäíîé òåððèòîðèè íåñêîëüêèõ ãðóïï, ãîâîðÿùèõ
íà ãåíåòè÷åñêè íå ñâÿçàííûõ ÿçûêàõ, âîâñå íå îçíà÷àåò, ÷òî òàêèå ñòðàíû íå ÿâëÿþòñÿ ÿçûêîâûìè ñîîáùåñòâàìè. Íàëè÷èå îáùåãî (èëè äàæå
íåñêîëüêèõ îáùèõ) ÿçûêîâ ãàðàíòèðóåò âçàèìíîå îáùåíèå ëþäåé ÷åðåç âèäèìóþ ÿçûêîâóþ ãðàíèöó, òîãäà êàê îòíîñèòåëüíàÿ áëèçîñòü ÿçûêîâ äðóã ê äðóãó åùå áîëåå îáëåã÷àåò èíòåëëèãèáåëüíóþ êîììóíèêàöèþ.
Äëÿ èññëåäîâàòåëåé ðîññèéñêîãî èìïåðñêîãî, ñîâåòñêîãî è ïîñòñîâåòñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà íåáåçðàçëè÷íî, ÷òî êîíöåïöèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà, êîòîðàÿ îñíîâûâàåòñÿ íà ïîíÿòèè âçàèìíîé èíòåëëèãèáåëüíîñòè (â ïðîòèâîâåñ ãåíåòè÷åñêîé ñâÿçè ìåæäó ÿçûêàìè) Äæîíà Ãðèíáåðãà, ïî ñâîèì ïðèíöèïàì òåñíî ñâÿçàíà ñ òåîðèåé ÿçûêîâîãî ñîþçà,
àâòîðîì êîòîðîé áûëè Í. Ñ. Òðóáåöêîé è Ð. Î. ßêîáñîí. Ñîâðåìåííûå
èññëåäîâàòåëè îòìå÷àþò, ÷òî èìåííî ßêîáñîí è Òðóáåöêîé ïðîèçâåëè
“âåëèêóþ ðåâîëþöèþ” â ëèíãâèñòèêå, ñêîíöåíòðèðîâàâøèñü íå íà ãåíåòè÷åñêèõ ñâÿçÿõ ìåæäó ÿçûêàìè, à íà ñâÿçÿõ, ïðèîáðåòåííûõ è îïðåäåëÿåìûõ ñîâìåñòíûì èñòîðè÷åñêèì îïûòîì.2 Íàïîìíèì, ÷òî òåîðèÿ ÿçûêîâûõ ñîþçîâ áûëà ÷àñòüþ ïðîåêòà ïî “ïîñìåðòíîé” ðåàáèëèòàöèè ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîé Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè. Ñòàòüÿ Ä. Ëåéòèíà â
íàñòîÿùåì íîìåðå AI óáåæäàåò, ÷òî îñîçíàíèå îòíîñèòåëüíîñòè ÿçûêîâîé ãðàíèöû ïîçâîëÿåò ëó÷øå ïîíÿòü ìåõàíèçìû ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíûõ ñîîáùåñòâ, â êîòîðûõ, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ñóùåñòâóåò âîçìîæíîñòü ìíîãîÿçû÷èÿ (ïðèíöèï äâó- èëè òðèÿçû÷èÿ
îïðåäåëåííûõ ãðóïï íàñåëåíèÿ), à ñ äðóãîé – øèðîêîå ïîëå äëÿ ìàíèïóëÿöèé ãðàíèöåé ìåæäó ÿçûêîì è äèàëåêòîì, ïðè÷åì îáà ïîíÿòèÿ
òåñíî ñâÿçàíû ñ îïðåäåëåííûìè êîíöåïöèÿìè íàöèîíàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè äîìèíàíòíûõ èëè ìèíîðèòàðíûõ ãðóïï.
Êàê äåìîíñòðèðóåò ñòàòüÿ Ä. Ñòàëþíàñà, ïðîòèâîðå÷èâûå è íåïîñëåäîâàòåëüíûå âçãëÿäû èìïåðñêèõ âëàñòåé íà áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê çà÷àñòóþ îïðåäåëÿëèñü òåì èëè èíûì ïîíèìàíèåì “ðóññêîé íàöèè”. Ñòðåìëåíèå âêëþ÷èòü â òðèåäèíóþ ðóññêóþ íàöèþ áåëîðóñîâ, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ñïîñîáñòâîâàëî îòíîñèòåëüíîé òåðïèìîñòè ê èñïîëüçîâàíèþ
Ïàòðèê Ñåðèî. Ñòðóêòóðà è öåëîñòíîñòü. Îá èíòåëëåêòóàëüíûõ èñòîêàõ
ñòðóêòóðàëèçìà â Öåíòðàëüíîé è Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïå. 1920-30-å ãã. Ì., 2001.
2
14
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà (âîñïðèíèìàåìîãî êàê “íàðå÷èå” ðóññêîãî – âåäü
íåâîçìîæíî îáðóñèòü òåõ, êòî óæå ðóññêèé), à ñ äðóãîé – âåëî ê âûòåñíåíèþ ýòîãî ÿçûêà â îáëàñòü ôîëüêëîðà, ê åãî íèçâåäåíèþ íà óðîâåíü
íåñòàíäàðòíîãî è àðõàè÷åñêîãî íàðå÷èÿ.  ðàáîòå Ê. Âóëõàéçåðà çàâèñèìîñòü ÿçûêà îò âíåëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ôàêòîðîâ ñòàíîâèòñÿ åùå áîëåå
î÷åâèäíîé: â èññëåäîâàíèè, ïîñâÿùåííîì âçàèìîñâÿçè ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè è ÿçûêîâîé äèíàìèêè, àâòîð óáåäèòåëüíî ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî êîíòèíóóì âîñòî÷íîñëàâÿíñêèõ äèàëåêòîâ â ðàéîíå ñîâðåìåííîé ïîëüñêî-áåëîðóñêîé ãðàíèöû, êîòîðûé â òå÷åíèå äîëãîãî
âðåìåíè ñóùåñòâîâàë â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ êîíôåññèîíàëüíûì äèñêîíòèíóóìîì, äåìîíñòðèðóåò ÷åðòû ïðåðûâíîñòè, âîçíèêàâøåé â ðåçóëüòàòå
äåéñòâèÿ ìîäåðíîâûõ ïðàêòèê íàöèîíàëèçàöèè ÿçûêîâ. Â òî æå âðåìÿ,
íåñìîòðÿ íà ïîëóâåêîâóþ èñòîðèþ äåéñòâèÿ ýòèõ ðàçäåëÿþùèõ ôàêòîðîâ, íîñèòåëè äèàëåêòîâ ðåàëèçóþò ñâîè ÿçûêîâûå ñòðàòåãèè, ïîçâîëÿþùèå èì ïîääåðæèâàòü ìåñòíûå ãîâîðû è îòðàæàþùèå, ïîñðåäñòâîì ñî÷åòàíèÿ ñòàíäàðòèçîâàííîãî ÿçûêà è ìåñòíîãî ãîâîðà, ñòðåìëåíèå êàê ê óäåðæàíèþ “ìåñòíîé” èäåíòè÷íîñòè, òàê è ê “ìîäåðíîñòè”, êîòîðîé õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ ñòàíäàðòèçîâàííûé ÿçûê. Íàêîíåö, â ñòàòüå Ñ. Âåðòõàéì îòðàæåí ïðîöåññ îïåðàöèè íàä ÿçûêîì, öåëüþ êîòîðîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ óâåëè÷åíèå äèñòàíöèè ìåæäó äîìèíàíòíîé ðå÷üþ, âîñïðèíèìàåìîé êàê ñðåäñòâî ãîñïîäñòâà èìïåðñêîé âëàñòè, è ÿçûêîì ìîáèëèçèðóþùåãîñÿ íàöèîíàëüíîãî ìåíüøèíñòâà.  îñîáûõ óñëîâèÿõ
ñîâåòñêîé “èìïåðèè ïîçèòèâíîãî äåéñòâèÿ” ýòî ìåíüøèíñòâî ñòàëî
òèòóëüíûì è ïîëó÷èëî íåîáõîäèìûå ðåñóðñû äëÿ ÿçûêîâîé ïîëèòèêè.
Ñ. Âåðòõàéì ïîêàçûâàåò, êàê ÿçûê ïðèîáðåòàåò ôóíêöèè ìàðêåðà êóëüòóðíîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ãðàíèöû, à åãî ôîíåòè÷åñêèå èëè ãðàììàòè÷åñêèå ýëåìåíòû ñòàíîâÿòñÿ çíàêàìè êóëüòóðíîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïîçèöèè.
Ïðåäëàãàåìûé ÷èòàòåëÿì AI áëîê “ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ” ìàòåðèàëîâ,
êàê íàì ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ, ïîçâîëÿåò âçãëÿíóòü íà ïðîáëåìó ÿçûêà, êàê
íà ëþáóþ äðóãóþ ñîöèàëüíóþ ïðîáëåìó â åå èñòîðè÷åñêîé äèíàìèêå,
è åùå ðàç ïðîáëåìàòèçèðîâàòü îäèí èç àñïåêòîâ ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ
ñèìâîëè÷åñêîé ãðàíèöû ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíûõ îáùåñòâ, â êîòîðûõ ÿçûê
èãðàåò òàêóþ âàæíóþ ðîëü.
Òðàíñôîðìàöèÿ êîíöåïòà ãðàíèöû èç ìàðãèíàëüíîãî àñïåêòà èñòîðè÷åñêèõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ èññëåäîâàíèé â íåêèé îáúåäèíÿþùèé ìåòàíàððàòèâ ïðåäïîëàãàåò èññëåäîâàíèå âñåé ãëóáèíû è ìíîãîãðàííîñòè
ýòîãî êîíöåïòà, âîçìîæíîñòè âçàèìíîãî “ïåðåâîäà” ñàìûõ ðàçíûõ ïîäõîäîâ è òðàêòîâîê â ðàìêàõ çàäàííîãî ïðîáëåìíîãî ïîëÿ. Äëÿ íàñ îñî15
Îò Ðåäàêöèè, Ãðàíèöû èìïåðèè...
áîå çíà÷åíèå èìååò è ïîòåíöèàë êîíöåïòà ãðàíèöû â åãî ïðèëîæåíèè
ê ðàçëè÷íûì àñïåêòàì íàöèîíàëèçìà, íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà è èñòîðèè
èìïåðèé. Âñå ýòî è îïðåäåëèò ñîäåðæàíèå íàøåãî ãîäîâîãî ýêñïåðèìåíòà â 2003 ãîäó.
Ðåäàêöèÿ Ab Imperio:
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ
Ñ. Ãëåáîâ
A. Êàïëóíîâñêèé
M. Ìîãèëüíåð
A. Ñåìåíîâ
16
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Alfred J. RIEBER
CHANGING CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTIONS
OF FRONTIERS:
A COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL APPROACH
From the earliest sacred boundary markers in ancient Egypt to the alleged fault lines of contemporary “civilizations” efforts to fix the outer limits of individual and collective societies and polities reflect the basic needs
for group identity, stability and security. Yet the process of demarcation
creates “the other” on the far side of the real or imaginary line that by its
very nature constitutes a potential threat. Thus boundary maintenance is an
ambiguous process.1 Moreover, in practice boundary lines whether territorial or social tend to be porous rather than impenetrable. Nomads, pilgrims,
migrants, raiders, smugglers cross from one side to the other as do converts,
émigrés, class cross overs. In order to accommodate these ambiguous and
porous elements into an understanding of the way in which human beings
seek to divide and segregate themselves it is useful to resort to the concept
of frontiers. In contrast to linear boundaries frontiers represent an intermediate zone of contact between two or more distinctive cultures or polities.
To be sure the contrast should not obscure the tension between drawing
Cf. Frederik Barth (Ed.). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. The Social Organization of
Culture Differences. Boston, 1969, who stresses the importance of boundaries in
maintaining the stability and continuity of ethic units.
1
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A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
linear boundaries and the evolution of frontiers. The concept and ecology
of frontiers has always played a crucial role in the construction of ideologies and institutional structures, in a word of the internal dimensions of the
state. The existence of boundaries and frontiers are as ancient as the state
and the history of frontiers begins as far back as Herodotus and the ancient
chroniclers of China.2 Even then frontiers acquired a symbolic meaning.
But the frontier as myth is a recent invention. It was not until the nineteenth
century that the frontier was interpreted as the defining character of a nation
or a civilization. One indication of the changing meaning of frontier in history is the evolution of the term itself.
In Europe the word “frontiers” first appears in French in the fourteenth
century to indicate a facade in architecture or a military order of battle and
only gradually came to mean the limits of state control. It passed into English and was widely used in the sixteenth century to mean a barrier against
attack. In the thirteenth century the Slavic word greniz or granitsa was applied, particularly by the Teutonic Order, to denote the area of contact between Germans and Slavs and replaced the Gothic term mark.3 In the eighteenth century scholars in France and Great Britain were obsessed with classificatory project that began with natural history but expanded to chart the
boundaries of global geography setting the stage for the great transformation of frontiers as a concept during the French Revolution.4
Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the scholarly literature gradually made the distinction clearer between boundaries and frontiers by distinguishing between a linear and a spatial concept, shifting from
place to process, and introducing symbol and mythology as new disciplines
like anthropology and most recently cultural studies interacted with geography and history. The epistemological transformation was not itself a linear progression, nor has it been uniformly accepted. The most stubborn
resistance has been mounted by the advocates of geopolitics who remained
firmly attached to the idea of frontiers as constituting a power grid even
The Chinese idea of an inner and outer zone can be traced to remote antiquity. LienSheng Yang. Historical Notes on the Chinese World Order // John K. Fairbank (Ed.).
The Chinese World Order. Cambridge, 1968. P. 21.
3
Michel Foucher. Fronts et frontieres. Un tour du monde geopolitique. New edition.
Paris, 1991. Pp. 77-9.
4
See the suggestive comments in Charles W. J. Withers. Geography, Natural History
and the Eighteenth Century Enlightenment // History Workshop Journal. 1995. No. 39.
Pp. 137-164.
2
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
when they have shown unmistakably signs of cultural or ideological origin.5
It is well over a hundred years ago that Frederick Jackson Turner published his now world famous influential essay on the frontier in American
history. The great explanatory power of his vision resided in its claim to
explain the uniqueness of American civilization.6 Paradoxically, it also
became a model for scholars seeking to adopt or refute its implications for
a whole series of different societies that shared, however, the similar feature of a moving frontier. Turner’s concept, then, still serves as the main
frame of comparative approaches to frontiers in world history. It is not
surprising, given the large number of American historians and the academic culture of methodological restlessness in the U.S. that the main
changes in conceptualizing the history of frontiers has been dominated by
revisions of Turner’s original thesis.7 As a result a triptych of Turner iconography has emerged. Flanking one side of the central panel of the traditional Turner is a different spatial concept linked to the rise and consolidation of the centralized state that developed out of the French experience
as interpreted by the Annales school. Lucien Febrve insisted, for example, that the study of frontiers could only be carried out in connection
with the nature of the state which defines the political and military sense
of the word.8
On the other side of the triptych a third panel represents the symbolic
geographies, that is the construction of imaginary borders on the basis of
normative evaluations of the “Other.” Explicitly or implicitly symbolic frontiers have been employed since ancient times to differentiate between the
civilized and the barbarian worlds. These divisions have taken many forms
The history of Russian expansion and frontiers seems to be particularly prone to this
kind of treatment. See for example, Dominic Lieven. Empire. The Russian Empire and
Its Rivals. New Haven, 2000, especially chapter 6 and John LeDonne. The Russian
Empire and the World, 1700-1917. The Geopolitics of Expansionism and Containment.
Oxford, 1997 and Milan Hauner. What is Asia to Us? Russia’s Asian Heartland Yesterday
and Today. London, 1992.
6
Frederick Jackson Turner. The Significance of the Frontier in American History //
Idem. The Frontier in American History. New York, 1920. Pp. 1-38.
7
A recent attempt to review the vast literature is Jeremy Adelman and Stephen Aron.
From Borderlands to Borders: Empires, Nation-States and the Peoples in Between in
North American History // American Historical Review. 1999. No. 3. Pp. 814-41.
8
Lucien Febvre. Frontiere: The Word and the Concept // Peter Burke (Ed.). A New
Kind of History from the Writings of Lucien Febvre. London, 1973. Pp. 208-18.
5
25
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
since then. Some of them have been dualist like Europe and Asia (or Occident and Orient) others have been triads like the three worlds of the
Cold War (the West, the Communist Bloc and the Third World). Such
symbolic frontiers have also been enlisted to make finer distinctions as
between western and eastern Europe or the Near East, Middle East and
Far East. Most of these distinctions have been made by West European
and American scholars. They have met strong resistance from those outside the magic circle or else from the new disciplinary approaches in western scholarship.
It has only been in the past half-century that anthropology sociology and
cultural studies have contributed to the widening debate over frontiers. In
the nineteen fifties the anthropologists began to engage in active field work
on the margins of sedentary and nomadic societies. Owen Lattimore, although not academically trained as an anthropologist, was a pioneer in this
approach, as was Frederik Barth whose work took a very different
direction.9 Geographers absorbed in local and regional studies felt the influence of their colleagues in cultural studies. They began to redefine space
and frontiers in terms of linguistic and social contexts.10 The so-called textual approach appealed strongly to non-European post-colonialist scholars
who coined the term “textualizing the world” meaning the mental construction of the globe and its discursive sub-divisions to fit the European
vision.11 Both sociologists and anthropologists explored ways in which ethnic identity and concepts of citizenship corresponded to the drawing of territorial boundaries.12 Finally semioticians like Iuri Lotman perceived fronOwen Lattimore. Inner Asian Frontiers. Boston, 1950; Frederik Barth. Principles of
Social Organization in Southern Kurdistan. Universitetes Ethnografiske Museum
Bulletin, Oslo 1953; see also his more general work, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries.
Boston, 1969. The work of anthropologists was later summarized in Anatoly Khazanov.
Nomads and the Outside World. Second edition. Madison Wisc., 1994 with full updated
bibliography.
10
See for example, A. Godlewka and N. Smith. Geography and Empire. Oxford, 1994
and the programmatic statement by Felix Driver and Raphael Samuel. Rethinking the
Idea of Place // History Workshop Journal. 1995. Spring. No. 39. Pp. v-viii and Martin
Lewis and Karen E. Wigen. The Myth of Continents. A Critique of Metageography.
Berkeley, 2000.
11
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies,
Dialogues. London, 1990. Pp. 1-16.
12
Rogers Brubaker. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Cambridge,
1992; Sharon Macdonald (Ed.). Inside European Identities: Ethnography in Western
Europe. Oxford and Providence, 1993.
9
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
tiers as “zones of cultural bilingualism.”13 The more adventurous historians
rapidly absorbed these insights in expanding the study of frontiers. But it
must be admitted that the first theorist of the frontiers, the American historian Frederick Jackson Turner was no stranger to what is now called the
multidisciplinary approach, although in his day the term had not yet been
invented. Nevertheless, the last decades of the twentieth century have witnessed a virtual explosion of multidisciplinary studies of frontiers. And beyond that there has been a boom in the comparative study of frontiers that
always seems in one way or another to come back to Turner, if only to
attempt to refute him.
The following attempt to design a comparative structure for the study of
frontiers is based on two criteria. First, the historiographical triptych outlined above provides a rough guide to the evolution of thinking about frontiers. Second, a parallel analysis locates the ecological and cultural factors
that shaped the three basic types of frontiers. Using both triads as points of
reference yields the following model: consolidated state frontiers; dynamic
frontiers of advancing settlements and symbolic frontiers. To be sure, features of two or even all three of these types coincide with one another. In
order to avoid overstressing uniformities and make way for diversity of
historical experiences, a variety of sub-types have also been introduced. In
all cases frontiers should be envisaged as zones as distinct from linear boundaries. At the same time, the two phenomena are often closely inter-related.
Boundaries may be embedded in frontiers to a greater or lesser degree. That
is, the political or territorial delimitation may run more or less closely to the
features of physical geography or ethno-linguistic divisions. Or by contrast
they may have little or no correspondence to either geography or culture but
rather designate the limits of military conquest.14
Ju. M. Lotman and B. A. Uspenskii. The Role of Dual Models in the Dynamics of
Russian Culture (Up to the End of the Eighteenth Century) // Ju. M. Lotman and
B. A. Uspenskii (Eds). The Semiotics of Russian Culture. Ann Arbor, Mich. 1984. Pp.
3-35.
14
A recent stimulating study indicates that “a basic distinction between frontiers which
are zones of settlement and frontiers which constitute political barriers is apparent in
most frontier historiography.” Daniel Power. Introduction // Daniel Power and Naomi
Standen (Eds). Frontiers in Question. Eurasian Borderlands, 700-1700. London, 1999.
P. 12. The present essay strays from that tradition. At the same time there can be no
disagreement about the great variety of frontiers analyzed in the nine case studies in this
book. Again by way of contrast the following scheme seeks to introduce a model of
comparison that strives to encompass some of this diversity.
13
27
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
The existence of boundary markers, fixed military emplacements and
walls designating the edge of state sovereignty long preceded the use of the
term frontier. The earliest historical evidence of boundaries expressed the
need of the state to define the limits of public authority, as in the empires of
ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt or later of private property in the Greek
city states. In both cases boundary markers were endowed with a sacred
character and their removal signified the victory of a conqueror.15 The Athenian and Roman Empires, and independently the Chinese and Sasanian
Empires introduced two additional features: the construction of walls or
defense lines and second the definition of peoples on the other side as culturally inferior, that is barbarian, perhaps the first instance of a symbolic
frontier. The attempts of the Roman, Sasanian and Chinese emperors to
establish fixed boundaries repeatedly collapsed or eroded under the pressure of migration and raiding. But in their relations with the “barbarians”
ancient empires also permitted even encouraged the development of mutually beneficial cultural and economic exchanges within a broad and ill-defined frontier zone. But the outer defenses of the three empires differed in
one vital respect. The Chinese walls delimited two very distinct cultures,
the settled agricultural population and the pastoral nomads. By contrast, in
the Roman barbarian frontier the social organization and way of life on both
sides were similar. The Sasanians faced two kinds of frontiers. To the north
they defended against the nomads, whom they regarded as barbarians, coming down from the Caucasus. To the west their enemy was the Roman and
later Byzantine Empire which they regarded as an equal.16
A revisionist view of the frontier in Chinese history has attached new
and unprecedented importance to the complex interaction between China
and Inner Asia.17 In China earthen walls were constructed from the earliest
times as a defense against outside attack from the north, but they also facilitated centralization and unification. The building of the Great Wall of China signaled the retreat of the Ming dynasty at the end of the sixteenth century from a policy of active defense of the frontiers against the steppe noFoucher. Front et frontieres. Chapter 1.
Richard N. Frye. The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians // The Cambridge
History of Iran. Vol. III. Cambridge, 1983. Pp. 141,174.
17
F. W. Mote. Imperial China, 900-1800. Cambridge, Mass. 1999. Pp. 376, 393-97, 405,
457, 559, 605-08, 844-50; 867-69, 874-75; Pamela K. Crossley. The Manchus. Oxford,
1997; Idem. A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in the Transformation of Qing
Imperial Ideology. Berkeley, 2002; Evelyn S. Rawski. The Last Emperors. A Social
History of Qing Imperial Institutions. Berkeley, 2001, especially chapters 1 and 2.
15
16
28
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
mads. The shift foreshadowed its political decline. In 1644 it was no longer
able to contain the invasion of the “barbarian” Manchus.18
Relations between the Romans and peoples on the periphery of their
empire varied greatly according to location and time. Julius Caesar was the
first Roman to build a wall between Lake Leman and the Jura, but he did
not yet employ the term “limes.” The system of walls that developed in the
imperial period especially in Britain and Tunisia were designed less to exclude and more to control the movement of people and goods. The collapse
of the empire in the west is increasingly regarded as a process of mutual
accommodation of Romans and barbarian tribes through the emergence of a
military frontier elite of the warlord type.19
Islamic state frontiers represent a transitional type between the ancient
empires and the modern European state system. The Ottoman concept of
frontiers emerged from the fusion of three traditions that shaped its selfidentification as a state: the nomadic warrior, the Islamic religious and the
Byzantine imperial. In the tenth century Turkmen tribes migrated from Central Asia into the Mesopotamian region where they converted to Islam and
occupied the contested space all along the Byzantine frontiers. By the thirteenth century there had arisen a culture of holy warriors (gazhis) with a
corresponding type on the Byzantine side (Akritai) at first composed of
Greek but increasingly replaced by Turkmen tribesmen recruited from the
other side. In this intermediate zone war and trade often alternated in a
pattern similar to that on Roman and Chinese frontiers and facilitated the
penetration and conquest of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Turks.20
Embodying the precepts of Islam, the Ottoman Turks the world into two
cultural spheres, Dar ul-Islam, the abode of Islam and the Dar ul-Harb, the
abode of war. Therein lay the justification for the expansion of the frontiers
in all directions. But this rigid duality could not be strictly maintained. The
According to Arthur Waldron, “...the origins of the ‘Great Wall of China’ of the Ming
are found not so much in ecology,or even in strategy as in politics.” Idem. The Great
Wall of China. Cambridge, 1990. Pp. 57-9.
19
C. R. Whittaker. Frontiers of the Roman Empire. A Social and Economic Study.
Baltimore, 1994. For the republican period see Stephen L. Dyson. The Creation of the
Roman Frontier. Princeton, 1985.
20
The seminal work on the frontier origins of the Ottoman state can be found in the
reprinted collected articles of Paul Wittek. La formation de l’empire ottoman. London,
1982. A review of Wittek’s critics and defenders is Colin Heywood. The Frontier in
Ottoman History: Old Ideas and New Myths // Daniel Power and Naomi Standen.
Frontiers in Question. Eurasian Borderlands, 700-1700. London, 1999. Pp. 228-50.
18
29
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
erosion of the Islamic warrior tradition eroded over the following centuries
bringing change to the concept of frontiers. The first sign was the conquest
of Constantinople in 1453 that “spelled the definitive end of the frontier
areas (the acat) as assembly plants of new political enterprises and of the
Ottoman polity as a frontier principality.”21 The second was the Treaty of
Karlowitz in 1699 ending a long war with the Habsburgs and signaling a
shift in policy away from the ever-expanding frontier justified by jihad to a
more defensive posture resting upon frontier fortresses, mediation and fixed
boundaries recognized by international treaties with Christian states. The
third was the Treaty of Kucuk-Kainardji in 1774 that established the right
of a Christian State, the Russian Empire, to make diplomatic representations on behalf of the Christian inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire thus
blurring its external and internal frontiers.22 But there were internal forces
at work as well that weakened the Ottoman defense of its frontiers once the
forward movement of its warrior had been checked. After the sixteenth century the central government was no longer able to resort to its traditional
policy of surgun, the forced migration of Turkish peasants from Anatolia to
the frontier provinces that had played such an important role in the Turkization of parts of southeastern Europe.23 For reasons specific to the reproductive cultures of the Muslim and Christian populations, the former lost ground
to the latter throughout southeastern Europe.24
The Ottoman Empire was more successful on its Islamic frontiers. It was
able to control the movement of tribal societies in the North Arabian desert,
Upper Egypt and the southern regions of North Africa.25 In other frontier
provinces like Trans-Jordan the reforming impulse of the Tanzimat in midnineteenth century provided public services, land reform and a market econCemel Kafadar. Between Two Worlds. The Construction of the Ottoman State.
Berkeley, 1995. Pp. 152.
22
E.I. Druzhinina. Kiuchuk-Kainardzhiiskii mir 1774 goda (ego podgotovka i
zakliuchenie). Moscow, 1955.The Russians took pains to make clear in an “Explanatory
Convention” to the treaty that the Ottoman Sultan did not have a similar right to protect
his co-religionists in the nominally independent Crimean Khanate annexed by the
Russians a short decade later. Gabriel (effendi) Noradoughian (Ed.). Recueil d’actes
internationaux de l’empire Ottoman. Vol. 1. Paris, 1898. Pp. 338-41.
23
Halil Inalchik. Ottoman Methods of Conquest // Studia Islamica. 1954. 2. Pp. 122-29.
24
Trojan Stoianovich. Factors in the Decline of Ottoman Society in the Balkans // Slavic
Review. 1962. December. No. 4. Pp. 630-32.
25
Ira Lapidus. Tribes and State Formation in Islamic History // Philip S. Khoury and
Joseph Kostiner. Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East. London, 1991. P. 39.
21
30
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omy that strengthened ties between the center and periphery.26 In the Caucasus Ottoman frontier policy was always more successful along the Black
Sea Coast than in the highlands of Armenia and Kurdistan. The Circassians
and Georgians were drawn into the commercial life of the Black Sea dominated by the Turks. They supplied highly valued slaves to the armies and
harems of the sultan. But once the Turks attempted to drive the Iranians out
of the highlands they encountered stiff resistance from the mountain tribes
that the Russians, much to their grief, subsequently inherited on their southern frontier.27
In the case of Iran all the ruling dynasties from the Seljuks to the end of
the Qajar had their origins in tribal confederacies on the periphery of the
country. As one leading authority put it: “tribal groups have occupied Iran”s
borders for centuries because the peripheries of state power were where the
tribal formations flourished and tribal groups endured.”28 This meant on
the one hand that Iranian frontiers were among the most ill-defined, porous
and fluctuating among the Islamic states, indeed of all Eurasia. On the other
hand there was a definite concept of “Iranshahr” that has persisted from the
fall of the Sasanian Empire until the present day.29 Like China Iran always
confronted a nomadic presence but from three directions: the northwest,
that is the Caucasus, the north, the Turkomens and the northeast, the Afghans. The expansion its frontiers depended upon the ability of certain charismatic figures like Shah Ismail, Shah Abbas and Nadir Shah to conquer the
outer lands combining military skills with universalist, Islamic claims of
the messianic Shia branch.
Aside from the tribal frontiers, there were also several religious frontiers, Shia-Sunni in the west with the Ottomans and in Central Asia with
the Uzbeks, and Islamic-Christian in the Caucasus with Georgia. Another complexity of Iran’s religious frontiers was the existence of the messianic Sufi sects among the tribes in the frontier zone. This provided an
ideological bond in frequent rebellions against the authority of a centralEugene L. Rogan. Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire, Transjordan,
1850-1921. Cambridge, 1999, especially Pp. 12-20.
27
Carl Max Kortepeter. Ottoman Imperialism during the Reformation: Europe and the
Caucasus. New York, 1972; B.A. Gardanova et al. Narody Kavkaza. Vol. II. Moscow,
1962. P. 376.
28
Lois Beck. Tribes and the State in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Iran // Khoury
and Kostiner, Tribes and State. P. 201.
29
Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet. Frontier Fictions. Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804-1946.
Princeton, 2000. Pp, 15-16.
26
31
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
ized state.30 Iran shared with China the persistent problem of frontier instability replete with frequent breakdowns leading to invasions and establishment of nomad dynasties. Like the Ottoman Empire the Iranian retreat from
the outer lands and contraction of frontiers in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries was accompanied by greater secularization of the state, and the
loss of the last vestiges of messianism. In both cases, “the psychological
impact of the abandonment of the idea of the “ever expanding frontier” of
Islam should not be underestimated.”31 Under the pressure of the west European colonial powers and the Russian Empire the frontiers of the Ottoman and Iranian Empires were redrawn and consolidated to approximate
those of a conventional nation state.
State frontiers in western Europe took shape during the transition from
feudal fragmentation to a centralized absolutist monarchy. In France which
set the pace frontiers as the limit of state power evolved from a line of
fortresses and armed encampments toward a fixed line that reflected ideological, financial and linguistic uniformities. In 1815 a precise territorial
delimitation was laid down by a scientific cartography; the French government produced the first map in the world drawn on a geodesic triangulation.
Before the surveyor’s triumph propagandists of the ancient regime and politicians of the revolution both claimed for France its “natural frontiers” first
in the form of the four rivers (Rhone, Saone, Meuse and Scheldt) and then
invoking Strabo and Caesar the quadrilateral limits of ancient Gaul, the
Rhine, Alps and the Ocean. To these frontiers enshrined in hoary tradition,
the revolutionaries added the concept of “national” frontiers which, not coincidentally, corresponded to the “natural” frontiers. They performed this
political slight of hand before it was entirely clear who or what constituted
a nation. It required another century before the administrative, customs and
Hamid Algar. Religious Forces in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Iran // Cambridge
History of Iran. Vol. VII. Cambridge, 1991. Pp. 705-31. To be sure there was a substantial
Sunni minority in Iran and some of these were particularly militant. The country always
exhibited even in Sasanian times a very great variety of religions despite the attempts
from time to time to impose a state religion. Lawrence Lockhart. The Fall of the Safavi
Dynasty and the Afghan Occupation of Persia. Cambridge, 1958. Pp. 11-12, 102.
31
Virginia H. Aksan. Locating the Ottomans among Early Modern Empires // Journal of
Early Modern History. 1999. No. 2. P. 110. For the Ottoman effort to create a modern
secular state using traditional religious motifs see Selim Deringil. The Well-Protected
Domains. Ideology and the Legitimization of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 18761909. London, 1998. For a similar effort in Iran: Ira M. Lapidus. A History of Islamic
Societies. Cambridge, 1988. Chapter 22.
30
32
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
juridical instruments were sufficiently firmly established to enforce the
claim.32 In the process the national territorial boundary took shape as much
from the activities of the local, frontier communities as by the central state.
As a result the inhabitants of frontier areas retained their special sense of
place even as they accepted their identity with the nation.33
The French or more precisely the Jacobin model that the frontiers of a
state ought to correspond to the “natural” and the “national” with one language and one culture was internationalized for France, ironically, in the
first Treaty of Vienna. But following Napoleon’s ill-fated gamble to return
to power, a vengeful Europe deprived France of its “natural” Rhine frontier,
never to be recovered. However, the ideal French-Jacobin type was widely
diffused throughout Europe (for example in the separation of Belgium from
Holland in 1832, the separation of Norway and Sweden in 1902 and with
modifications in the unification of Italy, Germany and Greece), Latin America
and, more arbitrarily imposed with the participation of the British in Africa
and the Middle East with less happy results.
If the colonial boundaries represented one misapplied sub type of the
French model, then the small states of central and southeastern Europe represented another. The prolonged existence of multicultural empires (Habsburg, Ottoman and Russian) shaped by dynastic interests delayed into the
twentieth century the shift from historic to ethno-linguistic (national) frontiers with dire consequences. By this time internal migration, colonization,
forced resettlement had created a kaleidoscope of peoples who could not be
neatly compartmentalized by drawing linear frontiers. By this time too the
French model had been redefined by the United States. President Wilson’s
published war aims, the so-called Fourteen Points, drove the concept of
national frontiers to the reductio ad absurdum of its French logic. In fact,
the French statesman Georges Clemenceau rejected his own offspring in
the name of security. So the postwar boundaries of Europe remained in
most cases frontier zones cutting through communities with utter disregard
for their ethno-linguistic unity.
Similarly, redrawing the map of southeastern Europe as the Ottoman
Empire gradually receded and finally together with the Habsburg Monarch
collapsed in war and revolution was a cartographic nightmare. From the
emergence of an autonomous Serbia and Greece in the early decades of the
A. Burguiere and J. Reval (Eds.). L’espace francais. Paris, 1989.
Peter Sahlins. Boundaries. The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees. Berkeley,
1991.
32
33
33
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
nineteenth century the results took the form of a series of unhappy compromises between the conflicting interests of the great powers and the aspiration of the subjugated peoples. The latter were striving not only for independence but also for frontiers based on historicist claims. In other words
the wars of national liberation turned out to be something more than that. In
most cases the formerly oppressed nationalities sought to emulate the structures of the very empires that had been their principled purpose to destroy.
Throughout the nineteenth century and first half of the twentieth century
claims were advanced for a Greater Serbia (and realized in the original form
of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes), Greater Croatia, Greater
Romania, Greater Hungary, Greater Bulgaria and Greater Greece, claims
that were mutually irreconcilable.
German frontiers represent another sub-type of the European state system. They exhibited features of the consolidated European state and the
dynamic, moving frontier. In the north, west and south the German frontiers
evolved along the lines of the French model. But in the vast, geographically ill-defined and ethnically mixed space of the German-Slavic encounter
the discrepancy between sovereignty and settlement remained unresolved
for a thousand years. For German statesmen, publicists and intellectuals
from the eighteenth to the mid-twentieth century the task of consolidating a
fixed state frontier with the Slavic east became a profoundly disturbing socio-psychological as well as political problem producing its share of historical myths.34
The ancient frontier problem between “Teuton and Slav” encapsulated
in the phrase “Drang nach Osten” was actually a complex process of colonization and conquest. However, it would be a mistake to portray the interaction of Germans and Slavs as one driven by a conscious, unmediated ethnic
or proto-national antagonism. Historians have recently pointed out that the
colonization of the east over a period of many centuries was not exclusively
“German” but multinational. It was more often peaceful than warlike, by
invitation rather than by right of conquest, followed by integration if not
assimilation into the local body politic.35 At the same time it is just as imA. Demandt (Ed.). Die Grenzen in der Geschichte Deutschlands. Munich, 1990.
Martin Rady. The German Settlement in Central and Eastern Europe during the High
Middle Ages // Roger Bartlett and Karen Schonwalder (Eds.). The German Lands and
Eastern Europe: Essays on the History of their Social, Cultural and Political Relations.
London, 1999. Pp. 11-47 and Karin Friedrich. Cives Patriae: ‘German’ Burghers in the
Polish -Lithuanian Commonwealth // Ibid. Pp. 48-71.
34
35
34
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
portant not to neglect the significance of the prolonged political conflict
between the east German Marks (Brandenburg and Pomerania) as well as
the Teutonic Knights in the Baltikum and the Poles over their frontier.
The supreme political propagandist of his day, Frederick II was one of
the first to promote the idea of Prussia’s eastern borders as the line between
civilization and barbarism. On the eve of the partitions he posted his scurrilously satirical poem on Poland to Voltaire; the Poles, he quipped, were “the
last people in Europe.”36 To be sure, ever since the Counter-Reformation
the Poles had been busy inventing their own frontier of civilization to the
East against the barbarous Russians, a myth that gained strength after the
partitions.37
Throughout the nineteenth century the drawing of real and imaginary
frontiers to the East was a sub-theme in a set of larger concerns of Germans
who were seeking to define their cultural identity and construct a unified
state. Was the goal to create a national state in the French (Jacobin) model
or by incorporating other nationalities (Poles and Danes) a multinational
empire? It became clear at the Frankfort Assembly in 1848 that the former
alternative was not, in fact possible, because a Kleindeutsch solution would
leave too many Germans outside and the Grossdeutsch solution would bring
too many non-Germans within the “nation-state.”38 Thus did the consequences of the Drang nach Osten haunt the Germans for another hundred
years.
Although the eastern territorial boundary of Prussia-Germany did not
change during the tumultuous years of German unification and throughout
the duration of the Kaiserreich, a vocal minority within the German political and cultural elite expressed mounting concern over the threat of deCited in Larry Wolfe. Inventing Eastern Europe. The Map of Civilization on the Mind
of the Enlightenment. Stanford, 1994. Pp. 265-66. Frederick inaugurated a tradition in
German of denigrating the Poles and Ostjuden as a rather inferior breed of humans. See:
Ibid. Pp. 186-89, 307, 335, 340-41.
37
Among the most influential purveyors of this myth were three great Polish poets,
Adam Mieckiewicz, Juljusz Slowacki and Zygmunt Krasinski and the romantic historian
Joachim Lelewel who claimed that the Slavic principles of freedom (wolnosc) and
citizenship (obywatelstwo) were most fully developed under the Poles. Manfred Kridl.
A Survey of Polish Literature. New York and The Hague, 1956. Chapter 8; and Joan S.
Skurnowicz. Romantic Nationalism and Liberalism: Joachim Lelewel and the Polish
National Idea. New York, 1981. Especially chapter 7.
38
Roy Pascal. The Frankfort Parliament and the ‘Drang nach Osten’ // Journal of Modern
History. 1946. XVII. Pp. 108-122.
36
35
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
Germanization of the frontier provinces. Demographic trends were against
them. Their fears were reflected in a rising trajectory of anti-Jewish and
anti-Polish assimilationist legislation right down to 1914.39
The First World War opened a new, radical phase in the definition of the
eastern frontiers of Germany. The most consistent and universally held of
all the war aims debated in Germany throughout the conflict was the acquisition of a Polish territorial strip and the expulsion of its Polish population.40 German opinion was split over how far and in which form to expand
the frontiers in the East.41 But the most grandiose aims belonged to the
army, in particular to Fieldmarshall Eric Ludendorff whose plans for a military utopia in the “Warland” prefigured Hitler’s policy of Lebensraum.42
Germany’s fears of being engulfed in a “Slavic flood” from beyond the
frontiers was a self-fulfilling prophecy realized in 1945 when a thousand
years of Drang nach Osten were obliterated. Germany’s eastern boundaries
were finally set to rest. They had come into line with the French model. But
for the following half century there remained the larger questions of where
were the symbolic frontiers of Europe and whether the “barbarians” were
still at the gates.
The dynamic frontier may be characterized as an advancing line of settlements engaged primarily in agricultural or mixed economy confronting a
nomadic and/or technologically less developed culture. In the modern period three sub-types may be taken as examples: the United States, the former
British dominions and the Imperial Russian and Chinese Empires. The U.S.
was the only former British colony where, once it had achieved independence, the frontier experience became both a national myth and a dominant
theme in the national historiography. In the other former British dominions
geographical and political factors placed the idea of the frontier in a different context. The continental expansion of Russia and China differed from
both the “Anglo-Saxon” sub-types in two important ways. They tended to
assimilate or tolerate the conquered peoples and their cultures rather than
expel or destroy them as in the case of the U.S., Canada, Australia and New
W.W. Hagen. Germans, Poles and Jews: The Nationality Conflict in the Prussian East,
1772-1914. Chicago, 1980 and R. Blanke. Prussian Poland in the German Empire, 18711900. Boulder, 1981.
40
Immanuel Geiss. Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914-1918. Lubeck/Hamburg, 1960.
41
The most comprehensive work remains Fritz Fischer. Germany’s Aims in the First
World War. London, 1967.
42
Vejas Liulevicius. Warland on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity and German
Occupation in World War. Vol. I. Cambridge, 2000.
39
36
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Zealand. (South Africa was a special case to be discussed below); and they
were forced to compete with other major powers, including one another, for
the contested space on their expanding frontiers.
In the U.S. neither the revisionist historians nor the comparativists dealing with international dimensions have been able to free themselves entirely from the Turnerian concept of the frontier even as they demolished its
tenets one by one. What Turner did was to establish the frontier as a historical problem and to interpret it as the way of defining what it meant to be an
American. The complexity of his approach guaranteed its longevity even as
a foil. He combined elements of economic geography, social structure and
ideology even though he was not always clear or consistent in drawing the
relationship among them. His brilliant essays added up to something less
than a full blown theory and left the way open for multiple interpretation,
extensive revision and critical refutation. Like many great themes in historiography its importance lies more in the literature it generated than in its
original propositions. The debate over his legacy took place in two arenas:
the national (American) and the comparative (global).
In American historiography the revisions and reformulations of the Turner
thesis radiate around two conceptual poles: new methodologies, particularly anthropology and environmental studies, and fresh interpretive perspectives reflecting the shifting concerns of a restless society in search of itself.
At present, the task of charting the currents of the debate has itself become
a minor cottage industry.43 Turner’s frontier as an advancing line of settlement has given way, in the work of the regionalists, to a multiplicity of
locations. But Turner’s tendency to conflate the frontier as a line and “the
Great West” as a region continues to be a source of confusion. There has
also been a trend in American historiography away from spatial to cultural
definitions of the frontier, although Turner himself made room for both place
and process in his own work.
Turner’s concept of the frontier as dividing “savagery from civilization”
or alternatively as a forward movement into “empty lands” has yielded,
under the influence of anthropologists, to the idea of the frontier as a zone
of interaction involving two or more previously distinct societies which
engaged in a variety of cultural and commercial “frontier exchanges” between Native Americans and colonists or settlers. Turner’s vision of the
West as an environment that bred rugged individualism and privileged selfThe most comprehensive review of the literature is G. D. Nash. Creating the West:
Historical Interpretations, 1880-1990. Albuquerque, 1991.
43
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A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
reliance also encountered criticism from historians and sociologists who
gave equal prominence to social collectivities. More recently the critics have
uncovered a darker side of the frontiersman in the legacy of a gun culture
and the persistent cult of violence.44
Environmentalist historians exploded Turner’s arcadian picture of natural harmony on the frontier by exposing the depredations, manipulations
and “species shifting” impact of the western advance.45 Turner’s insistence
on the defining role of the frontier experience in building American democratic institutions failed to account for the contributions of urban life and
the antecedent values that the pioneers brought with them from the eastern
seaboard or Europe. At one end of the historiographical spectrum Turner’s
thesis lies in ruins, and some historians even go so far as to reject or excoriate the term “frontier.” At the other end, attempts have been made to synthesize the newer ideas on race, class and gender and region in order to
rescue once again the place of the frontier in American history. But a multicultural interpretation of the frontier requires a radical reversal of the original myth. Not only does the advancing frontier signify the virtual extermination of the Native American population but it takes on a plurality of meanings for other ethnic groups. Their frontiers are formed and advance after
the official closing of the frontier in 1892 that cause Turner to bemoan the
loss of what he regarded as a unique part of American life. In the twentieth
century the territorial and social mobility of the Hispanic-, Afro- and AsianAmericans in the twentieth century constituted for them just as formative
an experience as the pioneers of the nineteenth century.46
At the same time that new ethnic frontiers were being discovered and
invented the Turner thesis found a fresh field for development and exploitation in the realm of mass culture. The commercialization of American history found the perfect vehicle in the myth of the frontier. The adaptation of
frontier images by different forms of popular culture has penetrated the
world of mass entertainment, advertising and journalism. The “Western”
film as a genre enjoys enduring popularity because it is able to incorporate
changes in social values while retaining the centrality of the myth. New
social and environmental concerns have left deep marks on the Turnerian
Hugh D. Graham and Ted R. Gurr. Violence in America: Historical and Comparative
Perspectives. Washington, 1969.
45
William Cronon, G. Miles, and J. Gitlin. Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America’s
Western Past. New York, 1992.
46
Ronald Takaki. A Different Mirror. A History of Multicultural America. Boston, 1993.
44
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stereotypes of the Old West. In films and television the heroic cowboy in the
white hat, the intrepid pioneer fighting off the Indians, the U.S. cavalry riding
to the rescue at the last moment have become more ambiguous figures. Black
cowboys and troopers, environmentally sensitive Native Americans and even
women gun-slingers have challenged the dominant white male image. He
survives only as the Marlboro man making his last stand on American billboards for a product that must advertise its harmfulness to health.
An analysis of other examples of dynamic, advancing frontiers cannot
proceed without reference to the comparative approach largely inspired by
if not always in agreement with the Turner thesis and its revisions. His
influence has been felt most keenly in the historiographies of the former
dominions of the British Empire, the Russian and Chinese Empires. In one
of the more successful modifications and extensions of the Turner thesis a
group of historians from North America and South Africa produced a welldesigned comparative analysis of their respective frontiers.
The North American-South African comparison sought to achieve theoretical clarity and consistency by establishing a universal definition rather
than adopting the American experience or Turner’s version of it even though
his inspiration remained clear. There were three essential elements in their
structural frame: first the geographical-territorial with “frontier” considered as zone rather than a line with different “carrying capacities, attractiveness and resources”; second, the cultural seen through the interpenetration
between two previously distinct societies, one indigenous and the other intrusive; and third, the operational, that is the process of opening the frontier
dated by the arrival of representatives of the intrusive society and closing
the frontier dated by the establishment of a single political hegemony through
either extermination (Tasmania), expulsion (Trans Mississippi), subjugation (South Africa) or incorporation (Brazil). Closing the frontier was a
more complex stage because it was variable and potentially reversible. as it
indeed proved to be in South Africa. Moving from the universal model to
the specific, the comparison of North America and South Africa revealed
more differences than similarities although the white communities in both
places mythologized the frontier experience as formative in to their national identity. Before the recent reversal of apartheid in South Africa the critical difference appeared to be the different relationship of the indigenous
people in the U.S. and South Africa to capitalism.47
Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (Eds.). The Frontier in History. North America
and Southern Africa Compared. New Haven, 1981.
47
39
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
Comparative studies with Turnerian overtones of the frontier experience
in Canada, Australia and New Zealand suggest that despite superficial similarities with the U.S. different topographies and the prolonged tutorship of
the metropolitan center in Great Britain prevented the rise of a frontier
exceptionalism.48 In Canada there were close parallels between the ecology
of the farming frontier in Ontario and Saskatchewan and the states of North
Dakota and Montana. But its expansion to the west was delayed by the
physical barrier of the Canadian Shield. When it came it was promoted by
Royal Governors who established a national police (the Royal Mounties)
before mass immigration and who negotiated settlements with the Blackfoot tribes thus heading off the local violence and large-scale wars between
whites and Native Americans that marred the history of the western U.S.
To an even greater extent the geography of Australia, dominated by a
vast arid region in the center that created “a hinterland but no heartland”,
relegated the bulk of the populations to the cities on the east and south
coast. At the same time, royal land policy did not favor the small farmer in
competition with the large sheep ranches. Still, even here there are a few
regional similarities between the semi-arid fringes of Victoria province and
California. And Australia also had its frontier folk hero in the form of a
bushranger. Together with outlaws of the Old West he won a role in sentimental songs and ballads; “by taking to the bush the convict left England
and entered Australia.”49
The Northwest Frontier of India was the only zone of encounter between the British colonial expansion and a semi-nomadic population where
the odds were rated even. In its general features this was a military frontier that more resembled those of the great ancient empires of Rome, Iran
and China where a persistent threat to security existed over long periods.
The British inherited the frontier problem from their predecessors the
Moghuls who, like the founders of several Iranian and Chinese dynasties.
were originally “eastern barbarians” before they arrived to settle in the
fertile river valleys of India. Although the Northwest Frontier could hardMarvin W. Mikesell. Comparative Studies in Frontier History // Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 1960. No. 50; who reviews the few attempts to apply
Turner’s thesis to Canada and Australia. W. Nugent. Comparing Wests and Frontiers //
C.A. Milner et al (Eds.). Oxford History of the American West. Oxford, 1994 emphasizes the differences.
49
Robert Hughes. The Fatal Shore, A History of the Transportation of Convicts to
Australia, 1787-1868. London, 1987. P. 243.
48
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ly be said to have dominated British colonial policies, there was a constant tension between the proponents of a forward policy into Afghanistan in order to anchor the frontier on the Hindu Kush and the advocates
of “masterly inactivity.” The British crossed the Afghan frontier in force
three times between the 1940s and 1918 without settling much of anything.50 On a larger geopolitical scale the Northwest Frontier was one of
the most celebrated arenas of the “Great Game” as the British called their
rivalry with the Russians in Central Asia.51 It was a classic military frontier exhibiting sporadic warfare, trade, smuggling, the uncontrolled movement of peoples and it gave rise to a mythology of its own. In “Barrack
Room Ballads” and the novel Kim Kipling created an immortal gallery of
heroes and villains on both sides of the frontier.52 Today the Northwest
Frontier between Afghanistan and Pakistan has lost nothing of its character except its glamour.
The long, porous and shifting frontiers of Imperial Russian and Chinese
empires have also attracted comparativists who have employed Turner’s these
and its revisions as a point of departure in their analysis.53 However, even
before Turner the nineteenth century Russian historians S. M. Solov’ev and
V. O. Kliuchevskii followed in the early twentieth century by M. K. Liubavskii
stressed the central role of colonization and frontiers in shaping the history
W. K. Fraser-Tytler. Afghanistan. A Study of Political Developments in Central Asia.
London, 1950.
51
David Gillard. The Struggle for Asia, 1828-1914. A Study in British and Russian
Imperialism. London, 1977; “The Great Game in Asia,” (special issue of The International
History Review. 1980. April. No. 2); N. S. Kiniapina, M. M. Bliev, V. V. Degoev. Kavkaz
i Sredniaia Aziia vo vneshnei politike Rossii. Moscow, 1984. Part 3.
52
Much of Kipling’s early work has been misconstrued in popular and journalistic
accounts. See for example, his cruelly ironic treatment of an alleged Russian threat in
“The Ballad of the King’s Jest” or “The Ballad of East and West”, of which only one
line is ever quoted, where he celebrates the moment the colonel’s son and the border
thief do meet in a characteristic frontier encounter: “But there is neither East nor West,
Border nor Breed, nor Birth When two strong men stand face to face, though they come
from the ends of the earth.”
53
An early example was Donald W. Treadgold. Russian Expansion in the Light of Turner’s
Study of the American Frontier // Agricultural History. 1952. No. 26. Pp.147-52, a literal
application that ignored the revisionist literature and Judith Pallot and Denis J.B. Shaw.
Landscape and Settlement in Romanov Russia, 1613-1917. Oxford, 1990 both of which
have led Boris Mironov’s to similar conclusions that “American and Russian frontiers
underwent the same developmental stages” although he allows for difference in timing and
scale. Boris N. Mironov with Ben Ekloff, A Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700-1917.
Vol. I. Boulder,Colo., 1999. Pp. 29-31.
50
41
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
of their own country.54 By contrast, though, their interpretations emphasized
the negative effects: the draining of resources from the center, the unfavorable conditions of climate and soil, the threat of nomadic incursion. Historians in the early Soviet period added to this sober list the exploitation of
conquered people, exemplified by M. N. Pokrovskii’s well-known image of
the empire as a “prison of nations.” A strong reversal set in only after World
War II when the new state school of Soviet historians extolled the peasant
colonizer as a heroic figure and employed the specialized term sblizhenie to
signify the civilizing mission of the Russian people.55 A third turn has been
taken only recently by the emerging regional (Siberian) school of historians
who, in readjusting their focus to the specific features and values of societies on the periphery at odds with those of the center have nonetheless also
acknowledged a debt to Turner.56
Since the nineteen eighties a new generation of American specialists in
Russian colonization have been incorporating fresh insights borrowed in
part from revisionist American historians of the Western U.S. and in part
from anthropology and cultural studies while mostly avoiding direct comparisons with the American experience. The emphasis has shifted from conquest and resistance on the frontier to cultural interaction, an interrogation
of geographical visions, multiple locus and images of frontier utopias.57
Mark Bassin. Turner, Solov’ev and the ‘Frontier Hypothesis’: The Nationalist
Significance of Open Spaces // Journal of Modern History. 1993. No. 3. Pp. 473-511;
M.K. Liubavskii. Obzor istorii russkoi kolonizatsii. Moscow, 1996 substantially revises
the Solov’ev-Kliuchevskii schema.
55
Lowell Tillett. The Great Friendship: Soviet Historians and the Non-Russian
Nationalities. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1969.
56
See for example, N. Iu. Zamiatina. Zona osvoeniia (frontir) i ee obraz v amerikanskoi i
russkoi kul’turakh // Obshchestvenye nauki i sovremennost’. 1999. No. 5. S. 75-88. For
regional perspectives see A. V. Remnev and P. I. Savel’ev. Aktualnye problemy izucheniia regional’nykh protsessov v imperskoi Rossii (Vmesto vvedeniia) // P. I. Savel’ev (Ed.).
Imperskii stroi Rossii v regional’nom izmerenii (XIX-nachalo XX veka). Sbornik nauchnykh statei. Moscow, 1997. Ss. 5-18 and other essays in this collection.
57
The literature has been expanding exponentially. Daniel R. Brower and Edward Lazzerini.
The Russian Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1750-1917. Bloomington, 1997;
Thomas M. Barrett. At the Edge of Empire: The Terek Cossacks and the North Caucasus
Frontier. Boulder Colo. 1999; Mark Bassin. Imperial Visions: Nationalist Imagination
and Geographical Expansion in the Russian Far East, 1840-1865. Cambridge, 1999; Willard Sunderland. Peasant Pioneering: Russian Settlers Describe Colonization and the Eastern Frontier, 1880s-1910 // Jahrbucher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 2001. No. 2. S. 895922; Michael Khodarkovsky. Russia’s Steppe Frontier. The Making of a Colonial Empire,
1500-1800. Bloomington, 2002; Nicholas Breyfogle, Abby Schrader, Willard Sunderland
(Eds.). Peopling the Periphery: Russian Settlers in Eurasia. Forthcoming.
54
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
From these studies it is clear that Russia’s frontiers exhibited a variety of
elements in different combinations that changed over periods of time. Andreas Kappeler in this volume has provided a useful functional sub-category of Russian frontiers: military, extractive and settlement.58 In certain regions state-sponsored systematic advance of frontiers as into the western
borderlands preceded the spontaneous movement of peoples; in other areas
like Siberia the reverse was true. To the south there was a combination of
both. In areas like the Caucasus and Central Asia peasant colonists from the
center played a minor role in comparison with the Cossacks and the army.
The Caucasus frontier became enshrined in a heroic mythology that embraced figures on both sides.59 There was nothing romantic about the Russian frontier with the Poles. The multiplicity and cultural variety of frontier
encounters had a profound affect on imperial institutions and the peculiar
formation of a Russian national consciousness. In the nineteenth century
Russian nationalistic publicists began to draw a series of inner frontiers in
order to designate the truly Russian lands (that included the old Muscovy
core, Belarus and the left bank Ukraine) from the rest of the empire.60 One
of the most remarkable ideological reversals of the early Bolsheviks was to
turn away from a revolution without frontiers to one that settled for the
approximate boundaries of the old empire.
On the Chinese side, the pioneering figure in frontier studies was Owen
Lattimore. His earliest work combined the keen first hand observations of a
linguistically gifted, experienced traveler with historical and anthropological perspectives.61 Studded with comparative insights (the Roman Empire,
the American West and the Northwest Frontier Province) its central thesis
was to establish that frontiers as distinct from boundaries were the margins
of socio-economic systems defined by their “optimal limit of growth.” While
admitting that Turner was an acute observer, Lattimore added: “what he
saw so clearly he saw standing on his head. In large measure, when he
thought he saw what the frontier had done to society, he was really seeing
what society did to the frontier.”62
Andreas Kappeler’s artcile published in this issue.
Susan Layton. Russian Literature and Empire. The Conquest of the Caucasus from
Pushkin to Tolstoy. Cambridge, 1994.
60
Alexei Miller. Imagined Geography of the Russian National Territory in the Russian
Empire / Paper to be delivered at the conference on Empires, Moscow, June 2003.
61
Owen Lattimore. Inner Asian Frontiers. Boston, 1940.
62
Owen Lattimore. The Frontier in History // Studies in Frontier History. Collected
Papers, 1928-1958. New York, 1962. P. 490.
58
59
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A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
The advance of Chinese settlements into the frontier regions like Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and the northwest (Manchuria) was a relatively late
phenomenon. Up until the mid to late nineteenth century the Qing (Manchu) dynasty was determined to preserve the frontier warrior traditions of
their homeland and that of their allies the Mongols. But their attempt to
prevent their tribal lands from being swamped by Chinese (Han) slowed
but could not check the migratory pressure from the south. The small convict population was swelled by woodsmen, goldminers, ginseng diggers,
pearl fishers, brigands and finally illegal peasant settlers. By the early twentieth century the Chinese greatly outnumbered the Manchus.63 A similar
change was taking place in Inner Mongolia. In both frontier regions the
“New Administration” of the post-Boxer Rebellion era sought to protect
the border against foreign, mainly Russian intervention by developing the
economy and opening grazing lands to Chinese settlement.64 In Xinjiang a
small minority of Chinese concentrated in the cities was able to rule the
province by playing off the other ethnic groups against one another.65 But
the sinicization of the three frontier provinces occurred against a backdrop
of decline in the power of the central government. With the collapse of the
dynasty in 1911 the local warlords promoted autonomy in the frontier provinces. Deprived of its northern buffer China was vulnerable to the interventions of Japan and the Soviet Union losing Manchuria to the former
and Outer Mongolia to the latter. In the late twentieth century Beijing has
pursued sinicization of Manchuria, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang with systematic intensity.
To return to the problem of boundary maintenance as an ambiguous process, it should be clear from this survey, however brief and sketchy, that
throughout history attempts by states to ensure stability and security by
drawing boundary lines, erecting barriers, building walls and stigmatizing
“the other” beyond the pale of civilization has produced mixed, on balance
probably negative results. Even boundaries along “natural “ frontiers like
the Rhine, the Alps or the Gobi Desert have created frontier zones where
Robert H. G. Lee. The Manchurian Frontier in Ch’ing History. Cambridge, Mass.
1970. Especially chapter 5.
64
Mei-hua Lan. China’s ‘New Administration’ in Mongolia // Stephen Kotkin and Bruce
A. Elleman (Eds.). Mongolia in the Twentieth Century. Landlocked Cosmopolitan.
Armonk, 2000. Pp. 39-45. The policy was more strongly resisted and much less successful
in Outer Mongolia.
65
Owen Lattimore. Chinese Turkestan // Studies in Frontier History. Pp. 186-91.
63
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
people, goods and ideas whether permitted or not cross over the line. Frontiers, frontiers men and women are celebrated, not surveyors. Attempts to
keep out “the barbarians” have achieved only temporary results. Definitions of the barbarians have also failed to stand up especially when the
barbarians inherit the state. Other symbolic geographies have had their
moment of stigmatizing peoples, regions and continents. But most of these
have come under such fierce attack in recent times that a reverse process of
stigmatizing the stigmatizers has become fashionable.
The great hope of the white West in the 19th century to demarcate the
world began to fade almost as soon as it triumph was celebrated at Versailles. A century of revolution, war and de-colonization and mass migration has overthrown boundaries everywhere and created new more dangerous frontiers within and around failed empires and failed states. It would
seem at first glance that Europe is the exception. By dismantling internal
boundaries it has sought greater stability and security. But ironically, at the
same time its outer frontiers have become more ill-defined and porous, raising fresh fears of “barbarians” within the gates. Frontiers will continue to
exercise their fascination as a place of cultural interaction, a process of social
change and a symbol of challenge to human aspirations. The question remains open whether the place, process and symbol will become for those
who inhabit and interpret them sites of peaceful exchange or violent conflict.
SUMMARY
 ñòàòüå “Ìåíÿÿ êîíöåïöèè è êîíñòðóêöèè ôðîíòèðîâ: îïûò ñðàâíèòåëüíîãî èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ïîäõîäà” À. Ðèáåð ïðîñëåæèâàåò èñòîðèþ
êîíöåïöèè ôðîíòèðà, óäåëÿÿ îñîáîå âíèìàíèå èñïîëüçîâàíèþ äàííîé
êîíöåïöèè â èñòîðè÷åñêîì èçó÷åíèè èìïåðñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà (îñîáåííî èìïåðñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà Åâðàçèè). Ðàññìàòðèâàÿ ðàííèå çíà÷åíèÿ ôðîíòèðà êàê ðàçäåëèòåëüíîé ëèíèè, àâòîð îáðàùàåòñÿ ê êîíöåïöèè Ò¸ðíåðà, çàëîæèâøåãî îñíîâû ñîâðåìåííîé òåîðèè ãðàíèöû,
à òàêæå ê ìíîãî÷èñëåííûì ðåâèçèÿì òåîðèè Ò¸ðíåðà (êàê èñòîðè÷åñêîãî, òàê è òåîðåòè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà). Îñíîâûâàÿñü íà øèðîêîì èñòîðèîãðàôè÷åñêîì àíàëèçå (àâòîð ïðèâëåêàåò ðàáîòû êàê ïî èñòîðèè
äðåâíåãî ìèðà, òàê è ïî íîâåéøåé èñòîðèè, îõâàòûâàþùèå ðàçíûå ðåãèîíû), Ðèáåð âûäåëÿåò òðè áàçîâûõ èñòîðè÷åñêèõ è àíàëèòè÷åñêèõ
45
A. J. Rieber, Changing Concepts and Constructions of Frontiers...
ïîäõîäà ê ïîíèìàíèþ ãðàíèöû. Ïåðâîå èç íèõ – òåððèòîðèàëüíàÿ ãðàíèöà – ïîíÿòèå, îôîðìèâøååñÿ ñ ðîñòîì öåíòðàëèçîâàííûõ ãîñóäàðñòâ
è îïðåäåëÿþùååñÿ ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ïîëèòèêîé. Èñòîðè÷åñêè äàííûé
òèï ãðàíèöû ïðåäñòàâëåí ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé è/èëè âîåííîé ãðàíèöåé,
êîòîðûå, êàê ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò ôðàíöóçñêèé èñòîðè÷åñêèé îïûò, îêàæóòñÿ òåñíî ñâÿçàííûìè ñ òåððèòîðèàëüíûì èçìåðåíèåì íàöèîíàëüíîãî òåëà. Âòîðîå çíà÷åíèå êîíöåïòà ãðàíèöû áûëî àðòèêóëèðîâàíî â
ðàáîòàõ ñîöèàëüíûõ èñòîðèêîâ è àíòðîïîëîãîâ. Ýòî ãðàíèöà ñîöèàëüíûõ, êóëüòóðíûõ è ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ óêëàäîâ, êîòîðàÿ, ñîõðàíÿÿ ñâîå
ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîå è òåððèòîðèàëüíîå èçìåðåíèå, àêöåíòèðóåò ñóáúåêòèâíóþ “÷åëîâå÷åñêóþ” êîìïîíåíòó âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ è îòãðàíè÷åíèÿ. Òðåòüå çíà÷åíèå êîíöåïòà ãðàíèöû – ñèìâîëè÷åñêàÿ ãðàíèöà â ìåíòàëüíîé ãåîãðàôèè, êîòîðàÿ àðòèêóëèðóåòñÿ è ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â îïðåäåëåíèè
áîëüøèõ ñèìâîëè÷åñêèõ ðåãèîíîâ, òàêèõ êàê “Åâðîïà” èëè “Âîñòî÷íàÿ Åâðîïà”. Îñíîâûâàÿñü íà ðàçðàáîòàííîé òèïîëîãèè, àâòîð ïðåäëàãàåò êîìïàðàòèâíóþ êàðòèíó ôåíîìåíà ãðàíèöû â èñòîðèè, âûäåëÿÿ
èñòîðè÷åñêè ñëîæèâøèåñÿ òèïû ãðàíèöû, ñôîðìèðîâàííûå ïîä âîçäåéñòâèåì ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî, êóëüòóðíîãî è ýêîëîãè÷åñêîãî ôàêòîðîâ.
46
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Àíäðåàñ ÊÀÏÏÅËÅÐ
ÞÆÍÛÉ È ÂÎÑÒÎ×ÍÛÉ ÔÐÎÍÒÈÐ ÐÎÑÑÈÈ
 XVI – XVIII ÂÅÊÀÕ*
Ýêñïàíñèÿ Ðîññèè íà âîñòîê è þã â XVI – XVIII ââ. áûëà âàæíûì
ýòàïîì ñòàíîâëåíèÿ èìïåðèè, à îäíîé èç åå öåíòðàëüíûõ ïðîáëåì ñòàëà ïðîáëåìà ïîñòåïåííîãî ðàñøèðåíèÿ åâðàçèéñêèõ ãðàíèö. Êàêèå
îáðàçöû ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî, ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî è êóëüòóðíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ
è êàêèå ñïåöèôè÷åñêèå ñîöèîêóëüòóðíûå îðãàíèçàöèîííûå ôîðìû
âîçíèêàëè íà ýòèõ ãðàíèöàõ? Â êàêîé ñòåïåíè êîíöåïò ôðîíòèðà ïîìîãàåò ïîíÿòü óñòðîéñòâî öàðñêîé èìïåðèè? Âîçìîæíî ëè ñðàâíåíèå
ðîññèéñêîãî ôðîíòèðà ñ ïîäîáíûìè ôåíîìåíàìè, íàïðèìåð ñ ãðàíèöåé ìåæäó Âåíãðèåé/Ãàáñáóðãñêîé ìîíàðõèåé è Îñìàíñêîé èìïåðèåé
èëè ñ õðèñòèàíñêî-èñëàìñêîé ãðàíèöåé â Èñïàíèè?1 Íàñêîëüêî ñîâìåñòèì îïûò ðîññèéñêîãî ôðîíòèðà ñ èñòîðèåé åâðîïåéñêîé ýêñïàíñèè è
ïðèñóùèìè åé ôîðìàìè êóëüòóðíûõ êîíòàêòîâ è êóëüòóðíûõ ãðàíèö?2
Ïåðåðàáîòàííàÿ âåðñèÿ ñòàòüè: Andreas Kappeler. Rußlands Frontier in der Frühen
Neuzeit // Ronald G. Asch u.a. (Hrsg.). Frieden und Krieg in der Frühen Neuzeit. Die
europäische Staatenordnung und die außereuropäische Welt. München, 2001. S. 599613 (= Der Frieden. Rekonstruktion einer europäischen Vision Bd. 2.).
Ïåðåâîä À. Êàïëóíîâñêîãî.
1
William H. McNeill. Europe’s Steppe Frontier 1500-1800. Chicago, London, 1964.
2
Wolfgang Reinhard. Geschichte der europäischen Expansion. Bd. 1-4. Stuttgart u.a.,
1983-1990; Urs Bitterli. Alte Welt - neue Welt. Formen des europäisch-überseeischen
Kulturkontakts vom 15. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert. München, 1986; Jürgen Osterhammel.
Kulturelle Grenzen in der Expansion Europas // Seaculum. 1995. Bd. 46. S. 101-138.
*
47
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
Ïî ìåíüøåé ìåðå, ïîïûòêà òàêîãî ñðàâíåíèÿ óæå ïðåäïðèíèìàëàñü â
îòíîøåíèè ñåâåðîàìåðèêàíñêîãî ôðîíòèðà.3
Ïîíÿòèå ôðîíòèðà, ââåäåííîå â íàó÷íûé îáîðîò Ôðåäåðèêîì Äæåêñîíîì Ò¸ðíåðîì (Frederick Jackson Turner) áîëåå ÷åì ñòîëåòèå íàçàä â
Àìåðèêå, ìîäåðíèçèðîâàííîå è ïåðåíåñåííîå çàòåì Îóýíîì Ëàòòèìîðîì (Owen Lattimore) è íåêîòîðûìè äðóãèìè èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè íà Åâðàçèþ, îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò ïîíÿòèÿ ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ãðàíèöû ïðåæäå âñåãî
òåì, ÷òî îíî îïèñûâàåò ïåðåõîäíóþ çîíó, êîòîðàÿ, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå
èíòåãðèðîâàíà íè â îäíî èç ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ îáðàçîâàíèé è èìååò
äèíàìè÷åñêèé õàðàêòåð.4
Ôðîíòèð êàê èíñòðóìåíò èñòîðè÷åñêîãî àíàëèçà (òàêæå è â ðîññèéñêîì ñëó÷àå), ìîæåò áûòü ðàññìîòðåí ñ ðàçëè÷íûõ òî÷åê çðåíèÿ:
• êàê ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèé ôðîíòèð ìåæäó ðàçëè÷íûìè êëèìàòè÷åñêèìè è ðàñòèòåëüíûìè çîíàìè, â ðîññèéñêîì ñëó÷àå, îñîáåííî, ìåæäó
ëåñîì è ñòåïüþ;
• êàê ñîöèàëüíûé ôðîíòèð ìåæäó ðàçëè÷íûìè æèçíåííûìè óêëàäàìè è ñèñòåìàìè öåííîñòåé, îñîáåííî ìåæäó îñåäëûì íàñåëåíèåì
è êî÷åâíèêàìè èëè îõîòíèêàìè;
• êàê âîåííûé ôðîíòèð ìåæäó äâóìÿ âîåííûìè îáúåäèíåíèÿìè;
• êàê ðåëèãèîçíûé è êóëüòóðíûé ôðîíòèð ìåæäó ðàçëè÷íûìè
öåííîñòíûìè è êóëüòóðíûìè òðàäèöèÿìè.
Èñõîäÿ èç äîìèíàíòíûõ ôóíêöèé ôðîíòèðà ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ íàñòóïàþùåãî îñåäëîãî ìèðà íåîáõîäèìî ðàçëè÷àòü ìåæäó âîåííûì ôðîíòèðîì (military frontier), ôðîíòèðîì èíòåíñèâíîé ýêñïëóàòàöèè
(extractive frontier) è ïîñåëåí÷åñêèì ôðîíòèðîì (settlement frontier).
Þðãåí Îñòåðõàììåëü (Jürgen Osterhammel) ïðåäëàãàåò òðè óíèâåðñàëüíûõ òèïà êóëüòóðíîé ãðàíèöû: èìïåðñêàÿ “âàðâàðñêàÿ ãðàíèöà”, íàöèîíàëüíî-ãîñóäàðñòâåííàÿ òåððèòîðèàëüíàÿ ãðàíèöà è ãðàíèöà âêëþDietrich Gerhard. The Frontier in Comparative View // Comparative Studies in Society
and History 1958/59. Vol. 1. Ðð. 205-229; Íåóäîâëåòâîðèòåëüíûé àíàëèç: Joseph L.
Wieczynski. The Russian Frontier. The Impact of Borderlands upon the Course of Early
Russian History. Charlottesville, 1976.
4
Frederick Jackson Turner. The Frontier in American History. New York, 1962; Owen
Lattimore. The Frontier in History // Comitato internazionale di scienze storiche. X
Congresso internazionale di scienze storiche Roma. Relazioni. Bd. 1. Firenze, 1955.
Ðð. 105-138; J. R. V. Prescott. The Geography of Frontiers and Boundaries. London,
1965; William W. Savage, Jr., Stephen I. Thompson. The Comparative Studies of the
Frontier: An Introduction // The Frontier. Comparative Studies. Bd. 2. Norman, 1979.
Ðð. 3-24.
3
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
÷åíèÿ ôðîíòèðà (Erschließungsgrenze des eigentlichen Frontiers).5 Îáå
êëàññèôèêàöèè ïðèìåíèìû ê ðîññèéñêîìó ñëó÷àþ.
 èñòîðè÷åñêèõ èñòî÷íèêàõ è â îñíîâàííîé íà íèõ èñòîðèîãðàôèè
ñèòóàöèÿ ôðîíòèðà î÷åíü äîëãî îïèñûâàëàñü êàê ïîñòîÿííàÿ êîíôðîíòàöèÿ è çà÷àñòóþ (òàêæå è ó Ò¸ðíåðà), êàê íåîòúåìëåìàÿ ÷àñòü mission
civilisatrice ïðåâîñõîäÿùåé îñåäëîé õðèñòèàíñêîé öèâèëèçàöèè. Ñåãîäíÿøíåå âíèìàíèå ê ôðîíòèðó ñâÿçàíî, ïðåæäå âñåãî, ñ åãî îïûòîì
çîíû êîììóíèêàöèè è âçàèìîäîïëíÿþùåãî ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî, ñîöèàëüíîãî, êóëüòóðíîãî è ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ìåæäó îáùåñòâàìè ñ ðàçëè÷íîé ñïåöèôèêîé.6
 òî âðåìÿ êàê åâðîïåéñêàÿ ýêñïàíñèÿ è åå ñòîëêíîâåíèå ñ íååâðîïåéñêèì ìèðîì äîâîëüíî øèðîêî îñâåùåíà â (åâðîïåéñêèõ) èñòî÷íèêàõ, êóëüòóðíûé êîíòàêò ðóññêîãî ôðîíòèðà âïëîòü äî ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíû XVIII â. îïèñàí òîëüêî òåçèñíî.  Ìîñêîâñêîé Ðóñè ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè íå íàõîäèòñÿ ïðàêòè÷åñêè íèêàêèõ ñâèäåòåëüñòâ ðåôëåêñèè êóëüòóðíîé äèôôåðåíöèàöèè è êîíñòðóèðîâàíèÿ êóëüòóðíîé ãðàíèöû. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìîé àíàëèç îãðàíè÷èâàåòñÿ îïèñàíèåì è êëàññèôèêàöèåé ðàçëè÷íûõ òèïîâ ôðîíòèðà, êîòîðûå ñôîðìèðîâàëèñü â
ðàííåå Íîâîå âðåìÿ. Ïðè ýòîì ÿ ðàçëè÷àþ äâå îñíîâíûõ ôîðìû ôðîíòèðà: ñòåïíàÿ ãðàíèöà íà Þãå è Þãî-Âîñòîêå è ëåñíàÿ ãðàíèöà íà Ñåâåðî-Âîñòîêå è Âîñòîêå.  ñëåäóþùèõ ðàçäåëàõ ÿ ïîñòàðàþñü êîðîòêî
îõàðàêòåðèçîâàòü îáà òèïà.
Ñòåïíàÿ ãðàíèöà
Ñòåïíàÿ ãðàíèöà Ðîññèè íà Þãå è Þãî-Âîñòîêå áûëà:
• ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîé (ìåæäó ëåñîì è ñòåïüþ);
• ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé (ìåæäó îñåäëûì è êî÷åâûì îáðàçîì
æèçíè è ôîðìàìè õîçÿéñòâà);
• ðåëèãèîçíî-êóëüòóðíîé (ìåæäó õðèñòèàíèçèðîâàííûìè ðóññêèìè è òþðêî-ìîíãîëîÿçû÷íûìè ìóñóëüìàíàìè, áóääèñòàìè èëè àíèìèñòàìè); è
• âîåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé.
5
Osterhammel. Kulturelle Grenzen. S. 108-114.
Ñì.: Frederik Barth (Ed.). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. The Social Organization of
Culture Difference. Bergen at all, 1969; Charles J. Halperin. The Ideology of Silence:
Prejudice and Pragmatism on the Medieval Religious Frontier // Comparative Studies
in Society and History. 1984. Vol. 26. Pp. 442-466.
6
49
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
Ýòîò ôðîíòèð èãðàë ñî âðåìåí ñðåäíåâåêîâîé Êèåâñêîé Ðóñè îäíó
èç öåíòðàëüíûõ ðîëåé â èñòîðè÷åñêîì îïûòå âîñòî÷íûõ ñëàâÿí.7 Åñëè
ïîíà÷àëó ïîëîñà ðàññåëåíèÿ âîñòî÷íûõ ñëàâÿí ïðîñòèðàëàñü âïëîòü
äî ñòåïè, òî íà÷èíàÿ ñ XII â. îíà ñìåùàåòñÿ íà Ñåâåð è Çàïàä.  ðåçóëüòàòå ìîíãîëüñêîãî çàâîåâàíèÿ Ðóñè è óñòàíîâëåíèÿ ãîñïîäñòâà ñòåïè
íàä îñåäëûìè âîñòî÷íûìè ñëàâÿíàìè, þãî-âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð ïîòåðÿë ñâîå îñíîâíîå çíà÷åíèå êàê âîåííàÿ ãðàíèöà. Òîëüêî ïîñëå ðàñïàäà Çîëîòîé Îðäû â XV â. íà÷èíàåòñÿ îáðàòíîå äâèæåíèå ðóññêèõ â
íàïðàâëåíèè ñòåïè. Âåëèêèé êíÿçü ìîñêîâñêèé, ïðåòåíäîâàâøèé íà
íàñëåäñòâî Çîëîòîé Îðäû, âûñòðîèë çàñå÷íûå ÷åðòû è óêðåïèë ñòîðîæåâûå çàñòàâû äëÿ îòðàæåíèÿ òàòàðñêèõ íàáåãîâ.  ïåðèîä ìåæäó ñåðåäèíîé XVI è êîíöîì XVII ââ. âîåííàÿ ãðàíèöà ïîñòåïåííî ñìåñòèëàñü â íàïðàâëåíèè ñòåïè. Ãàðíèçîíû ïîãðàíè÷íûõ êðåïîñòåé êîìïëåêòîâàëèñü èç ìîñêîâñêèõ ñëóæèëûõ ëþäåé íåäâîðÿíñêîãî ïðîèñõîæäåíèÿ – êàçàêîâ è ñòðåëüöîâ. Òåððèòîðèÿ ïî ýòó ñòîðîíó ïîãðàíè÷íîé
ëèíèè ïîñòåïåííî îñâàèâàëàñü ðóññêèìè ïîñåëåíöàìè. Ðàñïàøêà ðóññêèìè ïîñåëåíöàìè íåçàùèùåííîé ñòåïíîé òåððèòîðèè ê ñåâåðó îò
×åðíîãî è Êàñïèéñêîãî ìîðåé íà÷àëàñü òîëüêî ñ êîíöà XVIII â. Äî ýòîãî ñòåïíîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî ïðîäîëæàëè êîíòðîëèðîâàòü êî÷åâûå èìïåðèè – íàñëåäíèêè Çîëîòîé Îðäû – Êðûìñêîå Õàíñòâî (èñëàìèçèðîâàííûå êðûìñêèå òàòàðû) è Íîãàéñêàÿ Îðäà (íîãàéñêèå òàòàðû), à ñ
XVII â. ê íèì äîáàâèëîñü Êàëìûöêîå õàíñòâî (ëàìàèñòû – êàëìûêè).8
 ðàííåå Íîâîå âðåìÿ êî÷åâíèêè ïðåâîñõîäèëè ðóññêèõ â âîåííîì
îòíîøåíèè è íå äîïóñêàëè çàñåëåíèÿ ïëîäîðîäíîãî ÷åðíîçåìüÿ, çà
èñêëþ÷åíèåì îêðàèííûõ îáëàñòåé è ðå÷íûõ äîëèí. Ïîýòîìó, â îòëè÷èå îò äèíàìè÷åñêè ïðîäâèãàþùåéñÿ ãðàíèöû (Ò¸ðíåð), ðóññêèé ñòåïíîé ôðîíòèð ïðåäñòàâëÿë ñîáîé òîëüêî ìåäëåííî ïðîäâèãàþùóþñÿ
âîåííóþ ãðàíèöó.
Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, âçàèìîîòíîøåíèÿ ðóññêèõ è ñòåïíûõ êî÷åâíèêîâ
íîñèëè êîíôëèêòíûé õàðàêòåð: íàáåãè êî÷åâíèêîâ è ïðåâåíòèâíûå
The Frontier in Russian History (= Russian History. 1992. Vol. 19) – îñíîâíîé óïîð
íà ñðåäíåâåêîâüå, çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì: Michael Khodarkovsky. From Frontier to Empire:
The Concept of Frontier in Russia, Sixteenth - Eighteenth Centuries // Ibid. Pp. 115128; Denis J. B. Shaw. Southern Frontiers of Muscovy // James H. Bater and R.A.
French (Åds.). Studies in Russian Historical Geography. Vol. 1. London et al., 1983. Pp.
117-142. Ñð. òàêæå ñ íåäàâíî îïóáëèêîâàííîé ìîíîãðàôèåé Michael Khodarkovsky.
Russia’s Steppe Frontier. The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500-1800. Bloomington,
Indianapolis, 2002.
8
Îáùèé êîíòåêñò ñì.: Andreas Kappeler. Rußland als Vielvölkerreich. Entstehung,
Geschichte, Zerfall. München, 1992. S. 25-56.
7
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óäàðû îñåäëîãî íàñåëåíèÿ. Êî÷åâíèêè è ïîëóêî÷åâûå êðûìñêèå òàòàðû
íàïàäàëè íà ðóññêèõ è óêðàèíñêèõ êðåñòüÿí, ðàçîðÿëè èõ èìóùåñòâî è
óâîäèëè òûñÿ÷è ëþäåé, êîòîðûõ çàòåì ïðîäàâàëè â ðàáñòâî. Ñ äðóãîé
ñòîðîíû, ñòåïíîé ôðîíòèð áûë çîíîé èíòåíñèâíîãî êîììåð÷åñêîãî è
äèïëîìàòè÷åñêîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ. Òàê, íàïðèìåð, ðóññêèå ïîñåëåíöû
è êî÷åâíèêè â ðàâíîé ñòåïåíè çàâèñåëè äðóã îò äðóãà: îäíè íóæäàëèñü â
ïðîäóêöèè êî÷åâîãî ñêîòîâîäñòâà (ïðåæäå âñåãî, â ëîøàäÿõ), à äðóãèå
îõîòíî ïðèîáðåòàëè ó ïîñåëåíöåâ çåðíî, îðóæèå è òêàíè.
Ïîãðàíè÷íûå ñîîáùåñòâà âîëüíûõ êàçàêîâ
Íà÷èíàÿ ñ êîíöà XV â. âäîëü ðåê íà ñòåïíîé ãðàíèöå (Äíåïð, Äîí,
Âîëãà, Òåðåê è ßèê) ôîðìèðîâàëèñü ñïåöèôè÷åñêèå ïîãðàíè÷íûå ñîîáùåñòâà âîëüíûõ êàçàêîâ. ß íå ðàññìàòðèâàþ ñëó÷àé ïðèäíåïðîâñêèõ êàçàêîâ, ïîñêîëüêó îíè íå îòíîñÿòñÿ ê ðîññèéñêîìó êîíòåêñòó, à
ñâÿçàíû ñ ïîëüñêî-ëèòîâñêîé è óêðàèíñêîé èñòîðèåé.
Íà íà÷àëüíîì ýòàïå ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ ê êàçàêàì ïðèíàäëåæàëè òàòàðñêèå âîèíû – òåðìèí qazaq/êàçàê (ñâîáîäíûé ÷åëîâåê) èìååò òàòàðñêèå êîðíè.9 Íî î÷åíü ñêîðî â ýòèõ ñîîáùåñòâàõ ñòàëè ïðåîáëàäàòü ïðàâîñëàâíûå âîñòî÷íîñëàâÿíñêèå êðåñòüÿíå è ãîðîæàíå, áåæàâøèå íà
ñòåïíóþ ãðàíèöó îò íàëîãîâîãî áðåìåíè è êðåïîñòíîé çàâèñèìîñòè.
Çäåñü îíè, ïî ìåíüøåé ìåðå íà êàêîé-òî ïåðèîä, áûëè âíå äîñÿãàåìîñòè ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà è ïîìåùèêîâ. Îíè ïðîæèâàëè â óêðåïëåííûõ ïîñåëåíèÿõ, ðàñïîëîæåííûõ íà áåðåãàõ ðåê, çàíèìàëèñü ðûáîëîâñòâîì, ï÷åëîâîäñòâîì è îõîòîé è ïåðèîäè÷åñêè ñîâåðøàëè (ïèðàòñêèå) íàáåãè íà ñòåïíûõ êî÷åâíèêîâ, êðûìñêèõ òàòàð è îñìàíîâ. Â
êóëüòóðíîì, áûòîâîì è ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì óêëàäå êàçàêîâ ñîåäèíÿëèñü
ýëåìåíòû îñåäëîé âîñòî÷íîñëàâÿíñêîé è êî÷åâîé êóëüòóð. Êàçàöêèå
ñîîáùåñòâà îñòàâàëèñü íà âñåì ïðîòÿæåíèè ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè
îòêðûòûìè äëÿ íåðóññêèõ ñòåïíûõ êî÷åâíèêîâ. Ñ XVII â. îíè ñòàëè
ïðèþòîì äëÿ ñòàðîâåðîâ, ïðåñëåäóåìûõ ìîñêîâñêèì ãîñóäàðñòâîì è
ïðàâîñëàâíîé öåðêîâüþ.
Êàçàöêèå âîéñêîâûå îáúåäèíåíèÿ, ó êîòîðûõ â XVII â., ïî ìåíüøåé
ìåðå íà Äîíó, íàáëþäàþòñÿ òåíäåíöèè ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ñòðîèòåëü9
Günther Stökl. Die Entstehung des Kosakentums. München, 1953; Peter Rostankowski. Siedlungsgeschichte und Siedlungsformen in den Ländern der russischen Kosakenheere. Berlin, 1969; Carsten Goehrke. Die russischen Kosaken im Wandel des Geschichtsbildes // Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte. 1980. Bd. 30. S. 181-203.
51
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
ñòâà è ýòíîãåíåçà, ñîçäàëè âîåííóþ äåìîêðàòèþ, êîòîðàÿ ôóíäàìåíòàëüíî îòëè÷àëàñü îò ðàííåíîâîâðåìåííîé ìîñêîâñêîé àâòîêðàòèè.10
Ñîáðàíèå âñåõ êàçàêîâ (ñå÷åâîé êðóã, êàçàöêîå êîëî, ðàäà) ïðèíèìàëî
âàæíåéøèå ðåøåíèÿ è âûáèðàëî ïðåäâîäèòåëÿ, àòàìàíà. Êàçàêè, ó êîòîðûõ óæå íà ðàííèõ ñòàäèÿõ íàáëþäàëèñü ïðîöåññû ñîöèàëüíîé äèôôåðåíöèàöèè, ñîîòâåòñòâîâàëè â íåêîòîðîì îòíîøåíèè èäåàëó ìîáèëüíîãî, ðàâíîïðàâíîãî ïîãðàíè÷íîãî ñîîáùåñòâà ôðîíòèðíîãî òèïà.
Ò¸ðíåðîâñêèé òåçèñ î ôðîíòèðå, âûïîëíÿþùåì â áàçèñíîì îáùåñòâå
ôóíêöèþ ñîöèàëüíîãî ôèëüòðà, ìîæíî ïðèìåíèòü ê Ðîññèè, ïîñêîëüêó îñíîâíàÿ ìàññà êàçàêîâ ñîñòîÿëà èç áåãëûõ.
Ìîñêîâñêîå ãîñóäàðñòâî èñïîëüçîâàëî êàçàêîâ êàê ïîãðàíè÷íóþ
ñòðàæó, à ïîçäíåå è êàê íàåìíèêîâ. Èõ ñëåäóåò îòëè÷àòü îò òàê íàçûâàåìûõ ñëóæèëûõ êàçàêîâ, êîòîðûå íàïðàâëÿëèñü ìîñêîâñêèì öàðåì
â êà÷åñòâå “ñëóæèëûõ ëþäåé ïî ïðèáîðó”, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, â ïîãðàíè÷íûå ãàðíèçîíû. Ïðàâäà, îáå êàòåãîðèè êàçàêîâ íå âñåãäà ïîääàþòñÿ ÷åòêîé èäåíòèôèêàöèè.  ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîñòü ñëóæèëûì
êàçàêàì ñâîáîäíîå êàçà÷åñòâî âåëî âïëîòü äî ñåðåäèíû XVIII â. íåçàâèñèìîå îò Ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà ñóùåñòâîâàíèå. Êàçàêè, êîòîðûõ âñëåä çà Õîáñáàóìîì ìîæíî ðàññìàòðèâàòü êàê ñîöèàëüíûõ
áàíäèòîâ,11 ÿâëÿëèñü ãëàâíûì èñòî÷íèêîì ñîöèàëüíîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñìóòû â Ìîñêîâèè. Èç èõ ñðåäû âûøëè ïðåäâîäèòåëè è óäàðíûå
âîéñêîâûå îòðÿäû âñåõ îñíîâíûõ íàðîäíûõ âîññòàíèé â Ðîññèè ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè, êàê, íàïðèìåð, âî âðåìÿ âîññòàíèé ïîä ïðåäâîäèòåëüñòâîì âîëæñêîãî êàçàêà Ñòåïàíà Ðàçèíà (1670-71 ãã.) èëè
äîíñêîãî êàçàêà Åìåëüÿíà Ïóãà÷åâà (1773-75). Íàðÿäó ñ íåðóññêèìè
íàðîäàìè îêðàèí, ê íèì ïðèñîåäèíÿëàñü òàêæå è ÷àñòü ñëóæèëûõ
êàçàêîâ. Èäåàë ñâîáîäíîãî êàçà÷åñòâà èãðàë âàæíóþ ðîëü â ïðèçûâàõ âîññòàâøèõ ê çàâèñèìîìó ðóññêîìó íàñåëåíèþ, êîòîðîå ñðàçó
ïåðåâîäèëîñü â êîíòðîëèðóåìûõ âîññòàâøèìè îáëàñòÿõ â êàòåãîðèþ
êàçàêîâ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, âîåííî-äåìîêðàòè÷åñêàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ êàçàêîâ â ðàííåå Íîâîå âðåìÿ ïðåäñòàâëÿëà àëüòåðíàòèâó êðåïîñòíè÷åñòâó è àâòîêðàòèè.
Ñì. îá ýòîì: Udo Gehrmann. Die Wiedergeburt der Kosaken: Regionaler
Tradiutionalismus und ständischer Patriotismus im Spannungsfeld Rußlands // Andreas
Kappeler (Hg.). Regionalismus und Nationalismus in Rußland. Baden-Baden, 1996 (=
Nationen und Nationalitäten in Osteuropa 4). S. 199-223, çäåñü S. 199-206.
11
Eric J. Hobsbawm. Bandits. Harmondsworth, 1985.
10
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Ðîññèÿ è ñòåïíûå êî÷åâíèêè
Îòíîøåíèÿ Ðîññèè ñî ñòåïüþ â XVI-XVII ââ., íàïðèìåð, åå âçàèìîîòíîøåíèÿ ñ êî÷åâàâøèìè ê ñåâåðó îò Êàñïèéñêîãî ìîðÿ èñëàìèçèðîâàííûìè íîãàéöàìè – õîðîøî îòðàæåíû â èñòî÷íèêàõ.12
Òðàäèöèîííûå íàáåãè êî÷åâíèêîâ íà ðóññêèå òåððèòîðèè, ïðèíîñèâøèå ðàáîâ è ñêîò, âûçûâàëè îòâåòíûå íàáåãè ðóññêèõ êàçàêîâ â ñòåïü.
Íî, ãîðàçäî âàæíåå áûëè ðåãóëÿðíûå äèïëîìàòè÷åñêèå è êîììåð÷åñêèå îòíîøåíèÿ. Âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XVI â. â Ìîñêâó åæåãîäíî íàïðàâëÿëîñü ïîñîëüñòâî íîãàéñêèõ òàòàð, êîòîðîå íàñ÷èòûâàëî áîëåå
ñòà ÷åëîâåê. Åãî ñîïðîâîæäàëè òîðãîâöû, ïîñòàâëÿâøèå â Ðîññèþ ëîøàäåé (ñâûøå 20.000 â ãîä) è âûâîçèâøèå ãîòîâûå èçäåëèÿ, îðóæèå,
ïðåäìåòû ðîñêîøè è çåðíî.
Ìîñêîâèÿ áûëà çàèíòåðåñîâàíà â íîãàéñêèõ òàòàðàõ, êàê â ïðåâîñõîäíîé âîåííîé êàâàëåðèè. Ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå ïîäðàçäåëåíèÿ íîãàéöåâ
ñîñòîÿëè íà ñëóæáå ó Ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà è ñðàæàëèñü â êà÷åñòâå
âñïîìîãàòåëüíûõ âîéñê âî âðåìÿ âîåííûõ êîíôëèêòîâ ñ Ðå÷üþ Ïîñïîëèòîé è Øâåöèåé. Íåêîòîðûå òàòàðñêèå àðèñòîêðàòû ïîëíîñòüþ ïåðåøëè íà ðóññêóþ ñëóæáó, êàê, íàïðèìåð, äâà ñûíà êíÿçÿ Þñóôà âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XVI â., êîòîðûì áûëè ïîæàëîâàíû áîëüøèå âëàäåíèÿ â
öåíòðàëüíûõ îáëàñòÿõ Ðîññèè ñ ñîòíÿìè ðóññêèõ êðåñòüÿíñêèõ äâîðîâ.
Òîëüêî âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XVII â. ýòè ìóñóëüìàíñêèå êíÿçüÿ, ïðåäêè
ðîññèéñêîãî êíÿæåñêîãî ðîäà Þñóïîâûõ, ïåðåøëè â ïðàâîñëàâèå.
Èçíà÷àëüíî äèïëîìàòè÷åñêèå îòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó Ìîñêîâñêèì ãîñóäàðñòâîì è íîãàéñêèìè òàòàðàìè íîñèëè ðàâíîïðàâíûé ïàðòíåðñêèé
õàðàêòåð. Ìåæäó òåì, ðóññêàÿ ïîëèòèêà â ðàìêàõ áîðüáû çà íàñëåäèå
Çîëîòîé îðäû áûëà íàöåëåíà íà ïîä÷èíåíèå êî÷åâíèêîâ. Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ Ìîñêâû, ïðèíåñåíèå íîãàéñêèìè êíÿçüÿìè â 1557 ã. è ïîçäíåå êëÿòâû î ïîä÷èíåíèè ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëè îá îêîí÷àòåëüíîì ïðèçíàíèè èìè
âåðõîâåíñòâà ìîñêîâñêèõ öàðåé. Îäíàêî ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ íîãàéöåâ ðå÷ü
øëà òîëüêî î âðåìåííûõ ñîþçàõ, êîòîðûå ìîãëè áûòü ðàñòîðãíóòû â
ëþáîé ìîìåíò. Ñòîëü ðàçëè÷íûå ïðàâîâûå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ – îñåäëîå
ïàòðèìîíèàëüíîå è êî÷åâíè÷åñêî-äàííè÷åñêîå – ñîñóùåñòâîâàëè ïàA. A. Íîâîñåëüñêèé. Áîðüáà Ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà ñ òàòàðàìè â ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå XVII â. Ì.-Ë., 1948; Á.-À. Á. Êî÷åêàåâ. Íîãàéñêî-ðóññêèå îòíîøåíèÿ â XV –
XVIII ââ. Àëìà-Àòà, 1988; Andreas Kappeler. Moskau und die Steppe. Das Verhältnis
zu den Nogai-Tataren im 16. Jahrhundert // Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte.
1991. Bd. 46. S. 87 - 105; Â. Â. Òðåïàâëîâ. Èñòîðèÿ Íîãàéñêîé îðäû. M., 2001.
12
53
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
ðàëëåëüíî è õàðàêòåðèçîâàëè åùå â XVII è XVIII ââ. îòíîøåíèÿ Ðîññèè ñ êàëìûêàìè è êàçàõàìè. Â ðàìêàõ ýòîãî ñîñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ âîñïðîèçâîäèëèñü ïî÷òè âñå îïèñàííûå âûøå îáðàçöû îòíîøåíèé.13
Íå ìíîãî èçâåñòíî î êóëüòóðíîì îáìåíå; åñòü îñíîâàíèÿ ïîëàãàòü,
÷òî ðåëèãèîçíàÿ ãðàíèöà ìåæäó õðèñòèàíñòâîì è èñëàìîì èëè ëàìàèçìîì çàòðóäíÿëà èíòåíñèâíûé êóëüòóðíûé òðàíñôåð. Åäèíñòâåííûì
èñêëþ÷åíèåì â ðàííåå Íîâîå âðåìÿ áûëà ñìåøàííàÿ êóëüòóðà êàçàêîâ, î êîòîðîé, îäíàêî, î÷åíü ìàëî èçâåñòíî. Íåñìîòðÿ íà íàëè÷èå ðåëèãèîçíîé ãðàíèöû, õðèñòèàíñêàÿ Ðîññèÿ îñòàâàëàñü íà óäèâëåíèå îòêðûòîé ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê èñëàìó. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, “ñâÿòàÿ Ðóñü” òåðïèìî âîñïðèíèìàëà â ñîñòàâå ñâîåãî äâîðÿíñòâà ìóñóëüìàí, êîòîðûì
ïðèíàäëåæàëè êðåñòüÿíå, èñïîâåäîâàâøèå õðèñòèàíñòâî.14 Ïîäîáíàÿ
òåðïèìîñòü ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê èñëàìó, íàñêîëüêî ìíå èçâåñòíî, íå èìåëà àíàëîãîâ â Åâðîïå ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè è îòëè÷àåò ðîññèéñêóþ
ñèòóàöèþ, íàïðèìåð, îò èñïàíñêîé.
Äàííóþ îñîáåííîñòü ìîæíî îáúÿñíèòü òðàäèöèîííûì ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèì ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâîì Âåëèêîãî êíÿæåñòâà Ìîñêîâñêîãî ñ èñëàìèçèðîâàííîé Çîëîòîé Îðäîé, êîòîðîé îíî ïîä÷èíÿëîñü íà ïðîòÿæåíèè
áîëåå ÷åì äâóõ ñòîëåòèé.  õîäå ïîïûòîê çàâëàäåíèÿ íàñëåäèåì Çîëîòîé îðäû Ðîññèÿ ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàëà òîëåðàíòíîå îòíîøåíèå ê òàòàðñêîé àðèñòîêðàòèè, îñîáåííî ê êíÿçüÿì-×èíãèçèäàì, è êîîïòèðîâàëà èõ êàê ìóñóëüìàí â âûñøèå äâîðÿíñêèå ñëîè. Ïîõîæàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ
íàáëþäàëàñü è ïîñëå ìîñêîâñêîãî çàâîåâàíèÿ Êàçàíñêîãî è Àñòðàõàíñêîãî õàíñòâ â ñåðåäèíå XVI â., êîãäà ìîñêîâñêèé öàðü äàðîâàë ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿì èñëàìñêîé ýëèòû çåìëè ñ ðóññêèìè êðåñòüÿíàìè.  îòëè÷èå îò ýòîãî, ðóññêèì ïîìåùèêàì çàïðåùàëîñü çàêðåïîùåíèå ìóñóëüìàí è ÿçû÷íèêîâ. Õîòÿ ðóññêàÿ ïðàâîñëàâíàÿ öåðêîâü è ïðîïàãàíäèðîâàëà õðèñòèàíèçàöèþ ìóñóëüìàí, îíà äîáèâàëàñü ëèøü âðåìåííîé è
ñïîðàäè÷åñêîé ïîääåðæêè ãîñóäàðñòâà.15  öåëîì, ðåëèãèîçíàÿ ïîëèòèêà Ìîñêâû â XVI è XVII â. îñòàâàëàñü ãèáêîé è ïðàãìàòè÷íîé. ÏðèMichael Khodarkovsky. Where Two Worlds Met. The Russian State and the Kalmyk
Nomads, 1600-1771. Ithaca, London, 1992; Martha Brill Olcott. The Kazakhs. Stanford,
Calif., 1995. Ðð. 28-53.
14
Hans-Heinrich Nolte. Religiöse Toleranz in Rußland 1600-1725. Göttingen, 1969;
idem. Verständnis und Bedeutung der religiösen Toleranz in Rußland 1600 – 1725 //
Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 1969. Bd. 17. S. 494-530; Andreas Kappeler.
Rußlands erste Nationalitäten. Das Zarenreich und die Völker der Mittleren Wolga vom
16. bis 19. Jahrhundert. Köln, Wien, 1982.
15
Kappeler. Rußlands erste Nationalitäten.
13
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îðèòåòíûìè âîïðîñàìè îñòàâàëèñü óêðåïëåíèå âëàñòè íàä íåõðèñòèàíñêèìè ïîääàííûìè è ýêîíîìè÷åñêàÿ ýêñïëóàòàöèÿ èõ òåððèòîðèàëüíûõ ðåñóðñîâ, íî íè â êîåì ñëó÷àå íå ðåëèãèîçíàÿ èëè ÿçûêîâàÿ ãîìîãåíèçàöèÿ.
Ëåñíàÿ ãðàíèöà â Ñèáèðè
Ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñî ñòåïíîé ãðàíèöåé ëåñíîé ôðîíòèð èìåë áîëåå
ðàçìûòûå êîíòóðû. Â èñòîðèè ðîññèéñêîé ýêñïàíñèè îí íå ðàçäåëÿë
ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèå çîíû, à âîïëîùàë, ïðåæäå âñåãî, áîðüáó ÷åëîâåêà ñ
ïðèðîäîé, ñ òÿæåëûì êëèìàòîì ñåâåðíîé Åâðàçèè. Ïîñòåïåííîå îñâîåíèå ëåñîâ íà ñåâåðå è ñåâåðî-âîñòîêå ìîíàõàìè, êðåñòüÿíàìè è êíÿçüÿìè áûëî öåíòðàëüíîé òåìîé ñðåäíåâåêîâîé èñòîðèè Ðóñè. Ïîñêîëüêó
ïëîäîðîäíûå ÷åðíîçåìíûå ïî÷âû íà ãðàíèöå ñî ñòåïüþ êîíòðîëèðîâàëèñü êî÷åâíèêàìè, ìàëîïëîäîðîäíûå çåìëè íà ñåâåðå îñòàâàëèñü
åäèíñòâåííûì îáúåêòîì êîëîíèçàöèè. Ñïåöèôè÷åñêàÿ ôîðìà ðóññêîãî ïðîäâèæåíèÿ íà ÷óæèå òåððèòîðèè âîçíèêëà íà ñåâåðî-âîñòîêå â
Íîâãîðîäñêîé ãîðîäñêîé ðåñïóáëèêå. Â ïîèñêàõ öåííîé ïóøíèíû íîâãîðîäöû çàâîåâàëè âåñü ñåâåð Ðîññèè âïëîòü äî Óðàëà è îáëîæèëè äàíüþ ôèííî-óãîðñêèõ îõîòíèêîâ.16
Íåïîñðåäñòâåííî çà ýòèì ïîñëåäîâàëî çàâîåâàíèå è îñâîåíèå Ñèáèðè.17 Â êîíöå XVI è â XVII ââ. ðóññêèå îõîòíèêè-ïðîìûñëîâèêè,
ïåðâîïðîõîäöû, òîðãîâöû è ñîëäàòû â ïîèñêàõ öåííîé ïóøíèíû è
áëàãîðîäíûõ ìåòàëëîâ ïðîíèêàëè â ëåñíûå îáëàñòè ïî òó ñòîðîíó Óðàëà. Êàê ïðàâèëî, èìè äâèãàë ÷àñòíûé èíòåðåñ.  êîíöå XVI â. áîëüøóþ ðîëü â îñâîåíèè çàóðàëüñêèõ òåððèòîðèé ñûãðàëà êóïå÷åñêàÿ ñåìüÿ Ñòðîãàíîâûõ, à ïîçäíåå èíèöèàòèâà ïåðåøëà ê ïåðâîïðîõîäöàì,
ñðåäè êîòîðûõ ìîæíî íàçâàòü Ïîÿðêîâà èëè Õàáàðîâà. È òîëüêî ïîòîì
â Ñèáèðü ïðèõîäèò Ìîñêîâñêîå ãîñóäàðñòâî ñî ñâîèìè ñëóæèëûìè
ëþäüìè, êîòîðûå îôèöèàëüíî çàâîåâûâàëè çåìëè è ñòðîèëè íà íèõ
îñòðîãè. Ñ ïåðâîãî æå ïîõîäà Åðìàêà âåäóùàÿ ðîëü â ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì
îñâîåíèè Ñèáèðè çàêðåïèëàñü çà ñëóæèëûìè êàçàêàìè ðàçëè÷íîãî
16
Ñì.: Janet Martin. Treasure of the Land of Darkness. The Fur Trade and its Significance for Medieval Russia. Cambridge, 1986; Andreas Kappeler. Ethnische Minderheiten im alten Rußland (14.-16. Jahrhundert): Regierungspolitik und Funktionen //
Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte. 1986. Bd. 38. S. 131-151.
17
George V. Lantzeff, Richard A. Pierce. Eastward to Empire. Exploration and Conquest
on the Russian Open Frontier, to 1750. Montreal, London, 1973; Alan Wood (Ed.). The
History of Siberia. From Russian Conquest to Revolution. London, New York, 1991.
55
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
ïðîèñõîæäåíèÿ è êàòåãîðèé. Ïðîäâèãàÿñü ïî ðåêàì, ìàëî÷èñëåííûå
ðóññêèå âîéñêà çà íåñêîëüêî äåñÿòèëåòèé ïåðåñåêëè âñþ ìàëîçàñåëåííóþ Ñèáèðü è äîøëè äî ïîáåðåæüÿ Òèõîãî îêåàíà. Åñëè íà þãå ðóññêîìó îñâîåíèþ ñòåïè ïðåïÿòñòâîâàëè êî÷åâíèêè, òî íà âîñòîêå ðóññêàÿ ýêñïàíñèÿ áûëà îñòàíîâëåíà Êèòàéñêîé èìïåðèåé, íàõîäèâøåéñÿ
ïîä âëàñòüþ Ìàíü÷æóðñêîé äèíàñòèè. Íåð÷èíñêèé äîãîâîð 1689 ã.
óñòàíîâèë ãðàíèöó ìåæäó îáåèìè èìïåðèÿìè.
Ýêñïàíñèÿ èìåëà ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå öåëè, ïðåæäå âñåãî – ÿñàê, êîòîðûì îáëàãàëèñü êîðåííûå ýòíîñû. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, â îòëè÷èå îò ñòåïíîé ãðàíèöû, ðå÷ü çäåñü øëà íå î âîåííîì ôðîíòèðå, à î ôðîíòèðå
óñèëåííîé ýêñïëóàòàöèè (extractive frontier).
 ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîñòü ìåäëåííî íàñòóïàþùåé ñòåïíîé ãðàíèöå,
ëåñíàÿ ãðàíèöà â XVII â. ôîðìèðîâàëàñü ïî êëàññè÷åñêèé ñõåìå Ò¸ðíåðà – ñòðåìèòåëüíî. Øëî ïîñòåïåííîå çàñåëåíèå Ñèáèðè ðóññêèìè
êðåñòüÿíàìè, òàê ÷òî óæå äëÿ XVII â. ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü î ïîñåëåí÷åñêîì ôðîíòèðå (settlement frontier) íà þãî-âîñòîêå Ñèáèðè â ðàéîíàõ ñ
áëàãîïðèÿòíûì êëèìàòîì è ïëîäîðîäíûìè ïî÷âàìè.
Îòíîøåíèå ðóññêèõ ê êîðåííûì íàðîäàì Ñèáèðè
Ìåæäó ðóññêèìè è êîðåííûìè íàðîäàìè, æèâøèìè â ëåñíûõ ðåãèîíàõ Ñåâåðà è Ñèáèðè, ïðîëåãàëà ÷åòêàÿ ñîöèàëüíàÿ è ðåëèãèîçíî-êóëüòóðíàÿ ãðàíèöà. Õðèñòèàíå, ïðåäñòàâëÿâøèå îñåäëóþ êóëüòóðó ïàøåííûõ çåìëåäåëüöåâ, ïðîòèâîñòîÿëè ÿçû÷åñêèì îõîòíèêàì è ñêîòîâîäàì.18
Îñíîâíàÿ ìàññà êîðåííûõ íàðîäîâ ñîïðîòèâëÿëàñü ìîñêîâñêîìó çàâîåâàíèþ è ïîä÷èíåíèþ. Ïîñëå ðàçãðîìà åäèíñòâåííîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ, çàïàäíîñèáèðñêîãî Êó÷óìñêîãî õàíñòâà, ìàëûå êëàíû è ðîäû óæå íå èìåëè íèêàêèõ øàíñîâ â ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèè ñ õîðîøî
âîîðóæåííûìè, ãîòîâûìè íà âñå ðóññêèìè îòðÿäàìè. Ïîíà÷àëó ôîðìû ïîä÷èíåíèÿ êîðåííûõ íàðîäîâ áûëè äîñòàòî÷íî ãèáêèìè, òàê ÷òî
èì óäàâàëîñü ñîõðàíÿòü ñâîå ñàìîóïðàâëåíèå, ñîöèàëüíûé ñòðîé è
öåííîñòè. Õîòÿ öåíòð, çàèíòåðåñîâàííûé â ðåãóëÿðíîì ïîëó÷åíèè ÿñàêà, íåîäíîêðàòíî òðåáîâàë óâàæèòåëüíîãî îáðàùåíèÿ ñ íåðóññêèìè
íàðîäàìè, èñòî÷íèêè ïîëíû ñîîáùåíèé î ïðîèçâîëå è ýêñïëóàòàöèè
ñî ñòîðîíû ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé âëàñòè íà ìåñòàõ. Ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ ðóññêèõ
James Forsyth. A History of the Peoples of Siberia. Russia’s North Asian Colony
1581-1990. Cambridge, 1992; Yuri Slezkine. Arctic Mirrors. Russia and the Small
Peoples of the North. Ithaca, London, 1994. Ðð. 11-45.
18
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ïðîìûñëîâèêîâ, êàçàêîâ, òîðãîâöåâ è óïðàâëåíöåâ ñ íåðóññêèìè îõîòíèêàìè íàïîìèíàþò ïîäîáíûå ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ íà àìåðèêàíñêîì è êàíàäñêîì ôðîíòèðàõ, ãäå õîðîøî âîîðóæåííûå åâðîïåéöû âåëè æåñòîêóþ âîéíó ñ êîðåííûì íàñåëåíèåì, ðàçðóøàëè èõ åñòåñòâåííóþ ñðåäó
îáèòàíèÿ, èñòðåáëÿëè ïóøíîãî çâåðÿ è ñèëîé îðóæèÿ, ñïàèâàíèåì è
ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèåì çàðàçíûõ áîëåçíåé ïîäðûâàëè èõ òðàäèöèîííîå
ñîöèàëüíîå óñòðîéñòâî.
Ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ àìåðèêàíñêèì ôðîíòèðîì è äðóãèìè çàìîðñêèìè
òåððèòîðèÿìè, îòêðûòûìè è îñâàèâàåìûìè åâðîïåéñêèìè ãîñóäàðñòâàìè, äèñòàíöèÿ ìåæäó åâðîïåéöàìè è êîðåííûì íàñåëåíèåì Ñèáèðè
áûëà çíà÷èòåëüíî êîðî÷å. Óæå â ñðåäíèå âåêà ðóññêèå íàõîäèëèñü â
êîíòàêòå ñ ýòíîñàìè Ñåâåðà, è ìåæäó íèìè íå ïðîëåãàëè íè ìîðÿ, íè
ãîðíûå ìàññèâû. Ðóññêèå òàêæå ïðèíàäëåæàëè ê ëåñíûì íàðîäàì, è
óñïåøíî ñî÷åòàëè ñâîå ãëàâíîå çàíÿòèå – çåìëåäåëèå, ñ ëåñíûìè ïðîìûñëàìè. Âåðà â ñèëû ïðèðîäû è äóõîâ èìåëà øèðîêîå ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå ñðåäè ðóññêèõ õðèñòèàí. Êîðåííûå íàðîäû Ñèáèðè î÷åíü ðåäêî
õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿ â èñòî÷íèêàõ XVII â. êàê äèêàðè èëè âàðâàðû è ïåðå÷èñëÿþòñÿ êàæäûé ïî èõ ýòíîíèìàì èëè èìåíóþòñÿ ñîîáùà, ñ ó÷åòîì
èõ âàæíåéøåé ôóíêöèè (ïóøíîé äàíè), ÿñà÷íûìè ëþäüìè, à èíîãäà è
èíîçåìöàìè.19
Î÷åíü ðåäêî â XVII â. íåõðèñòèàíñêèå âåðîâàíèÿ ñòàíîâèëèñü êðèòåðèåì ñåãðåãàöèè; òåðìèí “èíîâåðöû” óòâåðäèëñÿ òîëüêî â XVIII â.
 îòëè÷èå îò áîëüøèíñòâà çàìîðñêèõ êîëîíèé åâðîïåéñêèõ ãîñóäàðñòâ, â Ñèáèðè äîëãîå âðåìÿ îòñóòñòâîâàë ôàêòîð õðèñòèàíèçàöèè. Êàê è â ñëó÷àå ñ ìóñóëüìàíàìè, Ìîñêâà íå çàíèìàëàñü ìèññèîíåðñòâîì ñðåäè àíèìèñòîâ, ïðîæèâàâøèõ íà ïîä÷èíåííûõ òåððèòîðèÿõ. Öåííîñòíûå ñèñòåìû ñèáèðñêèõ øàìàíèñòîâ îñòàëèñü íåçàòðîíóòûìè, ÷òî íàïîìèíàåò ñèòóàöèþ ñ àíèìèñòàìè – ôèííî- è òþðêîÿçû÷íûì ýòíîñàìè Ñðåäíåé Âîëãè ïîñëå ðàçãðîìà Êàçàíñêîãî õàíñòâà â ñåðåäèíå XVI â.20
Ñèáèðñêèé ôðîíòèð ñòàë çîíîé âçàèìíîé àêêóëüòóðàöèè áëàãîäàðÿ
îòíîñèòåëüíîé ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîé, ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé è êóëüòóðíîé áëèçîñòè. Ðóññêèå ìóæ÷èíû ÷àñòî áðàëè â æåíû ïðåäñòàâèòåëüíèö êîðåííûõ
íàðîäîâ, ÷òî ïîäðàçóìåâàëî ïåðåõîä æåíùèí â ïðàâîñëàâèå. Ðóññêèå
ïîñåëåíöû îâëàäåâàëè ñèáèðñêèìè ÿçûêàìè è óñâàèâàëè ìåñòíûå îáû19
20
Slezkine. Arctic Mirrors. Ðð. 32-45.
Nolte. Religiöse Toleranz; Kappeler. Rußlands erste Nationalitäten.
57
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
÷àè. Íà ñåâåðî-âîñòîêå Ñèáèðè íåìàëîå êîëè÷åñòâî ðóññêèõ àññèìèëèðîâàëîñü ñ òþðêîÿçû÷íûìè ÿêóòàìè.21
Ðóññêèå â Ñèáèðè
Íà ôðîíòèðå èíòåíñèâíîé ýêñïëóàòàöèè (extractive frontier) â ñåâåðíîé è âîñòî÷íîé Ñèáèðè âîçíèêëè ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå íåáîëüøèå
ïîãðàíè÷íûå ñîîáùåñòâà, âêëþ÷àâøèå ñëóæèëûõ ëþäåé, êàçàêîâ, îõîòíèêîâ-ïðîìûñëîâèêîâ, òîðãîâöåâ è èñêàòåëåé ïðèêëþ÷åíèé. Âñåõ èõ
îòëè÷àë äóõ ïåðâîîòêðûâàòåëüñòâà, âûñîêàÿ ïðèñïîñîáëÿåìîñòü ê
ñëîæíûì ïðèðîäíûì óñëîâèÿì è ìåñòíûì êóëüòóðàì.
Ðóññêèå êðåñòüÿíå þãî-çàïàäíîãî ïîñåëåí÷åñêîãî ôðîíòèðà
(settlement frontier) Ñèáèðè, ÷èñëî êîòîðûõ â õîäå XVII â. ïîñòåïåííî
ðîñëî, îòëè÷àëèñü îò ìàññû êðåñòüÿí åâðîïåéñêîé ÷àñòè Ðîññèè.22 Èõ
ñîöèîïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ íå çíàëà ïîìåùè÷üåãî çåìëåâëàäåíèÿ
è êðåïîñòíîãî ïðàâà.  ñîöèàëüíîé ñòðóêòóðå ðóññêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ Ñèáèðè îòñóòñòâîâàëî, òàêèì îáðàçîì, ïîìåñòíîå äâîðÿíñòâî è êðåïîñòíîå êðåñòüÿíñòâî. Ëè÷íî ñâîáîäíûå êðåñòüÿíå ïëàòèëè ïîäàòè ãîñóäàðñòâó è âûïîëíÿëè îïðåäåëåííûå ïîâèííîñòè, òàêèå êàê, íàïðèìåð, ïîäâîäíàÿ. Òèïè÷íàÿ äëÿ öåíòðàëüíîé Ðîññèè ïåðåäåëüíàÿ îáùèíà ïëîõî
ïðèæèâàëàñü â Ñèáèðè. Ýòî íåïîñðåäñòâåííî ñêàçûâàëîñü íà ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì ìåíòàëèòåòå ñèáèðñêèõ êðåñòüÿí, êîòîðûõ, â îòëè÷èå îò êðåñòüÿí öåíòðàëüíîé Ðîññèè, õàðàêòåðèçîâàëè ñîáñòâåííè÷åñòâî, èíèöèàòèâà è ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëüñêàÿ àêòèâíîñòü. Ñòàðîæèëû Ñèáèðè ïîëüçîâàëèñü áîëüøåé ñâîáîäîé è èìåëè áóëüøèé ýêîíîìè÷åñêèé äîñòàòîê, ÷åì
êðåñòüÿíå öåíòðàëüíûõ îáëàñòåé Ðîññèè. Ñ êîíöà XVII â. â Ñèáèðü ñòàëè ïåðåñåëÿòüñÿ ñòàðîîáðÿäöû, áåæàâøèå îò ïðåñëåäîâàíèÿ ãîñóäàðñòâà è öåðêâè. Êðîìå êðåñòüÿí, â Ñèáèðü ïîïàäàëè èçãíàííèêè è ïðåñòóïíèêè, ÷èñëî êîòîðûõ, íà÷èíàÿ ñ XVII â., ïîñòîÿííî ðîñëî.23
Slezkine. Arctic Mirrors. S. 43-45, 97-99; Willard Sunderland. Russians into Jakuts?
“Going Native” and Problems of Russian National Identity in the Siberian North, 1870s1914 // Slavic Review. 1996. Vol. 55. Ðð. 806-825.
22
Terence Armstrong. Russian Settlement in the North. Cambridge, 1965. Ðð. 59-98;
Â. À. Àëåêñàíäðîâ è Í. Í. Ïîêðîâñêèé. Âëàñòü è îáùåñòâî. Ñèáèðü â XVII â.
Íîâîñèáèðñê, 1991; Carsten Goehrke. Das “andere” Rußland: Zu Sibiriens Stellenwert
in der russischen Geschichte // Berliner Jahrbücher für osteuropäische Geschichte. 1995.
H. 2. S. 123-150.
23
Äî ñèõ ïîð îòñóòñòâóåò îáçîðíàÿ ðàáîòà ïî èñòîðèè Ñèáèðè, êîòîðàÿ áû
ó÷èòûâàëà ñîâðåìåííîå ñîñòîÿíèå èññëåäîâàíèé. Ñð.: Èñòîðèÿ Ñèáèðè ñ
21
58
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
 öåëîì, ðóññêîå íàñåëåíèå Ñèáèðè â ðàííåå Íîâîå âðåìÿ ñóùåñòâåííî îòëè÷àëîñü îò ñâîèõ ñîïëåìåííèêîâ, ïðîæèâàâøèõ â öåíòðàëüíûõ ðåãèîíàõ.  ñèëó ÷ðåçâû÷àéíîé óäàëåííîñòè îò öåíòðàëüíîé âëàñòè è íåáîëüøîé ïëîòíîñòè çàñåëåíèÿ, íàñåëåíèå Ñèáèðè ïîëüçîâàëîñü áîëüøåé ñâîáîäîé ïåðåäâèæåíèÿ, è êîíòðîëü ãîñóäàðñòâà áûë
çäåñü ãîðàçäî ñëàáåå, ÷åì â öåíòðàëüíûõ îáëàñòÿõ.  Ðîññèè ñôîðìèðîâàëñÿ ìèô î òâåðäîì, íåçàâèñèìîì, ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîì, èíèöèàòèâíîì ñèáèðÿêå,24 êîòîðûé â êîíòåêñòå êîíöåïöèè ôðîíòèðà Ò¸ðíåðà
èíîãäà ìîæåò ñëóæèòü îñíîâàíèåì äëÿ ñðàâíåíèÿ ïðîìûñëîâèêîâ, ñîëäàò è ïîñåëåíöåâ íà åâðàçèéñêîì “Äèêîì Âîñòîêå” ñ åâðîïåéñêèìè
ïèîíåðàìè íà ñåâåðîàìåðèêàíñêîì “Äèêîì Çàïàäå”.  Ñèáèðè íå ñôîðìèðîâàëîñü ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ, êîòîðîå áû âûõîäèëî çà ðàìêè îòäåëüíî
âçÿòîé îáùèíû è îòëè÷àëîñü â èíñòèòóöèîíàëüíîì ïëàíå îò ìîñêîâñêèõ îáðàçöîâ, êàê ýòî áûëî, íàïðèìåð, ó êàçàêîâ. Ñèáèðñêèå êàçàêè,
êàê ïðàâèëî, ñîñòîÿëè íà ñëóæáå ó ìîñêîâñêîãî öàðÿ, òàêæå êàê è êàçàöêèå âîéñêà íà þæíîé ãðàíèöå Ñèáèðè, ñîçäàííûå ãîñóäàðñòâîì
íåêîòîðîå âðåìÿ ñïóñòÿ. Òåì íå ìåíåå, ñèáèðñêèå ñëóæèëûå êàçàêè
âûðàáîòàëè îïðåäåëåííûå òðàäèöèè ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ, êîòîðûå íà ïðîòÿæåíèè íåêîòîðîãî âðåìåíè ñî÷åòàëèñü ñ ôðîíòèðíûì ìåíòàëèòåòîì
ïîñåëåíöåâ.25 Òàêèì îáðàçîì, çäåñü íàáëþäàåòñÿ âçàèìîäåéñòâèå äâóõ
òèïîâ ôðîíòèðà.
Èíòåãðàöèÿ ôðîíòèðà ñ íà÷àëà XVIII â.
Åâðîïåèçàöèÿ Ðîññèè, êîòîðàÿ íà÷àëàñü â ñåðåäèíå XVII â. è áûëà
óñêîðåíà Ïåòðîì Âåëèêèì, èçìåíèëà ïðàâèëà èãðû íà ðîññèéñêîì âîñòî÷íîì è þæíîì ôðîíòèðàõ. Íà ïðàâàõ åâðîïåéñêîé äåðæàâû Ðîññèÿ
âîñïðèíÿëà èäåè ïðîãðåññà è mission civilisatrice ñðåäè îòñòàëûõ ÿçû÷íèêîâ Âîñòîêà. Êðåùåíèå îáúÿâëÿåòñÿ íåïðåìåííûì óñëîâèåì ïðîñâåùåíèÿ, à ïîíÿòèå èíîâåðöû ñìåíÿåò ñîáèðàòåëüíûé òåðìèí èíîçåìöû. Ðîññèÿ âîñïðèíÿëà òàêæå ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î öèâèëèçàöèîííîì
ïðåâîñõîäñòâå Åâðîïû è îòêðûòî ñëåäîâàëà ïðèìåðó çàïàäíîåâðîïåéñêîé ìèññèîíåðñêîé ïîëèòèêè, ñòðåìÿñü èçáàâèòüñÿ îò óïðåêîâ â âåäðåâíåéøèõ âðåìåí äî íàøèõ äíåé. Ò. 1-5. Ë., 1968-1969; Ludmila Thomas.
Geschichte Sibiriens. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Berlin, 1982; W. Bruce
Lincoln. Die Eroberung Sibiriens. München, Zürich, 1996.
24
Galya Diment and Yuri Slezkine (Eds.). Between Heaven and Hell. The Myth of
Siberia in Russian Culture. New York, 1993; Goehrke. Das “andere” Rußland.
25
Àëåêñàíäðîâ, Ïîêîðîâñêèé. Âëàñòü è îáùåñòâî. Ñ. 76-85, 309, 351-352.
59
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
ðîòåðïèìîñòè ê ìíîãî÷èñëåííûì íåðóññêèì ïîääàííûì èìïåðèè, êîòîðàÿ ðàññìàòðèâàëàñü â ïðîñâåùåííîé Åâðîïå êàê ñèìïòîì îòñòàëîñòè. Íà÷èíàÿ ñ XVIII ñòîëåòèÿ ïðîâîäèëàñü öåëåíàïðàâëåííàÿ ïðèíóäèòåëüíàÿ è ïîëóïðèíóäèòåëüíàÿ (ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ìàòåðèàëüíûõ
ñòèìóëîâ) õðèñòèàíèçàöèÿ ìíîãî÷èñëåííûõ àíèìèñòîâ Ñèáèðè è Ñðåäíåé Âîëãè. Ìèññèîíåðñêàÿ âîëíà çàòðîíóëà òàêæå ìóñóëüìàí è áóääèñòîâ, íî áîëüøèíñòâî èç íèõ ñìîãëî ñîõðàíèòü ñâîþ âåðó. Ýêîíîìè÷åñêîå áëàãîïîëó÷èå ìóñóëüìàíñêèõ ïîìåùèêîâ îêàçàëîñü ïîäîðâàííûì ïîñëå òîãî, êàê ãîñóäàðñòâî, â ïåðèîä ìåæäó 1682 è 1718 ãã., ëèøèëî èõ âñåõ âîò÷èí, çàñåëåííûõ çåìëåäåëüöàìè-õðèñòèàíàìè. Êðîìå òîãî, ïðè îòêàçå îò êðåùåíèÿ îíè óòðà÷èâàëè ñâîé äâîðÿíñêèé ñòàòóñ è ïðèïèñûâàëèñü ê ãîñóäàðñòâåííûì êðåñòüÿíàì èëè êóïå÷åñòâó.
 òî æå âðåìÿ áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü òàòàðñêèõ ñëóæèëûõ ëþäåé áûëà ïåðåâåäåíà â êàòåãîðèþ ëàøìàíîâ, êîòîðûå çàíèìàëèñü ëåñîçàãîòîâêîé äëÿ
ðîññèéñêîãî ôëîòà.26
Îäíîâðåìåííî ïðîèçîøëî èçìåíåíèå óñëîâèé íà ðîññèéñêîì ñòåïíîì ôðîíòèðå. Âîåííîå ïðåâîñõîäñòâî êî÷åâíèêîâ áûëî ñëîìëåíî –
îäíè çà äðóãèìè â ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ è ýêîíîìè÷åñêóþ çàâèñèìîñòü îò
Ðîññèè ïîïàäàþò íîãàéöû, êàëìûêè, êðûìñêèå òàòàðû è êàçàõè. Âîåííûé ôðîíòèð íà Þãå Ðîññèè ïîñòåïåííî ýâîëþöèîíèðóåò â ïîñåëåí÷åñêèé (settlement frontier), èìïåðñêàÿ “âàðâàðñêàÿ ãðàíèöà” – â
îñâîåííóþ ãðàíèöó (Erschließungsgrenze), è íà÷èíàåòñÿ çàñåëåíèå âîñòî÷íîñëàâÿíñêèìè êðåñòüÿíàìè ïëîäîðîäíîãî ñòåïíîãî ÷åðíîçåìüÿ.
Íàñòóïèëî âðåìÿ îæåñòî÷åííîé áîðüáû ìåæäó âîñòî÷íîñëàâÿñêèìè
ïîñåëåíöàìè è êî÷åâíèêàìè çà îáëàäàíèå çåìëÿìè íà ñåâåðå ñòåïíîé
çîíû, êîòîðûå èñïîëüçîâàëèñü êî÷åâûìè ñêîòîâîäàìè â êà÷åñòâå ëåòíèõ ïàñòáèù.  òî æå âðåìÿ, ïîñåëåíöû íå ïðåâðàùàëèñü áîëüøå â
êàçàêîâ, à îñòàâàëèñü íà ïîëîæåíèè êðåñòüÿí, íåêîòîðàÿ ÷àñòü êîòîðûõ (â åâðîïåéñêîé Ðîññèè) áûëè êðåïîñòíûìè.
Íîâàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ íà ñòåïíîé ãðàíèöå äåëàëà èçëèøíåé âîåííóþ ñëóæáó êàçàêîâ, è â êîíöå XVIII – íà÷àëå XIX ââ. êàçàöêèå ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ
áûëè èíòåãðèðîâàíû â ñîñòàâ ðîññèéñêîé àðìèè â êà÷åñòâå èððåãóëÿðíûõ âîéñê. Ñâîáîäíîå êàçà÷åñòâî ïðèðó÷èëè, è èç êâàçèäåìîêðàòè÷åñêîé àëüòåðíàòèâû è î÷àãà ñîöèàëüíîé ñìóòû îíî ïðåâðàòèëîñü â
âåðíîãî ñëóãó öàðèçìà: ïàðàäîêñàëüíûì îáðàçîì åãî èñïîëüçîâàëè â
êà÷åñòâå óñìèðèòåëÿ ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ è ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè26
Nolte. Religiöse Toleranz; Slezkine. Arctic Mirrors. Pp. 47-71; Kappeler. Rußlands
erste Nationalitäten. S. 270-287.
60
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
÷åñêèõ ïðîòåñòîâ ýïîõè ìîäåðíà. Íåñìîòðÿ íà îïèñàííûå èçìåíåíèÿ,
êàê ó êàçàêîâ, êîòîðûå ïîëó÷èëè ñòàòóñ ïðèâèëåãèðîâàííîãî âîåííîãî
ñîñëîâèÿ, òàê è ó (ðóññêèõ) ïîñåëåíöåâ Ñèáèðè ñîõðàíÿëèñü ñîöèîïîëèòè÷åñêèå è ìåíòàëüíûå îñîáåííîñòè, îòêëîíÿâøèåñÿ îò îáùåðóññêîé íîðìû.
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ôîðñèðîâàííàÿ åâðîïåèçàöèÿ Ðîññèè (íà÷èíàÿ ñ
Ïåòðà Âåëèêîãî) è åå âîåííàÿ ýêñïàíñèÿ â ñòåïíûõ ðåãèîíàõ íà þãå
ïðèâåëè ê êà÷åñòâåííûì èçìåíåíèÿì ôðîíòèðà. Ðåöåïöèÿ èäåè ïðîãðåññà è åâðîïåéñêîé mission civilisatrice óâåëè÷èëè ðàçðûâ ìåæäó
îñåäëûìè ðóññêèìè õðèñòèàíàìè è (êî÷åâûì) íåðóññêèì íàñåëåíèåì ñòåïåé è ëåñîâ. Àðèñòîêðàòèÿ êî÷åâíèêîâ óæå íå ðàññìàòðèâàëàñü êàê ðàâíîïðàâíûé ïàðòíåð, à êîðåííîå íàñåëåíèå Ñèáèðè ñ ñîáñòâåííûìè, êàê ïðàâèëî, ðàâíîçíà÷íûìè ðóññêèì, ñïîñîáàìè ëåñíîãî ïðîìûñëà è ñèñòåìîé öåííîñòåé, ëèøèëîñü ïðåæíåãî äîâåðèòåëüíîãî ê ñåáå îòíîøåíèÿ. Ïîä âîçäåéñòâèåì ñîâðåìåííûõ íîðìàòèâíûõ ìîäåëåé ïîñòóïàòåëüíîé ýâîëþöèè ÷åëîâå÷åñòâà îò ñòàäèè
îõîòíèêîâ, ñîáèðàòåëåé è êî÷åâûõ ñêîòîâîäîâ ê âûñøåé ñòàäèè îñåäëûõ çåìëåïàøöåâ, îõîòíèêè è êî÷åâíèêè ñòàëè ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ êàê
íåöèâèëèçîâàííûå äèêàðè, íàõîäÿùèåñÿ íà íèçøåé ñòàäèè ðàçâèòèÿ. Èõ íóæíî áûëî öèâèëèçîâûâàòü, ïðåâðàùàòü â îñåäëûõ êðåñòüÿí è ìèðíûõ ãðàæäàí.27 Âìåñòå ñ ïîòåðåé ôðîíòèðîì ñâîåãî çíà÷åíèÿ êàê çîíû êîíòàêòà è âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ, ðîñëà è äèñòàíöèÿ ìåæäó
îñåäëûìè ðóññêèìè õðèñòèàíàìè è íåõðèñòèàíñêèìè êî÷åâûìè ýòíîñàìè Àçèè. Ïîëèòèêó íà ñâîåé àçèàòñêîé ãðàíèöå Ðîññèÿ ñòðîèëà,
èñõîäÿ èç ïðèíöèïèàëüíîãî ïðèçíàíèÿ öèâèëèçàöèîííîãî ïðåâîñõîäñòâà Åâðîïû.28 Êëàññè÷åñêèé ôðîíòèð êàê çîíà âîåííîé êîíôðîíòàöèè, ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî è êóëüòóðíîãî êîíòàêòà ñìåíèëñÿ ñòðîãèì
èäåîëîãè÷åñêèì ôðîíòèðîì â ãîëîâàõ ëþäåé. Ðåøàþùèì êðèòåðèåì ñåãðåãàöèè â XIX â. ñòàíîâèòñÿ íå èíàêîâåðèå, à ÷óæäûå ôîðìû
ïîâñåäíåâíîé æèçíè è ðàñà. Îá ýòîì ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò íîâîå ïîíÿòèå
èíîðîäöû, ñìåíèâøåå “èíîâåðöåâ”, êîòîðûì îáîçíà÷àëèñü íå òîëüÑì.: Marc Raeff. Uniformity, Diversity, and the Imperial Administration in the Reign
of Catherine II // Osteuropa in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Festschrift für Günther Stökl
zum 60. Geburtstag. Köln, Wien 1977. S. 97-113; Dov B. Yaroshevsky. Attitudes towards the Nomads of the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great // A. G. Cross and
G. S. Smith (Eds.). Literature, Lives, and Legality in Catherine’s Russia. Nottingham,
1994. Pp. 15-24.
28
Bassin. Russia between Europe and Asia.
27
61
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
êî êî÷åâíèêè è îõîòíèêè, íî è îñåäëîå ìóñóëüìàíñêîå íàñåëåíèå
Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè è åâðåè.29
Ðîññèéñêèé ôðîíòèðíûé îïûò îáíàðóæèâàåò çàïàçäûâàíèå Ðîññèè
ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ îñòàëüíîé Åâðîïîé, çàïàçäûâàíèå, ïðè÷èíîé êîòîðîãî
áûëà äîëãàÿ îòêðûòîñòü êóëüòóðíîé è ðåëèãèîçíîé ãðàíèöû ìåæäó
ðóññêèìè è êî÷åâíèêàìè èëè íåõðèñòèàíñêèìè ýòíîñàìè. Õîòÿ Ðîññèÿ íà÷èíàÿ ñ XVIII ñòîëåòèÿ ñîçíàòåëüíî ïåðåíèìàëà åâðîïåéñêèå
öåííîñòè è êðèòåðèè ñåãðåãàöèè, ìóñóëüìàíå, áóääèñòû è ÷àñòü àíèìèñòîâ ñìîãëè èçáåæàòü õðèñòèàíèçàöèè, ðàâíî êàê è ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå êðåùåíûå íåðóññêèå íàðîäû ñóìåëè ñîõðàíèòü ñâîè ôîðìû ïîâñåäíåâíîé êóëüòóðû è ýòíè÷åñêóþ èäåíòè÷íîñòü âïëîòü äî ñåðåäèíû
XX â.
Ò¸ðíåðîâñêèé òåçèñ ôðîíòèðà è Ðîññèÿ
Ìîæíî ëè èñïîëüçîâàòü àíàëèòè÷åñêèé ïîòåíöèàë òåðíåðîâñêîãî
âëèÿòåëüíîãî è ñïîðíîãî òåçèñà î ôðîíòèðå, êîòîðûé óæå ïî÷òè ñòîëåòèå âäîõíîâëÿåò àìåðèêàíñêóþ èñòîðèîãðàôèþ, äëÿ îáúÿñíåíèÿ èñòîðèè Ðîññèè? Ñîâåðøåííî î÷åâèäíû ïàðàëëåëè àìåðèêàíñêîé è ðîññèéñêîé èñòîðèè, îñîáåííî â òîì, ÷òî êàñàåòñÿ ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèõ óñëîâèé (ñëîæíûé êëèìàò, íàëè÷èå ñâîáîäíîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, îòêðûòàÿ
ãðàíèöà), ïîäñòåãèâàâøèõ ìîáèëüíîñòü íàñåëåíèÿ. Åùå äî Ò¸ðíåðà
èçâåñòíûé ðóññêèé èñòîðèê Ñåðãåé Ñîëîâüåâ õàðàêòåðèçîâàë èñòîðèþ
Ðîññèè êàê èñòîðèþ “êîëîíèçèðóþùåãîñÿ ãîñóäàðñòâà” è âûäåëÿë îòêðûòîñòü ïðîñòðàíñòâà è ñâÿçàííóþ ñ íåé ìîáèëüíîñòü íàñåëåíèÿ â
êà÷åñòâå öåíòðàëüíûõ ýëåìåíòîâ ðàçâèòèÿ Ðîññèè. Åãî íå ìåíåå èçâåñòíûé ó÷åíèê, Âàñèëèé Êëþ÷åâñêèé, à òàêæå äðóãèå ðóññêèå èñòîðèêè ðàçäåëÿëè ýòó òî÷êó çðåíèÿ.  ýòîé ñâÿçè ïðèìå÷àòåëüíî çàìå÷àíèå
Ìàðêà Áýññèíà (Mark Bassin), êîòîðûé îáðàùàåò âíèìàíèå íà òî, ÷òî
ëîÿëüíûé ïîääàííûé è ëåãèòèìèðóþùèé àâòîêðàòèþ èñòîðèê Ñîëîâüåâ, â îòëè÷èå îò Ò¸ðíåðà, ñâÿçûâàåò ýòîò àñïåêò íå ñ ïîçèòèâíûìè
÷åðòàìè íàöèîíàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà, à ñ ïîëóàçèàòñêîé êâàçèîñåäëîñòüþ
è âûòåêàþùåé èç íåå îòñòàëîñòüþ Ðîññèè ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ äðóãèìè
åâðîïåéñêèìè ãîñóäàðñòâàìè.30
29
John W. Slocum. Who, and When, Were the Inorodtsy? The Evolution of the Category
of “Aliens” in Imperial Russia // Russian Review. 1998. Vol. 57. Pp. 173-190; Kappeler.
Rußland als Vielvölkerreich. S. 140-141, 166, 174, 225.
30
Ñì.: Bassin. Russia between Europe and Asia.
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Òåì íå ìåíåå, âïîëíå çàêîíîìåðåí âîïðîñ î âîçìîæíîñòè èíòåðïðåòàöèè àçèàòñêîé ñòåïíîé è ëåñíîé ãðàíèöû Ðîññèè ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè â ò¸ðíåðîâñêîì êëþ÷å. Ñâîáîäíîå êàçà÷åñòâî è ðóññêèå ïîñåëåíöû â Ñèáèðè îáëàäàëè ñõîæèìè ñ àìåðèêàíñêèìè ïîñåëåíöàìè ÷åðòàìè, òàêèìè êàê âîëüíîëþáèå, äóõ ïåðâîîòêðûâàòåëüñòâà, ñìåëîñòü, èíäèâèäóàëèçì, ñòðåìëåíèå ê ñàìîóïðàâëåíèþ è ðàâíîïðàâèþ.  îáîèõ
ñëó÷àÿõ îãðîìíóþ ðîëü èãðàëè ðåëèãèîçíûå ìåíüøèíñòâà è ñåêòû. Ýòè
ïîãðàíè÷íûå ñîîáùåñòâà â ðàííåì Íîâîì âðåìåíè ïðåäñòàâëÿëè àëüòåðíàòèâó ñîñëîâíî-àâòîêðàòè÷åñêîìó Ìîñêîâñêîìó ãîñóäàðñòâó è ìîãóò ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ (ïîäîáíî àíàëîãè÷íûì ñîîáùåñòâàì â Ñåâåðíîé
Àìåðèêå) êàê çàðîäûøè ïîëèòè÷åñêîé äåìîêðàòèè.31 Îäíàêî ýòè ñïåöèôè÷åñêèå ñîöèîïîëèòè÷åñêèå ñòðóêòóðû è ìåíòàëüíîñòè ôóíêöèîíèðîâàëè èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî íà ïîãðàíè÷íûõ òåððèòîðèÿõ è â Ñèáèðè è íå
ñìîãëè ðàñïðîñòðàíèòüñÿ íà âñþ Ðîññèþ. Íàïðîòèâ, ðàñøèðÿþùååñÿ
àáñîëþòèñòñêîå ãîñóäàðñòâî “íàñòèãëî” â XVIII – XIX ââ. ïåðèôåðèéíûå ñîîáùåñòâà, óñòàíîâèëî íàä íèìè ñâîé êîíòðîëü è èíòåãðèðîâàëî
èõ, ïî ìåíüøåé ìåðå ÷àñòè÷íî, â ñîñëîâíûé ñòðîé èìïåðèè.
Êàê ó êàçàêîâ, òàê è ó ñèáèðÿêîâ âïëîòü äî ñåðåäèíû XX â. ñîõðàíÿëèñü ýëåìåíòû îòëè÷íîé îò öåíòðà ñîöèîïîëèòè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû è
ôðîíòèðíîãî ìåíòàëèòåòà. Íå ñëó÷àéíî, ÷òî âñå çíà÷èòåëüíûå ðåãèîíàëèñòñêèå äâèæåíèÿ ïîçäíåé èìïåðèè íà÷èíàëèñü êàê ðàç ñðåäè äîíñêîãî êàçà÷åñòâà è ñèáèðñêèõ èíòåëëåêòóàëîâ.32 Èõ óäàëîñü ïîäàâèòü
òîëüêî â ñîâåòñêîå âðåìÿ. Íåñìîòðÿ íà ïðåäïðèíèìàåìûå â ïîñëåäíèå
ãîäû ïîïûòêè âîçðîæäåíèÿ ôðîíòèðíîãî ìåíòàëèòåòà, îíè íå âûõîäÿò çà ðàìêè æàíðà ôîëüêëîðíîãî øîó è èíòåëëåêòóàëüíûõ ïðîæåêòîâ.
Ñð. ïîäõîäû: Gerhard: The Frontier in Comparative View; Wieczynski. The Russian
Frontier.
32
Carsten Goehrke. Zum Problem des Regionalismus in der russischen Geschichte.
Vorüberlegungen für eine künftige Untersuchung // Forschungen zur osteuropäischen
Geschichte. 1978. Bd. 25. S. 75-107.
31
63
À. Êàïïåëåð, Þæíûé è âîñòî÷íûé ôðîíòèð Ðîññèè â XVI – XVIII âåêàõ
SUMMARY
The concept of the “frontier,” conceived by F.J. Turner for North America and applied to Eurasia by O. Lattimore and others, does not refer to a
state border, but to a transitional zone between different geographic, socioeconomic, political, religious and cultural spaces. From the15th to 18th centuries, the Russian steppe frontier in the south and southeast was a relatively stable military frontier between the sedentary Christian Russians and the
nomadic Muslim Turks and Lamaist Mongols. The frontier was simultaneously a zone of intensive commercial and diplomatic interaction. Only
during the 18th and 19th centuries did the steppe frontier become an area of
settlement and extraction. Another example, the forest frontier in Siberia,
was extractive frontier from the beginning, an area where an economy based
on furs and precious metals pushed the frontier rapidly forward. Only its
southern sections gradually became a settlement frontier.
On the steppe frontier, Russians and the militarily superior nomads were
generally on equal terms through the 18th century, whereas the Siberian indigenes were quickly subjugated by Russia and had to pay tributes in furs.
Along the rivers of the steppe frontier, the military frontier communities of
free Cossacks emerged on the forest frontier as trappers. Cossacks, tradesmen and settlers developed a “Siberian mentality” of free, enterprising pioneers. So the famous “Turner thesis” can be applied to Russia, but only to
the peripheral regions of the Cossacks and Siberia, and not to Russia as a
whole.
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Äýâèä Ä. ËÝÉÒÈÍ
×ÒÎ ÒÀÊÎÅ ßÇÛÊÎÂÎÅ ÑÎÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÎ*
Ýòíè÷åñêàÿ ãåòåðîãåííîñòü ÷àñòî èçîáðàæàåòñÿ êàê ìîùíûé èñòî÷íèê äåñòàáèëèçàöèè äåìîêðàòèé, ðåãèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîóòâåðæäåíèÿ è
ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû.  ñâîåé êëàññè÷åñêîé ðàáîòå î ïðèìîðäèàëüíîì
êîíôëèêòå Ãèðòö (Geertz)1 ðàññìàòðèâàåò åå êàê èñòî÷íèê ïîñòîÿííîãî íàïðÿæåíèÿ â áûâøèõ êîëîíèàëüíûõ ñòðàíàõ, îñâîáîäèâøèõñÿ ïîñëå
Âòîðîé ìèðîâîé âîéíû. Äàëü (Dahl)2 âèäèò â ýòíè÷åñêîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè ñåðüåçíîå ïðåïÿòñòâèå íà ïóòè ê óñïåõó äåìîêðàòèè. Ðýáóøêà è
Øåïñë (Rabushka and Shepsle)3 ìîäåëèðóþò ýòíè÷åñêóþ ãåòåðîãåííîñòü
òàêèì îáðàçîì, ÷òî â òî÷êå ðàâíîâåñèÿ îíà âåäåò ê ðàñïàäó äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèõ ðåæèìîâ. Êîííîð (Connor)4 âîñïðèíèìàåò åå êàê ôàêòîð, îáåñïå÷èâàþùèé âûñîêóþ âåðîÿòíîñòü ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû. Íî íå âñå èññëåäîâàíèÿ óâÿçûâàþò ãåòåðîãåííîñòü ñ ðàçíîãî ðîäà íåïðèÿòíûìè
ïîñëåäñòâèÿìè. Ëèïõàðò (Lijphart), íàïðèìåð, ïîêàçàë âîçìîæíîñòü
© Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Ïåðåâîä âûïîëíåí ñ ëþáåçíîãî ðàçðåøåíèÿ
èçäàòåëüñòâà è ïðîôåññîðà Äýâèäà Ëåéòèíà ïî èçäàíèþ: David Laitin. What is a
Language Community? // American Journal of Political Science. 2000. Vol. 44. No. 1.
Pp. 142-55.
Ïåðåâîä Àíäðåÿ Ìó÷íèêà ïîä ðåäàêöèåé Ñ. Ãëåáîâà è Ì. Ìîãèëüíåð.
1
Clifford Geertz. The Integrative Revolution // C. Geertz (Ed.) The Interpretation of
Cultures. New York, 1973.
2
Robert Dahl. Polyarchy. New Haven, 1971.
3
Alvin Rabushka, Kenneth Shepsle. Politics in Plural Societies: A Theory of Democratic
Instability. Columbus, 1972.
4
Walker Connor. Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding. Princeton, 1994.
*
65
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ äåìîêðàòèè (íåìàæîðèòàðíîãî òèïà) â óñëîâèÿõ êóëüòóðíîãî ïëþðàëèçìà.
Ñïîð î âëèÿíèè ýòíè÷åñêîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè íà ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ïðîöåññû ñîõðàíÿë ñâîþ àêòóàëüíîñòü íà ïðîòÿæåíèè ïî÷òè ñîðîêà ëåò.
Ñåðüåçíàÿ ïðîáëåìà ïðè ïðîâåðêå êîíêóðèðóþùèõ ãèïîòåç çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â îòñóòñòâèè îáùåïðèíÿòûõ ïðåäñòàâëåíèé î òîì, êàê èçìåðÿòü ñòåïåíü ýòíè÷åñêîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè â ðàìêàõ îäíîé ïîëèòèè èëè ñòåïåíü
ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó äâóìÿ ëþáûìè ýòíè÷åñêèìè ãðóïïàìè â òîé æå ïîëèòèè. Íà ïåðâûé âçãëÿä, êîýôôèöèåíò êîíöåíòðàöèè Õèðøìàíà-Õåðôèíäàëÿ (Hirschman-Herfindahl), èñïîëüçóåìûé äëÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ïàðòèé,
èäåàëüíî ïîäîøåë áû â êà÷åñòâå êîýôôèöèåíòà ýòíè÷åñêîé íåîäíîðîäíîñòè.5 Âñå, ÷òî òðåáóåòñÿ çíàòü äëÿ åãî ïðèìåíåíèÿ – ïðîöåíòíîå ñîäåðæàíèå êàæäîé ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû â îáùåé ìàññå íàñåëåíèÿ. Íî ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ðàçëè÷íûõ ýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðóïï ñîñ÷èòàòü ãîðàçäî ñëîæíåå, ÷åì
ãîëîñà, ïîäàííûå çà òó èëè èíóþ ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ ïàðòèþ. Íà äåëå, ÷åòêàÿ èäåíòèôèêàöèÿ ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû êàê åäèíîãî öåëîãî ÷àñòî ÿâëÿåòñÿ ðåçóëüòàòîì åå ìîáèëèçàöèè â îáñòàíîâêå ïîëèòè÷åñêîé íåñòàáèëüíîñòè è ðåãèîíàëüíûõ êîíôëèêòîâ èíòåðåñîâ. Ïðîáëåìà â òîì, ÷òî åñëè
ýòíè÷åñêàÿ ìîáèëèçàöèÿ áåðåòñÿ êàê êðèòåðèé îïðåäåëåíèÿ ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû, òî çíà÷åíèå íåçàâèñèìîé ïåðåìåííîé ñòàíîâèòñÿ çàâèñèìûì îò çíà÷åíèÿ çàâèñèìîé ïåðåìåííîé. Çàäà÷à ìåòîäîëîãèè â äàííîì
ñëó÷àå çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â ðàçðàáîòêå ýôôåêòèâíûõ èíäèêàòîðîâ ýòíè÷åñêîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè, êîòîðûå áóäóò íåçàâèñèìû îò íàøèõ íàáëþäåíèé
çà çàâèñèìûìè (è èíòåðïðåòèðóåìûìè íàìè æå) ïåðåìåííûìè.
Îäíî èç ðåøåíèé ýòîé ïðîáëåìû – èñïîëüçîâàíèå ÿçûêà â êà÷åñòâå
ïîêàçàòåëÿ ýòíè÷åñêîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè. Ïðîöåíò íàñåëåíèÿ, ÷åé èñòîðè÷åñêèé ÿçûê âàëëèéñêèé, êàòàëîíñêèé èëè ëóî, òàêèì îáðàçîì,
çàìåíÿåò áîëåå ñóáúåêòèâíûé ïîäñ÷åò ïðîöåíòíîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ âàëëèéöåâ, êàòàëîíöåâ èëè ëóî â íàñåëåíèè ñîîòâåòñòâåííî Âåëèêîáðèòàíèè, Èñïàíèè èëè Êåíèè. Òàêîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå äàííûõ î ÿçûêîâîé
ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè ïîçâîëÿåò íàì èçìåðèòü êàê ñòåïåíü ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ãðóïïû âíóòðè ïîëèòèè, òàê è ñòåïåíü êóëüòóðíûõ ðàçëè÷èé ìåæÈíäåêñ Õèðøìàíà-Õåðôèíäàëÿ øèðîêî èñïîëüçóåòñÿ â ñîöèàëüíûõ íàóêàõ äëÿ
èñ÷èñëåíèÿ êîíöåíòðàöèè ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ, ñîöèàëüíûõ è ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ôåíîìåíîâ. Íàèáîëåå øèðîêîå ïðèìåíåíèå èíäåêñà îòìå÷àåòñÿ â ýêîíîìåòðèêå äëÿ âû÷èñëåíèÿ ðûíî÷íîé êîíöåíòðàöèè, äëÿ ÷åãî èñ÷èñëÿåòñÿ ñóììà êâàäðàòîâ ñòîèìîñòåé àêöèé êîìïàíèé, ïðåäñòàâëåííûõ íà îïðåäåëåííîì ñåêòîðå ðûíêà. Êðîìå
òîãî, èíäåêñ èñïîëüçóåòñÿ äëÿ âû÷èñëåíèÿ êîíöåíòðàöèè ãîðîäñêèõ ïîñåëåíèé,
êîíöåíòðàöèè ñòîðîííèêîâ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïàðòèè è ò.ä. – Ïðèìå÷àíèå ðåäàêöèè.
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äó ýòíè÷åñêèìè ãðóïïàìè (èçìåðÿÿ ñòðóêòóðíûå ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó ÿçûêàìè). Ðàçóìååòñÿ, â ìèðå åñòü ìíîæåñòâî ïðèìåðîâ òîãî, ÷òî ýòíè÷åñêàÿ äèôôåðåíöèàöèÿ ìîæåò áûòü îñíîâàíà íà íåÿçûêîâûõ êðèòåðèÿõ.
Òåì íå ìåíåå, ó ÿçûêà êàê êðèòåðèÿ äèôôåðåíöèàöèè åñòü îäíî ïðåèìóùåñòâî – ýòî ïðèçíàê, êîòîðûé ìîæíî èçìåðèòü íåçàâèñèìî îò çàâèñèìûõ ïåðåìåííûõ. Ïåðåìåííûå ýòè èíòåðåñóþò, ïðåæäå âñåãî, ïîëèòîëîãîâ, çàíèìàþùèõñÿ ýòíè÷åñêèìè ïðîáëåìàìè, â òî âðåìÿ êàê
êëàññèôèêàöèÿ ïî ÿçûêîâîìó ïðèçíàêó ïîçâîëÿåò ïðîâåñòè ïîëåçíûå
ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèå òåñòû ïîëó÷åííîé òåîðèè.
Ïðåäëîæåííîå ðåøåíèå, äàæå åñëè îíî èãíîðèðóåò ýòíè÷åñêèå äåëåíèÿ, íå îñíîâàííûå íà ÿçûêå, íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïîëíîñòüþ óäîâëåòâîðèòåëüíûì. Âî-ïåðâûõ, èçìåðåíèå ÿçûêîâîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè ñîäåðæèò â
ñåáå íå ìåíüøå ïðîáëåì, ÷åì èçìåðåíèå ýòíè÷åñêîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè.
Íàïðèìåð, â áàçå äàííûõ “Ìåíüøèíñòâà ïîä óãðîçîé”, ñîñòàâëåííîé
Ãóððîì (Gurr), ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå ðàçëè÷èÿ (çàêîäèðîâàííûå êàê
CULDFX2) èìåþò ïîëîæèòåëüíîå è ñòàòèñòè÷åñêè çíà÷èìîå ñîîòíîøåíèå ñ óðîâíåì ýòíè÷åñêîãî íåäîâîëüñòâà ïî ðàçíûì ñïåöèôèêàöèÿì.  ñòàòüå, îïóáëèêîâàííîé â 1999 ã., ÿ ïðèøåë ê âûâîäó, ÷òî èçìåðåíèÿ ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè, ïðåäñòàâëåííûå Ãóððîì, íåïîñëåäîâàòåëüíû îò ñëó÷àÿ ê ñëó÷àþ.6 Èñïîëüçóÿ ïàðàìåòðû, ïîëó÷åííûå
Ãðàéìñîì (Grimes) â Ethnologue,7 ÿ ïåðåñìîòðåë ìîäåëè Ãóððà è ïðèøåë ê âûâîäó, ÷òî ÿçûêîâûå ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó ìåíüøèíñòâîì è áîëüøèíñòâîì â ïîëèòèè äîñòàòî÷íî âûðàæåííî êîððåëèðóþò ñ íèçøèìè
óðîâíÿìè íåäîâîëüñòâà ýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðóïï. Êîãäà èçìåíåííûé ïàðàìåòð
ïåðåìåííîé ìåíÿåò çíàê çàâèñèìîñòè, íåîáõîäèìà äîðàáîòêà îïðåäåëåíèÿ ñàìîé ïåðåìåííîé.8
David D. Laitin. Language Conflict and Violence / Unpublished manuscript. University
of Chicago.
7
Barbara F. Grimes (Ed.). Ethnologue: Languages of The World. 13th ed. Dallas, 1996.
8
Ýòó ñíîñêó ìîæíî ñ÷èòàòü ìîèì âîçðàæåíèåì Ãóððó. Áàçà äàííûõ “Ìåíüøèíñòâà ïîä óãðîçîé”, ñîñòàâëåííàÿ Ãóððîì, ðàçìåùåíà â ñåòè Èíòåðíåò: http://
www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/. Êîäèðîâàííàÿ èíôîðìàöèÿ Ethnologue íàõîäèòñÿ
â ïðîöåññå àðõèâàöèè, íî ïðåäâàðèòåëüíûå êîäèðîâêè, èñïîëüçóåìûå â äàííîé
ðàáîòå, ìîæíî ïîëó÷èòü ó àâòîðà. Îïðîñû â áûâøèõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ ÑÑÑÐ, èñïîëüçóåìûå çäåñü â öåëÿõ èëëþñòðàöèè, áûëè ïðîâåäåíû ìíîé è Äæåððè Õüþ â ðàìêàõ ôèíàíñèðîâàâøåãîñÿ NSF ïðîåêòà “Íàöèîíàëüíîñòü è ïîëèòèêà: ðàñïàä Ñîâåòñêîãî Ñîþçà” POLS/SES92125768. Ïîäðîáíîñòè îïðîñîâ èçëîæåíû â Ïðèëîæåíèè ê äàííîé ñòàòüå. Äàííûå îïðîñîâ ðàçìåùåíû â ñåòè Èíòåðíåò: ftp://
ftp.spc.uchicago.edu/data/laitin. Äàííûå ïî ïåðåïèñè ÿ âçÿë èç Results of the 1989
USSR Population Census. CD-ROM format. East View Publications.
6
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Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
Ïðèâåäó äðóãîé ïðèìåð. Ëà Ïîðòà (La Porta) è ñîàâòîðû,9 îïèðàÿñü
íà ìíîæåñòâî îáúÿñíèòåëüíûõ ïåðåìåííûõ, ñ÷èòàþò “ýòíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêóþ ôðàãìåíòàöèþ” âàæíûì ïðåäâåñòíèêîì ïëîõîãî ïðàâëåíèÿ, êîòîðîå, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, ïðèâîäèò ê ñíèæåíèþ óðîâíÿ äîõîäà íà äóøó
íàñåëåíèÿ. Äàííûå ýòèõ àâòîðîâ îñíîâàíû íà èñòî÷íèêàõ, ñîäåðæàùèõ
îáùóþ îöåíêó îòíîñèòåëüíîé ÷èñëåííîñòè ãðóïï, ýòíè÷åñêàÿ ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü êîòîðûõ áàçèðóåòñÿ íà ÿçûêå, à ýòè äàííûå ñèëüíî îòëè÷àþòñÿ îò ðåàëüíîãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ÿçûêà â ðå÷è èëè ÿçûêîâîé êîìïåòåíòíîñòè îòäåëüíûõ ëþäåé. Àâòîðû òàêæå íå ïðèíèìàþò âî âíèìàíèå òî,
÷òî ïðè “ïëîõîì ïðàâëåíèè” â õîäå ïåðåïèñè ëþäè ñêëîííû ïîä÷åðêèâàòü ñâîè ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå îòëè÷èÿ îò ïðàâÿùåé ãðóïïû. Åñëè ýòî òàê,
òî ïàðàìåòð èçìåðåíèÿ ôðàãìåíòàöèè, âûâåäåííûé Ëà Ïîðòîé, ÿâëÿåòñÿ ýíäîãåííûì “êà÷åñòâó ïðàâëåíèÿ”, ò.å. èçìåíÿåìîé ïåðåìåííîé. Áåç
èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ íåçàâèñèìûõ äàííûõ îá èíäèâèäóàëüíûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðàõ äîâîëüíî ñëîæíî óñòàíîâèòü ïðè÷èííóþ çàâèñèìîñòü ìåæäó ýòíè÷åñêîé ôðàãìåíòàöèåé è êà÷åñòâîì ïðàâëåíèÿ.
Âòîðàÿ ïðîáëåìà ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ÿçûêîâûõ äàííûõ êàê ïîêàçàòåëÿ
ýòíè÷åñêîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòè çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî ïðè ýòîì ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ îòîæäåñòâëåíèå èíäèâèäóóìàìè ñåáÿ ñ îïðåäåëåííûìè ýòíè÷åñêèìè èëè ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèìè ãðóïïàìè. Íî ó ëþäåé îáû÷íî åñòü íåñêîëüêî
óðîâíåé ýòíè÷åñêîãî íàñëåäèÿ, è â ðàçíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ îíè ìîãóò èñïîëüçîâàòü íàèáîëåå ïîäõîäÿùèå ýëåìåíòû ýòîãî íàñëåäèÿ. Ñõîæèì îáðàçîì,
äëÿ ìíîãèõ ëþäåé ïî âñåìó ìèðó õàðàêòåðåí ñëîæíûé ÿçûêîâîé ðåïåðòóàð, îíè ìîãóò äîñòàòî÷íî ýôôåêòèâíî îáùàòüñÿ â ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ êóëüòóðíûõ ñðåäàõ.  ýòîì ñâåòå áûëî áû ïîëåçíûì èìåòü èíôîðìàöèþ î
ñòåïåíè ýôôåêòèâíîñòè îáùåíèÿ ëþäåé â ðàìêàõ îäíîé ïîëèòèè, ÷òî
ñëóæèëî áû ïîêàçàòåëåì íàëè÷èÿ îáùåãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñîîáùåñòâà.
Êàðë Äîé÷ (Karl Deutsch) äàâíî ïèñàë î òîì, ÷òî íåîáõîäèìî ñîáèðàòü
äàííûå î ïîÿâëåíèè òàêèõ ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ, è ïîñâÿòèë ýòîìó ñîáñòâåííóþ êàðüåðó. Òåì íå ìåíåå, îí òàê è íå äåòàëèçèðîâàë ñâîå îïðåäåëåíèå “ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà” ñ êîëè÷åñòâåííîé òî÷êè çðåíèÿ.10
 îáëàñòè ëèíãâèñòèêè áûëà ïðåäïðèíÿòà ïàðàëëåëüíàÿ ïîïûòêà
îáðèñîâàòü “ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî” ñòàòèñòè÷åñêè.11 Ïðåäëîæåííûå
Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes, Andrei Shleifer, Robert Vishny. The
Quality of Government. Presented to the Research Workshop in Political Economy.
Harvard University, 1998.
10
Karl Deutsch. Nationalism and Social Communication. Cambridge, 1954.
11
Joseph H. Greenberg. The Measurement of Linguistic Diversity // Language. 1956.
Vol. 32. Pp. 109-115.
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Ãðèíáåðãîì (Greenberg) ñïåöèôèêàöèè ýòîãî ôåíîìåíà áûëè ïðàêòè÷åñêè ïðîèãíîðèðîâàíû åãî êîëëåãàìè. Åãî èçìåðåíèÿ ïðèâëåêëè íåêîòîðûõ ñîöèîëîãîâ-ýìïèðèêîâ,12 íî çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ
íåêîé âåðñèè èíäåêñà Õèðøìàíà-Õåðôèíäàëÿ, êîòîðûé ñõîäåí ñ ïåðâûì èíäåêñîì Ãðèíáåðãà, ïîëèòîëîãè ê íèì íå îáðàùàëèñü.  íàñòîÿùåé ðàáîòå ÿ õî÷ó ïðåäëîæèòü ñõåìó âîçìîæíûõ èíäèêàòîðîâ äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçëè÷èÿ è ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà, îòòàëêèâàÿñü îò êëàññè÷åñêèõ ïàðàìåòðîâ ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ
Ãðèíáåðãà, êîòîðûå ïîçæå áûëè ðàçâèòû Ëèáåðñîíîì (Lieberson). Òàê
êàê ãîñóäàðñòâà, ìåæäóíàðîäíûå îðãàíèçàöèè è òðàíñíàöèîíàëüíûå
êîðïîðàöèè íå ïðîÿâèëè âíèìàíèÿ ê ñáîðó èíôîðìàöèè î ÿçûêîâûõ
ðåïåðòóàðàõ íàñåëåíèÿ, à ñîöèîëîãè, ñî ñâîåé ñòîðîíû, òîæå íå ïðåäïðèíèìàëè îñîáûõ óñèëèé â ýòîì íàïðàâëåíèè, ñáîð èíôîðìàöèè ïî
íåêîòîðûì èç ïðåäëîæåííûõ íèæå ïàðàìåòðîâ ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ íåïîñèëüíûì ïðîåêòîì.13 Ïîýòîìó ÿ íàäåþñü, ÷òî åñëè îäèí èëè äâà èç
ïðåäëîæåííûõ â äàííîé ðàáîòå ïàðàìåòðîâ â ïðîöåññå ïðåäâàðèòåëüíîãî àíàëèçà îáíàðóæàò ýâðèñòè÷åñêèé ïîòåíöèàë, âîçíèêíåò èíñòèòóöèîíàëèçèðîâàííûé èíòåðåñ ê ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêîìó ñáîðó äàííûõ äëÿ
ïîäîáíûõ èçìåðåíèé.
Íî ïðåæäå ÷åì ðàçáèðàòüñÿ ñ èçìåðåíèÿìè, çàäàäèìñÿ âîïðîñîì:
ïî÷åìó ïðîãðàììà Ãðèíáåðãà íèêîãäà íå áûëà ðåàëèçîâàíà â îáëàñòè
ëèíãâèñòèêè? Âîçìîæíî, ëèíãâèñòàì èçâåñòíî î ÿçûêå íå÷òî òàêîå,
÷òî ïîçâîëÿåò èì èãíîðèðîâàòü ïîïûòêè èçìåðèòü ñòàòèñòè÷åñêè òàêèå ñîöèàëüíûå ôàêòû, êàê ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîå ðàçíîîáðàçèå íàñåëåíèÿ?
Áåçóñëîâíî, ïðè ïîäñ÷åòå ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ ëþäåé âîçíèêàþò îãðîìíûå êîíöåïòóàëüíûå ïðîáëåìû. Ëèíãâèñòû îòêàçàëèñü îò òàêèõ
Stanley Lieberson. Language Diversity and Language Contact: Essays by Stanley
Lieberson. Stanford, 1981.
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Äëÿ ãîñóäàðñòâ ñáîð èíôîðìàöèè î ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðàõ âî âðåìÿ ïåðåïèñåé
ÿâëÿëñÿ òîëüêî äîïîëíèòåëüíîé ãîëîâíîé áîëüþ. Íàïðèìåð, â Áåëüãèè
ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêàÿ ÷àñòü ïåðåïèñè áûëà çàïðåùåíà â 1961 ãîäó èç-çà ïîëèòè÷åñêîé
íàïðÿæåííîñòè. Íåóäèâèòåëüíî, ÷òî èçäàòåëè òîìà î áèëèíãâèçìå â Áðþññåëå
ñåòîâàëè íà ñëîæíîñòè ïðîâåäåíèÿ èññëåäîâàíèÿ ãîðîäñêîãî áèëèíãâèçìà. Ñì.:
Hugo Baetens Berdsmore, Els Witte. The Interdisciplinary Study of Urban Bilingualism
in Brussels. Philadelphia, 1987. P.3. Îíè íå ñìîãëè ïðåäîñòàâèòü èñ÷åðïûâàþùèõ
äàííûõ î äåéñòâèòåëüíîì óðîâíå ñîâðåìåííîãî áèëèíãâèçìà. Î ïðîáëåìàõ,
ñâÿçàííûõ ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì îáùèõ äàííûõ ïåðåïèñåé â èçó÷åíèè áèëèíãâèçìà,
ñì.: Stanley Lieberson. How Can We Describe and Measure the Incidence and
Distribution of Bilingualism ?// L. G. Kelly (Ed.). Description and Measurement of
Bilingualism, 1969.
12
69
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
áàçîâûõ òåðìèíîâ, êàê “ðîäíîé ÿçûê”, ïîòîìó ÷òî â ðàçíûõ êîíòåêñòàõ
îíè îòíîñÿòñÿ ê ðàçíûì ôåíîìåíàì. Ìíîãèå ëþäè, èäåíòèôèöèðóþùèå ñåáÿ ñ ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïîé, ÷åé ÿçûê íàõîäèòñÿ íà ãðàíè èñ÷åçíîâåíèÿ,14 áóäóò íàçûâàòü ýòîò ÿçûê ðîäíûì, äàæå åñëè îíè íà íåì ñîâñåì
íå ãîâîðÿò. Ñàì òåðìèí “ÿçûê” (â îòëè÷èå îò “äèàëåêòà”) íå èìååò ÷åòêîãî çíà÷åíèÿ. Ýòíè÷åñêèå ãðóïïû, äîáèâàþùèåñÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé àâòîíîìèè îò ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî öåíòðà, â ðÿäå ñëó÷àåâ ïåðåñòàþò âîñïðèíèìàòü ñâîé ÿçûê êàê äèàëåêò äîìèíàíòíîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ÿçûêà è
íà÷èíàþò ñ÷èòàòü åãî îòäåëüíûì ÿçûêîì. Ëèíãâèñòû, êîòîðûå ïîíèìàþò, ÷òî ìåæäó ÿçûêàìè è äèàëåêòàìè íåò ÷åòêèõ ãðàíèö, íå èìåþò òåõíè÷åñêèõ êðèòåðèåâ äëÿ îöåíêè òàêîãî óòâåðæäåíèÿ. Åñëè ïîëàãàòüñÿ
íà çàâåðåíèÿ “ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëåé îò êóëüòóðû”, ïîëèòè÷åñêèå óñëîâèÿ
(ïîÿâëåíèå ñåïàðàòèñòñêîãî äâèæåíèÿ, óáåäèâøåãî ñâîèõ ïîñëåäîâàòåëåé ñ÷èòàòü îòäåëüíûì ÿçûêîì òî, ÷òî ðàíåå ñ÷èòàëîñü äèàëåêòîì) ìîãóò èçìåíèòü ñòåïåíü ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ ñòðàíû, íå ìåíÿÿ ÿçûêîâûå ðåïåðòóàðû íàñåëåíèÿ. Äàæå åñëè áû ñóùåñòâîâàëè ÷åòêèå êðèòåðèè äëÿ èäåíòèôèêàöèè ÿçûêîâ, ïðîáëåìû áû âñå ðàâíî îñòàëèñü.
Ëþäè – î÷åíü ïëîõîé èñòî÷íèê èíôîðìàöèè î ñâîèõ ñîáñòâåííûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðàõ. Ìíîãèå ëãóò (îñîáåííî âëàñòÿì) î ñâîåé ñïîñîáíîñòè ãîâîðèòü íà îïðåäåëåííûõ ÿçûêàõ, äðóãèå ïðîñòî íå çíàþò, êàêèå
ÿçûêè (èëè ôîðìû ðå÷è) îíè èñïîëüçóþò â ðàçëè÷íûõ êîíòåêñòàõ. Åùå
áîëåå ñåðüåçíóþ ïðîáëåìó ïðåäñòàâëÿåò òîò ôàêò, ÷òî ëþäè ÷àñòî íåäîîöåíèâàþò ñâîè ñïîñîáíîñòè ãîâîðèòü íà ÿçûêå ñ âûñîêèì ñòàòóñîì (íàïðèìåð, ìàëàéñêèé èëè êèòàéñêèé ÿçûêè) è îäíîâðåìåííî ïåðåîöåíèâàþò ñïîñîáíîñòè îáùàòüñÿ íà ÿçûêå ñ íèçêèì ñòàòóñîì (êèêóéþ èëè
ñóàõèëè). Òàêèì îáðàçîì, äîâîëüíî òÿæåëî íàéòè ýôôåêòèâíûå ïîêàçàòåëè ðàçëè÷íîé ÿçûêîâîé êîìïåòåíòíîñòè â ðàìêàõ åäèíîãî ÿçûêîâîãî
ðåïåðòóàðà. Ïðèíèìàÿ âî âíèìàíèå çíàíèÿ, íàêîïëåííûå â îáëàñòè ëèíãâèñòèêè, è ó÷èòûâàÿ îñîáåííîñòè âîñïðèÿòèÿ ëþäüìè ñâîèõ ñïîñîáíîñòåé îáùàòüñÿ íà íåêîòîðûõ ÿçûêàõ, íå áóäåò ëè ñàìîíàäåÿííîé ëþáàÿ ïîïûòêà ñîáðàòü íàäåæíûå îáðàçöû ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ? Ðàçâå
ëèíãâèñòû íå ïðåäóïðåæäàëè íàñ î òùåòíîñòè ïîäîáíûõ óñèëèé?
Ñì.: E. John Joseph. Eloquence and Power. New York, 1987. P. 1-3.  êà÷åñòâå
êðèòåðèåâ, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ îòäåëèòü ÿçûêè îò äèàëåêòîâ, Äæîçåô ó÷èòûâàåò
ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ôàêòîðû (êîíòðîëü íàä òåððèòîðèåé ðåãèîíà), ñòðóêòóðíîå îòëè÷èå
îò äðóãèõ ÿçûêîâ, äëèòåëüíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ÿçûêà â îáðàçîâàíèè, ïå÷àòè è â äðóãèõ
ïðåñòèæíûõ ñôåðàõ. Îäíàêî Äæîçåô ïðèçíàåò, ÷òî ïåðå÷èñëåííûå êðèòåðèè
âûäåëåíû ad hoc è ÷òî “åùå íèêòî íå ïðåóñïåë â âûäåëåíèè êîíêðåòíîãî
ðàöèîíàëüíîãî êðèòåðèÿ” ðàçëè÷åíèÿ ÿçûêîâ è äèàëåêòîâ.
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Îäíàêî òðóäíîñòè, âîçíèêàþùèå ïðè ïîëó÷åíèè íàäåæíîé èíôîðìàöèè î ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðàõ, íå áûëè åäèíñòâåííîé ïðè÷èíîé, ïî
êîòîðîé ëèíãâèñòû îòêàçàëèñü îò èçó÷åíèÿ ýòîé ïðîáëåìû.  1960-å ãã.,
êîãäà â îáùåñòâåííûõ íàóêàõ çíà÷èòåëüíûå ñóììû äåíåã òðàòèëèñü íà
èçó÷åíèå ðàçëè÷íûõ ñòðàí, ëèíãâèñòèêà â ÑØÀ ïåðåæèâàëà ïèê íàó÷íîé ðåâîëþöèè, ëèäåðîì êîòîðîé áûë Íîýì Õîìñêèé (Noam
Chomsky).15 Ãëàâíîå âíèìàíèå ëèíãâèñòîâ áûëî ñîñðåäîòî÷åíî òîãäà
íà êîíöåïöèè óíèâåðñàëüíîãî ÿçûêà, îòðàæàþùåãî óíèêàëüíîå ñâîéñòâî ÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî ìîçãà.  èññëåäîâàòåëüñêèõ ïðîãðàììàõ àìåðèêàíñêèõ ëèíãâèñòîâ, îñîáåííî íà ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ôàêóëüòåòàõ óíèâåðñèòåòîâ, äîëÿ íàó÷íûõ ïðîåêòîâ ïî èçó÷åíèþ îòäåëüíûõ ÿçûêîâ èëè
ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ òåõ, êòî íà ýòèõ ÿçûêàõ ãîâîðèò, ðåçêî ïîøëà íà
ñïàä. Ó÷åíûå, èíòåðåñîâàâøèåñÿ ÿçûêîâûìè ðåïåðòóàðàìè, ÷òî òåïåðü
èìåíîâàëîñü “êîììóíèêàöèîííîé ýòíîãðàôèåé”,16 íàøëè ïðèþò íà
ôàêóëüòåòàõ àíòðîïîëîãèè è ñîöèîëîãèè.  àíòðîïîëîãèè ìèêðîàíàëèç êîììóíèêàöèè â ìíîãîÿçû÷íûõ êîíòåêñòàõ ñòàë ãëàâíîé èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîé òåõíèêîé. Ìíîãèå âàæíûå âûâîäû, ïîêàçûâàþùèå êîíòåêñòóàëüíóþ ïðèðîäó ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ, áûëè ïîëó÷åíû â ðåçóëüòàòå òàêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé.  ñîöèîëîãèè ãëàâíûìè ÿâëÿëèñü ïðîáëåìû
ÿçûêîâîãî ïëàíèðîâàíèÿ17 è ñîõðàíåíèÿ ñòàòóñà óìèðàþùèõ ÿçûêîâ.18
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñïåöèàëèñòû â îáëàñòè ëèíãâèñòèêè, àíòðîïîëîãèè è
ñîöèîëîãèè, çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì Ëèáåðñîíà, ïðîÿâëÿëè íåäîñòàòî÷íûé
èíòåðåñ ê ïðîáëåìàòèêå ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ â ðàçíûõ ñòðàíàõ.
ßçûêîâîé ðåïåðòóàð, ò.å. íàáîð ðå÷åâûõ ôîðì, êîòîðûìè âëàäååò
÷åëîâåê, – ýòî, êîíå÷íî, íå âñå, ÷òî îïðåäåëÿåò ÿçûê.  êîíöå êîíöîâ,
ÿçûê – ýòî íå òîëüêî ñïîñîá îáùåíèÿ, íî è ìàðêåð èäåíòè÷íîñòè, à â
ñâîåì ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîì âûðàæåíèè – è êóëüòóðíûé èíñòèòóò.19 Ðàçëè÷èÿ â óðîâíå âëàäåíèÿ ÿçûêàìè íå ÿâëÿþòñÿ åäèíñòâåííîé ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé îñíîâîé ãðóïïîâîãî êîíôëèêòà. Ñòàòóñíàÿ ðàçíèöà â ðå÷åâûõ
ôîðìàõ (íàçâàííàÿ Ôåðãþñîíîì â 1959 ã. “äèãëîññèåé”, ÷òî îçíà÷àåò
Noam Chomsky. Syntactic Structures. The Hague, 1957.
John Gumperz and Dell Hymes (Eds.). Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication. New York, 1972.
17
Joan Rubin and Bjorn Jernudd. Can Languages Be Planned? Hawaii, 1971.
18
Joshua Fishman. The Sociology of Language. Rowley, Mass., 1972.
19
David D. Laitin. Politics, Language and Thought. Chicago, 1977; John Lucy. Grammatical Categories and the Development of Classification Preferences: A Comparative
Approach // S. Levinson and M. Bowerman (Eds.). Language Acquisition and Conceptual Development. Cambridge, 1999.
15
16
71
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
âûòåñíåíèå íîñèòåëÿìè áîëåå “âûñîêîé” ôîðìû ÿçûêà íîñèòåëåé “íèçêîé” ôîðìû èç îïðåäåëåííûõ ñôåð äèñêóðñà20) ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïîòåíöèàëüíûì èñòî÷íèêîì êîíôëèêòà ìåæäó ðàçíûìè ÿçûêîâûìè ãðóïïàìè. Â
íàñòîÿùåé ñòàòüå ÿ ðàññìîòðþ òîëüêî ïðîáëåìó èçìåðåíèÿ ÿçûêîâûõ
ðåïåðòóàðîâ. Õîòÿ ïðåäëàãàåìûå ìíîé èíäèêàòîðû è íå çàòðîíóò íåêîòîðûõ èäåíòè÷íîñòíûõ, êóëüòóðíûõ è ñòàòóñíûõ àñïåêòîâ ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, îíè, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, ïîçâîëÿò ïîëèòîëîãàì ðàçãðàíè÷èòü òàêèå àñïåêòû ÿçûêà, êàê êîììóíèêàöèÿ è ñîöèàëüíàÿ ìîáèëüíîñòü (â ðàáîòå Ãåëëíåðà (Gellner) ïîä÷åðêèâàþòñÿ èìåííî ýòè àñïåêòû21 ), îò òàêèõ, êàê èäåíòè÷íîñòü, êóëüòóðà è ñòàòóñ.
Èñõîäÿ èç ýòèõ ñîîáðàæåíèé, ÿ ïîïûòàþñü îæèâèòü èíòåðåñ ê ïðîãðàììå Ãðèíáåðãà, àäàïòèðîâàâ åå ê íóæäàì ñîâðåìåííîé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé òåîðèè. Ïðèçíàþñü ñðàçó, ÷òî ðÿä êîíöåïòóàëüíûõ ïðîáëåì èçìåðåíèÿ ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ, íåîäíîêðàòíî ïîä÷åðêèâàâøèõñÿ ëèíãâèñòàìè, ìíîþ òàê è íå áûëè ðàçðåøåíû. ß òàêæå ïðèçíàþ, ÷òî íå âñå
àñïåêòû ÿçûêà ïðèñóòñòâóþò â ïðåäëàãàåìûõ ìíîé èíäèêàòîðàõ. Íî
òåîðåòè÷åñêàÿ ïîòðåáíîñòü â äàííûõ, îòðàæàþùèõ ñòåïåíü ñîîòâåòñòâèÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé åäèíèöû “ÿçûêîâîìó ñîîáùåñòâó”, ïîáóæäàåò ìåíÿ
íà÷àòü äèñêóññèþ â ïîëèòîëîãèè î ëó÷øåì ñïîñîáå êîíñòðóèðîâàíèÿ
òàêîé áàçû äàííûõ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ýòà ðàáîòà ìîæåò ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ
êàê ïðèçûâ ê äèñêóññèè âíóòðè äèñöèïëèíû è îäíîâðåìåííî – êàê
âûäâèæåíèå íîâûõ êðèòåðèåâ èçìåðåíèÿ “ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà”.
Ýìïèðè÷åñêèì ìàòåðèàëîì äëÿ ýòîé ñòàòüè ïîñëóæàò îïðîñû, ïðîâåäåííûå ìíîé â ãîðîäàõ øåñòè ðåñïóáëèê áûâøåãî Ñîâåòñêîãî Ñîþçà, äîïîëíåííûå èíôîðìàöèåé ñîâåòñêîé ïåðåïèñè 1989 ã. Ïîñêîëüêó îïðîñ íå áûë ðàçðàáîòàí ñïåöèàëüíî äëÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿ òîãî, ÿâëÿëèñü ëè ñîâåòñêèå ðåñïóáëèêè ÿçûêîâûìè ñîîáùåñòâàìè, ïîëó÷åííûå
äàííûå íåëüçÿ íàçâàòü àáñîëþòíî ïîäõîäÿùèìè äëÿ ðàññìàòðèâàåìûõ
ïàðàìåòðîâ. Òàêæå, ïîñêîëüêó ÿ âëàäåþ èíôîðìàöèåé òîëüêî î íåçíà÷èòåëüíîì ÷èñëå ÿçûêîâûõ ñèòóàöèé, åå íåäîñòàòî÷íî äëÿ ñòàòèñòè÷åñêîé ïðîâåðêè ïîëó÷åííîé òåîðèè. Êàê óæå óïîìèíàëîñü âûøå, îïðîñû íå ÿâëÿþòñÿ èäåàëüíûì, à òåì áîëåå åäèíñòâåííûì èñòî÷íèêîì
äàííûõ äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîé îáùíîñòè. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, íàñòîÿùàÿ “ðàáî÷àÿ” ñòàòüÿ ïðåäëàãàåò ëèøü ïàðàìåòðû îöåíêè âàæíîé ïåðåìåííîé â ñðàâíèòåëüíîé ïîëèòîëîãèè; îíà íå ìîæåò ïîêà ðåêîìåíCharles Ferguson. National Sociolinguistic Profile Formulas // W. Bright (Ed.).
Sociolinguistics. The Hague, 1966.
21
Ernest Gelner. Thought and Change. Chicago, 1964.
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äîâàòü ñîâåðøåííûå ìåòîäû ñáîðà èíôîðìàöèè èëè ïðîâåðèòü êàêèåëèáî òåîðèè ñ òîëüêî ÷òî âûâåäåííûìè ïåðåìåííûìè.
Êîýôôèöèåíòû ãåòåðîãåííîñòè Ãðèíáåðãà
“À”-ÊÎÝÔÔÈÖÈÅÍÒ ÃÐÈÍÁÅÐÃÀ
 1956 ãîäó Äæîçåô Ãðèíáåðã ïðåäëîæèë âàðèàíò êîëè÷åñòâåííîãî
ïàðàìåòðà äëÿ îòäåëåíèÿ òåõ òåððèòîðèé, â êîòîðûõ ñóùåñòâîâàëî çíà÷èòåëüíîå ÿçûêîâîå ðàçíîîáðàçèå, îò òåõ, â êîòîðûõ áûëî îòíîñèòåëüíîå ÿçûêîâîå åäèíîîáðàçèå. Ãðèíáåðã ñîãëàøàëñÿ, ÷òî ëèíãâèñòû óæå
èìåþò ÿñíûå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ îá óðîâíÿõ ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, íî îí ðàáîòàë
íàä òåì, êàê “ñäåëàòü ýòè ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ áîëåå îáúåêòèâíûìè, ïîçâîëèòü ñðàâíåíèå ãåîãðàôè÷åñêè íåñîïîñòàâèìûõ îáëàñòåé è, â êîíå÷íîì ñ÷åòå, óñòàíîâèòü ñîîòíîøåíèå ìåæäó èçìåíåíèåì ñòåïåíè ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ è ïîëèòè÷åñêèìè, ýêîíîìè÷åñêèìè, ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèìè, èñòîðè÷åñêèìè è äðóãèìè íåëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèìè ôàêòîðàìè”.22
Ñíà÷àëà îí ââ¸ë êîýôôèöèåíò “À”, êîòîðûé íàçâàë ìîíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèì íåâçâåøåííûì ìåòîäîì îïðåäåëåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ.
Ýòîò êîýôôèöèåíò ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáðàòíûì ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê êîýôôèöèåíòó
êîíöåíòðàöèè Õåðôèíäàëÿ–Õèðøìàíà. Óðàâíåíèå ïðåäñòàâëåíî íèæå
( “i” ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ïðîïîðöèþ êàæäîé ÿçûêîâîé ãðóïïû â íàñåëåíèè):
(1)
A=I - ΣI (i2)
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, åñëè âñå ïðåäñòàâèòåëè íàñåëåíèÿ èìåþò îäèíàêîâûé ðîäíîé ÿçûê, À=0; åñëè ïîëîâèíà æèòåëåé èìååò îäèí ðîäíîé ÿçûê,
à äðóãàÿ ïîëîâèíà – äðóãîé, À=0,5; åñëè æèòåëè äåëÿòñÿ íà òðè ðàâíûå
ãðóïïû, êàæäàÿ èç êîòîðûõ èìååò ñâîé ðîäíîé ÿçûê, òî À=0,67; à åñëè
ñóùåñòâóåò ñòî ðàâíûõ ïî êîëè÷åñòâó ãðóïï, ãîâîðÿùèõ êàæäàÿ íà ñâî¸ì ðîäíîì ÿçûêå, òî À=1. ×åì áîëüøå ÿçûêîâàÿ íåîäíîðîäíîñòü, òåì
âûøå çíà÷åíèå À-êîýôôèöèåíòà.
Ëèáåðñîí îïèðàëñÿ íà ýòîò êîýôôèöèåíò â íàó÷íîì äîêëàäå, îïóáëèêîâàííîì â 1975 ãîäó (è ïåðåèçäàííîì â 1981 ãîäó)23, è íàø¸ë çíà÷åíèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ äëÿ 35 ñòðàí, èñïîëüçóÿ, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå,
äâà íàáîðà äàííûõ äëÿ êàæäîé ñòðàíû. Êîýôôèöèåíò ïîêàçàë âûñîêèé óðîâåíü ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, çíà÷åíèÿ êîòîðîãî êîëåáàëèñü îò 0,867 â
Joseph H.Greenberg. The Measurement of Linguistic Diversity // Language. 1956.
Vol. 32. P. 109.
23
Stanley Lieberson. Language Diversity and Language Contact: Essays by Stanley
Lieberson. Stanford, 1981. Pp. 48-82.
22
73
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
Þæíîé Àôðèêå 1960 ãîäà äî ïðàêòè÷åñêè 0 â Ãðåöèè 1960 ãîäà. Âçÿâ
çà îñíîâó ïðîâåäåííûé ìíîé è Õüþ (Hough) îïðîñ ãîðîäñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ â øåñòè ðåñïóáëèêàõ áûâøåãî Ñîâåòñêîãî Ñîþçà è èñïîëüçóÿ îòâåòû ðåñïîíäåíòîâ íà âîïðîñû î ðîäíîì ÿçûêå, ÿ ðàññ÷èòàë çíà÷åíèÿ
À-êîýôôèöèåíòà (ðåçóëüòàòû ïðåäñòàâëåíû â Òàáëèöå 1, ðÿä 1).24 Çíà÷åíèÿ À-êîýôôèöèåíòà ðàñïîëîæèëèñü îò íèæíåãî ïðåäåëà 0,454 â
Êàçàõñòàíå (ãäå, â îñíîâíîì, äåëåíèå ïðîèñõîäèò ìåæäó äâóìÿ ÿçûêàìè, ÿâëÿþùèìèñÿ ðîäíûìè: êàçàõñêèì è ðóññêèì, è ãäå ðóññêèé â êà÷åñòâå ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà óêàçàëè 61% ãîðîäñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ) äî âûñøåãî
ïðåäåëà â 0,561 â Áàøêîðòîñòàíå (ãäå äåëåíèå ïðîèñõîäèò ìåæäó òðåìÿ ðîäíûìè ÿçûêàìè: áàøêèðñêèì, ðóññêèì è òàòàðñêèì). Íà îñíîâå
àíàëèçà ýòèõ äàííûõ ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî âñå ýòè ðåñïóáëèêè
ðàñïîëàãàëèñü â ñðåäíåé òî÷êå ìåæäó àáñîëþòíîé ôðàãìåíòàöèåé è
ïîëíîé ãåòåðîãåííîñòüþ. Êàê ìû óâèäèì, îäíàêî, À-êîýôôèöèåíò â
ïîñòñîâåòñêîì êîíòåêñòå ïåðåîöåíèâàåò ñòåïåíü ÿçûêîâîé ôðàãìåíòàöèè.
 èññëåäîâàíèè Ëèáåðñîíà À-êîýôôèöèåíò âûñòóïàåò êàê çàâèñèìàÿ ïåðåìåííàÿ. Åãî íà÷àëüíûå âûâîäû ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëè â ïîëüçó
îáùåé òåíäåíöèè ê ÿçûêîâîìó åäèíîîáðàçèþ. Â äâàäöàòè îäíîé èç
òðèäöàòè ïÿòè èçó÷åííûõ èì ñòðàí íàáëþäàëîñü ñíèæåíèå ÿçûêîâîãî
ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, ïðè÷åì ýòî èçìåíåíèå ïðîèñõîäèëî â áîëüøèõ ìàñøòàáàõ, ÷åì óâåëè÷åíèå ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ â îñòàâøèõñÿ ÷åòûðíàäöàòè ñòðàíàõ. Òåì íå ìåíåå, òåìï äâèæåíèÿ ê ÿçûêîâîìó åäèíîîáðàçèþ áûë äîñòàòî÷íî ìåäëåííûì. Ïåðåõîä ñòðàíû îò ïîêàçàòåëÿ 0,62 (óìåðåííî
âûñîêîå ðàçíîîáðàçèå) ê 0,04 (ïðàêòè÷åñêè åäèíîîáðàçèå) çàíÿë áû
ïðèìåðíî ïîëòûñÿ÷åëåòèÿ. Áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü ñòàòüè Ëèáåðñîíà áûëà ïîñâÿùåíà ðàçëè÷íûì ôàêòîðàì, âëèÿþùèì íà òåìï èçìåíåíèé. Èñïîëüçóÿ êîýôôèöèåíò ÿçûêîâîé ñåãðåãàöèè (âûâåäåííûé Óýíäåëëîì Áåëëîì (Wendell Bell)), àâòîð äåìîíñòðèðîâàë, ÷òî ðàçíîîáðàçèå óìåíüøàëîñü íàñòîëüêî, íàñêîëüêî ÿçûêè ìåíüøèíñòâ íå áûëè ïîäâåðæåíû
ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîé ñåãðåãàöèè. Ñîãëàñíî äàííûì ÞÍÅÑÊÎ î ïðåïîäàâàíèè ðîäíûõ ÿçûêîâ â øêîëå, ñîêðàùåíèå ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ øëî íàìíîãî
ìåäëåííåå, êîãäà íà÷àëüíîå îáðàçîâàíèå ïðåäîñòàâëÿëîñü íà ÿçûêàõ
×àñòü ðåñïîíäåíòîâ â õîäå îïðîñà îòâåòèëà “äðóãîé” íà âîïðîñ î ðîäíîì ÿçûêå,
÷òî îçíà÷àåò, ÷òî èõ “ðîäíîé ÿçûê” íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå õîäîâûõ â
ðåñïóáëèêå è ïîòîìó íå âîøåë â ïåðå÷åíü âàðèàíòîâ îòâåòîâ, ïðåäëàãàâøèõñÿ â
íàøåé àíêåòå. Ïðè ïîäñ÷åòàõ ìû îòíåñëè ýòèõ ðåñïîíäåíòîâ â îäíó ðóáðèêó, ÷òî
âûãëÿäèò òàê, áóäòî ó íèõ îáùèé “ðîäíîé ÿçûê”. Ýòî, êîíå÷íî, íåðåàëèñòè÷íîå
ïðåäïîëîæåíèå, íî îíî íåçíà÷èòåëüíî èçìåíÿåò ðåçóëüòàòû.
24
74
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ìåíüøèíñòâ. Èññëåäóÿ äàííûå ïî óðáàíèçàöèè, Ëèáåðñîí íå îáíàðóæèë óñòîé÷èâîé ìîäåëè ðàçâèòèÿ, ïîçâîëÿþùåé ãîâîðèòü î íàëè÷èè
ñâÿçè ìåæäó óðîâíåì óðáàíèçàöèè è âîçðàñòàíèåì äàâëåíèÿ â ïîëüçó
ÿçûêîâîé ãîìîãåíèçàöèè. Îñíîâûâàÿñü íà ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêèõ äàííûõ,
Ëèáåðñîí ïðèøåë ê âûâîäó, ÷òî âî âðåìÿ Âòîðîé ìèðîâîé âîéíû îêêóïàöèÿ Ãåðìàíèåé èëè îäíèì èç å¸ ñîþçíèêîâ êàêîé-ëèáî ñòðàíû çíà÷èòåëüíî ïîâëèÿëà íà ñíèæåíèå â íåé ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ; ÷òî â
òåõ ñòðàíàõ, êîòîðûå âîøëè â ñîñòàâ ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî ñîîáùåñòâà ìåæäó 1914 è 1945 ãîäàìè, ïðîèñõîäèëî áîëåå áûñòðîå ñíèæåíèå óðîâíÿ
ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, ÷åì â ëþáûõ äðóãèõ; â òåõ æå ñòðàíàõ (êàê,
íàïðèìåð, â Ïîëüøå), êîòîðûå â ýòîò ïåðèîä óìåíüøèëèñü â ðàçìåðàõ,
èìåëî ìåñòî ñíèæåíèå ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ ñî ñêîðîñòüþ âûøå
ñðåäíåé.
Íåñìîòðÿ íà óáåäèòåëüíûå è âäîõíîâëÿþùèå îòêðûòèÿ (à, çíà÷èò, è
íåðåàëèçîâàííûé ïîòåíöèàë À-êîýôôèöèåíòà êàê íåçàâèñèìîé ïåðåìåííîé äëÿ èçó÷åíèÿ ýòíè÷åñêèõ êîíôëèêòîâ è íàñèëèÿ), ñóùåñòâóþò äâå
ñåðüåçíûå ïðîáëåìû îòíîñèòåëüíî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ À-êîýôôèöèåíòà êàê
èíäèêàòîðà ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà. Âî-ïåðâûõ, ïîíÿòèå “ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà” ÷ðåçâû÷àéíî íåîïðåäåëåííî. Ëþäè ïî-ðàçíîìó îòâå÷àþò íà âîïðîñ
ïåðåïèñ÷èêîâ î ñâîåì ðîäíîì ÿçûêå, íåèçìåííî äåìîíñòðèðóÿ ïðè ýòîì
ïîçèòèâíóþ ïðåäâçÿòîñòü ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê èñòîðè÷åñêîìó ÿçûêó ñâîåé
êóëüòóðíîé/ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû è íåãàòèâíóþ – ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê äåéñòâèòåëüíûì ðå÷åâûì ôîðìàì ñâîèõ ìàòåðåé. Íàïðèìåð, ïî äàííûì
ñîâåòñêèõ ïåðåïèñåé, îòâåò íà âîïðîñ î ðîäíîì ÿçûêå áûë èäåíòè÷åí
îòâåòó íà âîïðîñ î íàöèîíàëüíîñòè, äàæå åñëè îïðàøèâàåìûå íå ìîãëè ñîñòàâèòü ñâÿçíîå ïðåäëîæåíèå íà äåêëàðèðóåìîì ðîäíîì ÿçûêå. Â
ìîèõ ñîâìåñòíûõ ñ Õüþ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ (ñì. Òàáëèöà 1, ñòðîêà 2) ìû
îáíàðóæèëè, ÷òî ñðåäè ãîðîäñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ â ÷åòûðåõ èç øåñòè ðåñïóáëèê (çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì Ëàòâèè è Ýñòîíèè) ïðèìåðíî äëÿ îäíîé øåñòîé ÷àñòè ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé òèòóëüíîé íàöèîíàëüíîñòè (òåõ, ÷üÿ íàöèîíàëüíàÿ ãðóïïà ñîâïàäàåò ñ íàçâàíèåì ðåñïóáëèêè è êòî îòâåòèë, ÷òî
ãîâîðèò íà îôèöèàëüíîì ÿçûêå ñ òðóäîì, ñ áîëüøèì òðóäîì, ëèáî âîîáùå èì íå âëàäååò) ïðèïèñûâàíèå ñåáå òîãî èëè èíîãî ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà
íå îáÿçàòåëüíî ïîäðàçóìåâàåò ñïîñîáíîñòü õîðîøî íà íåì èçúÿñíÿòüñÿ.  Òàòàðñòàíå, íàïðèìåð, ÷åòâåðòü ðåñïîíäåíòîâ, çàÿâèâøèõ, ÷òî
òàòàðñêèé – èõ ðîäíîé ÿçûê, âëàäåëè èì ïëîõî.
 Èíäèè Áðàññ (Brass) âûÿâèë ïîõîæèå îñëîæíåíèÿ, íå ïîçâîëÿþùèå ïîëàãàòüñÿ íà äàííûå îïðîñîâ ïðè âûÿñíåíèè ÿçûêà, äîìèíèðóþùåãî â ïîâñåäíåâíîé æèçíè (åñëè òàêîâîé èìååòñÿ). Íåâåðíî áûëî áû
75
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
âûâîäèòü èç ýòèõ îïðîñîâ äàííûå î ðîäíîì ÿçûêå ðåñïîíäåíòîâ.25 Âîîáùå, âûâîäû Áðàññà ïîäâîäÿò ê ëîãè÷íîìó çàêëþ÷åíèþ, ÷òî îòâåòû íà
âîïðîñû ïåðåïèñ÷èêîâ ïî ïîâîäó ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà â áîëüøåé ñòåïåíè îòðàæàþò ñîöèàëüíûå âçàèìîîòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó öåíòðàëüíûìè è ïåðèôåðèéíûìè êóëüòóðíûìè ãðóïïàìè, ÷åì ÿçûêîâûå ðåïåðòóàðû ëþäåé,
æèâóùèõ íà ïåðèôåðèè. À åñëè ýòî òàê, òî èññëåäîâàíèÿ, óñòàíàâëèâàþùèå âçàèìîñâÿçü ìåæäó ÿçûêîâûì ìíîãîîáðàçèåì è ñîöèàëüíûìè
îòíîøåíèÿìè ìåæäó ýòíè÷åñêèìè ãðóïïàìè, åñòü òàâòîëîãèÿ.
Âòîðûì, áîëåå ïðîáëåìàòè÷íûì àñïåêòîì ïîíÿòèÿ “ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî” ÿâëÿåòñÿ òî, ÷òî À-êîýôôèöèåíò íå îòðàæàåò êîììóíèêàòèâíûå âîçìîæíîñòè, ñóùåñòâóþùèå â îáùåñòâå. Åñëè ïðè âûñîêîé
ñòåïåíè ìíîãîîáðàçèÿ ðîäíûõ ÿçûêîâ ñóùåñòâóåò lingua franca ëèáî
óíèâåðñàëüíîå ìíîãîÿçû÷èå, ìû ìîæåì çàêëþ÷èòü, ÷òî, íåñìîòðÿ íà
ìíîãîîáðàçèå “ðîäíûõ ÿçûêîâ”, â êîíêðåòíîé ñòðàíå, òåì íå ìåíåå,
èìååòñÿ óïîðÿäî÷åííîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî. Èç äàííûõ Òàáëèöû 1
(êîëîíêà 3) âèäíî, ÷òî ìåíåå ñåìè ïðîöåíòîâ èç îáñëåäîâàííîãî ãîðîäñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ Óêðàèíû õîðîøî âëàäåþò òîëüêî îäíèì óêðàèíñêèì ÿçûêîì; â Ýñòîíèè, ãäå íàáëþäàåòñÿ íàèáîëüøàÿ ñòåïåíü “òèòóëüíîãî ìîíîëèíãâèçìà”, òîëüêî 31,4% ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé òèòóëüíîé íàöèè
ìîíîëèíãâû. Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî, åñëè ðå÷ü èäåò î ãîðîäñêîì íàñåëåíèè
ðåñïóáëèê áûâøåãî ÑÑÑÐ, çà ðàçíîîáðàçèåì “ðîäíûõ ÿçûêî┠ñëåäóåò
èñêàòü çíà÷èòåëüíóþ ñòåïåíü îáùíîñòè.
“”-ÊÎÝÔÔÈÖÈÅÍÒ ÃÐÈÍÁÅÐÃÀ
Ãðèíáåðã îáíàðóæèë, ÷òî ïîêàçàòåëü ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ èçìåíÿåòñÿ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò òîãî, íàñêîëüêî ðàçëè÷àþòñÿ ÿçûêè â îáùåñòâå. Ðàçëè÷èå “íåìåöêèõ” [ÿçûêîâ] â Ãåðìàíèè ìîæåò ïðèâåñòè ê âûñîêîìó çíà÷åíèþ ïîêàçàòåëÿ ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, íî âçàèìíàÿ áëèçîñòü ÿçûêîâ ñïîñîáñòâóåò áîëüøåé êîíöåíòðàöèè, íåæåëè ýòî ñëåäóåò èç À-êîýôôèöèåíòà (åñëè íèæíåíåìåöêèé è âåðõíåíåìåöêèé, inter alia, áûëè âêëþ÷åíû
â À-êîýôôèöèåíò êàê ðàçíûå ÿçûêè).  òî æå âðåìÿ, â Ìåêñèêå èñïàíñêèé è àöòåêñêèé ÿçûêè çíà÷èòåëüíî ðàçëè÷àþòñÿ, ÷òî ïðåäïîëàãàåò
áîëüøóþ ñòåïåíü ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, ÷åì ýòî ñëåäóåò èç ðàñ÷åòîâ ñ ïîìîùüþ ïðîñòîãî À-êîýôôèöèåíòà. Ïîýòîìó Ãðèíáåðã ïðåäëîæèë ìîíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèé âçâåøåííûé ìåòîä, êîòîðîìó áûë ïðèñâîåí ñèìâîë
Â. “Äëÿ êàæäîé ïàðû ÿçûêîâ (M, N) âåðîÿòíîñòü âûáîðà ãîâîðÿùåãî
25
Paul Brass. Language, Religion and Politics in North India. Cambridge, 1974.
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íà ÿçûêå Ì è ãîâîðÿùåãî íà ÿçûêå N ðàâíà ïðîèçâåäåíèþ mn, ãäå m è
n, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ïîêàçûâàþò êîëè÷åñòâåííîå ñîîòíîøåíèå ãîâîðÿùèõ íà ÿçûêå Ì è ãîâîðÿùèõ íà ÿçûêå N â îáùåé ÷èñëåííîñòè íàñåëåíèÿ. Êàæäàÿ ïîäîáíàÿ âåëè÷èíà âçâåøèâàåòñÿ óìíîæåíèåì íà ÷èñëî
ìåæäó 0 è 1, íàçâàííîå íàìè ôàêòîðîì ñõîäñòâà è îáîçíà÷åííîå ÷åðåç
(r). Ôàêòîð ñõîäñòâà âû÷èñëÿåòñÿ (ñîãëàñíî Ãðèíáåðãó) ñëåäóþùèì
îáðàçîì: èñïîëüçóÿ âûáðàííûé ñëó÷àéíûì îáðàçîì, íî ôèêñèðîâàííûé áàçîâûé ñëîâàðü, íàïðèìåð, ñàìóþ ñâåæóþ âåðñèþ ãëîòòîõðîíîëîãè÷åñêîãî ñïèñêà,26 êîëè÷åñòâåííîå ñîîòíîøåíèå ñõîæåñòè ìåæäó
êàæäîé ïàðîé ÿçûêîâ è îáùèì ñïèñêîì ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ â âèäå äðîáè ñóììà âçâåøåííûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèé âû÷èòàåòñÿ èç 1 è â èòîãå ïîëó÷àåì ìîíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèé âçâåøåííûé êîýôôèöèåíò ”:
(2)
B = 1-∑mn(mn)(rmn)
Íàðÿäó ñ òåì, ÷òî ýòî î÷åíü èíòåðåñíûé ïîêàçàòåëü, îí ïîçâîëÿåò
çíà÷èòåëüíî ëó÷øå, ÷åì íà îñíîâàíèè À-Êîýôôèöèåíòà, îòëè÷àòü òèï
ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, õàðàêòåðíîãî äëÿ, íàïðèìåð, Êàñòèëèè è Ñòðàíû áàñêîâ (äâà ðàçíûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ñåìåéñòâà), îò òèïà ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ,
õàðàêòåðíîãî äëÿ Êàñòèëèè è Êàòàëîíèè (îáà ÿçûêà – èíäîåâðîïåéñêèå, èòàëèéñêèå, çàïàäíûå, èáåðî-ðîìàíñêèå). Ýòî îñîáåííî î÷åâèäíî
â ñëó÷àå, êîãäà ðàâíîå êîëè÷åñòâî áàñêîâ è êàòàëîíöåâ îáúÿâëÿþò ðåãèîíàëüíûé ÿçûê ñâîèì ðîäíûì. Äàæå åñëè çíà÷èòåëüíî áîëüøåå ÷èñëî áàñêîâ íàçîâóò êàñòèëüñêèé ÿçûê ðîäíûì, Â-êîýôôèöèåíò ïîêàæåò,
÷òî äâà àâòîíîìíûõ ðàéîíà Èñïàíèè õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿ ðàçíûìè ôîðìàìè ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, îñíîâàííîãî íà äâóõ ðàçëè÷íûõ çíà÷åíèÿõ r.
Ïîèñêè ïðèçíàêîâ r íå óâåí÷àëèñü óñïåõîì. Ãëîòòîõðîíîëîãèÿ –
íàïðàâëåíèå, ïðåäëîæåííîå Ãðèíáåðãîì, äîëãî íå íàõîäèëî îäîáðåíèÿ â ëèíãâèñòèêå ïî ðÿäó ïðè÷èí.  ñõåìå ñòàòèñòè÷åñêîãî ñõîäñòâà,
ðàçðàáîòàííîé Ìîððèñîì Ñâîäåøåì (Morris Swadesh), áûë îãîâîðåí
ñïèñîê îáùèõ ñëîâ, ïî êîòîðîìó ìîæíî ïðîâîäèòü ñðàâíåíèå âñåõ ÿçûêîâ.27 Ýòà ñõåìà ïîñëóæèëà ñòèìóëîì äëÿ íà÷àëà èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîé
ïðîãðàììû, êîòîðàÿ ìîãëà áû ñîçäàòü îñíîâó äëÿ óáåäèòåëüíûõ ãèïîÏîä ñëîâîì “ãëîòòîõðîíîëîãèÿ” Ãðèíáåðã ïîäðàçóìåâàë ñïèñêè ñëîâ, ñ ïîìîùüþ
êîòîðûõ ìîæíî îïðåäåëèòü ìîìåíò ðàçäåëåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà. Âåðîÿòíî,
îí èìåë â âèäó “ëåêñè÷åñêóþ ñòàòèñòèêó”, â êîòîðîé èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ñõîäíàÿ
ìåòîäèêà ìåæúÿçûêîâîãî ñðàâíåíèÿ.
27
Morris Swadesh. The Origin and Diversification of Language. Chicago, 1971. Pp.
271-284.
26
77
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
òåç î âðåìåíè ðàçäåëåíèÿ äèàëåêòîâ è òàêèì îáðàçîì ñûãðàòü êëþ÷åâóþ ðîëü â âîññòàíîâëåíèè äîèñòîðè÷åñêîé ìèãðàöèîííîé ìîäåëè. Íî
êàê èíñòðóìåíò ñðàâíèòåëüíîé ëèíãâèñòèêè ñõåìà èìåëà ìíîãî íåäîñòàòêîâ. Âî-ïåðâûõ, ïèñüìåííûå ôîðìû ÿçûêà ìîãëè çíà÷èòåëüíî îòëè÷àòüñÿ îò óñòíîé; íå áûëî îáùåãî êðèòåðèÿ äëÿ îöåíêè òîãî, íàñêîëüêî ñèëüíî äîëæíî îòëè÷àòüñÿ ïðîèçíîøåíèå, ÷òîáû ìîæíî áûëî
ôèêñèðîâàòü íàëè÷èå äâóõ ðàçíûõ ñëîâ. Âî-âòîðûõ, áîëüøèíñòâî ÿçûêîâ ñîäåðæèò íåñêîëüêî ñëîâ äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ òåõ êàòåãîðèé, êîòîðûå
âîøëè â ñïèñîê Ñâîäåøà, è äëÿ êàæäîãî ñëîâà r-ôàêòîð ìîæåò èçìåíÿòüñÿ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò òîãî, êàêîé èç ñèíîíèìîâ èñïîëüçóåòñÿ. Âòðåòüèõ, êàê ðàíåå áûëî ïîêàçàíî, âíèìàíèå ëèíãâèñòèêè, îñîáåííî â
Ñîåäèíåííûõ Øòàòàõ â 1960-å ãîäû, áûëî ïî÷òè èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî ñêîíöåíòðèðîâàíî íà ñòðóêòóðå â óùåðá çíà÷åíèþ. Ïîýòîìó, êàê ïðàâèëî,
ÿçûêè îïèñûâàëè èñõîäÿ èç ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ ñòðóêòóð, à íå ñëîâåñíûõ
ñâÿçåé.  çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè â ñèëó èìåííî ïîñëåäíåãî ôàêòîðà
“íàèáîëåå ñâåæàÿ âåðñèÿ ãëîòòîõðîíîëîãè÷åñêîãî ñïèñêà”, ê êîòîðîé
Ãðèíáåðã îòñûëàåò ñâîèõ ÷èòàòåëåé (êàê ê ìàòðèöå âñåõ ñóùåñòâóþùèõ â ìèðå ÿçûêîâ), òàê è íå áûëà ñîçäàíà.
Íåêîòîðûå ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ñðàâíèòåëüíîé ëèíãâèñòèêè, òàêèå êàê
Óðèýëü Óýéíðè÷ (Uriel Weinreich), â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè îñóæäàëè
òàêèå ïîïûòêè. Óýéíðè÷ ïèñàë, ÷òî, ïî åãî ìíåíèþ, “âåëèêè èëè ìàëû
ðàçëè÷èÿ è ñõîäñòâà ìåæäó ÿçûêàìè, îíè äîëæíû áûòü ïîëíîñòüþ óñòàíîâëåíû äëÿ êàæäîé îáëàñòè – ôîíåòèêè, ãðàììàòèêè è ëåêñèêè –
êàê ïðåäïîñûëêà äëÿ àíàëèçà èíòåðôåðåíöèè (åãî çàâèñèìîé ïåðåìåííîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ èìåííî èíòåðôåðåíöèÿ, à íå ÿçûêîâàÿ äèñòàíöèÿ, íî ñèòóàöèÿ îò ýòîãî íå ìåíÿåòñÿ)”.28 Îá îäíîé êîíêðåòíîé ïîïûòêå ïîäñ÷èòàòü ðàçíîîáðàçèå, àâòîð êîòîðîé “îãðàíè÷èëàñü ÷åòûðåõñòðàíè÷íûì íàáðîñêîì ðàçëè÷èé ìåæäó îäèííàäöàòüþ ÿçûêàìè, ñðåäè êîòîðûõ òàêèå íåïîõîæèå, êàê àíãëèéñêèé, êàíòîíñêèé è òàãàëüñêèé”, Óýéíðè÷ îòîçâàëñÿ êàê îá óïðàæíåíèè, “áåñïîëåçíîì äëÿ ëèíãâèñòà”.29
Uriel Weinreich. Languages in Contact. The Hague, 1953. P. 2.
Ó Ìàêêåé (W. F. Mackey. Bilinguisme et Contact des Langues. Paris, 1976. Pp. 281307) íàõîäèì äàæå áîëåå ãðîìîçäêóþ ôîðìóëó âû÷èñëåíèÿ ðàçëè÷èé ìåæäó ðÿäàìè ñîïîñòàâèìûõ ïðåäëîæåíèé. Âîçìîæíî, èñïîëüçóÿ âûñîêîñêîðîñòíîé êîìïüþòåð, ìîæíî çàïèñàòü ýòîò àëãîðèòì, ÷òî ïîçâîëèò ñîçäàòü ìàòðèöó ðàçëè÷èé âñåõ
ïàð ÿçûêîâ, èñïîëüçóÿ ìåòîä èçìåðåíèÿ Ìàêêåé, íî áîëåå ïðîñòîé ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ
ïîëó÷åíèÿ ïàðàìåòð, îáñóæäàåìûé äàëåå â ýòîé ñòàòüå, ìîæåò îáåñïå÷èòü äîñòàòî÷íóþ äèôôåðåíöèàöèþ ðåçóëüòàòîâ è áîëåå ïîäõîäèòü äëÿ ïîñòàâëåííûõ öåëåé.
28
29
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Ñòðóêòóðàëèñòîâ â ðàìêàõ ëèíãâèñòèêè íå èíòåðåñîâàë ïîèñê êðèòåðèåâ èçìåðåíèÿ ðàçëè÷èÿ, à ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé äåñêðèïòèâíîé ëèíãâèñòèêè íå èíòåðåñîâàëè äîïóùåíèÿ.  èòîãå, â ðàìêàõ äèñöèïëèíû íå
áûëè ðàçðàáîòàíû ïîëåçíûå êðèòåðèè îöåíêè ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçëè÷èÿ.
Ôèðîí (Fearon) è ÿ â íàøåé ñîâìåñòíîé ðàáîòå30 ïðèìåíèëè íîâûé
ñïîñîá ñáîðà èíôîðìàöèè î ÿçûêîâûõ ðàçëè÷èÿõ. Ýòà èíôîðìàöèÿ
ìîæåò èñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ êàê äëÿ âû÷èñëåíèÿ Â-êîýôôèöèåíòà, òàê è äëÿ
ïîèñêà îòâåòà íà âîïðîñ î íàèáîëåå âåðîÿòíîì ïîâåäåíèè (ïðè ïðî÷èõ
ðàâíûõ óñëîâèÿõ) ãðóïï, çíà÷èòåëüíî ðàçëè÷àþùèõñÿ ïî ÿçûêó: îíè
àññèìèëèðóþòñÿ, îáúåäèíÿþòñÿ èëè îáðàùàþòñÿ ê íàñèëèþ? Ìû âçÿëè êëàññèôèêàöèþ ÿçûêîâ ìèðà, ñîçäàííóþ ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèì îáùåñòâîì Ethnologue, êîòîðîå ñòàâèò öåëüþ ñîçäàíèå âåðñèé Áèáëèè íà
âñåõ ìèðîâûõ ÿçûêàõ. Ëèíãâèñòû Ethnologue ðàáîòàëè ñ ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèìè “äåðåâüÿìè”, êëàññèôèöèðóÿ ÿçûêè ïî ñòðóêòóðå. Îòâåòâëåíèÿ íà òàêîì äåðåâå âåëè ê ÿçûêîâûì ñåìüÿì (íàïðèìåð, èíäîåâðîïåéñêàÿ îò àôðî-àçèàòñêîé), ÿçûêîâûì ãðóïïàì, âïëîòü äî ñóáäèàëåêòîâ, êîòîðûå óïîìèíàëèñü â ýòîé ñòàòüå â êëàññèôèêàöèè êàñòèëüñêîãî è êàòàëîíñêîãî. Ñ ïîìîùüþ äàííûõ Ethnologue ìû âûâåëè ïåðåìåííóþ äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ äèñòàíöèè ìåæäó ÿçûêàìè, êîòîðóþ íàçâàëè
LANGFAM. Åñëè äâà ÿçûêà ïðèíàäëåæàò ê äâóì ðàçëè÷íûì ÿçûêîâûì
ñåìåéñòâàì, êàê èñïàíñêèé è áàñêñêèé, òî çíà÷åíèå LANGFAM ñîñòàâëÿåò 1, íî åñëè ÿçûêè îòäåëÿþòñÿ äðóã îò äðóãà íà ïÿòîé âåòâè, êàê
àêàíà îò ýâå (äâà ÿçûêà Ãàíû), çíà÷åíèå ñîñòàâèò 5. ×åì âûøå çíà÷åíèå, òåì áîëüøå ÿçûêîâîå ñõîäñòâî.31
Ýòà åäèíèöà èçìåðåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîé äèñòàíöèè íå èäåàëüíà. Âî-ïåðâûõ, ïîñêîëüêó Ôèðîí è ÿ èñïîëüçîâàëè å¸ äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ êóëüòóðíîé
äèñòàíöèè ìåæäó ìåíüøèíñòâîì è äîìèíèðóþùåé ãðóïïîé â ñòðàíå,
ìû ñòîëêíóëèñü ñ ïðîáëåìîé îòñóòñòâèÿ îáùåïðèíÿòîãî êðèòåðèÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿ ÿçûêà äîìèíàíòíîé ãðóïïû èëè ìåíüøèíñòâà. Ìû ïðèíÿëè
â êà÷åñòâå êðèòåðèÿ äîìèíàíòíîãî ÿçûêà èñòîðè÷åñêèé ÿçûê ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýëèòû ñòðàíû (è, òàêèì îáðàçîì, äîìèíàíòíûé ÿçûê Êåíèè èçìåíèëñÿ, êîãäà Éîìî Êåíèÿòòà èç ïëåìåíè Êèêóþ óìåð è âëàñòü ïåðåJames D. Fearon and David D. Laitin. A Cross-Sectional Study of Large-Scale Ethnic
Violence In The Postwar Period. Chicago, 1997.
31
×òîáû ïîëó÷èòü “r”, ÿ íîðìèðîâàë LANGFAM îò 0 äî 1; ðàçäåëåíèå íà ïåðâîé
âåòâè (r = 0), ðàçäåëåíèå íà âòîðîé âåòâè (r = 0,2), ðàçäåëåíèå íà òðåòüåé âåòâè (r =
0,4), ðàçäåëåíèå íà ÷åòâ¸ðòîé âåòâè (r = 0,6), ðàçäåëåíèå íà ïÿòîé âåòâè (r = 0,8),
òîò æå ÿçûê (r = 1).
30
79
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
øëà ê Äàíèåëþ Àðàï Ìîè èç ïëåìåíè Êàëåíüèí). ßçûêîì ìåíüøèíñòâà ìû ñ÷èòàëè åãî èñòîðè÷åñêèé ÿçûê (òàêèì îáðàçîì, íåìöû â
Ðîññèè ôèêñèðóþòñÿ êàê íåìåöêîÿçû÷íûå, äàæå åñëè áîëüøèíñòâî
èç íèõ íå ìîæåò ãîâîðèòü íà íåìåöêîì ÿçûêå). Õîòÿ â êà÷åñòâå îáùåãî ïðàâèëà òàêîå îïðåäåëåíèå ïîêàçàëîñü ðàçóìíûì, îíî âñå æå äîñòàòî÷íî ïðîèçâîëüíî, è ìîæíî áûëî áû ïðîñòî âçÿòü â êà÷åñòâå äîìèíàíòíîãî ÿçûêà òîò ÿçûê, êîòîðûé èñïîëüçóåòñÿ â âûñîêî-ñòàòóñíûõ îáùåñòâåííûõ ñôåðàõ. Âî-âòîðûõ, ñóùåñòâóþò ïðîáëåìû è ó
êëàññèôèêàöèè ÿçûêîâ, ïðåäëîæåííîé ëèíãâèñòàìè Ethnologue. Êîðíè ýòèõ ïðîáëåì, îò÷àñòè, ñëåäóåò èñêàòü â òîì, ÷òî äàííûå Ethnologue
ïî ÿçûêîâûì ñåìüÿì íåîäèíàêîâî ó÷èòûâàþò ðàçíèöó ìåæäó äèàëåêòàìè â ðàçëè÷íûõ ðåãèîíàõ. Ïîñêîëüêó îñíîâíàÿ öåëü ëèíãâèñòîâ Ethnologue – ïîäãîòîâêà ïåðåâîäîâ Áèáëèè äëÿ ÿçû÷íèêîâ, íåáîëüøèå äèàëåêòîëîãè÷åñêèå ðàçëè÷èÿ â Ïàïóà–Íîâîé Ãâèíåå èíòåðåñîâàëè èõ áîëüøå, ÷åì ÿçûêîâûå ðàçëè÷èÿ â Ãåðìàíèè. Òàêèì
îáðàçîì, èõ äàííûå ìîãóò ïðåóâåëè÷èâàòü ÿçûêîâóþ ðàçíèöó ìåæäó
íå-õðèñòèàíàìè. Òðåòüÿ ïðîáëåìà, êàê áûëî îòìå÷åíî ðàíåå, çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî ñòðóêòóðíûå ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó ÿçûêàìè íå âñåãäà
ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñèíîíèìîì êîììóíèêàöèîííûõ òðóäíîñòåé. Íåñìîòðÿ íà
òî, ÷òî êàñòèëüñêèé è ìåêñèêàíñêèé èñïàíñêèé – áëèçêèå ðîäñòâåííèêè è â êëàññèôèêàöèè Ethnologue îíè ðàâíîóäàëåíû îò àíãëèéñêîãî, âëèÿíèå àíãëîôîíîâ â ìåêñèêàíñêîì øòàòå Áàéÿ Êàëèôîðíèÿ íàñòîëüêî âåëèêî, ÷òî èñïàíñêèé ðàçãîâîðíûé ÿçûê òàì çâó÷èò ïî÷òè
êàê àíàëîã äèàëåêòà àíãëèéñêîãî, êîòîðûé íàìíîãî ïîíÿòíåå îáùèì
ìàññàì, ÷åì ýòî ïðåäïîëàãàåò ðàññ÷èòàííàÿ ñòðóêòóðíàÿ îòäàë¸ííîñòü. Ãîâîðÿ îáîáùåííî, “ÿçûêîâàÿ îòäàë¸ííîñòü” òîëüêî ÷àñòè÷íî
îïðåäåëÿåò òðóäíîñòè îáùåíèÿ. Îíà ñîêðàùàåòñÿ, åñëè ëþäè ïðèâûêëè âñòðå÷àòüñÿ ñ èíîñòðàíöàìè, åñëè ó íèõ ïðèñóòñòâóåò ñèëüíîå ñòðåìëåíèå ïîíÿòü äðóãîãî èëè åñëè îáùåíèå (êîíå÷íî, íå íà
óðîâíå èíòåðïðåòàöèè ïîýçèè, à íà óðîâíå ðûíî÷íûõ òîðãîâ) ïðîèñõîäèò ïðè ïîìîùè ïðîñòûõ äåêëàðàòèâíûõ ôðàç.
×åòâ¸ðòàÿ ïðîáëåìà çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî ÿçûêîâàÿ äèñòàíöèÿ
ìîæåò áûòü ïîäâåðæåíà âîçäåéñòâèþ ôàêòîðà ýíäîãåííîñòè (êîãäà
çíà÷åíèå íåçàâèñèìîé ïåðåìåííîé èçìåíÿåòñÿ ïðè èçìåíåíèè çíà÷åíèÿ çàâèñèìîé ïåðåìåííîé), î êîòîðîì ìû óæå ãîâîðèëè âûøå ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê îïðåäåëåíèþ ÷èñëà ÿçûêîâûõ ãðóïï. Âîçüìåì ñëåäóþùèå ïðèìåðû ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ðàçäåëåíèÿ ÿçûêîâ: õèíäè/óðäó, ñåðáñêèé/õîðâàòñêèé, ðóìûíñêèé/ìîëäàâñêèé, à òàêæå ðóññêèé/óêðàèíñêèé.  ïîäîáíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëè îò ýòíè÷íîñòè, ñòðå80
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ìÿùèåñÿ ê ïîëèòè÷åñêîé íåçàâèñèìîñòè, ðàáîòàþò ñ ìåñòíûìè ëèíãâèñòàìè ñ öåëüþ óñòàíîâèòü íîâûé ñòàíäàðò äèàëåêòà, ìàêñèìàëüíî îòëè÷àþùèéñÿ îò îôèöèàëüíîãî ÿçûêà íåêîãäà îáùåãî ãîñóäàðñòâà. Ïîäîáíûé ðîñò ðàçëè÷èé ìåæäó ÿçûêîì ñåïàðàòèñòîâ è áûâøèì ÿçûêîì ìåòðîïîëèè áóäåò ðåçóëüòàòîì ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî êîíôëèêòà, à íå åãî ïðè÷èíîé. Íåñìîòðÿ íà ýòè ñëîæíîñòè, äàííûå Ethnologue
äîñòóïíû â êà÷åñòâå äîñòàòî÷íî ãðóáîãî èçìåðèòåëÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçëè÷èÿ. Åñëè ìû èñïîëüçóåì Â-êîýôôèöèåíò äëÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà, íàèëó÷øèì äîñòóïíûì èñòî÷íèêîì èíôîðìàöèè î
ÿçûêîâîì ðîäñòâå áóäóò äàííûå Ethnologue, à íå íåñóùåñòâóþùàÿ
ãëîòòîõðîíîëîãè÷åñêàÿ ìàòðèöà.
Âû÷èñëåíèÿ Â-êîýôôèöèåíòà äëÿ øåñòè ñîâåòñêèõ ðåñïóáëèê, èçó÷åííûõ ìíîé è Õüþ (ñì. äàííûå Òàáëèöû 1, ðÿä 4), ïîêàçûâàþò, ÷òî
äèâåðñèôèêàöèÿ ïî ðîäíîìó ÿçûêó íà Óêðàèíå ñóùåñòâåííî ìåíüøå
(0,376), ÷åì ýòî ñëåäóåò èç ïîêàçàòåëÿ À-êîýôôèöèåíòà (0,514). Ó÷èòûâàÿ áëèçîñòü óêðàèíñêîãî è ðóññêîãî ÿçûêîâ è îòíîñèòåëüíî âûñîêóþ ñòåïåíü âçàèìíîãî ïîíèìàíèÿ ó íîñèòåëåé ýòèõ ÿçûêîâ, Â-êîýôôèöèåíò áîëåå ðåàëüíî îòðàæàåò ñóùåñòâîâàíèå ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà, ÷åì À-êîýôôèöèåíò. Èíòåðåñåí è äðóãîé ïðèìåð: Ëàòâèÿ, ïî çíà÷åíèþ À-êîýôôèöèåíòà ïðèáëèæàþùàÿñÿ ê Ýñòîíèè (Ëàòâèÿ áëèçêà ê
0,012), äåìîíñòðèðóåò áîëåå íèçêîå ðàçíîîáðàçèå ïî Â-êîýôôèöèåíòó
(Ëàòâèÿ ïðèáëèæåíà ê 0,061), ÷òî îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ îòíîñèòåëüíîé áëèçîñòüþ ëàòûøñêîãî è ðóññêîãî ÿçûêîâ (ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ýñòîíñêèì è ðóññêèì).  äâóõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ, ïî êîòîðûì èìåþòñÿ äàííûå î ÿçûêàõ ìåíüøèíñòâà, Â-êîýôôèöèåíò äàåò ìåíüøåå ðàçíîîáðàçèå, ÷åì À-êîýôôèöèåíò. Ýòî îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ áëèçîñòüþ áàøêèðñêîãî è òàòàðñêîãî ÿçûêîâ â
Áàøêîðòîñòàíå è òàòàðñêîãî è ÷óâàøñêîãî – â Òàòàðñòàíå. Çíà÷åíèÿ Âêîýôôèöèåíòà, òàêèì îáðàçîì, ëó÷øå îòðàæàþò ÿçûêîâîå ðàçíîîáðàçèå â ýòèõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ, ÷åì À-êîýôôèöèåíò, ÷òî ñîãëàñóåòñÿ ñ ìîèìè
èíòóèòèâíûìè íàáëþäåíèÿìè.
Ïðåäëîæåííûé íàìè êîýôôèöèåíò LANGFAM óÿçâèì, ïîñêîëüêó
ñîçäàåò âîçìîæíîñòü äëÿ ñïîðíûõ çàêëþ÷åíèé; â íåêîòîðûõ ñëó÷àÿõ
åãî çíà÷åíèÿ ñîâïàäàþò ñ ïîëèòè÷åñêèìè ðåçóëüòàòàìè, êîòîðûå ýòîò
êîýôôèöèåíò äîëæåí îáúÿñíÿòü. Òåì íå ìåíåå, êàê ñëåäóåò èç ñðàâíåíèÿ äàííûõ ïîñòñîâåòñêîãî ïåðèîäà ñ ïîìîùüþ êîýôôèöèåíòîâ À è
Â, íàøè ïîäñ÷åòû ÿçûêîâîé äèñòàíöèè ÿâëÿþòñÿ ïîòåíöèàëüíî ïîëåçíûì ïàðàìåòðîì äëÿ ëþáîãî áóäóùåãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà.
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Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
“Í”-ÊÎÝÔÔÈÖÈÅÍÒ ÃÐÈÍÁÅÐÃÀ
Ãðèíáåðã ïîíÿë, ÷òî êëþ÷ ê ÿçûêîâîé îäíîðîäíîñòè ìîæåò áûòü íå
ñòîëüêî â èñïîëüçîâàíèè îäíîãî è òîãî æå ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà è äàæå íå â
ñõîäñòâå ðîäíûõ ÿçûêîâ, à, ñêîðåå, â èñïîëüçîâàíèè ëþáîãî ÿçûêà, ïîçâîëÿþùåãî äâóì èíäèâèäàì â ñîîáùåñòâå îñóùåñòâëÿòü êîììóíèêàöèþ. Åãî Í-êîýôôèöèåíò, èëè, êàê îí åãî íàçâàë, êîýôôèöèåíò êîììóíèêàöèè – “ýòî âåðîÿòíîñòü òîãî, ÷òî äâà ñëó÷àéíî îòîáðàííûõ ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿ íàñåëåíèÿ áóäóò èìåòü, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, îäèí îáùèé ÿçûê”.32
Èòàê, åñëè ìû èìååì òðè ÿçûêà A, B è C, äëÿ âû÷èñëåíèÿ Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà íàì íåîáõîäèìî çíàòü ïðîöåíò â íàñåëåíèè íîñèòåëåé ñëåäóþùèõ ñåìè ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ: òîëüêî À; òîëüêî Â; òîëüêî Ñ; À è Â;
À è Ñ; Â è Ñ; À è Â è Ñ. Ñóììà ïðîèçâåäåíèé ýòèõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ, â
êîòîðóþ çàëîæåíà êîììóíèêàöèÿ (íàïðèìåð, À ñîîòâåòñòâóåò À è Â) è
ñîñòàâëÿåò êîýôôèöèåíò, êàê ýòî ïîêàçàíî íèæå:
Í=À*À(1)+2*ÀÂ(0)+2*À*Ñ(0)+2*À*ÀÂ(1)
+2*À*ÀÑ(1)+2*À*ÂÑ(0)+2*À*ÀÂÑ(1)+Â*Â(1)
+Â*Â(1)+2*Â*Ñ(0)+2*Â*ÀÂ(1)
+2*Â*ÀÑ(0)+2*Â*ÂÑ(1)+2*Â*ÀÂÑ(1)
+Ñ*Ñ(1)+2*Ñ*ÀÂ(0)+2*Ñ*ÀÑ(1)+2*Ñ*ÂÑ(1)
+2*Ñ*ÀÂÑ(1)+ÀÂ*ÀÂ(1)+2*ÀÂ*ÀÑ(1)
+2*ÀÂ*ÂÑ(1)+2*ÀÂ*ÀÂÑ(1)+ÀÑ*ÀÑ(1)
+2*ÀÑ*ÂÑ(1)+2*ÀÑ*ÀÂÑ(1)+ÂÑ*ÂÑ(1)
+2*ÂÑ*ÀÂÑ(1)+ÀÂÑ*ÀÂÑ(1)
(3)
Ãðèíáåðã èñïîëüçîâàë äàííûå ïåðåïèñè, ïðîâåäåííîé â Ìåêñèêå â
1930 ãîäó. Ýòà ïåðåïèñü ñîäåðæàëà õîðîøèå ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèå äàííûå
ïî áèëèíãâèçìó. Ãðèíáåðã ïîäñ÷èòàë, ÷òî, â òî âðåìÿ êàê À-êîýôôèöèåíò äëÿ âñåé ñòðàíû ñîñòàâèë 0,3122, Í-êîýôôèöèåíò ðàâíÿëñÿ 0,8386.
Ïåðåâîäÿ Í-êîýôôèöèåíò â êîýôôèöèåíò ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé íå-êîììóíèêàöèè, ìû ïîëó÷àåì 0,1614 – ïî÷òè âäâîå ìåíüøóþ ñòåïåíü äèâåðñèôèêàöèè.  òî âðåìÿ êàê À-êîýôôèöèåíò íå ïîçâîëÿåò õàðàêòåðèçîâàòü Ìåêñèêó 1930-õ ãîäîâ êàê ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî, ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ
Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà ñòðàíà, ïîõîæå, èì ÿâëÿëàñü.
Ïîäñ÷èòûâàÿ Í-êîýôôèöèåíò íà îñíîâàíèè äàííûõ, ñîáðàííûõ
ìíîþ è Õüþ (ïðè ïîäñ÷åòå êîýôôèöèåíòîâ À è  èñòî÷íèêîì èíôîðìàöèè ÿâëÿëèñü ñîîáùåíèÿ ðåñïîíäåíòîâ îá èõ ðîäíîì ÿçûêå), ÿ ïîëàãàëñÿ íà îöåíêó ñàìèìè ðåñïîíäåíòàìè ñâîáîäû âëàäåíèÿ ÿçûêàìè,
32
Joseph H. Greenberg. The Measurement. P. 112.
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âõîäÿùèìè â ÿçûêîâîé ðåïåðòóàð. Ïîñêîëüêó âî ìíîãèõ ñëó÷àÿõ ðåñïîíäåíòû îòâå÷àþò, ÷òî íå âëàäåþò çàÿâëåííûì ðîäíûì ÿçûêîì ñâîáîäíî (Òàáëèöà 1, ñòðîêà 2), ìîå èñ÷èñëåíèå Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà îòðàæàåò, ñêîðåå, êîììóíèêàöèîííûå âîçìîæíîñòè, à íå ýòíè÷åñêóþ ñîëèäàðíîñòü. Êàê ïîêàçàíî â Òàáëèöå 1 (ñòðîêà 5), åñëè îáðàçîâàòü ïàðû
èç ñëó÷àéíî âûáðàííûõ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ãîðîäñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ îáñëåäîâàííûõ ðåñïóáëèê, îò 74% (äëÿ Ýñòîíèè) äî 98% (äëÿ Óêðàèíå) áóäóò èìåòü îäèí îáùèé ÿçûê, êîòîðûì îáà ñîáåñåäíèêà áóäóò âëàäåòü
ñâîáîäíî. Ñîãëàñíî Í-êîýôôèöèåíòó, ãîðîäñêèå ðàéîíû âñåõ øåñòè
ðåñïóáëèê ÿâëÿëèñü ïîëíîöåííûìè ÿçûêîâûìè îáùíîñòÿìè.
Ëèáåðñîí ïðåäëîæèë íåñêîëüêî íîâûõ èíòåðïðåòàöèé Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà.33 Íàèáîëåå èíòåðåñíà åãî äåòàëèçàöèÿ ýòîãî êîýôôèöèåíòà ñ
ó÷åòîì âëàñòè ÿçûêà. Äàííûå î ëþáûõ äâóõ ÿçûêàõ, À è Â, ó÷èòûâàþùèõñÿ Í-êîýôôèöèåíòîì, ìîãóò áûòü îðãàíèçîâàíû òàê, ÷òî ìû áóäåì
çíàòü óñëîâèÿ, ïðè êîòîðûõ: (1) À äîëæåí èñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ; (2) Â äîëæåí èñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ; (3) ìîæåò èñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ ëþáîé èç äâóõ ÿçûêîâ,
íî: à) À áîëåå æåëàòåëåí, òàê êàê ÿâëÿåòñÿ îñíîâíûì ÿçûêîì ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ãðóïïû, âëàäåþùèõ îáîèìè ÿçûêàìè; á) Â áîëåå æåëàòåëåí,
òàê êàê îí ÿâëÿåòñÿ îñíîâíûì ÿçûêîì ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ãðóïïû, âëàäåþùèõ îáîèìè ÿçûêàìè; ñ) íåò ÷åòêèõ ïðåäïî÷òåíèé, òàê êàê äëÿ ðàçíûõ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé îñíîâíûå ÿçûêè ðàçíûå; 4) êîììóíèêàöèÿ íåâîçìîæíà. Äîñòàòî÷íî èíòåðåñíûì îïðåäåëåíèåì ñîîáùåñòâà â ìíîãîÿçû÷íîì îáùåñòâå ìîæåò ÿâèòüñÿ òàêîå îïðåäåëåíèå, êîòîðîå îòðàæàåò ïðîöåíòíóþ äîëþ êîììóíèêàöèé òèïà ñ). Ýòîò òèï êîììóíèêàöèè
ìîæíî íàçâàòü “èçáûòî÷íûì” è ðàññìàòðèâàòü êàê êðèòåðèé áîëåå ýãàëèòàðíîé êîììóíèêàöèîííîé ñèñòåìû.
Ìîè äàííûå ïî áûâøèì ñîâåòñêèì ðåñïóáëèêàì ïîçâîëÿþò ðàññ÷èòàòü ïðåäâàðèòåëüíûå êîýôôèöèåíòû äëÿ øåñòè ãîðîäñêèõ âûáîðîê, èñïîëüçóÿ âûâîäû, êîòîðûå ñäåëàë Ëèáåðñîí. Ñðàâíèâàÿ ðÿäû 6 è
7 Òàáëèöû 1, ìîæíî âèäåòü, ÷òî â áûâøèõ ñîâåòñêèõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ ñóùåñòâîâàëî â âûñîêîé ñòåïåíè íåýãàëèòàðíîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî.
 ñîáðàííûõ íàìè ïðèìåðàõ âî âñåõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ ðóññêèé ëèáî ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáÿçàòåëüíûì äëÿ îáîèõ ñîáåñåäíèêîâ, ëèáî îíè îòäàþò åìó ÿâíîå ïðåäïî÷òåíèå ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ òèòóëüíûì ÿçûêîì (îáà ñîáåñåäíèêà ñ÷èòàþò, ÷òî íà ðóññêîì îíè ãîâîðÿò ëó÷øå, ëèáî îäèí ñîáåñåäíèê
ñ÷èòàåò, ÷òî íà ðóññêîì îí ãîâîðèò ëó÷øå, à äðóãîìó áåçðàçëè÷íî, íà
êàêîì èç äâóõ ÿçûêîâ ãîâîðèòü). Èìåííî ýòó ñèòóàöèþ õîòåëè èçìå33
Stanley Lieberson. Language Diversity. P. 318.
83
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
íèòü ìíîãèå ïîëèòèêè íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêîãî òîëêà. Áîëåå òîãî, âàðèàíò, êîãäà äâà ñëó÷àéíî âûáðàííûõ ñîáåñåäíèêà ìîãóò èñïîëüçîâàòü
áîëåå îäíîãî ÿçûêà (“èçáûòî÷íîñòü” â Òàáëèöå 1, ñòðîêà 12), ñîñòàâëÿåò 31% âîçìîæíûõ âçàèìîäåéñòâèé íà Óêðàèíå è 22% – â Ëàòâèè, íî
âñòðå÷àåòñÿ ìåíåå ÷åì â 10% âçàèìîäåéñòâèé â ãîðîäàõ äðóãèõ ðåñïóáëèê. Íåñìîòðÿ íà íåñîìíåííûå ïðåèìóùåñòâà Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà äëÿ
îïðåäåëåíèÿ òàêîé ïåðåìåííîé, êàê “ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî”, ó íàñ ïðàêòè÷åñêè íåò äàííûõ ïî ÿçûêîâûì ðåïåðòóàðàì íàñåëåíèÿ â äðóãèõ ñòðàíàõ, ñîïîñòàâèìûõ ñ äàííûìè, ñîáðàííûìè ìíîþ è Õüþ. Ïîäîáíóþ
èíôîðìàöèþ ñîáðàòü ñëîæíî, à òåì áîëåå ïðîáëåìàòè÷íî ãàðàíòèðîâàòü åå äîñòîâåðíîñòü äëÿ âñåé ñòðàíû, è òîìó åñòü íåñêîëüêî ïðè÷èí.
Âî-ïåðâûõ, êàê ÿ óæå ãîâîðèë ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê àñèììåòðè÷íîñòè ñòàòóñîâ ÿçûêîâ, êðèòåðèè, êîòîðûå èñïîëüçóþò ëþäè äëÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿ
ñâîèõ ñïîñîáíîñòåé èçúÿñíÿòüñÿ íà äðóãîì ÿçûêå, ñèëüíî ðàçíÿòñÿ îò
ñòðàíû ê ñòðàíå, à òàêæå îò ÿçûêà ê ÿçûêó â êîíêðåòíîé ñòðàíå. Âîâòîðûõ, ðàçëè÷íûå ôîðìóëèðîâêè âîïðîñîâ ìîãóò ïîäàâàòü ðåñïîíäåíòàì ðàçíûå ñèãíàëû, îïðåäåëÿÿ íàëè÷èå ïðåäâçÿòîñòè â îòâåòàõ,
ôèêñèðóþùèõ ÿçûêîâûå ðåïåðòóàðû.  îïðîñàõ ïîñòñîâåòñêîãî ïåðèîäà (ñì. ïðèëîæåíèå) ðåñïîíäåíòîâ ñïðàøèâàëè, âëàäåþò ëè îíè êîíêðåòíûì ÿçûêîì. Ïîñêîëüêó ãëàãîë “âëàäåòü” àññîöèèðóåòñÿ ñ îáëàäàíèåì è âëàñòüþ, îí ìîæåò ïîäðàçóìåâàòü áîëåå âûñîêèå êðèòåðèè çíàíèÿ ÿçûêà, íåæåëè ãëàãîë ãîâîðèòü, êîòîðûé ïîäðàçóìåâàåò ñïîñîáíîñòü ãîâîðèòü è ïðîèçíîñèòü ÷òî-ëèáî íà îïðåäåëåííîì ÿçûêå. Íå
ñóùåñòâóåò ñïîñîáîâ òî÷íîãî âûÿñíåíèÿ ñîîòíîøåíèÿ êîííîòàöèé,
ïðèñóùèõ òåðìèíàì, èñïîëüçóåìûì â èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîì èíñòðóìåíòàðèè â ðàçíûõ ÿçûêàõ.34 Â-òðåòüèõ, êàê îòìå÷àëîñü ðàíåå, ðåñïîíäåíòû äîâîëüíî ÷àñòî íåâåðíî îòâå÷àþò íà âîïðîñû, êàñàþùèåñÿ èõ ÿçûêîâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ.
È òåì íå ìåíåå, âîçìîæíîñòü îñóùåñòâëåíèÿ ýôôåêòèâíîé êîììóíèêàöèè ìåæäó ïðàêòè÷åñêè âñåìè ñîáåñåäíèêàìè – ÷òî ñîñòàâëÿåò
êëþ÷åâóþ èäåþ Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà – áëèçêà íàøåìó ïîíèìàíèþ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà. Ïîýòîìó èìååò ñìûñë ðàçâèâàòü òåõíèêè îïðîñà è
îïèñàíèÿ, ïîñòàâëÿþùèå “ñûðûå” äàííûå äëÿ âû÷èñëåíèÿ Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà â ìàñøòàáàõ ãîñóäàðñòâà. Ðàçðåøèòü ïðîáëåìó ìåæíàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðíîé ïðåäâçÿòîñòè ïðè ïðîâåäåíèè îïðîñîâ ìîæíî ñ ïîìîùüþ âçàèìîäîïîëíÿþùèõ ýòíîãðàôè÷åñêèõ ðàáîò ïî ïîäãðóïïàì èñDell Hymnes. Linguistic Aspects of Comparative Political Research // Robert Holt
and John Turner (Eds.). The Methodology of Comparative Research. New York, 1970.
34
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ñëåäóåìîãî íàñåëåíèÿ, â êîòîðûõ èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ìåòîäèêà âêëþ÷åííîãî
íàáëþäåíèÿ. Ýòî ïîçâîëèò îöåíèòü âåêòîð è ñèëó êóëüòóðíîé ïðåäâçÿòîñòè, çàëîæåííîé â êàæäîì îïðîñå, è ñêîððåêòèðîâàòü ïàðàìåòðû.
Áîëåå àìáèöèîçíûé ïðîåêò ïðåäïîëàãàåò ñòðàòèôèêàöèþ ãðóïï íàñåëåíèÿ ñòðàíû è èñïîëüçîâàíèå ñòàíäàðòíûõ òåõíèê (äèêòàíòîâ èëè
çàìåðîâ ñêîðîñòè óñòíîé ðå÷è) òåñòèðîâàíèÿ ðåàëüíîãî çíàíèÿ âòîðîãî (è, åñëè åñòü – òðåòüåãî) ÿçûêà. Åùå ëó÷øå áûëî áû ðàçðàáîòàòü
áîëåå ïîäðîáíóþ (âîçìîæíî, ñ ìåíüøåé âûáîðêîé) “ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêóþ
áàçîâóþ øêàëó”, ñ ïîìîùüþ êîòîðîé ñïåöèàëüíî îáó÷åííûå èíòåðâüþåðû ìîãëè áû îöåíèâàòü ÿçûêîâûå íàâûêè, èñïîëüçîâàíèå ÿçûêîâ
â ïðåñòèæíûõ è íåïðåñòèæíûõ ñôåðàõ, à òàêæå èíòåãðèðóþùèå ôóíêöèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ ÿçûêà.35
ßçûêîâûå ðåæèìû êàê ÿçûêîâûå ñîîáùåñòâà
Îòîæäåñòâëåíèå îáùåãî ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà ñ ÿçûêîâûì ñîîáùåñòâîì
(ïðàâäà, ïðèçíàâàÿ ñâîåîáðàçèå Øâåéöàðèè) – ýòî íå ñîâñåì òî, ÷òî
èìåëè â âèäó Äîé÷ (Deutsch) è äðóãèå òåîðåòèêè íàöèè, êîãäà ñòðîèëè
êîíöåïöèè ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ. Íî è âûñîêîóñïåøíàÿ âíóòðåííÿÿ
êîììóíèêàöèÿ òàêæå íå èñ÷åðïûâàåò ïîíÿòèÿ “ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà”,
òàê êàê îíî ïðåäïîëàãàåò íàëè÷èå ðÿäà íîðìàòèâíûõ óñòàíîâîê êàñàòåëüíî ÿçûêîâ, êîòîðûå ÷ëåíû ñîîáùåñòâà îáÿçàíû èçó÷àòü, è ÿçûêîâ,
íà êîòîðûõ äîëæíû ãîâîðèòü â ñïåöèôè÷åñêèõ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâàõ.  îäíîé èç ñâîèõ ïðåäûäóùèõ ðàáîò ÿ ïðåäïîëîæèë, ÷òî â ðàìêàõ îäíîé
ñòðàíû ìîãóò ñóùåñòâîâàòü ìíîãîÿçû÷íûå ÿçûêîâûå êîíôèãóðàöèè,
êîòîðûå â òî æå âðåìÿ ôóíêöèîíèðóþò êàê íàöèîíàëüíûå ñîîáùåñòâà.36
Çäåñü ÿ ïîïûòàþñü ïðåäëîæèòü áîëåå òî÷íóþ ñïåöèôèêàöèþ ìíîãîÿçû÷íûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ, èëè ÿçûêîâûõ ðåæèìîâ. ß ñ÷èòàþ, ÷òî
â áóäóùåì ñáîð äàííûõ î ÿçûêîâûõ ðåæèìàõ äîëæåí ó÷èòûâàòü äâà
òèïà èçìåðåíèé: ïåðâûé – êàòåãîðèàëüíàÿ ïåðåìåííàÿ, óêàçûâàþùàÿ
Áåòýíñ Áèðäñìîð (Baetens Berdsmore) ðàññìîòðåë ïåðñïåêòèâû è îïàñíîñòè (îñîáåííî ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê èñïîëüçîâàíèþ äàííûõ ïåðåïèñåé) èçìåðåíèÿ áèëèíãâèçìà. Åãî àíàëèç äîëæåí ñëóæèòü îñíîâîé ëþáîãî ïîëíîìàñøòàáíîãî èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî ïðîåêòà, íàïðàâëåííîãî íà ïîëó÷åíèå ïîäõîäÿùèõ äëÿ âûâåäåíèÿ Íêîýôôèöèåíòà èçìåðåíèé. Íàñêîëüêî ìíå èçâåñòíî, íè îäèí ëèíãâèñò íå ïûòàëñÿ
èçìåðÿòü áèëèíãâèçì, èñïîëüçóÿ ëó÷øèå èç âûøåïåðå÷èñëåííûõ òåõíèê, è äåëàòü
çàêëþ÷åíèÿ î ÿçûêîâîé ñèòóàöèè â ñòðàíå èëè â áîëüøîì ðåãèîíå ñòðàíû. Ñì.:
Baetens Beardsmore. Bilingualism: Basic Principles. Avon, 1986.
36
David D. Laitin. Language Repertoires and State Construction in Africa. Cambridge,
1992.
35
85
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
íà òèï ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà â ñòðàíå; âòîðîé – ïîñòîÿííî äåéñòâóþùàÿ ïåðåìåííàÿ, îòðàæàþùàÿ ñòåïåíü ðåàëèçîâàííîñòè êàæäîãî òèïà
[ÿçûêîâîãî] ñîîáùåñòâà.
Ñíà÷àëà ðàññìîòðèì ïîíÿòèå “ÿçûêîâîé ñèòóàöèè”, êîòîðóþ ×àðëüç
Ôåðãþñîí îïðåäåëèë êàê “ïîëíàÿ êîíôèãóðàöèÿ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ÿçûêà
â êîíêðåòíîå âðåìÿ è â êîíêðåòíîì ìåñòå, âêëþ÷àÿ êîëè÷åñòâåííîå è
êà÷åñòâåííîå îïèñàíèå èñïîëüçóåìûõ ÿçûêîâ è äàííûå î ÷èñëåííîñòè
ëþäåé, ãîâîðÿùèõ íà íèõ â ýòîì ðåãèîíå, îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà îáðàùåíèÿ ê
ýòèì ÿçûêàì, à òàêæå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå ñðåäè ÷ëåíîâ ñîîáùåñòâà
ìíåíèÿ è ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ îá ýòèõ ÿçûêàõ”.37 Îïðåäåëåíèå Ôåðãþñîíà
àêêóìóëèðóåò îãðîìíîå êîëè÷åñòâî èíôîðìàöèè â àëãåáðàè÷åñêóþ
ôîðìóëó, äàþùóþ ÷èòàòåëþ ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î âñåõ ÿçûêàõ, èñïîëüçóåìûõ â äàííîé ìåñòíîñòè, èõ ôóíêöèÿõ, âåðîÿòíîñòè òîãî, ÷òî îíè èñïîëüçóþòñÿ ñîîòâåòñòâåííî ýòèì ôóíêöèÿì. Íàñêîëüêî ìíå èçâåñòíî,
ïîñëå íàáðîñêà Ôåðãþñîíà î ÿçûêîâîé ñèòóàöèè â Ýôèîïèè äðóãèõ
ïîäîáíûõ îïèñàíèé ÿçûêîâûõ ñèòóàöèé íå ïîÿâëÿëîñü. Íî äàæå åñëè
áû ïîäîáíûå ðàáîòû áûëè, èõ äàííûå íå ïîçâîëèëè áû âûâåñòè ïåðåìåííóþ, óêàçûâàþùóþ íà íàëè÷èå èëè îòñóòñòâèå â Ýôèîïèè ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà, èëè îöåíèòü çíà÷åíèå ýôèîïñêîãî ñëó÷àÿ äëÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿ ðàçìåðîâ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà.
Ðàññìîòðåâ ïîïûòêè Ôåðãþñîíà è äðóãèõ ïî îñìûñëåíèþ ÿçûêîâîé ñèòóàöèè, ÿ ïðåäëîæèë êàòåãîðèçàöèþ ãîñóäàðñòâ ïî ÿçûêîâûì
ðåïåðòóàðàì, êîòîðûå îáåñïå÷èâàþò ãðàæäàíàì ýòèõ (ëþáûõ) ãîñóäàðñòâ øèðîêèå âîçìîæíîñòè ìîáèëüíîñòè â ïðåäåëàõ èõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ, ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ èíñòèòóòîâ.38
Âûäåëåíèå “ÿçûêîâûõ ðåæèìî┠âûòåêàåò èç ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î íàëè÷èè îáÿçàòåëüíîãî (è èìåþùåãî íîðìàòèâíóþ öåííîñòü) ÿçûêîâîãî
ðåïåðòóàðà. Ìîåé öåëüþ ÿâëÿåòñÿ âûäåëåíèå ðÿäà ïîääàþùèõñÿ ñèñòåìàòèçàöèè, íî â òî æå âðåìÿ ðàçëè÷àþùèõñÿ ÿçûêîâûõ ðåæèìîâ, ñ
ó÷åòîì òîãî, ÷òî â ëþáîì ñëó÷àå óðîâåíü ñîîòâåòñòâèÿ ñòðàíû ïîíÿòèþ “ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà” ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïåðåìåííîé âåëè÷èíîé.
Ðàöèîíàëèçèðîâàííûå ÿçûêîâûå ñîîáùåñòâà
Ïåðâîå ïðèíöèïèàëüíîå ðàçãðàíè÷åíèå ïðîõîäèò ìåæäó ãîñóäàðñòâàìè ñ “ðàöèîíàëèçèðîâàííûì” ÿçûêîì è ãîñóäàðñòâàìè ñ “ìíîãîCharles Ferguson. National Sociolinguistic Profile Formulas // W. Bright (Ed.).
Sociolinguistics. The Hague, 1966. P. 309
38
David D. Laitin. Language Repertoires.
37
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ÿçû÷íûì ðåæèìîì”. Ðàöèîíàëèçàöèÿ, ò.å. âëàñòíîå íàñàæäåíèå îäíîãî ÿçûêà êàê ÿçûêà îáðàçîâàíèÿ è àäìèíèñòðèðîâàíèÿ, ÿâëÿåòñÿ êîíöåïöòîì, âçÿòûì èç ðàáîò Ìàêñà Âåáåðà, êîòîðûé èñïîëüçîâàë ýòîò
òåðìèí äëÿ îïèñàíèÿ ïðàêòèê ìîäåðíîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà â îáëàñòè ñòàíäàðòèçàöèè è áþðîêðàòèçàöèè.39 Îáùàÿ äåíåæíàÿ åäèíèöà, åäèíàÿ
ïðàâîâàÿ ñèñòåìà è óíèôèöèðîâàííûé íàëîãîâûé êîäåêñ – ýòî âñå ïðèìåðû ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè, êàê è îáùèé àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûé ÿçûê.  öåëÿõ
êëàññèôèêàöèè ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ äîïóñòèì, ÷òî ãîñóäàðñòâà, âîâëå÷åííûå â ïðîöåññ ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè, ÿâëÿþòñÿ “ÿçûêîâûìè ñîîáùåñòâàìè” â òîé ñòåïåíè, â êàêîé èõ À-êîýôôèöèåíòû ïðèáëèæàþòñÿ ê
åäèíèöå. Ãîñóäàðñòâà ìîãóò äîñòè÷ü ÿçûêîâîé ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè òðåìÿ
ñïîñîáàìè.
(R1) Ðàöèîíàëèçàöèÿ ÷åðåç ïðèçíàíèå lingua franca. Ýòà ôîðìà
ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè íàáëþäàåòñÿ â òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà ñóùåñòâóåò ÿçûê,
êîòîðûé äîñòàòî÷íî ðàñïðîñòðàíåí è ïîíèìàåòñÿ ïðàêòè÷åñêè ïîâñåìåñòíî â ãðàíèöàõ äàííîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà, íî ýòîò ÿçûê íå àññîöèèðóåòñÿ ñ ðîäíûì ÿçûêîì çíà÷èòåëüíîé ãðóïïû íàñåëåíèÿ ýòîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà. Ñóàõèëè â Òàíçàíèè, áàõàñà â Èíäîíåçèè, àíãëèéñêèé â ÑØÀ è,
âîçìîæíî, äàæå àíãëèéñêèé â Âåëèêîáðèòàíèè ÿâëÿþòñÿ ïðèìåðàìè
ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè ÷åðåç ïðèçíàíèå ãîñóäàðñòâîì lingua franca, èñïîëüçóåìîãî îáùåñòâîì.
(R2) Ðàöèîíàëèçàöèÿ ÷åðåç ïðèçíàíèå ÿçûêà áîëüøèíñòâà.
Ôðàíöóçñêèé âî Ôðàíöèè, õàíüñêèé êèòàéñêèé â Êèòàå, êèîòîñêèé
ÿïîíñêèé â ßïîíèè – ïðèìåðû òîãî, êàê äîìèíèðóþùåé ÿçûêîâîé ãðóïïå óäàëîñü íàâÿçàòü ñâîé [ÿçûêîâîé] ñòàíäàðò âñåìó îáùåñòâó.
(R3) Ðàöèîíàëèçàöèÿ ÷åðåç ïðèçíàíèå ÿçûêà ìåíüøèíñòâà.
Ïðèìåðû òàêîé ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè – ðàöèîíàëèçàöèÿ èñïàíñêîãî ÿçûêà
ìåñòèçî â Þæíîé Àìåðèêå, ïîëèòèêà Õàéëå Ñåëàññèÿ ïî ââåäåíèþ
àìàðèéñêîãî â Ýôèîïèè è ïîïûòêè àôðèêàíåðîâ ñäåëàòü àôðèêààíñ
ðàöèîíàëèçèðîâàííûì ÿçûêîì ÞÀÐ.
Ìíîãîÿçû÷íûå ÿçûêîâûå ñîîáùåñòâà
 òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà ãîñóäàðñòâî íå äîáèâàëîñü ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè
èëè áûëî âûíóæäåíî â ðåçóëüòàòå ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî äàâëåíèÿ ïðèçíàòü
ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå ïðàâà ìåíüøèíñòâ, ìû ìîæåì ãîâîðèòü î íàëè÷èè â
òàêîì ãîñóäàðñòâå ìíîãîÿçû÷íîãî ðåæèìà. Ðàçëè÷àþòñÿ äâà òèïà ìíîãîÿçû÷íûõ ðåæèìîâ.
39
Max Weber. Economy and Society. Berkley, 1968.
87
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
(Ì1) Ìíîãîÿçû÷íûå ðåæèìû ñ èíäèâèäóàëüíûìè ìíîãîÿçû÷íûìè ðåïåðòóàðàìè. Ðåæèìû òèïà Ì1 ïîäðàçóìåâàþò, ÷òî ëþäè êóëüòèâèðóþò ÿçûêîâûå ðåïåðòóàðû, êîòîðûå âêëþ÷àþò ðàçíûå ÿçûêè, èñïîëüçóþùèåñÿ êàæäûé â ñâîåé ôóíêöèîíàëüíîé ñôåðå: îäèí – äëÿ
îôèöèàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ â ñâîåì ðåãèîíå, äðóãîé – ÿçûê ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî îáùåíèÿ â áîëüøîì áèçíåñå, òðåòèé – äëÿ âåäåíèÿ îôèöèàëüíûõ
äåë ñ öåíòðîì, ÷åòâåðòûé – ÿçûê ìåñòíûõ ñëóæá (áîëüíèöû, íà÷àëüíûå øêîëû).  Èíäèè ñóùåñòâóåò òâåðäî óñòàíîâèâøèéñÿ (íî íå ïðèçíàííûé îôèöèàëüíî) ÿçûêîâîé ðåæèì 3±1. Èíäèéöû, êîòîðûå õîòÿò
èìåòü øèðîêèå âîçìîæíîñòè äëÿ ìîáèëüíîñòè, äîëæíû çíàòü õèíäè
(ÿçûê ìàññîâîé êóëüòóðû è íåêîòîðûõ ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ äîêóìåíòîâ),
àíãëèéñêèé (ÿçûê âûñøåãî ãðàæäàíñêîãî ÷èíîâíè÷åñòâà è áîëüøîãî
áèçíåñà) è îôèöèàëüíûé ÿçûê øòàòà (èñïîëüçóåìûé â áîëüøèíñòâå
îôèöèàëüíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèé øòàòà è â îáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèÿõ).
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìû ïîëó÷àåì òðèÿçû÷íóþ ôîðìóëó. Íî äëÿ òåõ, êòî
æèâåò â øòàòàõ, ãäå õèíäè èëè àíãëèéñêèé ÿâëÿþòñÿ îôèöèàëüíûìè
ÿçûêàìè øòàòà, òîëüêî äâà (3-1) ÿçûêà áóäóò íåîáõîäèìûìè ñîñòàâëÿþùèìè ÿçûêîâîãî ðåïåðòóàðà. Äëÿ ãðóïï, ñîñòàâëÿþùèõ ìåíüøèíñòâî
â òåõ øòàòàõ, ãäå íè õèíäè, íè àíãëèéñêèé íå ÿâëÿþòñÿ îôèöèàëüíûìè ÿçûêàìè øòàòà, è äîáèâàþùèõñÿ ñâîèõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïðàâ, íåîáõîäèìî çíàíèå ÷åòûðåõ ÿçûêî⠖ àíãëèéñêîãî, õèíäè, îôèöèàëüíîãî
ÿçûêà øòàòà è ñîáñòâåííî ÿçûêà äàííîãî ìåíüøèíñòâà. Õîòÿ íè îäíà
äðóãàÿ ñòðàíà â ìèðå íå ïîâòîðÿåò õàðàêòåðíóþ äëÿ Èíäèè ÿçûêîâóþ
êîíôèãóðàöèþ, íåñêîëüêî àôðèêàíñêèõ ñòðàí (íàïðèìåð, Êîíãî è Íèãåðèÿ) äâèæóòñÿ â áëèçêîì íàïðàâëåíèè.
Ôîðìóëà äðóãîãî âàðèàíòà ÿçûêîâîãî ðåæèìà òèïà Ì1 – 2±1. Òàêîé
ðåæèì ôîðìèðóåòñÿ â òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà ïðè îôèöèàëüíîé ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè îäíîãî ÿçûêà ëåãàëèçèðîâàííûå ðåãèîíàëüíûå àâòîíîìèè èñïîëüçóþò äðóãèå ÿçûêè.  ýòîì ñëó÷àå îäèí ÿçûê ñòàíîâèòñÿ de jure
îôèöèàëüíûì ÿçûêîì ãîñóäàðñòâà, è âñå, êòî õî÷åò îáëàäàòü îïðåäåëåííûì óðîâíåì ìîáèëüíîñòè, èçó÷àþò åãî. Îäíàêî ðåãèîí èëè íåñêîëüêî ðåãèîíîâ ìîãóò èìåòü îãðàíè÷åííûå ïðàâà àâòîíîìèè â âîïðîñå îôèöèàëüíîãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ðåãèîíàëüíîãî ÿçûêà â ñïåöèàëüíî
óñòàíîâëåííûõ ñôåðàõ. Âîçìîæíî äàæå, ÷òî ðåãèîíû äîáèâàþòñÿ îò
ãîñóäàðñòâà ïðèçíàíèÿ èõ òðåáîâàíèé ê íåêîòîðûì ãðóïïàì ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ, êîòîðûå äîëæíû âëàäåòü ðåãèîíàëüíûì ÿçûêîì. Ïðèìåðû âêëþ÷àþò Êàíàäó (Êâåáåê), Èñïàíèþ (Ñòðàíà áàñêîâ,
Ãàëèöèÿ, Êàòàëîíèÿ), Àëæèð, íîâóþ îáúåäèíåííóþ Åâðîïó è Ðîññèþ
(ãäå ìíîãèå ðåñïóáëèêè èìåþò ñâîè îôèöèàëüíûå ÿçûêè). Ìåòîäîëî88
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ãè÷åñêàÿ ïðîáëåìà ñ ðåæèìàìè òèïà Ì1 çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â ñëîæíîñòè èçìåðåíèÿ óðîâíÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà.
 äàííîé ðàáîòå ÿ ïðåäëàãàþ òðè êîëè÷åñòâåííûõ ïàðàìåòðà, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ âûÿâèòü, ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ëè ðåæèì òèïà Ì1 ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî. Êàæäûé èç ýòèõ ïàðàìåòðîâ îïèñûâàåò êàêîé-òî àñïåêò òîãî
ïîðÿäêà, êîòîðûé ïîìîãàåò ðåæèìó Ì1 ðåàëèçîâàòü ñåáÿ â êà÷åñòâå
ñîîáùåñòâà ñî ñâîèìè íîðìàìè, ðåãóëèðóþùèìè ÿçûêîâîé âûáîð (ýòè
íîðìû íå èìåþò ñìûñëà, åñëè â êà÷åñòâå öåëè âûäâèãàåòñÿ ìàêñèìèçàöèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîé çîíû). Âî-ïåðâûõ, èñïîëüçóÿ èíäèêàòîð, ðàçðàáîòàííûé Àáðàìîì äå Ñâààíîì (Abram de Swaan)40 , ïðåäïîëîæèì,
÷òî ñóùåñòâóåò õîòÿ áû îäèí ÿçûê ñ âûñîêîé ñòåïåíüþ “öåíòðàëüíîñòè”. Çíà÷èò, áîëüøîé ïðîöåíò ìíîãîÿçû÷íîãî íàñåëåíèÿ äîëæåí ðàçäåëÿòü õîòÿ áû îäèí îáùèé ÿçûê. Ýòîò èíäèêàòîð âû÷èñëÿåòñÿ ïóòåì
âûáîðà èç íàñåëåíèÿ âñåõ ëþäåé, êîòîðûå ãîâîðÿò íà áîëåå ÷åì îäíîì
ÿçûêå, è ðàñ÷åòà ïðîöåíòîâ ãîâîðÿùèõ íà êàæäîì èç ïåðå÷èñëåííûõ
ÿçûêîâ. ßçûê, ïðîöåíò ãîâîðÿùèõ íà êîòîðîì ïðèáëèæàåòñÿ ê 100%,
äåìîíñòðèðóåò ìàêñèìàëüíóþ “öåíòðàëüíîñòü”.  Êàìåðóíå, íàïðèìåð, ñóùåñòâóåò ðàçäåëåíèå ìåæäó òåìè, êòî äîáàâèë â ñâîé ÿçûêîâîé
ðåïåðòóàð ôðàíöóçñêèé, è òåìè, êòî äîáàâèë àíãëèéñêèé. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ó Êàìåðóíà ïîòåíöèàëüíî íèçêèé ïîêàçàòåëü “öåíòðàëüíîñòè”, è
åãî ñëåäóåò êîäèðîâàòü êàê ðåæèì Ì1 ñ íèçêèì óðîâíåì ÿçûêîâîãî
ñîîáùåñòâà.
Âî-âòîðûõ, îïèñàííûé ìíîþ òèï ÿçûêîâîãî ðåæèìà Ì1 ïðåäïîëàãàåò, ÷òî ëþäè, ñ÷èòàþùèå “öåíòðàëüíûé” ÿçûê ñâîèì ðîäíûì, äåìîíñòðèðóþò ñàìûé âûñîêèé ïîêàçàòåëü ìîíîëèíãâèçìà ñðåäè íàñåëåíèÿ
â öåëîì, à îòíîñÿùèå ñåáÿ ê ðåãèîíàëüíûì ÿçûêîâûì ãðóïïàì îáû÷íî
îêàçûâàþòñÿ äâóÿçû÷íûìè. Êàê ïðàâèëî, ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ðåãèîíàëüíûõ
ìåíüøèíñòâ, íå ñ÷èòàþùèå ñâîèì ðîäíûì íè “öåíòðàëüíûé”, íè ðåãèîíàëüíûå ÿçûêè, äåìîíñòðèðóþò òðèÿçû÷èå.
Â-òðåòüèõ, êàê ÿ è ïðåäñêàçûâàë â ÷àñòè ñòàòüè, ïîñâÿùåííîé Íêîýôôèöèåíòó, ÷òîáû ðåæèì Ì1 ñòàë ñîîáùåñòâîì, ëþäè â êàæäîé èç
âûøåïåðå÷èñëåííûõ êàòåãîðèé (à èìåííî: ñ ðîäíûì “öåíòðàëüíûì”
ÿçûêîì, ðåãèîíàëüíûå íàöèîíàëüíîñòè è ðåãèîíàëüíûå ìåíüøèíñòâà)
äîëæíû èìåòü îäèíàêîâûé íàáîð ÿçûêîâ â ñâîåì ðåïåðòóàðå (à íå âçàèìîäîïîëíÿþùèå ñî÷åòàíèÿ ÿçûêîâ). Òàêèì îáðàçîì, äëÿ ðåæèìà Ì1
Abram De Swaan. The Evolving European Language System: A Theory of
Communication Potential and Language Competition // International Political Science
Review. 1993. Vol. 14. Pp. 241-256.
40
89
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
õàðàêòåðíà èçáûòî÷íàÿ ÿçûêîâàÿ êîìïåòåíöèÿ. Äðóãèìè ñëîâàìè, ñòðàòåãèÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ÿçûêîâûõ íàâûêîâ áóäåò îñíîâûâàòüñÿ íå íà æåëàíèè
ëþäåé óâåëè÷èòü Í-êîýôôèöèåíò, à íà êîïèðîâàíèè ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ ëþäåé, çàíèìàþùèõ òàêîå æå ïîëîæåíèå â ìíîãîÿçû÷íîì îáùåñòâå.
Ñîâåòñêèé Ñîþç ïðåäñòàâëÿë ñîáîé ðåæèì òèïà Ì1. Êîíå÷íî, òàì
áûëè è ýëåìåíòû ðàöèîíàëèçèðîâàííîãî ÿçûêîâîãî ðåæèìà. Ïðàêòè÷åñêè âñå øêîëüíèêè Ñîâåòñêîãî Ñîþçà äîëæíû áûëè ó÷èòü ðóññêèé, à ñîöèàëüíàÿ ìîáèëüíîñòü, îñóùåñòâëÿâøàÿñÿ ÷åðåç ÷ëåíñòâî
â Êîììóíèñòè÷åñêîé ïàðòèè, áûëà íåâîçìîæíà áåç çíàíèÿ ðóññêîãî.
Íî áîëåå 30% îïðîøåííûõ ýñòîíöåâ çàÿâèëè, ÷òî íå ãîâîðÿò ïî-ðóññêè (Òàáëèöà 1, ðÿä 3), è ìåíåå ïîëîâèíû îïðîøåííûõ æèòåëåé ãîðîäîâ îòìåòèëè ðóññêèé êàê ïðåèìóùåñòâåííûé ÿçûê, èñïîëüçóåìûé
äëÿ åæåäíåâíîãî îáùåíèÿ (ðÿä 7). Òàêæå, ïîñêîëüêó êàæäàÿ ðåñïóáëèêà ðàñïîëàãàëà çíà÷èòåëüíîé àâòîíîìèåé â ïðîäâèæåíèè ñâîåãî
òèòóëüíîãî ÿçûêà (à â 1989 ã. âî âñåõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ áûëè ïðèíÿòû çàêîíû, êîòîðûå â ðàçíîé ñòåïåíè ñîçäàâàëè ïðåäïî÷òèòåëüíûå óñëîâèÿ äëÿ òèòóëüíîãî ÿçûêà êàê îôèöèàëüíîãî ðåñïóáëèêàíñêîãî äåëîâîãî ÿçûêà), â Ñîâåòñêîì Ñîþçå èìåëèñü ýëåìåíòû ïîäïîðî÷íîé41
ñèñòåìû, êîòîðàÿ áóäåò ðàññìîòðåíà íèæå. Îäíàêî, â ñèëó âûñîêîãî
ðàçâèòèÿ â Ñîâåòñêîì Ñîþçå èíäèâèäóàëüíîãî ìóëüòèëèíãâèçìà (ïðè
êîòîðîì òèòóëüíûå ÿçûêè è ðóññêèé ÿçûê çàíèìàëè âçàèìîäîïîëíÿþùèå ôóíêöèîíàëüíûå ñôåðû), Ñîâåòñêèé Ñîþç ïðàâèëüíåå ñ÷èòàòü
ðåæèìîì òèïà Ì1. Áîëåå òîãî, ñîáðàííàÿ ìíîé èíôîðìàöèÿ ïî äâóì
èç øåñòè áûâøèõ ñîâåòñêèõ ðåñïóáëèê íàâîäèò íà ìûñëü, ÷òî ÿçûêîâîé ðåæèì â Ñîâåòñêîì Ñîþçå áåçóñëîâíî ïðèáëèæàëñÿ ê ñòàíäàðòàì “ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà”.42 Îòíîñèòåëüíî ïîêàçàòåëÿ “öåíòðàëüíîñòè” (Òàáëèöà 1, ðÿä 8) ìîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî 100% äâóõ- è òðèÿçû÷íûõ æèòåëåé Òàòàðñòàíà è 96% â Áàøêîðòîñòàíå îòëè÷íî ãîâîðÿò ïî-ðóññêè. Ýòî çíà÷èò, ÷òî â îáåèõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ ñóùåñòâóåò öåíÈìåþùåé íåñêîëüêî îïîð, îò àíãëèéñêîãî pillarized. – Ïðèìå÷àíèå ïåðåâîä÷èêà.
Äàííûå îïðîñîâ ïî ýòèì äâóì ðåñïóáëèêàì (Òàòàðñòàí è Áàøêîðòîñòàí) ñîäåðæàò
èíôîðìàöèþ î òèòóëüíîì ÿçûêå, ðóññêîì è îá îäíîì ÿçûêå ìåíüøèíñòâà. Áûëî
áû ëó÷øå, åñëè áû ÿ ðàñïîëàãàë äàííûìè î ïîëíîì ÿçûêîâîì ðåïåðòóàðå êàæäîãî
ðåñïîíäåíòà. Îòíîñèòåëüíî äðóãèõ ÷åòûðåõ ðåñïóáëèê ó ìåíÿ åñòü èíôîðìàöèÿ
òîëüêî î ðóññêîì è î òèòóëüíîì ÿçûêàõ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, âñå áèëèíãâû îêàæóòñÿ
ñâîáîäíî ãîâîðÿùèìè íà îáîèõ óêàçàííûõ ÿçûêàõ, è îáà ÿçûêà ïðåäñòàíóò êàê â
ðàâíîé ìåðå “öåíòðàëüíûå”. Ïîýòîìó ÿ ïîäñ÷èòàë ïàðàìåòðû ìíîãîÿçû÷íîãî
ñîîáùåñòâà òîëüêî äëÿ Òàòàðñòàíà è Áàøêîðòîñòàíà.
41
42
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òðàëüíûé ÿçûê äëÿ øèðîêîé êîììóíèêàöèè. Âòîðîé “öåíòðàëüíûé”
ÿçûê ó áèëèíãâîâ Òàòàðñòàíà íà 13% îòñòàåò îò ðóññêîãî, à ó áèëèíãâîâ Áàøêîðòîñòàíà ýòî îòñòàâàíèå ñîñòàâëÿåò 25%. ×òî êàñàåòñÿ
ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ìîíîëèíãâèçìà, áèëèíãâèçìà è òðèÿçû÷èÿ (Òàáëèöà 1, ðÿäû 9-11), â îáåèõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ íîðìàòèâíûé ïîðÿäîê âïîëíå
ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ÿçûêîâîé ñèòóàöèè 3±1. Ðóññêèå (ïî íàöèîíàëüíîñòè)
ïîòåíöèàëüíî ñîñòàâÿò áîëüøèíñòâî ìîíîëèíãâîâ êàê â Òàòàðñòàíå,
òàê è â Áàøêîðòîñòàíå. Ó ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ìåíüøèíñòâ äîâîëüíî âûñîêèå ïîêàçàòåëè ïî êîëè÷åñòâó òðèÿçû÷íûõ â îáåèõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ
(íàìíîãî âûøå, ÷åì ó ðóññêèõ), íî â Áàøêîðòîñòàíå ïðåäñòàâèòåëè
êîðåííîãî íàñåëåíèÿ ÷àùå ãîâîðÿò íà òðåõ ÿçûêàõ, ÷åì ïðåäñòàâèòåëè íàöèîíàëüíîãî ìåíüøèíñòâà. Êðèòåðèè äëÿ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà òèïà 3±1 ïðåäïîëàãàþò, ÷òî íàèáîëüøåå êîëè÷åñòâî áèëèíãâîâ
áóäåò ñðåäè òèòóëüíîãî íàñåëåíèÿ, íî äàííûå ïî æèòåëÿì ãîðîäîâ
ïîêàçûâàþò, ÷òî ýòî, íàïðîòèâ, íàöèîíàëüíûå ìåíüøèíñòâà, íå îòíîñÿùèåñÿ ê òèòóëüíîìó áîëüøèíñòâó ðåñïóáëèêè. Òàêèì îáðàçîì,
âåðñèÿ î ñóùåñòâîâàíèè â Òàòàðñòàíå è Áàøêîðòîñòàíå íîðìàòèâíûõ ïðàêòèê, ðåãóëèðóþùèõ, êòî è êàêèå ÿçûêè èçó÷àåò, íå íàõîäèò
ñåðüåçíîãî ïîäòâåðæäåíèÿ. ×òî êàñàåòñÿ ñòåïåíè çíàíèÿ èçáûòî÷íûõ ÿçûêîâ (Òàáëèöà 1, ðÿä 12), òî â Ëàòâèè è íà Óêðàèíå îíà âûøå,
÷åì â Áàøêîðòîñòàíå è Òàòàðñòàíå, õîòÿ, â îáùåì, ýòîò ïîêàçàòåëü
íåâûñîê âî âñåõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ. Íåñìîòðÿ íà íèçêèé óðîâåíü ïîêàçàòåëÿ ÿçûêîâîé “èçáûòî÷íîñòè”, íàñåëåíèå âëàäååò ÿçûêàìè ãîðàçäî
ëó÷øå, ÷åì ýòî òðåáóåòñÿ äëÿ îáåñïå÷åíèÿ ýôôåêòèâíîé âçàèìíîé
êîììóíèêàöèè, ÷òî ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñèëüíûì àðãóìåíòîì â ïîëüçó íàëè÷èÿ
ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà.
Äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû âûÿñíèòü, ÿâëÿåòñÿ ëè ðåæèì Ì1 ÿçûêîâûì ñîîáùåñòâîì, âîçìîæíî, ïðèäåòñÿ âûéòè çà ðàìêè îïèñàííûõ âûøå òðåõ
êîëè÷åñòâåííûõ ïàðàìåòðîâ è ïðèâëå÷ü èíôîðìàöèþ î ìîäåëÿõ ïîâåäåíèÿ. Ê ïðèìåðó, ìîæíî ïðîâåñòè íàáëþäåíèÿ ñëó÷àéíîãî îáùåíèÿ
ëþäåé â òàêèõ ìåñòàõ, êàê ðûíêè, áîëüíèöû, áèëåòíûå êàññû è ò.ä., è
èçìåðèòü âðåìÿ, êîòîðîå ñîáåñåäíèêè ïîòðàòÿò íà òî, ÷òîáû îáíàðóæèòü ÿçûê, íà êîòîðîì îíè ìîãóò îáùàòüñÿ. Åñëè ìû èìååì äåëî ñ
ÿçûêîâûì ñîîáùåñòâîì, ëþäè çàðàíåå çíàþò, íà êàêîì ÿçûêå â êàêîì
ìåñòå ïðèíÿòî îáùàòüñÿ, è âûáîð ÿçûêà, ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî ñèòóàöèè,
ïðîèñõîäèò î÷åíü áûñòðî. Ñáîð ïîäîáíîé èíôîðìàöèè, äîïîëíÿþùåé
âûÿâëåíèå ÿçûêîâûõ ðåïåðòóàðîâ, ïîòðåáóåò äîâîëüíî ñëîæíîé òåõíèêè íàáëþäåíèÿ, íî âïîëíå îñóùåñòâèì “âêëþ÷åííûì íàáëþäàòåëåì” (participant observer).
91
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
(Ì2) Ïîäïîðî÷íûé (pillarized) ìíîãîÿçû÷íûé ðåæèì. Ïðè òàêîé ìíîãîÿçû÷íîé êîíôèãóðàöèè íåîáõîäèìîñòü ãîâîðèòü íà íåñêîëüêèõ ÿçûêàõ äëÿ îáû÷íîãî ÷åëîâåêà ÿâëÿåòñÿ òîëüêî îáùåñòâåííîé. Â
óñëîâèÿõ “ïîäïîðî÷íîãî” ðåæèìà ó êàæäîãî ðåãèîíà åñòü ðàâíûå ïðàâà èçäàâàòü çàêîíû, äàâàòü îáðàçîâàíèå è ðóêîâîäèòü îáùåñòâîì, èñïîëüçóÿ ñâîé ñîáñòâåííûé ÿçûê. Ãðàæäàíèíó, æèâóùåìó â îäíîé ÷àñòè ñòðàíû, íåò íåîáõîäèìîñòè ó÷èòü ÿçûêè ëþäåé, æèâóùèõ â äðóãèõ
÷àñòÿõ ñòðàíû.  òî æå âðåìÿ, ñóùåñòâóåò ìèíèìàëüíûé óðîâåíü äâóÿçû÷èÿ äëÿ óïðàâëåíöåâ, ðàáîòàþùèõ íà óðîâíå ñòðàíû â öåëîì. Íàèáîëåå ÿðêèå ïðèìåðû “ïîäïîðî÷íûõ” ìíîãîÿçû÷íûõ ðåæèìî⠖ Øâåéöàðèÿ è Áåëüãèÿ.43  Øâåéöàðèè (è â ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè – â Áåëüãèè),
ïîìèìî ÿçûêà, ñóùåñòâóþò äðóãèå êóëüòóðíûå ôàêòîðû, ñâÿçûâàþùèå
îáùåñòâî â åäèíîå öåëîå. “Ïîäïîðî÷íàÿ” êîíôèãóðàöèÿ õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ âûñîêèì À-êîýôôèöèåíòîì è îòíîñèòåëüíî íèçêèì Í-êîýôôèöèåíòîì ïî âñåé ñòðàíå.
Çàêëþ÷åíèå
Òåîðèè íàöèîíàëèçìà, äåìîêðàòèè, ðåãèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèÿ è ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû îñíîâûâàëèñü íà íåÿñíûõ è íåîïðåäåëåííûõ ïîíÿòèÿõ êóëüòóðíîé (èëè ÿçûêîâîé) ãåòåðîãåííîñòè. ×òî êàñàåòñÿ ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîãî ïîäõîäà, òî òàì îñíîâíûì êðèòåðèåì ÿâëÿëîñü
íàëè÷èå îáùåãî ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà, íî ýòî êîíöåïòóàëüíî íåàäåêâàòíûé
ïàðàìåòð.  óñëîâèÿõ ñîñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ ðàçíûõ “ðîäíûõ” ÿçûêîâ êðèòåðèé ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà, îñíîâàííûé íà ñòðóêòóðíîé áëèçîñòè
ÿçûêîâ, òàêæå ïðîáëåìàòè÷åí, è â ýòîì ñëó÷àå ëèíãâèñòû íå ïðåäîñòàâèëè íàì óáåäèòåëüíûõ òåîðåòè÷åñêèõ èíñòðóêöèé èëè ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ äàííûõ. Äðóãîé êðèòåðèé ÿçûêîâîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ èçìåðÿåò âåðîÿòíîñòü òîãî, ÷òî äâà ñëó÷àéíî âûáðàííûõ èíäèâèäóóìà (â ðàìêàõ
îäíîé ñòðàíû) áóäóò ãîâîðèòü íà îäíîì ÿçûêå. Îäíàêî è çäåñü ìû ñòàëêèâàåìñÿ êàê ñ ýìïèðè÷åñêèìè (êàêîâû ñòàíäàðòû “çíàíèÿ ÿçûêà”),
òàê è ñ òåîðåòè÷åñêèìè ïðîáëåìàìè (ÿâëÿåòñÿ ëè ñïîñîáíîñòü îáùàòüñÿ
íà ÿçûêå äîñòàòî÷íûì èíäèêàòîðîì êóëüòóðíîé ãîìîãåííîñòè). Èñõîäÿ èç ñêàçàííîãî, ÿ ïðåäëîæèë ñâîþ òèïîëîãèþ ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ.
Äëÿ îäíîãî òèïà – ìíîãîÿçû÷íîãî ñîîáùåñòâà òèïà Ì1 – ÿ ïðåäëàãàþ
òðè äîïîëíèòåëüíûõ ïàðàìåòðà: “öåíòðàëüíîñòü”, íîðìàòèâíîå ïðåäKenneth McRae. Conflict and Compromise in Multilingual Societies. Vol. 1
Switzerland; Vol. 2 Belgium. Waterloo, 1983.
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ñòàâëåíèå î òîì, êòî è êàêîé ÿçûê èçó÷àåò, è “èçáûòî÷íîñòü”. Ñ èõ
ïîìîùüþ âîçìîæíî èçìåðèòü ñòåïåíü ÿçûêîâîé îáùíîñòè.
Èíôîðìàöèÿ, ñîáðàííàÿ â áûâøèõ ñîâåòñêèõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ, èëëþñòðèðóåò âîçìîæíîñòü ïîëó÷åíèÿ äàííûõ äëÿ êîäèðîâàíèÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ åäèíèö íà îñíîâå ýòèõ êðèòåðèåâ. Õîòÿ ÷èñëî íàáëþäåíèé íåäîñòàòî÷íî äëÿ ïðîâåäåíèÿ ñòàòèñòè÷åñêîãî àíàëèçà, äàííûå â Òàáëèöå
1 äåìîíñòðèðóþò âîçìîæíîñòü ïîñòðîåíèÿ íà èõ îñíîâå êîýôôèöèåíòîâ, êîòîðûå ìîãóò ñòàòü ñòàíäàðòíûìè äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ ýòíîÿçûêîâîé
ôðàãìåíòàöèè è ëó÷øå îòðàçèòü ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå ðåàëèè, íåæåëè ñóùåñòâóþùèå â íàñòîÿùèé ìîìåíò êîýôôèöèåíòû. Çàâèñèìîñòü äåìîêðàòè÷åñêîé ñòàáèëüíîñòè, ýòíè÷åñêîãî íàñèëèÿ èëè ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî
ðîñòà îò óðîâíÿ ðàçâèòèÿ “ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà” ìîãëà áû áûòü ïðîâåðåíà ñ áîëüøåé äîëåé óáåäèòåëüíîñòè, åñëè áû äàííûå î ÿçûêîâûõ
ðåïåðòóàðàõ íàñåëåíèÿ ñîáèðàëèñü ñ áîëüøåé ñèñòåìàòè÷íîñòüþ.
Ïîñêîëüêó ïàðàìåòðû ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà ïîìîãàþò ïðîâåðÿòü
òåîðèè ýòíè÷åñêîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ, áûëî áû ïîëåçíûì ðàçðàáîòàòü áàçû
äàííûõ ïî äâóì ïîêàçàòåëÿì. Ïåðâûé ïîêàçàòåëü – êàòåãîðèàëüíàÿ
ïåðåìåííàÿ, ðàçëè÷àþùàÿ ìåæäó òðåìÿ âîçìîæíûìè ñëåäñòâèÿìè: (à)
ðàöèîíàëèçàöèÿ; (b) ðàçâèòèå ìíîãîÿçû÷íûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ òèïà
Ì1; (ñ) ðàçâèòèå ìíîãîÿçû÷íûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ òèïà Ì2. Âòîðîé
ïîêàçàòåëü – èíäèêàòîð ñòåïåíè ðåàëèçàöèè âûøåïåðå÷èñëåííûõ òèïîâ ÿçûêîâûõ ñîîáùåñòâ. Äëÿ èçìåðåíèÿ ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè ÿ áû ðåêîìåíäîâàë èñïîëüçîâàòü Â-êîýôôèöèåíò. Äëÿ ñîîáùåñòâ òèïà Ì1 íåîáõîäèìî âûâåñòè êîýôôèöèåíò, ñî÷åòàþùèé ðåçóëüòàòû íàáëþäåíèé ïî
“öåíòðàëüíîñòè” è “èçáûòî÷íîñòè” ÿçûêîâîé êîìïåòåíöèè ñ îöåíêîé
òîãî, ñóùåñòâóþò ëè íîðìàòèâíûå ïðàâèëà, ïðåäïèñûâàþùèå èçó÷åíèå òîãî ëè èíîãî ÿçûêà. Ïîêàçàòåëü óðîâíÿ ðåàëèçàöèè ñîîáùåñòâ
òèïà Ì2 áóäåò âîçðàñòàòü ïðè âûñîêîì Â-êîýôôèöèåíòå äëÿ êàæäîãî
ðåãèîíà ñòðàíû è ïàäàòü ïðè ðîñòå Í-êîýôôèöèåíòà äëÿ ñòðàíû â öåëîì. Êàæäûé èç ýòèõ äâóõ ïàðàìåòðîâ ìîæåò ñëóæèòü â êà÷åñòâå íåçàâèñèìîé ïåðåìåííîé (èëè èõ ìîæíî ñî÷åòàòü, åñëè òàêàÿ âîçìîæíîñòü
áóäåò îáîñíîâàíà òåîðåòè÷åñêè) ïðè èññëåäîâàíèè òàêèõ ÿâëåíèé, êàê
äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèé ðàñïàä, ðåãèîíàëüíîå ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå è ìåæýòíè÷åñêèå êîíôëèêòû è ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî.
 ýòîé ñòàòüå ìåíÿ èíòåðåñóþò íå ñòîëüêî ïîëó÷åííûå äàííûå,
ñêîëüêî âîçìîæíîñòü óáåäèòü ïîëèòîëîãîâ â íåîáõîäèìîñòè àíàëèçà è
ìîäèôèêàöèè âûñêàçàííûõ çäåñü ïðåäëîæåíèé. Åñëè ïîëèòîëîãè÷åñêîå ñîîáùåñòâî îïðåäåëèòñÿ ñ òåì, êàêèå èç ïðåäëîæåííûõ ïàðàìåòðîâ ýòíè÷åñêîãî ðàçíîîáðàçèÿ ñòîèò ðàçðàáàòûâàòü, ïîÿâèòñÿ ñòèìóë
93
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
äëÿ ïîëåâûõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé ñîáèðàòü äàííûå, ïðèãîäíûå äëÿ ñðàâíèòåëüíîãî èçó÷åíèÿ (â òîé ñòåïåíè, â êîòîðîé îíè ìîãóò áûòü ñîïîñòàâèìû) ïî ðàçíûì ñòðàíàì.
Òàáëèöà 1. Äàííûå, èçâëå÷åííûå èç ñîâåòñêîé ïåðåïèñè 1989 ãîäà
è îïðîñîâ ïîñòñîâåòñêîãî ïåðèîäà.
Êîýôôèöèåíò
1.À- Êîýôôèöèåíò
(ãåòåðîãåííîñòü
ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà) (à)
2.Ïðåäñòàâèòåëè
òèòóëüíîé íàöèè,
êîòîðûå íå ãîâîðÿò
íà òèòóëüíîì (ò.å.
ðîäíîì) ÿçûêå (%)
3. Ðåñïîíäåíòûïðåäñòàâèòåëè
òîëüêî òèòóëüíîãî
íàñåëåíèÿ / Σ
4. Â- Êîýôôèöèåíò
(ãåòåðîãåííîñòü
ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà,
ìîäèôèöèðîâàííàÿ
ïî óðîâíþ
ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó
ÿçûêàìè) (à)
5. Í- Êîýôôèöèåíò
(âåðîÿòíîñòü òîãî,
÷òî ñëó÷àéíî
âñòðå÷åííûå æèòåëè áóäóò ãîâîðèòü
íà îäíîì ÿçûêå)
6. Çíàíèå èëè
ÿâíîå ïðåäïî÷òåíèå òîëüêî òèòóëüíîãî ÿçûêà (b)
94
Ðåñïóáëèêà
Ëàòâèÿ Ýñòîíèÿ Óêðàèíà Êàçàõñòàí Òàòàðñòàí Áàøêîðòîñòàí
0,508
0,52
0,514
0,454
0,543
0,561
1,8
0,8
17,3
17,8
25
18,4
0,161
0,314
0,067
0,161
0,047
0,013
0,459
0,52
0,376
0,454
0,535
0,532
0.872
0.736
0.977
0.907
0.934
0.933
0,285
0,326
0,077
0,06
0,068
0,012
( )
7. Çíàíèå ëèáî ÿâíîå ïðåäïî÷òåíèå
ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà (b)
8. Ñðåäíèé ïîêàçàòåëü (ïðîöåíò
ìóëüòèëèíãâîâ, â
÷åé ðåïåðòóàð
âõîäèò ýòîò ÿçûê)
(T, R, M)
9. Ìîíîëèãâèçì (ñ)
(Ts, Rs, Ms)
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
0,535
0,401
0,782
0,827
10. Áèëèíãâèçì (ñ)
(Ts, Rs, Ms)
11. Òðèÿçû÷èå (ñ)
(Ts, Rs, Ms)
12. Èçáûòî÷íîñòü
(d)
0,222
0,096
0,313
0,063
0,835
0,841
87
100
16
61
96
71
39,5
97,4
19,8
60,0
2,5
73,3
0,5
0,1
6,9
0,099
15,6
97,9
16,1
61,4
2,0
68,2
23,0
0,1
15,7
0,097
Ïðèìå÷àíèÿ: (à) À-Êîýôôèöèåíò â äàííîé ðàáîòå áûë ðàññ÷èòàí ñëåäóþùèì
îáðàçîì: 1 – (ïðîöåíò òèòóëüíîãî â êâàäðàòå + ïðîöåíò ðóññêîãî â êâàäðàòå +
ïðîöåíò ÿçûêà ìåíüøèíñòâà â êâàäðàòå + ïðîöåíò “äðóãîãî” ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà â
êâàäðàòå + [2 õ òèòóëüíûé/ðóññêèé: “ðîäíîå” äâóÿçû÷èå â êâàäðàòå] ).
Ïðîöåíòíûå ïîêàçàòåëè, ïîëó÷åííûå â ðåçóëüòàòå îïðîñà, áûëè âçâåøåíû
îòíîñèòåëüíî äàííûõ îïðîñà 1989 ã. î ðàçìåðå ãîðîäñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ â
ðåñïóáëèêàõ è ïðîöåíòíîì ñîäåðæàíèè ðàçíûõ íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé â íåì. Â
óêðàèíñêîì îïðîñå çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü ðåñïîíäåíòîâ îòìåòèëà è ðóññêèé, è
óêðàèíñêèé êàê ñâîè ðîäíûå ÿçûêè. È äëÿ À-êîýôôèöèåíòà, è äëÿ Âêîýôôèöèåíòà ÿ ïîäåëèë äâóÿçû÷íûõ íà äâå ÷àñòè: ïîëîâèíó ïîñ÷èòàë
ãîâîðÿùèìè íà ðóññêîì êàê ðîäíîì, ïîëîâèíó – íà óêðàèíñêîì. Åñëè áû ÿ
ïîñ÷èòàë ýòèõ ðåñïîíäåíòîâ â îáåèõ ãðóïïàõ è óäâîèë áû òåì ñàìûì ÷èñëà,
òî À-êîýôôèöèåíò äëÿ Óêðàèíû ñòàë áû 0.599, à Â-êîýôôèöèåíò – 0,498.
(b) Âçâåøåííàÿ âåðîÿòíîñòü òîãî, ÷òî äâà ðåñïîíäåíòà, êîòîðûå ïðåäïî÷èòàþò èëè ñòðîãî ïðåäïî÷èòàþò ïîëàãàòüñÿ íà óêàçàííûé ÿçûê, ñîñòàâÿò ïàðó.
(ñ) Ïî ðàçäåëàì “ìîíîëèíãâèçì”, “áèëèíãâèçì” è “òðèÿçû÷èå” ÿ ñâåë çíà÷åíèÿ ABTR (âëàäåíèå òèòóëüíûì è ðóññêèì); ABTM (âëàäåíèå òèòóëüíûì è
ÿçûêîì ìåíüøèíñòâà); ABRM (âëàäåíèå ðóññêèì è ÿçûêîì ìåíüøèíñòâà);
95
Ä. Ëýéòèí, ×òî òàêîå ÿçûêîâîå ñîîáùåñòâî
ABTRM (âëàäåíèå âñåìè òðåìÿ ÿçûêàìè). ABTRM ïîäñ÷èòàí êàê ïðîöåíò îò
îáùåãî ÷èñëà ðåñïîíäåíòîâ êàæäîé íàöèîíàëüíîñòè ê ÷èñëó òðèÿçû÷íûõ.
Çàòåì ÿ ïîäñ÷èòàë ÷èñëåííîñòü äâóõ âàðèàíòîâ áèëèíãâèçìà äëÿ êàæäîé íàöèîíàëüíîñòè (îáà âàðèàíòà âêëþ÷àþò òèòóëüíûé ÿçûê íàöèîíàëüíîñòè),
âû÷åë ÷èñëî òðèÿçû÷íûõ è ðàçäåëèë íà îáùåå ÷èñëî ðåñïîíäåíòîâ, êîíñòàòèðîâàâøèõ ñâîé áèëèíãâèçì. Îñòàâøèéñÿ ïðîöåíò ÿ êâàëèôèöèðîâàë êàê
ìîíîëèãâîâ.
(d) Êîëè÷åñòâî ñëó÷àéíûõ ñîâïàäåíèé èç âçâåøåííîé âåðñèè îïðîñîâ. Çíàìåíàòåëü – ïðîöåíò âñåõ ñîâïàäåíèé, ãäå èìåëà ìåñòî óñïåøíàÿ êîììóíèêàöèÿ (ò.å. Í-Êîýôôèöèåíò); ÷èñëèòåëü – ïðîöåíò âñåõ ñîâïàäåíèé, â êîòîðûõ
îáà ÷ëåíà ïàðû ñâîáîäíî âëàäåëè áîëåå ÷åì îäíèì îáùèì ÿçûêîì.
Ïðèëîæåíèå
ÇÀÌÅÒÊÈ ÎÁ ÎÏÐÎÑÅ, ÏÐÎÂÅÄÅÍÍÎÌ ËÝÉÒÈÍÎÌ È ÕÜÞ
Âìåñòå ñ Äæåððè Õüþ ÿ ñîáðàë äàííûå ïî øåñòè ðåñïóáëèêàì áûâøåãî Ñîâåòñêîãî Ñîþçà. Ïî ýòèì äàííûì ìîæíî âûñ÷èòàòü À-êîýôôèöèåíò è Í-êîýôôèöèåíò.  ðàìêàõ ôèíàíñèðîâàâøåãîñÿ NSF (Íàöèîíàëüíûì íàó÷íûì ôîíäîì) èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî ïðîåêòà Õüþ è ÿ
ïðîâåëè îïðîñû â ÷åòûðåõ áûâøèõ ñîþçíûõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ (Ýñòîíèÿ,
Ëàòâèÿ, Óêðàèíà, Êàçàõñòàí) è äâóõ áûâøèõ àâòîíîìíûõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ
âíóòðè Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè (Áàøêîðòîñòàí è Òàòàðñòàí). Áëàãîäàðÿ ïîääåðæêå Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation ÿ ñîáðàë, íî ïîêà íå
ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàë, äàííûå åùå ïî äâóì áûâøèì ñîþçíûì ðåñïóáëèêàì – Ìîëäîâå è Àçåðáàéäæàíó.
Äîñòàòî÷íî áîëüøóþ ãðóïïó ãîðîäñêèõ æèòåëåé ìû îïðîñèëè íà
ïðåäìåò (à) èõ “ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà”, (b) ÿçûêà, íà êîòîðîì îíè ãîâîðÿò ëó÷øå âñåãî, (ñ) óðîâíÿ âëàäåíèÿ òèòóëüíûì ÿçûêîì ðåñïóáëèêè, (d) óðîâíÿ
âëàäåíèÿ ðóññêèì.  äâóõ áûâøèõ àâòîíîìíûõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ ìû çàäàâàëè òàêæå âîïðîñ (å) îá óðîâíå âëàäåíèÿ ÿçûêîì ìåíüøèíñòâà (òàòàðñêèé â Áàøêîðòîñòàíå è ÷óâàøñêèé â Òàòàðñòàíå). Âîïðîñ, êàñàþùèéñÿ “óðîâíÿ âëàäåíèÿ ÿçûêîì”, çâó÷àë ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: “íàñêîëüêî ñâîáîäíî Âû âëàäååòå ýòèì ÿçûêîì?”. Òå êòî îòâå÷àë, ÷òî äóìàþò íà ýòîì ÿçûêå èëè ñâîáîäíî ãîâîðÿò, ñ÷èòàëèñü ãîâîðÿùèìè íà
äàííîì ÿçûêå íà õîðîøåì óðîâíå. Òå, êòî îòâå÷àë, ÷òî ãîâîðÿò íà äàííîì ÿçûêå ñ òðóäîì, ñ áîëüøèì òðóäîì èëè âîîáùå íå ãîâîðÿò, ñ÷èòàëèñü, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, íå âëàäåþùèìè äàííûì ÿçûêîì. Íà îñíîâàíèè
îòâåòîâ íà ýòè âîïðîñû è êîýôôèöèåíòîâ Ãðèíáåðãà ìû ñìîãëè ðàçðàáîòàòü ðàçëè÷íûå íàáîðû èíäèêàòîðîâ ÿçûêîâîãî ñîîáùåñòâà.
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Äàííûå ïî ñîþçíûì ðåñïóáëèêàì íå ñîáèðàëèñü ñïåöèàëüíî äëÿ
ðàñ÷åòà ýòèõ êîýôôèöèåíòîâ, ïîýòîìó â íèõ íåñêîëüêî çàâûøåííî ïðåäñòàâëåíû ýòíè÷åñêè ðóññêèå è íàöèîíàëüíûå ìåíüøèíñòâà. Èìåííî
ïîýòîìó, ðàññ÷èòûâàÿ êîýôôèöèåíòû Ãðèíáåðãà, ÿ ó÷èòûâàë ïðîöåíò
ãîðîäñêèõ æèòåëåé êàæäîé íàöèîíàëüíîñòè â îáùåé ìàññå íàñåëåíèÿ
êàæäîé ðåñïóáëèêè ïî ïåðåïèñè íàñåëåíèÿ â Ñîâåòñêîì Ñîþçå 1989
ãîäà.
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Êëàóñ ØÀÐÔ
ÏÓÃÀ×ÅÂ:
ÈÌÏÅÐÀÒÎÐ ÌÅÆÄÓ ÏÅÐÈÔÅÐÈÅÉ È ÖÅÍÒÐÎÌ.
Ê ÏÎÑÒÀÍÎÂÊÅ ÏÐÎÁËÅÌÛ*
 íî÷ü ñ 16-ãî íà 17-å ñåíòÿáðÿ 1773 ã. íåïîäàëåêó îò êðåïîñòè ßèöêèé ãîðîäîê, íà ñòåïíîé ãðàíèöå ìåæäó Åâðîïîé è Àçèåé, äåâÿòíàäöàòèëåòíèé êàçàê Èâàí ßêîâëåâè÷ Ïî÷èòàëèí ïèñàë ïåðâûé óêàç ïî ðàñïîðÿæåíèþ è îò èìåíè “âåëèêîãî ãîñóäàðÿ” è “àìïåðàòîðà” Ïåòðà
Ôåäîðîâè÷à. Ïðèñâîèâ ñåáå òèòóëû ñâåðãíóòîãî è óáèòîãî èìïåðàòîðà Ïåòðà III, áåãëûé äîíñêîé êàçàê Åìåëüÿí Ïóãà÷åâ, ïîÿâèâøèéñÿ
âïåðâûå íà ßèêå â 1772 ã. â êà÷åñòâå ñòðàíñòâóþùåãî êóïöà, îáðàùàëñÿ â ñâîåì óêàçå ê âîññòàâøåé ÷àñòè ÿèöêèõ êàçàêîâ è íàõîäÿùèìñÿ íà
ìîñêîâñêîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ñëóæáå êàëìûêàì è òàòàðàì. Àäðåñàòû
óêàçà óæå ìíîãèå ãîäû áîðîëèñü ñ âåðõóøêîé êàçà÷åñòâà, ìåñòíîé
àäìèíèñòðàöèåé è ïðàâèòåëüñòâîì çà ñîõðàíåíèå ñâîèõ èñêîííûõ ïðàâ.
Ïûòàÿñü ïîäàâèòü ñîïðîòèâëåíèå, â èþíå 1772 ã. ïðàâèòåëüñòâî îáðàòèëîñü ê íàñèëèþ è ïðîâåëî ðÿä êàðàòåëüíûõ ýêñïåäèöèé. Ìîíàðõñàìîçâàíåö îòìåíÿë âñå ïóíêòû îáâèíåíèé, ïðåäúÿâëåííûõ âîññòàâøèì, è îáåùàë èì è èõ ïîòîìêàì âå÷íóþ “êàçàöêóþ ÷åñòü” è âîññòàíîâëåíèå âñåõ ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ ïðèâèëåãèé çà âåðíóþ ñëóæáó öàðþ è
*
Ïåðåâîä ñ íåìåöêîãî Àëåêñàíäðà Êàïëóíîâñêîãî.
99
Ê. Øàðô, Ïóãà÷åâ: èìïåðàòîð ìåæäó ïåðèôåðèåé è öåíòðîì...
îòå÷åñòâó.1 Ýòîò ïèñüìåííûé äîêóìåíò ïðèñâàèâàë çàãîâîðó ñòàòóñ îêðàèííîãî ìÿòåæà, âî ãëàâå êîòîðîãî, îäíàêî, ñòîÿë èìïåðàòîð, íåçàêîííî ëèøåííûé òðîíà. Òîò æå òèòóë áûë èñïîëüçîâàí â 45 äðóãèõ èìåííûõ óêàçàõ è ìàíèôåñòàõ, çàïèñàííûõ ðàçíûìè ñåêðåòàðÿìè öàðÿ-ñàìîçâàíöà íà ïðîòÿæåíèè âñåãî âðåìåíè âîññòàíèÿ. Ïîñëåäíèé óêàç áûë
äàòèðîâàí 21 àâãóñòà 1774 ã. Ñ íåêîòîðûìè èçìåíåíèÿìè èìïåðàòîðñêèé òèòóë âñòðå÷àåòñÿ âî ìíîãèõ äîêóìåíòàõ “Âîåííîé êîëëåãèè” – êîëëåêòèâíîãî îðãàíà ðóêîâîäñòâà âîññòàíèÿ, à òàêæå â ïèñüìåííûõ àêòàõ ìåñòíûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëåé ðàçâåòâëåííîãî äâèæåíèÿ.2
Ïðè çíàêîìñòâå ñ óêàçàìè Ïóãà÷åâà ñòàíîâÿòñÿ ñîâåðøåííî î÷åâèäíûìè ÷åòûðå ìîìåíòà. Âî-ïåðâûõ, Ïóãà÷åâ ñ ñàìîãî íà÷àëà íå ñîáèðàëñÿ ñòàòü ìîíàðõîì, à ïðåäñòàâëÿëñÿ è äåéñòâîâàë êàê òàêîâîé.
Âî-âòîðûõ, åãî ðåïðåçåíòàöèÿ â äîêóìåíòàõ íå èìååò íè÷åãî îáùåãî
íè ñ òðàäèöèåé ìîñêîâñêèõ öàðåé, íè äàæå ñ îáðàçîì “êðåñòüÿíñêîãî
öàðÿ”, à ÷åòêî óêàçûâàåò íà ïåòðîâñêóþ èìïåðàòîðñêóþ òðàäèöèþ.3 Êàê
ìèíèìóì, â ñâÿçè ñ îðèåíòàöèåé Ïóãà÷åâà íà ïåòðîâñêèé ìîíàðøèé îáðàçåö òðóäíî ñîãëàñèòüñÿ ñ Ðè÷àðäîì Âîðòìàíîì, êîòîðûé îòêàçûâàåò
ñàìîçâàíöó Ïåòðó III â ïðàâå íà ñîáñòâåííûé “ñöåíàðèé âëàñòè” è ïðèçíàåò çà íèì, â ëó÷øåì ñëó÷àå, òîëüêî “âíåøíèå àòðèáóòû ìîíàðõèè”.4
Èìåííîé óêàç êàçàêàì ßèöêîãî âîéñêà, 17 ñåíòÿáðÿ 1773 ã., â: Äîêóìåíòû ñòàâêè
Å. È. Ïóãà÷åâà, ïîâñòàí÷åñêèõ âëàñòåé è ó÷ðåæäåíèé. 1773–1774 ãã. / Îòâ. ðåä.
Ð. Â. Îâ÷èííèêîâ. Ì., 1975. ¹. 1. Ñ. 23. Ñì.: È. Ã. Ðîçíåð. ßèê ïåðåä áóðåé. Ì.,
1966. Ñ. 188-190; Â. Â. Ìàâðîäèí. Íà÷àëî âîññòàíèÿ // Êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà â Ðîññèè â 1773-1775 ãîäàõ. Âîññòàíèå Ïóãà÷åâà. Ò. 2. Ë., 1966. Ñ. 91-118, çäåñü Ñ. 100103; À. È. Àíäðóùåíêî. Êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà 1773-1775 ãã. íà ßèêå, â Ïðèóðàëüå,
íà Óðàëå è â Ñèáèðè. Ì., 1969. Ñ. 35 è ñëåä.; Ð. Â. Îâ÷èííèêîâ. Ìàíèôåñòû è
óêàçû Å. È. Ïóãà÷åâà. Èñòî÷íèêîâåä÷åñêîå èññëåäîâàíèå. Ì., 1980. Ñ. 27-32.
2
Âñå îíè îïóáëèêîâàíû: Äîêóìåíòû ñòàâêè Å. È. Ïóãà÷åâà.
3
Ì. ×åðíÿâñêèé ïîä÷åðêèâàë, ÷òî Ïóãà÷åâ ñî÷åòàë â ñâîåì èäåàëå âëàñòè íå
òîëüêî òèïè÷íûå õðèñòèàíñêèå, íàðîäíûå è äîïåòðîâñêèå öàðñêèå ýëåìåíòû, íî
è ðåïðåçåíòàöèè “ìîäåðíîé” èìïåðàòîðñêîé âëàñòè ïåòðîâñêîãî òîëêà: M. Cherniavsky. Tsar and People. Studies in Russian Myth. New Haven, 1961. Ðð. 96-99. Åãî
ïîääåðæèâàëè: M. Raeff. Pugachev’s Rebellion // R. Forster and J. P. Greene (Eds.).
Preconditions of Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Baltimore, London, 1970. Ðð.
161-202, çäåñü Ðð. 194-198; J. T. Alexander. Emperor of the Cossacks. Pugachev and
the Frontier Jacquerie of 1773–1775. Lawrence, Kansas, 1973. Ðð. 208-211.
4
Ñì., íàïðèìåð, êðèòè÷åñêèå çàìå÷àíèÿ Èëüè Ãåðàñèìîâà è ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèå
îòâåòû Ðè÷àðäà Âîðòìàíà â äèñêóññèè “Êàê ñäåëàíà èñòîðèÿ”. Îáñóæäåíèå êíèãè
Ð. Âîðòìàíà “Ñöåíàðèè âëàñòè. Ìèôû è öåðåìîíèè ðîññèéñêîé ìîíàðõèè”. Ìîñêâà, ðåäàêöèÿ æóðíàëà “Íîâîå ëèòåðàòóðíîå îáîçðåíèå”, 25 èþíÿ 2002 ã. // Íîâîå
ëèòåðàòóðíîå îáîçðåíèå. 2002. ¹ 56. Ñ. 59-61.
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Ñëåäóåò ó÷èòûâàòü, ÷òî íàì ñëèøêîì ìàëî èçâåñòíî î ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèè è âîñïðèÿòèè â íàðîäå òåõ îáðàçîâ ìîíàðõà, êîòîðûìè îïåðèðîâàë íåãðàìîòíûé Ïóãà÷åâ. Êðîìå òîãî, îáúÿñíåíèå ïðèâëåêàòåëüíîñòè èñòîðè÷åñêîãî Ïåòðà Ôåäîðîâè÷à äëÿ öåëîãî ðÿäà ñàìîçâàíöåâ âîçìîæíî òîëüêî ïîñðåäñòâîì äåøèôðîâêè óñòíîé ïðîñòîíàðîäíîé òðàäèöèè. Èçâåñòíî òàêæå, ÷òî ñòîðîííèêè Ïóãà÷åâà ïðîåöèðîâàëè íà îáðàç ñâîåãî ìîíàðõà äîìîäåðíûå è ïîïóëèñòñêèå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ. Íàêîíåö, ñàìîçâàíåö ñàì íåîäíîêðàòíî “ïåðåïèñûâàë” ñâîþ
áèîãðàôèþ.5
Â-òðåòüèõ, ñ ìîíàðøåé è ïàòðèàðõàëüíîé ñòðîãîñòüþ Ïóãà÷åâ òðåáîâàë âåðíîñòè èëè, êàê ìèíèìóì, ïîñëóøàíèÿ è ëîÿëüíîñòè îò ñâîèõ
ïîääàííûõ, êîòîðûì îí æàëîâàë ãðàìîòû è îáåùàë îñâîáîæäåíèå.
Íàêàçàíèÿ çà îòñòóïíè÷åñòâî íå òîëüêî ïðîâîçãëàøàëèñü, íî è ïðèâîäèëèñü â èñïîëíåíèå.
Â-÷åòâåðòûõ, äîíñêîé êàçàê, ïðèñâîèâøèé ñåáå èìïåðàòîðñêèé òèòóë, ïðåòåíäîâàë íà åäèíîëè÷íóþ âëàñòü íà ðîññèéñêîì òðîíå, óçóðïèðîâàííîì Åêàòåðèíîé II. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, îí ñðàæàëñÿ íå ïðîòèâ ðîññèéñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà, à âåë áåñêîìïðîìèññíóþ áîðüáó çà îáëàäàíèå
àáñîëþòíîé âëàñòüþ â èìïåðèè. Îäíîâðåìåííî åãî èçúÿâëåíèÿ (ïñåâäî)ìîíàðøåé ìèëîñòè ïðåòåíäîâàëè íà “âå÷íîñòü”. Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ
ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, îêðàèííûé ìÿòåæ áûë íè ÷åì èíûì,
êàê ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíîé, ðàçâÿçàííîé ðàäè îáëàäàíèÿ öåíòðîì âëàñòè. Âî âñÿêîì ñëó÷àå, èìïåðàòðèöà è åå ïðàâèòåëüñòâî èìåëè äîñòàòî÷íî îñíîâàíèé äëÿ îáúÿâëåíèÿ Ïóãà÷åâà âðàãîì ãîñóäàðñòâà íîìåð
îäèí.6
Ñð. ïðåæäå âñåãî: À. Ñ. Ìûëüíèêîâ. Èñêóøåíèå ÷óäîì: “Ðóññêèé ïðèíö”, åãî
ïðîòîòèïû è äâîéíèêè-ñàìîçâàíöû. Ë., 1991.
6
Îá ýòîì ïèñàë åùå Â. Â. Ìàâðîäèí. Îñíîâíûå ïðîáëåìû èññëåäîâàíèÿ
Êðåñòüÿíñêîé âîéíû 1773-1775 ãîäîâ â Ðîññèè // Êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà â Ðîññèè â
1773–1775 ãîäàõ. Ò. 2. Ñ. 7-26, çäåñü Ñ. 8 è 15; îí æå. Ïî ïîâîäó õàðàêòåðà è
èñòîðè÷åñêîãî çíà÷åíèÿ êðåñòüÿíñêèõ âîéí â Ðîññèè // Êðåñòüÿíñêèå âîéíû â
Ðîññèè XVII–XVIII âåêîâ: ïðîáëåìû, ïîèñêè, ðåøåíèÿ. Ì., 1974. Ñ. 35-51, çäåñü
Ñ. 36, 38, 40; idem. [V. V. Mavrodin]. Soziale Bewegungen in Rußland in der zweiten
Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts // E. Donnert (Hrsg.). Gesellschaft und Kultur Rußlands in
der 2. Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts. Teil 1: Soziale Bewegungen, Gesellschaftspolitik
und Ideologie. Halle, 1982. S. 9-21, çäåñü S. 10; E. Donnert. Ideologie und
Gesellschaftsideal der Pugaèevbewegung // ibid. S. 87-120, çäåñü S. 102; Àíäðóùåíêî.
Êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà. Ñ. 9-11, 315, 317-320; Ñ. Õ. Àëèøåâ. Èñòîðè÷åñêèå ñóäüáû
íàðîäîâ Ñðåäíåãî Ïîâîëæüÿ XVI – íà÷àëî XIX â. Ì., 1990. Ñ. 257; À. Á. Êàìåíñêèé.
“Ïîä ñåíèþ Åêàòåðèíû ...”. Âòîðàÿ ïîëîâèíà XVIII âåêà. ÑÏá., 1992. Ñ. 290.
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* * *
Íåñìîòðÿ íà êàæóùèéñÿ î÷åâèäíûì âûâîä, ÷òî, ñóäÿ ïî äîêóìåíòàì Ïóãà÷åâà, åãî ïîëèòè÷åñêîé öåëüþ áûëî íå ÷òî èíîå, êàê çàâîåâàíèå “öåíòðà” âëàñòè Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè, â èñòîðèîãðàôèè ïðåîáëàäàþò “öåíòðîáåæíûå” èíòåðïðåòàöèè âîññòàíèÿ. Òîò ôàêò, ÷òî âñå êðóïíûå âîññòàíèÿ XVII è XVIII ââ. ïðîèñõîäèëè âäàëè îò öåíòðà, áûë
çàìå÷åí åùå ñîâåòñêèìè èñòîðèêàìè: “Íå ìîæåò íå îáðàòèòü íà ñåáÿ
âíèìàíèå òî îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî, ÷òî åñëè ìÿòåæíûå õîëîïû è êðåñòüÿíå,
êàçàêè è ïîñàäñêèå ëþäè âî âðåìåíà Áîëîòíèêîâà äåéñòâîâàëè â öåíòðå Ìîñêîâñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà, òî Ðàçèí “ãóëÿë” ïî Äîíó è Âîëãå, à âîññòàíèå Ïóãà÷åâà îõâàòèëî Âîëãó, ßèê, Óðàë è Çàïàäíóþ Ñèáèðü. Ðàéîí Êðåñòüÿíñêîé âîéíû êàê áû ïåðåìåùàëñÿ âñå äàëüøå è äàëüøå íà
âîñòîê”. Âëàäèìèð Ìàâðîäèí ïðåäëîæèë íåáåçûíòåðåñíîå îáîñíîâàíèå ýòîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâåííîãî ñìåùåíèÿ: “ïðè÷èíó ýòîãî ÿâëåíèÿ ñëåäóåò èñêàòü â óêðåïëåíèè âëàñòè ôåîäàëîâ, èáî êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà
íà÷èíàëàñü íå òàì, ãäå íàðîäíûì ìàññàì æèëîñü õóæå âñåãî, à òàì, ãäå
îíè ìîãëè íàêîïèòü ñèëû è âñòðåòèòü íàèìåíüøåå ñîïðîòèâëåíèå ñî
ñòîðîíû êðåïîñòíè÷åñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà”.7
Ñðåäè çàïàäíûõ èñòîðèêîâ çà ïîñëåäíèå ÷åòûðå äåñÿòèëåòèÿ òîëüêî Äîðîòåÿ Ïåòåðñ (Dorothea Peters) âûñêàçàëàñü (íà îñíîâàíèè îïóáëèêîâàííûõ àðõèâíûõ äîêóìåíòîâ ïî èñòîðèè ïóãà÷åâñêîãî âîññòàíèÿ)
çà ñîõðàíåíèå ïîíÿòèÿ “êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà”. Îíà áûëà òàêæå ñêëîííà
ðàññìàòðèâàòü âîññòàíèå íå êàê “ðåâîëþöèîííîå”, à êàê íåêîå ïîäîáèå “êëàññîâîé âîéíû” “â ôîðìå ñïîíòàííîé ðåàêöèè óãíåòåííûõ ñëîåâ”, áåç ÿðêî âûðàæåííîé êëàññîâîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè. Ïåòåðñ õàðàêòåðèçîâàëà áîðüáó çà ñâîáîäó è ñîöèàëüíîå ðàâíîïðàâèå êàê “ïðîãðåññèâíóþ”, íåñìîòðÿ íà îðèåíòàöèþ âîññòàâøèõ íà “èäåàëüíûå îáðàçû
ïðîøëîãî”.8  îòëè÷èå îò Ïåòåðñ, îñíîâíàÿ ìàññà çàïàäíûõ ñïåöèàëèñòîâ êðèòè÷åñêè îòíîñèëàñü ê òîìó, ÷òî ñîâåòñêàÿ èñòîðèîãðàôèÿ,
âñëåä çà Ýíãåëüñîì è Ëåíèíûì, äîãìàòè÷åñêè èäåíòèôèöèðîâàëà âñå
êðóïíûå âîññòàíèÿ íèçøèõ ñëîåâ â Ðîññèè ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè
Ìàâðîäèí. Îñíîâíûå ïðîáëåìû. Ñ. 19; àíàëîãè÷íî àðãóìåíòèðóåò Àíäðóùåíêî.
Êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà. Ñ. 98 è ñëåä.
8
D. Peters. Politische und gesellschaftliche Vorstellungen in der Aufstandsbewegung
unter Pugaèev (1773-1775) (= Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte 17). Berlin,
Wiesbaden, 1973. Çäåñü S. 168-170. Ñì. Êðèòè÷åñêèå çàìå÷àíèÿ P. Nitsche. Neuere
Literatur zum Pugaèev-Aufstand // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 1975. Bd.
23. S. 105-114, çäåñü S. 109-111.
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êàê “êðåñòüÿíñêèå âîéíû”, îòðàæàþùèå ðîñò êëàññîâîé áîðüáû â ôåîäàëüíîì îáùåñòâå.  êà÷åñòâå àëüòåðíàòèâû çàïàäíûå èñòîðèêè ïðåäëàãàëè èíòåðïðåòàöèîííóþ ìîäåëü, ñôîðìóëèðîâàííóþ íà îñíîâå èçó÷åíèÿ îïóáëèêîâàííûõ èñòî÷íèêîâ è ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé ñîâåòñêèõ èñòîðèêîâ. Ïðåæäå âñåãî, îíè îòìå÷àëè ñîöèàëüíîå è íàöèîíàëüíîå ðàçíîîáðàçèå âîññòàâøèõ, à òàêæå ñïåöèôè÷åñêèå èíòåðåñû
îòäåëüíûõ ãðóïï. Êðîìå òîãî, îíè ïîä÷åðêèâàëè ïðîñòðàíñòâåííóþ
êîìïîíåíòó âîññòàíèé â ãðàíèöàõ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè. Â ðàìêàõ ïàðàäèãìû öåíòðàëèçàöèè ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé âëàñòè è óíèôèêàöèè èìïåðèè çàïàäíûå èñòîðèêè ýêñïëèöèòíî îòíîñèëè òåððèòîðèþ âîññòàíèÿ
ê “ïîäâèæíîé ãðàíèöå”, ê ïåðèôåðèè èëè ôðîíòèðó, ãäå óñòðîéñòâî
âëàñòè è îáùåñòâà, ïðè îòñóòñòâèè êðåïîñòíîé çàâèñèìîñòè, ñóùåñòâåííî îòëè÷àëîñü îò öåíòðàëüíîé è çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Îíè êëàññèôèöèðîâàëè èñõîäÿùåå ñ þãî-âîñòî÷íîé ïåðèôåðèè ìàññîâîå äâèæåíèå ïðîòåñòà êàê òåððèòîðèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîå, ñîöèàëüíîå è, åñëè
ðå÷ü øëà î íåðóññêèõ íàðîäàõ, êóëüòóðíîå èëè ïðîòîíàöèîíàëüíîå
ñîïðîòèâëåíèå ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ïîëèòèêå èìïåðñêîé ýêñïàíñèè è èíòåãðàöèè, ìîäåðíèçàöèîííîé óíèôèêàöèè è ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé ýêñïëóàòàöèè.
 îäíîì èç ñáîðíèêîâ, ïîñâÿùåííûõ ðåâîëþöèîííûì äâèæåíèÿì
â Åâðîïå ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè, Ìàðê Ðàåâ îõàðàêòåðèçîâàë ïóãà÷åâñêîå âîññòàíèå êàê “ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî ôðîíòèðíûé è êàçàöêèé
ôåíîìåí”.9 Àíàëîãè÷íî Ðàåâó, Äæîí Àëåêñàíäð íå òîëüêî îçàãëàâèë
ñâîþ ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ áèîãðàôèþ Ïóãà÷åâà “Êàçàöêèé èìïåðàòîð”, íî è
îïðåäåëèë ïóãà÷åâñêîå äâèæåíèå êàê “ôðîíòèðíóþ æàêåðèþ” (frontier
jacquerie), ñëåäóÿ òðàäèöèè ðåâîëþöèîííîé òèïîëîãèè ×àëìåðñà Äæîíñîíà (Chalmers Johnson).10 Õàíñ-Õàéíðèõ Íîëüòå íàçâàë “âîññòàíèÿìè ïåðèôåðèè” (Aufstände der Peripherien) âñå ÷åòûðå êðóïíûõ âîññòàíèÿ XVII è XVIII ââ. â Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè. Ïðè ýòîì â îñíîâàíèè
åãî èíòåðïðåòàöèè ëåæàëè äâîéñòâåííûå âçàèìîîòíîøåíèÿ öåíòðà è
ïåðèôåðèè: ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, Ìîñêîâñêîå ãîñóäàðñòâî è Ðîññèéñêàÿ
èìïåðèÿ ïðèíàäëåæàëè ê ïåðèôåðèè ìèðîâîé ñèñòåìû, îðèåíòèðîâàííîé íà Çàïàäíóþ Åâðîïó; ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ñòîëèöû è âåëèêîðóññêàÿ
öåíòðàëüíàÿ Ðîññèÿ îáðàçîâûâàëè âíóòðåííèé öåíòð èìïåðèè, êîòîðûé ïðîòèâîñòîÿë “âíóòðåííèì îêðàèíàì” ñòåïíîé çîíû, Ïîâîëæüÿ,
Raeff. Pugachev’s Rebellion. Ð. 194.
Alexander. Emperor of the Cossacks. Ð. 205-220, ñëåäóÿ òèïîëîãèè ðåâîëþöèé ×.
Äæîíñîíà: Ch. Johnson. Revolution and the Social System. Stanford, 1964.
9
10
103
Ê. Øàðô, Ïóãà÷åâ: èìïåðàòîð ìåæäó ïåðèôåðèåé è öåíòðîì...
Óðàëà è Ñèáèðè. Íà âíóòðåííèõ îêðàèíàõ ïðåîáëàäàëî íåðóññêîå îñåäëîå èëè êî÷åâîå íàñåëåíèå, ïîìåñòíîå çåìëåâëàäåíèå íå èãðàëî êàêîéëèáî çíà÷èòåëüíîé ðîëè, è ïîòîìó çäåñü äîìèíèðîâàëî ðóññêîå è íåðóññêîå “÷åðíîå” êðåñòüÿíñòâî, à òàêæå ôóíêöèîíèðîâàëè ñàìîóïðàâëÿþùèåñÿ êàçàöêèå ñîîáùåñòâà.11 Âîññòàíèÿ XVII–XVIII ââ. çàíèìàþò
íå ïîñëåäíåå ìåñòî â ìîíîãðàôèè Àíäðåàñà Êàïïåëåðà “Ðîññèÿ – ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíàÿ èìïåðèÿ”, öåíòðàëüíîé òåìîé êîòîðîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ “âçàèìîîòíîøåíèå ãîñóäàðñòâà, öåíòðà è âëàñòíûõ ýëèò ñ íåðóññêèì íàñåëåíèåì ïåðèôåðèéíûõ ðåãèîíîâ”.12 Ïðè ýòîì Êàïïåëåð ïûòàåòñÿ ïðåîäîëåòü êàê îäíîñòîðîííèé âåëèêîðóññêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííè÷åñêèé
âçãëÿä, òàê è àíàõðîíèçì èíòåðïðåòàöèé ñîöèàëüíûõ êîíôëèêòîâ ðàííåãî Íîâîãî âðåìåíè êàê “íàöèîíàëüíûõ”: íåðóññêèå ýòíîñû íà Ñðåäíåé Âîëãå è Óðàëå, ïèøåò Êàïïåëåð, “ïåðâûìè ïðèñîåäèíÿëèñü ê íàðîäíûì âîññòàíèÿì XVII–XVIII ââ., êîòîðûå ïîäíèìàëè è êîòîðûìè
ðóêîâîäèëè ðóññêèå êàçàêè”.  ïóãà÷åâñêîì âîññòàíèè, ïîä÷åðêèâàåò
îí, “íåðóññêèå, ïðåæäå âñåãî áàøêèðû è òàòàðû, à òàêæå âîòÿêè, ÷óâàøè è ìîðäâà, ñîñòàâëÿëè ñàìóþ ìíîãî÷èñëåííóþ ãðóïïó”. “Ñàì ôàêò,
÷òî â ýòèõ âîññòàíèÿõ ó÷àñòâîâàëè ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå ïðåäñòàâèòåëè
ðóññêîãî íàðîäà, ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î òîì, ÷òî ðå÷ü, ïðåæäå âñåãî, øëà
íå îá îñâîáîæäåíèè íåðóññêèõ îò èíîçåìíîãî ãîñïîäñòâà, à î ñîâìåñòíîì ñîöèàëüíîì è ïîëèòè÷åñêîì ïðîòåñòå ïðîòèâ öåíòðàëèñòñêîãî
ãîñóäàðñòâà è åãî ðåãèîíàëüíûõ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé”.13 Ñîâñåì íåäàâíî
Êàïïåëåð â î÷åðåäíîé ðàç ïðèìåíèë òåçèñ Ôðåäåðèêà Ò¸ðíåðà î ôðîíòèðå ê ñòåïíîé ïîãðàíè÷íîé çîíå Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè íà Þãå è ÞãîÂîñòîêå, à òàêæå ê ëåñíîé ãðàíèöå íà Ñåâåðî–Âîñòîêå è Âîñòîêå. Êàê
ïîëàãàåò Êàïïåëåð, ïîãðàíè÷íûå ñîîáùåñòâà ñâîáîäíûõ êàçàêîâ, ñîñòîÿâøèå èç ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ðóññêèõ è íåðóññêèõ ýòíîñîâ, ÿâëÿëèñü,
âïëîòü äî ìîìåíòà èõ èíòåãðàöèè â ãîñóäàðñòâåííûå ñòðóêòóðû â êîíöå XVIII â., íå òîëüêî “âàæíåéøèì èñòî÷íèêîì ñîöèàëüíîé è ïîëèòè-
Ã.-Ã. Íîëüòå. Ðóññêèå ‘êðåñòüÿíñêèå âîéíû’ êàê âîññòàíèÿ îêðàèí // Âîïðîñû
èñòîðèè. 1994. ¹. 9. Ñ. 21-34.
12
A. Kappeler. Rußland als Vielvölkerreich. Entstehung - Geschichte - Zerfall. München,
2001. S. 12.
13
Ibid. S. 132. Ñì. òàêæå A. Kappeler. Die Rolle der Nichtrussen der Mittleren Wolga
in den russischen Volksaufständen des 17. Jahrhunderts // Forschungen zur
osteuropäischen Geschichte. 1980. Bd. 27. S. 249-268; î ïóãà÷åâñêîì âîññòàíèè idem.
Rußlands erste Nationalitäten. Das Zarenreich und die Völker der Mittleren Wolga vom
16. bis 19. Jahrhundert. Köln, Wien, 1982. S. 307-321.
11
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÷åñêîé ñìóòû”, íî è ïðåäñòàâëÿëè ñîáîé èäåàë àëüòåðíàòèâíîãî îáùåñòâåííîãî óñòðîéñòâà, îòëè÷íîãî îò êðåïîñòíè÷åñòâà è àâòîêðàòèè.14
* * *
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìîæíî êîíñòàòèðîâàòü î÷åâèäíîå ïðîòèâîðå÷èå
ìåæäó ïðèòÿçàíèÿìè Ïóãà÷åâà íà èìïåðàòîðñêèé òèòóë, ÷åìó, ñîáñòâåííî, ñëóæèëà âñÿ åãî ïðîïàãàíäà, è âîññòàíèåì, îáùåñòâåííàÿ è âîåííàÿ ìîùü êîòîðîãî, êàê ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ, ïèòàëàñü çà ñ÷åò ðåñóðñîâ
èìïåðñêîé ïåðèôåðèè. Ïî ñóòè, óæå öèòèðîâàâøèéñÿ âûøå Óêàç îò 17
ñåíòÿáðÿ 1773 ã. îáíàðóæèâàåò êîíòðàñò ìåæäó “ïåðèôåðèéíûìè” èíòåðåñàìè êàçàöêîãî ñîîáùåñòâà íà ßèêå (çàêðåïëåíèå ñâîèõ ñòàðûõ
ñâîáîä) è ðåøåíèåì ïðèáåãíóòü ê “öåíòðàëèñòñêîìó” àðãóìåíòó, îáúÿâèâ áåãëîãî äîíñêîãî êàçàêà èìïåðàòîðîì.
Ýòî êàæóùååñÿ íåñîîòâåòñòâèå ñòàíîâèòñÿ ïîíÿòíûì òîëüêî â êîíòåêñòå äîëãîé èñòîðèè ôðîíòèðíîãî êîíôëèêòà ÿèöêîãî êàçà÷åñòâà ñ
ãîñóäàðñòâîì. Ïðèâèëåãèè êàçàêîâ, ïîëó÷åííûå èìè âî âðåìåíà öàðñòâîâàíèÿ Ìèõàèëà Ôåäîðîâè÷à, ïîñòåïåííî óðåçàëèñü. Ïðàâèòåëüñòâî,
ïîä÷èíèâ íåîäíîêðàòíî âîññòàâàâøèõ ïðîòèâ íåãî áàøêèð, âçÿëî â ñâîè
ðóêè êîíòðîëü íàä ïîãðàíè÷íûì ðåãèîíîì ìåæäó Óðàëîì è Êàñïèéñêèì ìîðåì, çàùèùàÿ åãî îò íàïàäåíèé êàçàõîâ. Ðàñøèðåíèå îðåíáóðãñêîé ÷åðòû, êðåïîñòè è, ñ 1744 ã. – ãóáåðíèè, áûëî ñâÿçàíî ñ ìàññîâûì
îãðàíè÷åíèåì ïðàâ ÿèöêîãî êàçà÷åñòâà è óâåëè÷åíèåì ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ ñëóæá è ïîäàòåé. Îäíîâðåìåííî ïðîèñõîäèëà êîíöåíòðàöèÿ âëàñòè â ðóêàõ ïðåäâîäèòåëåé êàçàêîâ, êîòîðûõ ïîääåðæèâàëè ïðåäñòàâèòåëè öåíòðàëüíîé âëàñòè, ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèé è ñëåäñòâåííûõ êîìèññèé. Òîëüêî ïîñëå òîãî, êàê êàçàêè èñ÷åðïàëè âñå äîñòóïíûå
ëåãàëüíûå ñðåäñòâà çàùèòû, è ïîñëå æåñòêèõ øòðàôíûõ ñàíêöèé ãîñóäàðñòâà â îòâåò íà èõ ìèðíûé ïðîòåñò, îíè ïðèáåãëè ê íàñèëèþ, îòêàçàâøèñü ïðèçíàòü ëåãèòèìíîñòü èìïåðàòðèöû è ïðàâèòåëüñòâà, è,
àïåëëèðóÿ ê îñêîðáëåííîé ÷åñòè, ñîñòàâèëè çàãîâîð âî ãëàâå ñ “ñîáñòâåííûì” èìïåðàòîðîì.15 Òàêèì îáðàçîì, â ðåçóëüòàòå äîëãîãî è áîA. Kappeler. Rußlands Frontier in der Frühen Neuzeit // R. G. Asch, W. E. Voss, M.
Wrede (Hrsg.). Frieden und Krieg in der Frühen Neuzeit. Die europäische Staatenordnung
und die außereuropäische Welt. München, 2001. S. 599-613, çäåñü S. 603 è ñëåä. Ñì.
ðóññêèé ïåðåâîä ïåðåðàáîòàííîé âåðñèè ýòîé ñòàòüè Êàïïåëåðà â íàñòîÿùåì
íîìåðå Ab Imperio.
15
Ñì. îáçîð ñîâåòñêîé è çàïàäíîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè: C. Scharf. Innere Politik und
staatliche Reformen seit 1762 // K. Zernack (Hrsg.). Handbuch der Geschichte Rußlands.
Bd. 2: 1613-1856. Vom Randstaat zur Hegemonialmacht. 2. Halbband. Stuttgart,1991.
S. 676-806, çäåñü S. 771-773.
14
105
Ê. Øàðô, Ïóãà÷åâ: èìïåðàòîð ìåæäó ïåðèôåðèåé è öåíòðîì...
ëåçíåííîãî ïðîöåññà êàçàêè îñîçíàëè, ÷òî èõ ëîêàëüíûå òðåáîâàíèÿ
ìîãóò áûòü óäîâëåòâîðåíû òîëüêî ïðè óñëîâèè ñìåíû öåíòðàëüíîé âëàñòè.
Îäíàêî äî ìîìåíòà àêòèâàöèè “öåíòðàëèñòñêîé” ëåãèòèìàöèè ñàìîçâàíöà è åãî ïåðâîãî ïóáëè÷íîãî äåáþòà â ñåðåäèíå ñåíòÿáðÿ 1773
ã. íà ßèêå êóðñèðîâàëî ìíîæåñòâî “ïåðèôåðèéíûõ” ïðîåêòîâ ïðîäîëæåíèÿ ñîïðîòèâëåíèÿ.  öåëîì æå ñöåíàðèé âñåãî âîññòàíèÿ ñîäåðæèòñÿ êàê ðàç íå â èìïåðàòîðñêèõ ãðàìîòàõ Ïóãà÷åâà, à â àêòàõ è ïðîòîêîëàõ îôèöåðîâ è ÷èíîâíèêîâ, äîïðàøèâàâøèõ ñàìîçâàíöà è åãî
ñîîáùíèêîâ. Õîòÿ íåêîòîðûå ñîðàòíèêè Ïóãà÷åâà ïîïàëè â ïëåí åùå
äî îêîí÷àòåëüíîãî ïîðàæåíèÿ âîññòàíèÿ è äàâàëè ïîêàçàíèÿ î ãåíåçèñå, öåëÿõ è ñòðóêòóðå ýòîãî äâèæåíèÿ, ïîëíóþ êàðòèíó âîññòàíèÿ íàðèñîâàë òîëüêî ñàì Ïóãà÷åâ.16
Åìåëüÿí Ïóãà÷åâ áûë àðåñòîâàí 8 ñåíòÿáðÿ 1774 ã. ãðóïïîé ñâîèõ
ñòîðîííèêîâ íåäàëåêî îò èñõîäíîãî ïóíêòà âîññòàíèÿ è âûäàí êîìåíäàíòó ãàðíèçîíà ßèöêîãî ãîðîäêà â íî÷ü ñ 14 íà 15 ñåíòÿáðÿ. Ïåðâûé
ïîäðîáíûé ïðîòîêîë äîïðîñà “âðàãà ãîñóäàðñòâà íîìåð îäèí” áûë ñîñòàâëåí 16 ñåíòÿáðÿ 1774 ã. – ãîä ñïóñòÿ ïîñëå ïåðâîãî ïóáëè÷íîãî
èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ Ïóãà÷åâûì èìïåðàòîðñêîãî òèòóëà â óêàçå ÿèöêèì êàçàêàì, èìåâøåì õàðàêòåð äîãîâîðà. Ñîñòàâèòåëåì ïðîòîêîëà áûë ïðîñòîé ÷èíîâíèê òàéíîé ñëåäñòâåííîé êîìèññèè, êàïèòàí-ïîðó÷èê Ñàââà Èâàíîâè÷ Ìàâðèí.17
Èñòîùåííûé ôèçè÷åñêè, Ïóãà÷åâ ìóæåñòâåííî âåë ñåáÿ íà äîïðîñàõ. Ìàâðèí óìåëî ïðîâîäèë äîçíàíèå, è åìó óäàëîñü ïîëó÷èòü èñ÷åðïûâàþùóþ èíôîðìàöèþ êàê î ñóäüáå íåïîêîðíîãî äîíñêîãî êàçàêà, òàê è î õðîíîëîãèè ñîáûòèé. Ïîõîä âîññòàâøèõ ïðåâðàòèëñÿ ïîä
êîíåö â áåãñòâî. Êîãäà ñòàëî ïîíÿòíî, ÷òî öåëè óæå íå äîñòèãíóòü è
÷òî íà ïðåäâîäèòåëÿõ âîññòàíèÿ ëåæèò òÿæåëûé ãðóç îòâåòñòâåííîñòè çà ñìåðòü è ðàçðóøåíèÿ (îñíîâíóþ äîëþ êîòîðîé ñàìîçâàíåö âçÿë
íà ñåáÿ), è êîãäà áëèæàéøèå ñîðàòíèêè-êàçàêè ïðåäàëè åãî, Ïóãà÷åâ
ñ÷åë âîçìîæíûì íàðóøèòü äîãîâîð è íå èçîáðàæàë áîëüøå èìïåðàòîðà Ïåòðà III.
Ð. Â. Îâ÷èííèêîâ. Ñëåäñòâèå è ñóä íàä Å. È. Ïóãà÷åâûì è åãî ñïîäâèæíèêàìè.
Èñòî÷íèêîâåä÷åñêîå èññëåäîâàíèå. Ì. 1995; Åìåëüÿí Ïóãà÷åâ íà ñëåäñòâèè / Ñáîðíèê äîêóìåíòîâ è ìàòåðèàëîâ. Îòâ. èñïîëíèòåëü Ð. Â. Îâ÷èííèêîâ. Ì., 1997.
17
Åìåëüÿí Ïóãà÷åâ íà ñëåäñòâèè. Äîêóìåíò ¹ 1 // Ïðîòîêîë ïîêàçàíèé Å. È. Ïóãà÷åâà íà äîïðîñå â ßèöêîé ñåêðåòíîé êîìèññèè, 16 ñåíòÿáðÿ 1774 ã. Ñ. 56-104.
16
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Ó÷èòûâàÿ ñôîðìóëèðîâàííûå â íà÷àëå ýòîé ñòàòüè ïðîáëåìû, âàæíî îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà òî, ÷òî ÿâñòâóåò èç ïðîòîêîëîâ äîïðîñîâ: åùå
äî âîññòàíèÿ Ïóãà÷åâ áûë çíàêîì ñ ïåðèôåðèåé Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè
íàñòîëüêî, íàñêîëüêî ìîã åå çíàòü òîëüêî áåãëåö, íåîäíîêðàòíî ìåíÿâøèé ñâîþ ñîöèàëüíóþ èäåíòè÷íîñòü è óìåëî èñïîëüçîâàâøèé êîììóíèêàòèâíóþ ñåòü ñòàðîîáðÿäöåâ. Îí ïðîøåë ïóòü îò Âåòêè, îäíîãî èç
öåíòðîâ ñòàðîîáðÿä÷åñòâà ïî òó ñòîðîíó ïîëüñêîé ãðàíèöû è áåññàðàáñêîãî òåàòðà âîåííûõ äåéñòâèé âðåìåí ðóññêî–òóðåöêîé âîéíû, îò
åãî ðîäíûõ ìåñò íà Äîíó è óêðàèíñêîãî ãåòìàíñòâà, ÷åðåç Òàãàíðîã,
×åðêàññê è çàêàâêàçñêèå ïîãðàíè÷íûå çîíû íà Êóáàíè è Òåðåêå, ÷åðåç
Ñðåäíåå, Íèæíåå Ïîâîëæüå è Èðãèç äî ßèêà.
Îäíàêî äîïðîñû îòêðûëè íå òîëüêî èíäèâèäóàëüíûå êà÷åñòâà Ïóãà÷åâà, íî è ìíîãîãðàííûé ïîòåíöèàë þãî-âîñòî÷íîãî ôðîíòèðà – òàêîé, êàêèì åãî âèäåëè âîññòàâøèå (êàê ïðàâèëî, êàçàêè-ñòàðîîáðÿäöû) è ñàì Ïóãà÷åâ, êîòîðûé ñòàë ïðåäâîäèòåëåì ÿèöêèõ êàçàêîâ ïîñëå
ïîäàâëåíèÿ èõ âîññòàíèÿ â èþíå 1772 ã. Ïðåæäå ÷åì âîéòè â ñåðåäèíå
ñåíòÿáðÿ 1773 ã. â ñãîâîð, öåëüþ êîòîðîãî áûë âîîðóæåííûé êîíôëèêò
ñ ãîñóäàðñòâîì (Ïóãà÷åâó îòâîäèëàñü ðîëü èìïåðàòîðà Ïåòðà III), çàãîâîðùèêè îáñóæäàëè ìíîæåñòâî âàðèàíòîâ. Îáùèì äëÿ íèõ áûëî òî,
÷òî êàçàêè, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, îòêàçûâàëèñü ïðèçíàòü ëåãèòèìíîñòü
öåíòðàëüíîãî ïðàâèòåëüñòâà è ïîä÷èíåííûõ åìó ìåñòíûõ óïðàâèòåëåé, à ñ äðóãîé – óìåëî èñïîëüçîâàëè ïîòåíöèàë ôðîíòèðà, ÷òîáû óéòè
îò äàâëåíèÿ ãîñóäàðñòâà èëè æå àêòèâíî ïðîòèâîñòîÿòü åìó.
Èç äîïðîñîâ ÿâñòâóåò, ÷òî óæå ïîñëå ïåðâûõ êîíòàêòîâ ñ ÿèöêèìè
êàçàêàìè Ïóãà÷åâ ðàçäåëÿë èõ âèäåíèå ôðîíòèðà êàê ïîðèñòîé ñòðóêòóðû (à íå ãåðìåòè÷íîãî ðóáåæà). Ó êàçàêîâ èìåëàñü ïðèíöèïèàëüíàÿ âîçìîæíîñòü ïåðåéòè ãðàíèöó è ñîõðàíèòü ñâîáîäó. Ñóäÿ ïî ïðîòîêîëó Ìàâðèíà, Ïóãà÷åâ åùå â íîÿáðå 1772 ã., âî âðåìÿ ñâîåãî ïðîäâèæåíèÿ íà ßèê, çíàë î òîì, ÷òî âîññòàâøèå êàçàêè, ïîòåðïåâ ïîðàæåíèå îò ðåãóëÿðíûõ âîéñê ïîä êîìàíäîâàíèåì ãåíåðàëà Ôåäîðà
Ôðåéìàíà, ïðåäïîëàãàëè ñæå÷ü ßèöêèé ãîðîäîê è óéòè çà Êàñïèé â
Ïåðñèþ.  êà÷åñòâå ïóíêòîâ íàçíà÷åíèÿ íàçûâàëèñü Çîëîòàÿ ìå÷åòü –
ëåãåíäàðíîå êàçàöêîå ïîñåëåíèå íà Êàñïèè çà ïðåäåëàìè ðîññèéñêîé òåððèòîðèè, èëè Àñò(à)ðàáàä. Åùå íå áóäó÷è “öàðåì”, à òîëüêî
ñòðàíñòâóþùèì êóïöîì, ñòðåìÿñü âûÿñíèòü íàìåðåíèÿ ÿèöêèõ êàçàêîâ, Ïóãà÷åâ âûñêàçûâàë èäåþ î ñîâåðøåíèè ïîõîäà íà Êóáàíü, êàê
ýòî ñäåëàëè äîíñêèå êàçàêè âî âðåìÿ Áóëàâèíñêîãî âîññòàíèÿ 1708 ã.
 äðóãîì ñëó÷àå îí ïðåäëàãàë – â ìîìåíò, êîãäà Ðîññèÿ âåëà âîéíó ñ
Îñìàíñêîé èìïåðèåé! – óéòè íà òåððèòîðèþ, ïîäâëàñòíóþ òóðåöêî107
Ê. Øàðô, Ïóãà÷åâ: èìïåðàòîð ìåæäó ïåðèôåðèåé è öåíòðîì...
ìó ñóëòàíó.18
Îäíàêî êî âðåìåíè ïîÿâëåíèÿ Ïóãà÷åâà íà ßèêå êðîìå ïëàíîâ,
ïðåäïîëàãàâøèõ ïåðåõîä ãðàíèöû êàê ñðåäñòâî èçáåæàòü ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî äàâëåíèÿ, çäåñü öèðêóëèðîâàëà è (ñòàðàÿ) èäåÿ àòàêîâàòü “öåíòð”,
ïðîäâèãàÿñü îò ïåðèôåðèè ê ñåðäöó èìïåðèè è âîâëåêàÿ â âîññòàíèå
ïîìåùè÷üèõ êðåñòüÿí. Çàïèñè Ìàâðèíà òàêæå ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò î òîì,
÷òî âîññòàâøèå ÿèöêèå êàçàêè, â îòâåò íà âîçìîæíîå íàïàäåíèå êàðàòåëüíîãî îòðÿäà, ãðîçèëè îêàçàòü âîîðóæåííîå ñîïðîòèâëåíèå è íà÷àòü ïîõîä íà öåíòðàëüíûå ðåãèîíû èìïåðèè, “à ïî ïóòè âîçìóòèòü
ïîìåùè÷üèõ ëþäåé íà ïîáåã è ïðèíèìàòü èõ â ñâîå âîéñêî”. Ãåíåðàë
Ôðåéìàí, èíôîðìèðóÿ èìïåðàòðèöó î õàðàêòåðå è öåëÿõ çà÷èíùèêîâ
âîññòàíèÿ, ñîîáùàë: “Íðàâàìè æ îíûå ÿèöêèå êàçàêè óïðÿìû, ãîðäû,
çâåðñêè çëîáñòâåííû, êàê è ñèå íàìåðåíèå èõ äîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî ïî ðàçáèòèè ìåíÿ õîòåëè èäòè ÷ðåç Âîëãó â Ðîññèþ”.19
Îòâå÷àÿ íà âîïðîñû Ìàâðèíà î ïðîèñõîæäåíèè çàãîâîðà, Ïóãà÷åâ
ðàññêàçàë î åùå îäíîì çàìûñëå, êîòîðûé õàðàêòåðèçóåò âíåøíèé è
âíóòðåííèé ïîòåíöèàë ôðîíòèðà – î äàííîì èì ÿèöêèì êàçàêàì 14
ñåíòÿáðÿ 1773 ã. îáåùàíèè: “Åñòëè áîã ïîìîæåò ìíå âîöàðèòüñÿ, òî
ßèöêîìó ãîðîäêó áûòü âìåñòî Ìîñêâû èëè Ïåòåðáóðãà, à ÿèöêèì êàçàêàì íàä âñåìè ïåðâåíñòâî”.20  ñëó÷àå, åñëè ïåðèôåðèÿ ïîáåæäàëà
öåíòð, ïîñëåäíèé äîëæåí áûë íàâñåãäà ïîòåðÿòü ñâîé ñòàòóñ. Îäíàêî â
î÷åðåäíîì äîïðîñå ÿèöêèé êàçàê Òèìîôåé Ìÿñíèêîâ, îäèí èç ãëàâíûõ
çàãîâîðùèêîâ, ïîâåäàë î ñöåíàðèè “¹ 2”: åñëè ñàìîçâàíöó íå óäàåòñÿ
äîáèòüñÿ âëàñòè íàä Ìîñêâîé, òî ÿèöêèå êàçàêè ïðåäïîëàãàëè â ýòîì
ñëó÷àå îáðàçîâàòü ñîáñòâåííîå öàðñòâî íà ßèêå. Ïðè ýòîì, ïðàâäà, îí
íå óêàçàë, ñîáèðàëèñü ëè îíè ââåñòè â ñâîåì öàðñòâå ìîíàðõèþ è êîðîíîâàòü Ïóãà÷åâà íà öàðñòâî.21
Áåçóñëîâíî, áûëî áû èíòåðåñíî èçó÷èòü êàæäûé èç ýòèõ ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ ïëàíîâ êàçàöêîãî âîññòàíèÿ, ÷åì íåðåäêî è çàíèìàëèñü ñîâåòñÒàì æå. Ñ. 63 è ñëåä., 71; êðîìå òîãî, ñì. ïðîòîêîëû ïîçäíèõ äîïðîñîâ â
Ñèìáèðñêå è Ìîñêâå, ñîäåðæàíèå êîòîðûõ îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò ïåðâûõ ïîêàçàíèé
Ïóãà÷åâà: òàì æå. Ñ. 107, 109, 119, 144-149, 151; î Çîëîòîé ìå÷åòè ñì. êîììåíòàðèè
îòâ. ðåäàêòîðà - Ñ. 254, ïðèì. 65. Ñì. òàêæå Ðîçíåð. ßèê ïåðåä áóðåé. Ñ. 156; Â. Â.
Ìàâðîäèí. Åìåëüÿí Èâàíîâè÷ Ïóãà÷åâ (æèçíåííûé ïóòü) // Êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ âîéíà â
Ðîññèè â 1773-1775 ãîäàõ. Ò. 2. Ñ. 67-90, çäåñü Ñ. 83-85; Àíäðóùåíêî. Êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ
âîéíà. Ñ. 22-27; Alexander. Emperor of the Cossacks. Ð. 53.
19
Ðîçíåð. ßèê ïåðåä áóðåé. Ñ. 145 ñë.
20
Åìåëüÿí Ïóãà÷åâ íà ñëåäñòâèè. Äîêóìåíò ¹. 1. Ñ. 76 è ñëåä.
21
Peters. Politische und gesellschaftliche Vorstellungen. S. 50.
18
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êèå èñòîðèêè, ðàññóæäàÿ î òîì, êàêèõ “îøèáîê” ñëåäîâàëî áû èçáåæàòü äëÿ óñïåõà êàçàêîâ. Òåì íå ìåíåå, èñòî÷íèêè íå ïîçâîëÿþò ñäåëàòü âûâîäîâ î ðåàëüíîì ìàñøòàáå èãðû è ïðîâåñòè ãðàíèöó ìåæäó
óòîïè÷åñêèìè ïðîåêòàìè è ïëàíàìè, èìåâøèìè õîòÿ áû ÷àñòè÷íûå
øàíñû íà óñïåõ. Çäåñü ìîæíî òîëüêî êîíñòàòèðîâàòü, ÷òî, íàðÿäó ñ
èäååé ïîõîäà ñàìîçâàíöà íà èìïåðñêèé öåíòð, íà Óðàëå ðàñïðîñòðàíÿëîñü ìíîæåñòâî “îêðàèííûõ” ëîçóíãîâ áîðüáû çà ñîõðàíåíèå èñêîííûõ ïðàâ ÿèöêèõ êàçàêîâ.
* * *
Òî, ÷òî ïóòü ÿèöêèõ êàçàêîâ ê îñóùåñòâëåíèþ èõ “îêðàèííûõ” öåëåé ïðîëåãàë ÷åðåç öåíòð èìïåðèè è ïðåäóñìàòðèâàë íàëè÷èå âî ãëàâå
âîññòàíèÿ ïðåäâîäèòåëÿ-öàðÿ, ýêñïëèöèòíî ïîäòâåðæäàåòñÿ èñòî÷íèêàìè. Óáåäèòåëüíîå îáúÿñíåíèå ýòîìó ôàêòó ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ñàìèõ æå
êàçàêîâ äàë âî âðåìÿ îäíîãî èç äîïðîñîâ óïîìèíàâøèéñÿ âûøå Ìÿñíèêîâ, ïðèíàäëåæàâøèé ê óçêîìó êðóãó ëèö, êîòîðûì ñ ñàìîãî íà÷àëà
áûëà èçâåñòíà ëè÷íîñòü Ïóãà÷åâà. Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, îí ññûëàëñÿ íà
ðàçî÷àðîâàíèå è îçëîáëåííîñòü êàçàêîâ ïîñëå ïîðàæåíèÿ â èþíå 1772
ã., êîòîðûå ïîñëóæèëè ñòèìóëàìè äëÿ ïðîäîëæåíèÿ ñîïðîòèâëåíèÿ, à
ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, óêàçûâàë íà ñòðàòåãè÷åñêóþ íåîáõîäèìîñòü íàëè÷èÿ âî ãëàâå âîññòàíèÿ ôèãóðû öàðÿ, êîòîðàÿ áû îáåñïå÷èëà ïðèòîê
êðåñòüÿí â ðÿäû âîññòàâøèõ, âûñòóïèâøèõ ïðîòè⠓áîÿð”: “Èòàê, äëÿ
ñèõ òî ñàìûõ ïðè÷èí âçäóìàëè ìû íàçâàòü ñåãî Ïóãà÷åâà ïîêîéíûì
ãîñóäàðåì Ïåòðîì Ôåäîðîâè÷åì, äàáû îí íàì âîññòàíîâèë âñå íàøè
ïðåæíèå îáðÿäû [...], à áîÿð [...] âñåõ èñòðåáèòü, íàäåÿñü íà òî, ÷òî ñèå
íàøå ïðåäïðèÿòèå áóäåò ïîäêðåïëåíî è ñèëà íàøà óìíîæèòñÿ îò ÷åðíîãî íàðîäà”.22 Íà äðóãîì äîïðîñå Ìÿñíèêîâ óïîìèíàë ïîýòàïíûé
ïëàí, ïî êîòîðîìó ïðåäïîëàãàëîñü ñíà÷àëà ðàçãðîìèòü ôîðïîñòû ãîñóäàðñòâà íà þãî–âîñòî÷íîé ïåðèôåðèè, à çàòåì íàïàñòü íà öåíòð: “À
ïî âçÿòèè Îðåíáóðãà ñàìîçâàíåö íàìåðåí áûë èòòè â Êàçàíü, îòòóäà â
Ìîñêâó, è, íàïîñëåäîê, çàâëàäåòü âñåþ Ðîññèåþ”.23
Îäíàêî, ïîñêîëüêó ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî î÷àãè âîññòàíèÿ ðàñïîëàãàëèñü
íà ïåðèôåðèè è áëèæàéøèå åãî öåëè íàõîäèëèñü â ðåãèîíå, à òàêæå ñ
ó÷åòîì ñîáûòèé ñåíòÿáðÿ–îêòÿáðÿ 1773 ã., ïåðâûìè ñîþçíèêàìè êàçàêîâ ñòàëè íå êðåñòüÿíå, à Ìàëàÿ êàçàõñêàÿ îðäà è áàøêèðû Îðåíáóðã22
Öèòèðóþ ïî: Ðîçíåð. ßèê ïåðåä áóðåé. Ñ. 185; Peters. Politische und gesellschaftliche
Vorstellungen. S. 48 è ñëåä.
23
À. Ñ. Ñâåòåíêî. Ïîêàçàíèÿ êîìàíäèðà ïóãà÷åâñêîé ãâàðäèè // Âîïðîñû èñòîðèè.
1980. ¹. 4. Ñ. 95-103, çäåñü Ñ. 100.
109
Ê. Øàðô, Ïóãà÷åâ: èìïåðàòîð ìåæäó ïåðèôåðèåé è öåíòðîì...
ñêîé ãóáåðíèè. Î÷åâèäíî, êàçàêè ðåøèëè, ÷òî îíè äîáüþòñÿ áîëüøåãî
óñïåõà ó ïîòåíöèàëüíûõ ñîþçíèêîâ, åñëè ïîñëåäíèå ïîëó÷àò èìïåðàòîðñêèå óêàçû, ñîñòàâëåííûå íà òàòàðñêîì ÿçûêå, ñ ïûøíîé òèòóëàòóðîé è øèðîêèìè îáåùàíèÿìè ìîíàðøåé ìèëîñòè,24 ÷åì åñëè áû ê íèì
îáðàòèëñÿ îáû÷íûé êàçàöêèé àòàìàí. Àíàëîãè÷íî èìÿ Ïåòðà III ïîìîãëî âîññòàâøèì ïîëó÷èòü ïîääåðæêó äðóãèõ êàçàöêèõ ñîîáùåñòâ,
êðåñòüÿí âñåõ êàòåãîðèé, â òîì ÷èñëå è ôàáðè÷íûõ, à òàêæå ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ãîðîäñêèõ íèçøèõ ñîñëîâèé è íåðóññêèõ íàðîäîâ.
Âíå ñîìíåíèÿ, ýòîò “öåíòðàëèñòñêèé” ñöåíàðèé îáðåë ïîçäíåå ñîáñòâåííóþ äèíàìèêó, è, ïî ñóòè, íå îñòàâëÿë óæå íèêàêîé âîçìîæíîñòè
âûáîðà. Îò íåãî íàïðÿìóþ çàâèñåëî ïðèòÿæåíèå “÷åðíîãî íàðîäà” ê
âîññòàâøèì, ðîñò äâèæåíèÿ è åãî âîåííàÿ ìîùü – ñîáñòâåííî, âñå òî,
íà ÷òî è ðàññ÷èòûâàëè ïðåäâîäèòåëè âîññòàíèÿ, åñëè âåðèòü ñëîâàì
Ìÿñíèêîâà. Õîòÿ êàæäàÿ èç ó÷àñòâóþùèõ ãðóïï â ìîìåíò ïðèñîåäèíåíèÿ ê âîññòàíèþ ðóêîâîäñòâîâàëàñü ñïåöèôè÷åñêèìè “îêðàèííûìè”
èíòåðåñàìè, òîëüêî “öåíòðàëèñòñêèé” ìîíàðõè÷åñêèé ìèô îáëàäàë
ñèëîé, êîòîðàÿ îáúåäèíÿëà èõ âñåõ â ñïîñîáíóþ ê äåéñòâèþ åäèíèöó.
Îäíîâðåìåííî êàæäàÿ ãðóïïà, ïîñòóïàâøàÿ â ïîä÷èíåíèå ê ñàìîçâàíöó, óêðåïëÿëà åãî ìèô.
 öåëîì, â ýòîì ñîöèàëüíî äèôôåðåíöèðîâàííîì äâèæåíèè ïîðàæàþò, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ñïëî÷åííîñòü è îðãàíèçîâàííîñòü åãî ïðåäâîäèòåëåé, à ñ äðóãîé – ñèëà è öåëåóñòðåìëåííîñòü ñàìîãî Ïóãà÷åâà, êîòîðûé,
íåñìîòðÿ íà íåîäíîêðàòíûå ïîðàæåíèÿ, â òå÷åíèå öåëîãî ãîäà ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíî èãðàë ðîëü ìîíàðõà. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ïðè èíòåðïðåòàöèè óêàçîâ è ìàíèôåñòîâ Ïóãà÷åâà íåîáõîäèìî òàêæå ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíî ó÷èòûâàòü âîïëîùàåìûé èì ïñåâäîèìïåðàòîðñêèé ñöåíàðèé. ×ðåçâû÷àéíî
èíòåðåñåí â ýòîé ñâÿçè àíàëèç ÿçûêîâûõ ïðàêòèê ôîðìóëÿðî⠓èìïåðàòîðñêèõ” ïðîêëàìàöèé íà ôîíå íàèáîëåå áëèçêèõ èì “êîíòåêñòîâ”, íàïðèìåð – êàíöåëÿðñêîãî ñòèëÿ ïðàâèòåëüñòâà Åêàòåðèíû II.
Òåì íå ìåíåå, äî ñèõ ïîð èñòîðèêè èñêàëè â äîêóìåíòàõ ñàìîçâàíöà ïîëèòè÷åñêèå è îáùåñòâåííûå öåëè äâèæåíèÿ â öåëîì. Åñëè âñå æå
24
Èìåííîé óêàç ïðàâèòåëþ Ìàëîãî êàçàõñêîãî æóçà Íóðàëè-õàíó, 18 ñåíòÿáðÿ
1773 ã. // Äîêóìåíòû ñòàâêè Å. È. Ïóãà÷åâà. ¹. 2. Ñ. 23; Èìåííîé óêàç áàøêèðàì
Îðåíáóðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè, 1 îêòÿáðÿ 1773 ã. // Òàì æå. ¹¹. 6 è 7. Ñ. 25-27; Èìåííîé
óêàç áàøêèðàì Íîãàéñêîé è Ñèáèðñêîé äîðîã Îðåíáóðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè, 1 îêòÿáðÿ
1773 ã. // Òàì æå. ¹. 8. Ñ. 28; Èìåííîé óêàç áàøêèðàì Îðåíáóðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè, 14
îêòÿáðÿ 1773 ã. // Òàì æå. ¹. 12. Ñ. 30; Èìåííîé óêàç ñóëòàíó Ìàëîãî êàçàõñêîãî
æóçà Äóñàëè, 26 îêòÿáðÿ 1773 ã. // Òàì æå. ¹ 16. Ñ. 32.
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Ïóãà÷åâ (è åãî âîåííàÿ êîëëåãèÿ) ñ ñàìîãî íà÷àëà äåëàëè ñòàâêó íà
ìîáèëèçàöèþ ïîòåíöèàëüíûõ ñòîðîííèêîâ â òîì èëè èíîì ðåãèîíå äëÿ
ñîâìåñòíîé áîðüáû, òî ñ âîåííîé òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ çàêîíîìåðíûì, ÷òî îí, êàê “èìïåðàòîð”, ãàðàíòèðîâàë ïðèñîåäèíÿâøèìñÿ ê
äâèæåíèþ èõ èñêîííûå ïðàâà è ñâîáîäû è îáåùàë âûïîëíåíèå èõ æåëàíèé. Íî ðåàëèçàöèÿ ýòèõ îáåùàíèé ïîëíîñòüþ çàâèñåëà îò êîíòðîëÿ
íàä öåíòðîì âëàñòè, îò ïîáåäû â ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíå. Â ðåàëüíîñòè æå
âîññòàâøèì íå óäàëîñü äîñòè÷ü íè îäíîé èç îñíîâíûõ öåëåé (òàêèõ,
êàê çàâîåâàíèå êðåïîñòè ßèöêèé ãîðîäîê èëè ãîðîäîâ Îðåíáóðã è Êàçàíü). Èì íå óäàëîñü îáðàçîâàòü êàçàöêîå öàðñòâî â ïåðèôåðèéíûõ
ðåãèîíàõ, è â êîíå÷íîì èòîãå äàæå ôðîíòèð íå ïðèçíàë âëàñòè ñàìîçâàíöà.
SUMMARY
Non-Marxist historians are convinced that the Pugachev rebellion was
not a peasants’ war, but a protest movement on the southeastern steppefrontier, the periphery of the Russian Empire, against the government’s policy of integration, unification, and modernization. This taken for granted,
we are confronted with a peculiar contradiction: the Jaik Cossacks conspired with the Don Cossack Pugachev in September 1773 so that he, in the
disguise of the late emperor Peter III, should lead them against the Empress
Catherine II, the state, its ruling elite, and its regional strongholds along the
border. From its very beginning, the protest movement of the periphery
aimed to conquer the “center” of the Russian Empire. For exactly one year,
till the end of the movement in September 1774, Pugachev played his role
consequently and issued manifestos and orders as he thought a legitimate
emperor of the Petrine type would, but not as a Tsar of Moscovy or of the
peasants. He and the Cossacks around him had only a vague political or
social program for Russia, but tried to win every possible group of combatants in the periphery – Cossacks, peasants, factory workers, inhabitants of
the towns and especially the different non-Russian peoples in the Ural and
Volga regions – by proclaiming in manifestos what they wanted to hear. It is
also important that the Jaik Cossacks, after the rejection of their legitimate
claims by the state and after a harsh punishment by the regular military
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forces in 1772, discussed many ideas about how to make use of the frontier
situation: from different emigration projects to an empire of their own on
the frontier to an attack on the “center”, by triggering off peasants’ uprisings. At least, the historical realization of a campaign against the state lead
by a false emperor was only one of the possibilities offered by the Empire’s
periphery.
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Ìàðèíà ÂÈÒÓÕÍÎÂÑÊÀß
ÊÀÐÅËÛ ÍÀ ÃÐÀÍÈÖÅ ÊÎÍÊÓÐÈÐÓÞÙÈÕ
ÍÀÖÈÎÍÀËÜÍÛÕ ÏÐÎÅÊÒÎÂ:
ÑÎÖÈÎ-ÝÊÎÍÎÌÈ×ÅÑÊÈÅ ÐÀÇËÈ×Èß
ÐÎÑÑÈÉÑÊÎÉ È ÔÈÍËßÍÄÑÊÎÉ ÊÀÐÅËÈÉ
ÊÀÊ ÔÀÊÒÎÐ ÍÀÖÈÎÍÀËÜÍÎÉ ÏÎËÈÒÈÊÈ
Ââåäåíèå
 ìèðîâîé èñòîðèè íàñ÷èòûâàåòñÿ íåìàëî ýòíîñîâ, ðàññå÷¸ííûõ
íà ÷àñòè ãðàíèöàìè è ñòàâøèõ â ñâÿçè ñ ýòèì îáúåêòàìè âëèÿíèÿ ïðîòèâîïîëîæíûõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïðîåêòîâ. Ê ÷èñëó ýòèõ íàðîäîâ îòíîñÿòñÿ è êàðåëû, “ïîäåë¸ííûå” ñ 1323 ãîäà ìåæäó Ðóñüþ (ïîçæå – Ìîñêîâñêèì öàðñòâîì, Ðîññèåé) è øâåäñêîé (ñ 1809 ã. – ðîññèéñêîé) Ôèíëÿíäèåé.1 Ñ ýòîãî ìîìåíòà êàæäàÿ èç “ïîëîâèíîê” ýòíîñà ñóùåñòâîâàëà íå ïðîñòî â ðàçëè÷íûõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ, ñîöèàëüíûõ, êóëüòóðíûõ è
êîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ ðåàëèÿõ, íî â ñòðàíàõ, íà ïðîòÿæåíèè ñòîëåòèé
ÿâëÿâøèõñÿ íåïðèìèðèìûìè âðàãàìè. Òîëüêî ñ íà÷àëà 1809 ãîäà, êîãäà Ôèíëÿíäèÿ áûëà ïðèñîåäèíåíà ê Ðîññèè, ñèòóàöèÿ ôîðìàëüíî èçìåíèëàñü – îáå ÷àñòè êàðåëüñêîãî ýòíîñà îêàçàëèñü ïî îäíó ñòîðîíó
ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ãðàíèöû. Îäíàêî ê èõ ñáëèæåíèþ ýòî íå ïðèâåëî –
Îá èñòîðèè ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ “äâóõ Êàðåëèé” – ôèíëÿíäñêîé è ðîññèéñêîé – ñì.
ðàçäåë 2 íàñòîÿùåé ñòàòüè, “Êàê ñôîðìèðîâàëèñü ‘äâå Êàðåëè蒔.
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Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
ïðåáûâàíèå “â ëîíå” Ðîññèè òîëüêî óñêîðèëî ðàçâèòèå ôèíñêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî ïðîåêòà è ñòàíîâëåíèå ôèíñêîé íàöèè. Ôèííèçàöèÿ êàðåëüñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ çäåñü óñèëèëàñü, è, áîëåå òîãî, â îðáèòó âëèÿíèÿ ôèíñêèõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ äåÿòåëåé ïîïàëà, íàêîíåö, ðîññèéñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ.
 Ðîññèè æå âïëîòü äî ñàìîãî êîíöà XIX âåêà íèêàêîãî “êàðåëüñêîãî âîïðîñà” íå ñóùåñòâîâàëî, à ñàìè ðîññèéñêèå êàðåëû ñ÷èòàëèñü
îäíèì èç ñàìûõ “áåñïðîáëåìíûõ” íàðîäîâ èìïåðèè.2 Ðàñïîëîæåííûé
íà ñåâåðî-çàïàäíîé ïåðèôåðèè ñòðàíû ýòîò ìèðíûé è, ÷òî îñîáåííî
âàæíî, ïðàâîñëàâíûé íàðîä3 íå ïðèâëåêàë ê ñåáå îñîáåííîãî âíèìàíèÿ. Êðîìå òîãî, ðóññêèé íàöèîíàëüíûé ïðîåêò äîëãîå âðåìÿ íàõîäèëñÿ â ëàòåíòíîì ñîñòîÿíèè, òàê ÷òî ïðîáëåìà ðóñèôèêàöèè èíîðîäöåâ íå ñòîÿëà îñòðî âïëîòü äî êîíöà XIX âåêà. Âñïëåñê èíòåðåñà ê
êàðåëàì áûë èíèöèèðîâàí ïðîöåññàìè, ïðîèñõîäèâøèìè â Ôèíëÿíäèè è ñâÿçàííûìè, ïðåæäå âñåãî, ñî ñòàíîâëåíèåì ôèíñêîé íàöèè è
ôîðìèðîâàíèåì ôèíñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè.
Íà ïðîòÿæåíèè XIX âåêà ôèíñêîå íàöèîíàëüíîå äâèæåíèå ïðîøëî
ñòðåìèòåëüíûé ïóòü ðàçâèòèÿ, ïåðåéäÿ (ïî êëàññèôèêàöèè Ìèðîñëàâà Õðîõà4) èç ôàçû “À”, îçíà÷àâøåé ïðîáóæäåíèå èíòåðåñà íåáîëüøîé ãðóïïû èíòåëëèãåíöèè ê ÿçûêó è êóëüòóðå íàðîäà, â ôàçó “Ñ”,
êîãäà íàöèîíàëüíàÿ èäåÿ ïîëó÷èëà ìàññîâóþ îáùåñòâåííóþ ïîääåðæêó.5 Òàêîé ëàâèíîîáðàçíûé ðîñò íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêèõ àìáèöèé áûë
Èñêëþ÷åíèåì â ýòîì ñìûñëå áûëà ðóññêàÿ ïðàâîñëàâíàÿ öåðêîâü è ÷àñòè÷íî –
ìåñòíîå ÷èíîâíè÷åñòâî, ñòðàäàâøèå îò îòñóòñòâèÿ ÿçûêà îáùåíèÿ ñ êàðåëàìè.
Âðåìÿ îò âðåìåíè ïðåäïðèíèìàëèñü íåêîòîðûå ïîïûòêè ïåðåâîäîâ íà êàðåëüñêèé ÿçûê, îáó÷åíèÿ áóäóùèõ ñâÿùåííèêîâ êàðåëüñêîìó ÿçûêó è ò.ä. Ñì. îá ýòîì:
Ì. Ïóëüêèí. Ìåæýòíè÷åñêîå âçàèìîäåéñòâèå â ïðàâîñëàâíûõ ïðèõîäàõ Îëîíåöêîé
åïàðõèè: ïóòè è ôîðìû ïðåîäîëåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîãî áàðüåðà (XVIII-íà÷àëî ÕÕ â.) // Íåñòîð. Åæåêâàðòàëüíûé æóðíàë èñòîðèè è êóëüòóðû Ðîññèè è Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïû.
2000. ¹ 1. Ñ. 275-290; Ibid. Ïðàâîñëàâíîå äóõîâåíñòâî è ïpèxoæaíe-êapeëû: ïîèñêè âçàèìîïîíèìàíèÿ (XVIII-ïåðâàÿ òðåòü XX â.) // “Ñâîå” è “÷óæîå” â êóëüòóðå:
Ñá. ñòàòåé. Bûï. 2. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 2001. C. 128-140; Ibid. Karjalan kieli Aunuksen ja
Sortavalan seminaarissa // Carelia. 2002. ¹ 8. C. 143–147.
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Î ïðàâîñëàâíîñòè âñåé ìàññû ðîññèéñêèõ êàðåë ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü ñ áîëüøîé
äîëåé óñëîâíîñòè, ò.ê. çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü êàê áåëîìîðñêèõ, òàê è îëîíåöêèõ êàðåë
ïîñëå ðàñêîëà ñòàëà ñòàðîîáðÿäöàìè è ñîõðàíÿëà ñòàðîîáðÿä÷åñêóþ òðàäèöèþ
äî 1930-õ ãîäîâ.
4
Ñì. Miroslav Hroch. Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe. A
Comparative Analysis of the Social Composition of Patriotic Groups among the Smaller
European Nations. Cambridge, 1985.
5
Ñì. îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð: Osmo Jussila. Maakunnasta valtioksi: Suomen valtion synty.
Porvoo, 1987.
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òåñíåéøèì îáðàçîì ñâÿçàí ñ ïîèñêîì íàöèîíàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè è
êóëüòóðíî-èñòîðè÷åñêèõ êîðíåé, ÷òî, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, âûâåëî íà àâàíñöåíó îáùåñòâåííîãî âíèìàíèÿ “êàðåëüñêèé âîïðîñ”. Ê òîìó âðåìåíè
â ñðåäå ôèíñêèõ èíòåëëåêòóàëîâ ñîçðåëî óáåæäåíèå, ÷òî êàðåëû ÿâëÿþòñÿ îäíèì èç äâóõ ïëåì¸í, îáðàçóþùèõ ôèíñêèé íàðîä. Îá ýòîì âåñüìà îáðàçíî ïèñàë Çàêàðèàñ Òîïåëèóñ (Zacharias Topelius) â ñâîåé êíèãå äëÿ ÷òåíèÿ “Íàøà ñòðàíà” (Maamme kirja), ñòàâøåé, ôàêòè÷åñêè,
Åâàíãåëèåì ôèíñêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà: “Ôèíñêèé íàðîä – êàê äåðåâî,
êîòîðîå óõîäèò ñâîèìè êîðíÿìè â çåìëþ. Åãî ñàìûå áîëüøèå è ìîùíûå êîðíè – ýòî äâå ðîäñòâåííûõ íàöèè, êîòîðûå äîëãî áûëè ðàçëó÷åíû, à ñåé÷àñ ñîåäèíèëèñü, à èìåííî – êàðåëû è õÿìå”.6 Ïîýòîìó ôèíñêèå íàöèîíàëèñòû òðàäèöèîííî îòíîñèëèñü ê êàðåëàì, ïðîæèâàâøèì
íà òåððèòîðèè Âåëèêîãî êíÿæåñòâà è ñîõðàíÿâøèì åù¸ ñâîþ íàöèîíàëüíóþ èäåíòè÷íîñòü, êàê ê áóäóùåé ñîñòàâíîé ÷àñòè ôèíñêîé íàöèè. Ñî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíû XIX âåêà íà÷àëñÿ ñîçíàòåëüíûé è ÷¸òêî ðåãóëèðóåìûé ïðîöåññ àññèìèëÿöèè ôèíñêèõ êàðåë, ÷àñòè÷íî èìåâøèé
óñïåõ. Îäíàêî âïëîòü äî íà÷àëà XX âåêà â Ôèíëÿíäèè ñîõðàíÿëàñü
äîñòàòî÷íî çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ãðóïïà, îáëàäàâøàÿ ÿðêî âûðàæåííîé êàðåëüñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòüþ è ñîõðàíÿâøàÿ ïðàâîñëàâíóþ âåðó.7
Óæå ïðèáëèçèòåëüíî ñ ñåðåäèíû XIX âåêà â ïîëå çðåíèÿ ôèíëÿíäñêèõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ àêòèâèñòîâ ïîïàëè ðîññèéñêèå êàðåëû. Ýòî áûëî
ïðåæäå âñåãî ñâÿçàíî ñ çàïèñüþ Ýëèàñîì ˸ííðîòîì êàðåëüñêî-ôèíñêèõ ýïè÷åñêèõ ðóí, êîòîðûå îí ïîçæå ïåðåðàáîòàë â çíàìåíèòóþ Êàëåâàëó. Îñíîâíàÿ ÷àñòü ðóí Êàëåâàëû áûëà ñîáðàíà íà òåððèòîðèè ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè, à ïîñêîëüêó ðîëü ýïîñà â ñòàíîâëåíèè ôèíñêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî ìèôà áûëà öåìåíòèðóþùåé, ðóññêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ êàê ñðåäà
åãî îáíàðóæåíèÿ ïîïàëà â öåíòð ïðèñòàëüíîãî âíèìàíèÿ ôèíñêèõ íàöèîíàëèñòîâ. Âîçíèê èíòåðåñ ôèíñêèõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ ðîìàíòèêîâ ê êóëüòóðå Êàðåëèè, êîòîðàÿ êàçàëàñü èì íåêèì èäåàëüíûì õðàíèëèùåì ôèíñêîé äðåâíåé òðàäèöèè, êðàåì, ãäå íàäëåæèò èñêàòü ñâîþ íàöèîíàëüíóþ
èäåíòè÷íîñòü è êóëüòóðíûå êîðíè. Ê êîíöó XIX âåêà ñôîðìèðîâàëîñü
ÿâëåíèå, ïîëó÷èâøåå â ëèòåðàòóðå íàçâàíèå “êóëüòóðíûé êàðåëèàíèçì”.
Z. Topelius. Maamme kirja. Lukukirja alimmaisille oppilaitoksille Suomessa. 16-å
èçä. Helsinki, 1899. Ñ. 171. Ïåðâîå èçäàíèå “Maamme kirja” âûøëî â 1875 ã.
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 Ôèíëÿíäèè ê íà÷àëó XX âåêà ïðîæèâàëî îêîëî 37 òûñÿ÷ êàðåë (ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü ê êàðåëüñêîìó íàðîäó îïðåäåëÿëàñü çäåñü ïî êîíôåññèîíàëüíîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè ê ïðàâîñëàâèþ). Îíè ðàñïîëàãàëèñü â Ñàëìèíñêîì, Ñîðòàâàëüñêîì,
Èëîìàíñêîì óåçäàõ è â óåçäå Éîýíñóó. (Õåéêêè Êèðêèíåí, Ïåêêà Íåâàëàéíåí,
Õàííåñ Ñèõâî. Èñòîðèÿ êàðåëüñêîãî íàðîäà. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1998. Ñ. 200).
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Ïðîôåññîð Õàííåñ Ñèõâî (Hannes Sihvo), äîñêîíàëüíî èçó÷èâøèé
èñòîðèþ êàðåëèàíèçìà, ïðåäëàãàåò âûäåëÿòü åù¸ è âòîðóþ åãî ôîðìó –
íàöèîíàëüíî-èäåîëîãè÷åñêóþ.8 Ñëèâøèñü ñ ôèíñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé
èäååé, íàöèîíàëüíî-èäåîëîãè÷åñêèé íàöèîíàëèçì ïåðåðîñ â êîíöåïöèþ “Âåëèêîé Ôèíëÿíäèè”, â êîòîðîé, êàê è âî âñÿêîì ãèïåðíàöèîíàëüíîì ïðîåêòå, ñóùåñòâåííîå ìåñòî çàíèìàëî ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î íåîáõîäèìîñòè îáúåäèíåíèÿ ðîäñòâåííûõ íàðîäîâ ïîä ýãèäîé “ñòàðøåãî” – â äàííîì ñëó÷àå Ôèíëÿíäèè.9 Îäíèì èç òàêèõ íàðîäîâ, ïî ìíåíèþ ôèíñêèõ èäåîëîãîâ, áûëè èõ ýòíè÷åñêèå “áðàòüÿ” êàðåëû, êîòîðûõ îñîáåííî ñáëèæàëè ñ ôèííàìè îáùèå íàöèîíàëüíî-èñòîðè÷åñêèå
êîðíè, ÿçûêîâîå è êóëüòóðíîå ðîäñòâî, à ãëàâíîå – îñòðîå îùóùåíèå
ôèííàìè ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè êàê “èððåäåíòû” (irredenta), îòîðâàííîãî êóñêà Âåëèêîé Ôèíëÿíäèè.10
Óñèëèâøååñÿ ñî ñòîðîíû Ôèíëÿíäèè íàöèîíàëüíîå äàâëåíèå íà êàðåë âûçâàëî âñòðå÷íîå äâèæåíèå ñî ñòîðîíû èìïåðñêèõ âëàñòåé. Íèêîìó ðàíåå íå èíòåðåñíûå, “áåñïðîáëåìíûå” êàðåëû ñòàëè îáúåêòîì ïðèñòàëüíîãî âíèìàíèÿ èìïåðñêèõ äåÿòåëåé. Óñèëåíèå ôèíñêîé àãèòàöèè,
ïîëó÷èâøåå â îôèöèîçíîé ïðåññå íàçâàíèå “ïàíôèíñêàÿ ïðîïàãàíäà”,
ñîâïàëî ñ àêòèâèçàöèåé ñîáñòâåííî ðóññêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà, è ýòè äâà
îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà ñïðîâîöèðîâàëè óñèëåíèå íàïðàâëåííîé ðóñèôèêàòîðñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ñðåäè ðóññêèõ êàðåë. “Ðóñèôèêàòîðû” îòíîñèëè êàðåë ê ãðóïïå “ìàëûõ íàðîäöåâ, íå èìåþùèõ íè ñâîåé ëèòåðàòóðû, íè
ñâîåé äàæå ïèñüìåííîñòè, íè àçáóêè, íè èñòîðèè, íè êóëüòóðû”.11 ÈìåíÑì.: Hannes Sihvo. Karjalan kuva. Karelianismin taustaa ja vaiheita autonomian aikana.
Helsinki 1973, èëè Õåéêêè Êèðêèíåí, Ïåêêà Íåâàëàéíåí, Õàííåñ Ñèõâî. Èñòîðèÿ
êàðåëüñêîãî íàðîäà. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1998. Ñ. 188.
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Î ôîðìèðîâàíèè èäåè “Âåëèêîé Ôèíëÿíäèè” ñì.: Mauno Jääskeläinen. Itä-Karjalan
kysymys. Kansallisen laajennusohjelman synty ja sen toteuttamisyritykset Suomen
ulkopolitiikassa vuosina 1918-1920. Porvoo, Helsinki, 1961. Ñ. 21-67.
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Ñíà÷àëà ñòîðîííèêè ýòîãî äâèæåíèÿ îáðàùàëèñü ê ñâîèì ñîîòå÷åñòâåííèêàì ñ
ïðèçûâîì ïîìî÷ü êàðåëüñêèì áðàòüÿì ñîõðàíèòü ÿçûê è íàöèîíàëüíóþ êóëüòóðó,
çàùèòèòü èõ îò îáðóñåíèÿ. Ê íà÷àëó XX âåêà, à îñîáåííî – ïîñëå ìàíèôåñòà 17
îêòÿáðÿ 1905 ã., ñîçäàâøåãî âîçìîæíîñòè äëÿ îòêðûòîé ïðîïàãàíäû ñâîèõ èäåé,
íà÷àëàñü èäåîëîãè÷åñêàÿ îáðàáîòêà ñàìèõ êàðåë. Íàïðèìåð, îáðàçîâàííûé â 1906 ã.
“Ñîþç áåëîìîðñêèõ êàðåë” èçäàâàë ñâîþ ãàçåòó, â êîòîðîé, â ÷àñòíîñòè, ïèñàë:
“Êàðåëû ñóòü ôèííû è îòíîñÿòñÿ ê Ôèíëÿíäèè; èõ çåìëÿ äîëæíà áûòü òàêæå îòíîñèìà ê Ôèíëÿíäèè; íóæíî, ÷òîáû êàðåëû õîòåëè ïðèñîåäèíèòüñÿ ê Ôèíëÿíäèè.” Karjalaisten pakinoita (Êàðåëüñêèå áåñåäû). 1907. N.2. Ñ. 5.
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Ï. È. Êîâàëåâñêèé. Ðóññêèé íàöèîíàëèçì è íàöèîíàëüíîå âîñïèòàíèå. ÑÏá.,
1912. Ñ. 175.
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íî íàðîäû ýòîé ãðóïïû ïîäëåæàëè ïîëíîé àññèìèëÿöèè è äîëæíû áûëè
áûòü ïîäâåðãíóòû ìàññèðîâàííîé ðóñèôèêàöèîííîé ïîëèòèêå.  ñëó÷àå ñ êàðåëàìè ðóñèôèêàöèîííàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü äîëæíà áûëà ïðîâîäèòüñÿ îñîáåííî ïîñòóïàòåëüíî, ò.ê. âëàñòè áîÿëèñü èõ “îôèíåíèÿ” è
ïåðåõîäà íà ñòîðîíó Ôèíëÿíäèè. Ýòè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà è ñòèìóëèðîâàëè àêòèâíóþ áîðüáó “çà äóøè êàðåë”, êîòîðàÿ âåëàñü â ðîññèéñêîé
Êàðåëèè â ïðåäðåâîëþöèîííîå äåñÿòèëåòèå. Ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèå ðàçâåðíóëîñü ñðàçó ïî íåñêîëüêèì íàïðàâëåíèÿì – ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó, ïîëèòè÷åñêîìó, öåðêîâíîìó è êóëüòóðíîìó, è íà äâóõ óðîâíÿõ – ðåãèîíàëüíîì è öåíòðàëüíîì.12 Ðîññèéñêèå êàðåëû îêàçàëèñü “ìåæäó äâóõ îãíåé” è äîëæíû áûëè â ýòèõ óñëîâèÿõ ñòðîèòü ñâîè íàöèîíàëüíûå ñòðàòåãèè.
Êàê íè ñóùåñòâåííû áûëè óñèëèÿ ðóññêèõ âëàñòåé, ïðåäïðèíèìàâøèåñÿ ïðîòèâ ôèíñêîãî âëèÿíèÿ íà èäåîëîãè÷åñêîì “ôðîíòå”, èìïåðñêèå äåÿòåëè âñåõ óðîâíåé ïðåêðàñíî îñîçíàâàëè, ÷òî ÿäðîì ïðîáëåìû ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñîöèî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ â êàðåëüñêîì ðåãèîíå.
Êîíòðàñò ìåæäó áûñòðî ðàçâèâàþùåéñÿ, áëàãîïîëó÷íîé ôèíëÿíäñêîé
Êàðåëèåé è íàõîäÿùåéñÿ â ñîñòîÿíèè ñòàãíàöèè Êàðåëèåé ðîññèéñêîé
ëó÷øå ëþáîé ïðîïàãàíäû äåéñòâîâàë íà óìû è äóøè êàðåë. Àðõàíãåëüñêèé ãóáåðíàòîð È. Â. Ñîñíîâñêèé îäíèì èç ïåðâûõ îáðàòèë âíèìàíèå íà òåñíóþ ñâÿçü ïëà÷åâíîãî ïîëîæåíèÿ êàðåë Êåìñêîãî óåçäà13 ñ
Ñì. îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð: Stacy Churchill. Itä-Karjalan kohtalo 1917-1922. Itä-Karjalan itsehallintokysymys Suomen ja Neuvosto-Venäjän välisissä suhteissa 1917-1922.
Porvoo – Helsinki, 1970; Raimo Ranta. Vienan Karjalaisten liitosta Karjalan sivistysseuraksi v. 1906 – 1922. Tampere, 1997; Tapio Hämynen. Suomalaistajat, venäläistäjät
ja rajakarjalaiset. Kirkko- ja koulukysymys Raja-Karjalassa 1900-1923. Joensuu, 1995;
Å. Þ. Äóáðîâñêàÿ. Ïðîòèâîáîðñòâî ïàíôèííèçìà è ðóññêîãî âåëèêîäåðæàâèÿ â
Êàðåëèè (ïî ìàòåðèàëàì èñòî÷íèêîâ êîíöà XIX – íà÷àëà XX âåêà) // Âîïðîñû
èñòîðèè Åâðîïåéñêîãî Ñåâåðà. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1991. Ñ. 55-64; Ì. À. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ.
Êàðåëû è Êàðåëèÿ êàê ÿáëîêî ðàçäîðà. Ðóññêàÿ âëàñòü è ïðàâîñëàâíàÿ öåðêîâü
ïðîòèâ êàðåëüñêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà // Ðîññèÿ è Ôèíëÿíäèÿ â XVIII-XXââ. Ñïåöèôèêà
ãðàíèöû. ÑÏá., 1999. Ñ. 239-253.
13
 àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîì îòíîøåíèè òåððèòîðèè ðàññåëåíèÿ êàðåë íà ñåâåðî-çàïàäå
Ðîññèè îòíîñèëèñü ê äâóì ãóáåðíèÿì – Îëîíåöêîé è Àðõàíãåëüñêîé. Ýòî äåëåíèå
ñîõðàíèëîñü âïëîòü äî 1920 ãîäà. Êàðåëû Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè êîìïàêòíî
ñåëèëèñü â çàïàäíîé ÷àñòè Êåìñêîãî óåçäà è ïîýòîìó íîñèëè íàçâàíèå êåìñêèå
êàðåëû. Â ôèíñêîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè ýòîò ðåãèîí íàçûâàåòñÿ Áåëîìîðñêîé Êàðåëèåé
(Vienan Karjala). Çàïàäíóþ ÷àñòü Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè, âäîëü ãðàíèö ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé,
è ìåæîçåðüå ìåæäó Îíåæñêèì è Ëàäîæñêèì îç¸ðàìè çàñåëÿëè êàðåëû-ëèââèêè è
êàðåëû-ëþäèêè, èíà÷å íàçûâàåìûå ñîîòâåòñòâåííî îëîíåöêèìè è êîíäîïîæñêèìè
êàðåëàìè.
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Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
òåì âñïëåñêîì íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ, êîòîðîå áûëî çàôèêñèðîâàíî çäåñü âïåðâûå â õîäå ðåâîëþöèè 1905-07 ãîäîâ.  ñâî¸ì âñåïîääàííåéøåì îò÷¸òå çà 1908 ãîä, ÿâèâøåìñÿ ðåçóëüòàòîì åãî èíñïåêòîðñêîé
ïîåçäêè ïî Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè, îí ïèñàë, ÷òî âûíåñ èç ëè÷íûõ íàáëþäåíèé “çàêëþ÷åíèå, ÷òî ñóùåñòâóþùåå òÿãîòåíèå êàðåëîâ ê Ôèíëÿíäèè
îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî ïðè÷èíàìè ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî, à íå ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà ”14
 ýòîé ñòàòüå ìû ñîñðåäîòî÷èì ñâî¸ âíèìàíèå íà ñîöèî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ ðàçëè÷èÿõ ìåæäó ðîññèéñêîé è ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèÿìè, ñòàâøèõ îäíèì èç âàæíåéøèõ ôàêòîðîâ â ôîðìèðîâàíèè íàöèîíàëüíûõ
âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé â ïðèãðàíè÷íîì ðåãèîíå.15  îáèëüíîé ëèòåðàòóðå
ïîñëåäíèõ ëåò, ïîñâÿù¸ííîé íàöèîíàëüíîé è èìïåðñêîé ïðîáëåìàòèêå, èìåííî ýòîò íåìàëîâàæíûé ôàêòîð, èìåâøèé âëèÿíèå íà õîä íàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè â ðàçëè÷íûõ ÷àñòÿõ èìïåðèè, ðàññìàòðèâàëñÿ äîâîëüíî ïîâåðõíîñòíî. Ðàçäåëåííàÿ Êàðåëèÿ, îñìûñëåííàÿ êàê
borderland, ãäå ñòîëêíóëèñü äâà “áîëüøèõ” (è èìåâøèõ ðàçíóþ ñòåïåíü èíòåíñèâíîñòè) íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïðîåêòà, äåìîíñòðèðîâàëà ðàçëè÷íûå ñòðàòåãèè ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî, ñîöèàëüíîãî è êóëüòóðíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ.
 ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, îñîáåííîñòè ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî áûòèÿ ïî îáå
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1284. Îï. 194, 1909. Ä. 82. Ë. 27. Âñåïîääàííåéøèé îò÷¸ò î ñîñòîÿíèè
Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè çà 1908 ãîä.
15
 ìíîãî÷èñëåííûõ ïðåäøåñòâóþùèõ ïóáëèêàöèÿõ àâòîðîì äîñòàòî÷íî ñêàçàíî
î äðóãèõ ôàêòîðàõ, – êîíôåññèîíàëüíîì, èäåéíîì, ïîëèòè÷åñêîì è ò.ä., – îòðàçèâøèõñÿ íà íàöèîíàëüíîé ñèòóàöèè â êðàå. Ñì, íàïðèìåð: Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ.
Ôèíëÿíäñêàÿ åïàðõèÿ è “êàðåëüñêèé âîïðîñ” ïîñëå ðåâîëþöèè 1905 –1907 ãîäîâ //
Êàðåëèÿ è Ôèíëÿíäèÿ íà ïîðîãå íîâîãî òûñÿ÷åëåòèÿ. Òåçèñû äîêëàäîâ ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî ñèìïîçèóìà èñòîðèêîâ. (21-23 ìàÿ 1999ã.). Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1999. C. 59-65;
M. Vituhnovskaia. Cultural and Political Reaction in Russian Karelia in 1906-1907.
State Power, the Orthodox Church, and the “Black Hundreds” against Karelian
Nationalism // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 2001. Bd. 48. H. 1. P. 24-44; Ibid.
Êàðåëüñêèå ïðàâîñëàâíûå áðàòñòâà: ôîðìèðîâàíèå è ïåðâûå ãîäû ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ //
Ïðàâîñëàâèå â Êàðåëèè. Ìàòåðèàëû ðåñïóáëèêàíñêîé íàó÷íîé êîíôåðåíöèè (24 –
25 îêòÿáðÿ 2000ã.) Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 2000. C. 80-88; Karelians in the Context of the
Imperial Policy of Russia in the pre-Revolutionary Decade // Chris J. Chulos and Johannes
Remy (Eds.). Imperial and national identities in pre-revolutionary, soviet, and postsoviet Russia. (=Studia Historica 66). Helsinki, SKS, 2002. S. 199-206; Ibid. The
Ethnocultural Myth as an Instrument of Imperial Policy. Russian Ideologues of the Early
20th Century on the National Character of Karelians / Íåîïóáëèêîâàííàÿ ðóêîïèñü;
Ibid. Itä-Karjala Venäjän imperiaalisessa politiikassa, 1906-1917 / Ðóêîïèñü; Ibid. Ðóññêèå ïðàâûå è êàðåëüñêèé âîïðîñ, 1906 – 1917 / Ðóêîïèñü; Ibid. Êàðåëüñêèå ïðèõîäû è “ïàíôèíñêàÿ ïðîïàãàíäà” (1906 – 1914) / Íåîïóáëèêîâàííàÿ ðóêîïèñü.
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ñòîðîíû ãðàíèöû âî ìíîãîì îïðåäåëÿëè øàíñû “èìïîðòèðóåìûõ” íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïðîåêòîâ è â òî æå âðåìÿ – âîçìîæíîñòè ëàâèðîâàíèÿ
ìåæäó íèìè äëÿ ñàìèõ êàðåë.
Êàê ñôîðìèðîâàëèñü “äâå Êàðåëèè”.
Êàðåëû òðàäèöèîííî, íà ïðîòÿæåíèè ñòîëåòèé ðàñïîëàãàëèñü íà
ãðàíèöå, ïðîõîäèâøåé íå ïðîñòî ìåæäó äâóìÿ ãîñóäàðñòâàìè – Ðóñüþ
(ïîçæå – Ìîñêîâñêèì öàðñòâîì, Ðîññèåé) è Øâåöèåé, – íî è ìåæäó
ðàçíûìè ãîñóäàðñòâåííûìè ñèñòåìàìè, ýêîíîìè÷åñêèìè óêëàäàìè,
êóëüòóðíûìè ñòåðåîòèïàìè è êîíôåññèÿìè. Äîëãîå âðåìÿ êàðåëüñêèå
çåìëè áûëè àðåíîé ïîñòîÿííûõ êîíôëèêòîâ ìåæäó Âîñòîêîì è Çàïàäîì â ëèöå ñíà÷àëà Øâåöèè è Íîâãîðîäà,16 à ïîçæå – Øâåöèè è Ìîñêîâñêîãî öàðñòâà, Øâåöèè è Ðîññèè. Ìîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî ðàéîí, çàñåë¸ííûé êàðåëàìè, áûë ùèòîì, ïðèêðûâàâøèì îò ïîñòîÿííûõ çàõâàòîâ è íàïàäåíèé ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû Ôèíëÿíäèþ, áûâøóþ áîëåå 650 ëåò
÷àñòüþ Øâåöèè, à ñ äðóãîé – ïðèëåæàùèå ê íåé ðåãèîíû Ðóñè. Ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî êàðåëû âõîäèëè â îðáèòó âëèÿíèÿ Íîâãîðîäà,17 ñ êîòîðûì èõ
ñâÿçûâàëè òîðãîâî-âàññàëüíûå è ñîþçíè÷åñêèå îòíîøåíèÿ, ïîçæå, ïî
Îðåõîâåöêîìó ìèðíîìó äîãîâîðó, çàêëþ÷¸ííîìó â 1323 ãîäó,18 Êàðåëèÿ áûëà îôèöèàëüíî ðàçäåëåíà íà äâå ÷àñòè ìåæäó Øâåöèåé è Ðóñüþ.19 È õîòÿ ïîãðàíè÷íûå òåððèòîðèè ïðîäîëæàëè ïåðåõîäèòü èç ðóê
â ðóêè âïëîòü äî ïåòðîâñêèõ âðåì¸í, îñíîâíûå ÷àñòè îáåèõ ãðóïï êàðåë ïðîäîëæàëè ôîðìèðîâàòüñÿ óæå â ñòðóêòóðå ýòèõ äâóõ ãîñóäàðñòâ,
îùóùàÿ íà ñåáå èõ ýêîíîìè÷åñêîå, êóëüòóðíîå è, êîíå÷íî, êîíôåññèîÑì. îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð: Õåéêêè Êèðêèíåí, Ïåêêà Íåâàëàéíåí, Õàííåñ Ñèõâî.
Èñòîðèÿ êàðåëüñêîãî íàðîäà. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1998. Ñ. 23 – 114., èëè: È. ×åðíÿêîâà.
Êàðåëèÿ íà ïåðåëîìå ýïîõ. Î÷åðêè ñîöèàëüíîé è àãðàðíîé èñòîðèè XVII âåêà.
Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1998. Ñ. 9-10.
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Ïåðâîå ñâèäåòåëüñòâî î Êîðåëå, âîèíû êîòîðîé ñîâåðøèëè íàáåã ïî Ôèíñêîìó
çàëèâó íà çåìëè åìè, âñòðå÷àåì ïîä 1143 ãîäîì. Óæå â 1187 ãîäó êàðåëû íàïàëè íà
ïîëèòè÷åñêèé è òîðãîâûé öåíòð Øâåöèè Ñèãòóíó, ñîæãëè ãîðîä è âåðíóëèñü ñ
áîãàòîé äîáû÷åé. Ñì. Èñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè ñ äðåâíåéøèõ âðåì¸í äî íàøèõ äíåé.
Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 2001. C. 87).
18
Ïî Îðåõîâåöêîìó äîãîâîðó áûëà âïåðâûå îôèöèàëüíî óñòàíîâëåíà ãðàíèöà
ìåæäó Ðóñüþ è Øâåöèåé, êîòîðàÿ ïðîõîäèëà ÷åðåç Êàðåëüñêèé ïåðåøååê îò Ôèíñêîãî çàëèâà ïî ð. Ñåñòðå, íà ñåâåð äî îçåðà Ñàéìà, à çàòåì íà ñåâåðî-çàïàä äî
áåðåãîâ Áîòíè÷åñêîãî çàëèâà.
19
Ôèíñêèå òåððèòîðèè ÿâëÿëèñü ñîñòàâíîé ÷àñòüþ øâåäñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà áîëåå
øåñòèñîò ïÿòèäåñÿòè ëåò – ñ 1155 ïî 1809 ãã.  1809 ã. Ôèíëÿíäèÿ áûëà ïðèñîåäèíåíà ê Ðîññèè è îñòàâàëàñü å¸ ÷àñòüþ äî 1917 ã.
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Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
íàëüíîå âëèÿíèå. Ðîññèéñêèå êàðåëû, êàê è ÷àñòü ôèíñêèõ, îñòàâàëèñü
ïðàâîñëàâíûìè, îäíàêî çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ãðóïïà êàðåë, ïðîæèâàâøèõ íà
òåððèòîðèè Øâåöèè, ïðèíÿëà ëþòåðàíñòâî.
Äî XVIII âåêà ýêîíîìè÷åñêàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ ïî îáå ñòîðîíû ãðàíèöû áûëà
â îáùèõ ÷åðòàõ ñõîæåé. Ïîäàâëÿþùåå áîëüøèíñòâî êàê ðîññèéñêèõ,
òàê è ôèíñêèõ êàðåë çàíèìàëîñü çåìëåäåëèåì,20 ïðè÷¸ì óðîâåíü åãî
ðàçâèòèÿ áûë âåñüìà íèçîê, òåõíè÷åñêàÿ îñíàùåííîñòü ïðîãðåññèðîâàëà ìåäëåííî, çàòî áîëüøóþ ðîëü èãðàëî ïîäñå÷íîå çåìëåäåëèå, äàâàâøåå âîçìîæíîñòü îñâàèâàòü íîâûå ó÷àñòêè ïëîäîðîäíîé çåìëè. È òàì,
è çäåñü êðåñòüÿíñêèå õîçÿéñòâà ñòðàäàëè îò ÷åðåñïîëîñèöû.  ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè ïîäîáíàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ îñòàâàëàñü òèïè÷íîé âïëîòü äî ðåâîëþöèè. Ñâîèì õëåáîì ïî îáå ñòîðîíû ãðàíèöû ïðîêîðìèòüñÿ áûëî íåâîçìîæíî, â XVIII è ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå XIX âåêîâ îáû÷íûì ÿâëåíèåì
êàê äëÿ Ôèíëÿíäèè, òàê è äëÿ ðóññêîãî Ñåâåðà áûëè íåóðîæàè, ãîëîä,
óïîòðåáëåíèå â ïèùó õëåáà ñ ïðèìåñÿìè. Íà ïîìîùü â îáåèõ Êàðåëèÿõ
ïðèõîäèëè ðàçíîîáðàçíûå ïðîìûñëû, èç êîòîðûõ âàæíåéøèìè áûëè
îõîòà è ðûáîëîâñòâî, êðîìå òîãî, â ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè áûëà ðàñïðîñòðàíåíà äîáû÷à è îáðàáîòêà æåëåçíîé ðóäû, à â Ôèíëÿíäèè – ïåðåãîíêà
ñìîëû. Ïðèíöèïèàëüíàÿ ðàçíèöà â ïîëîæåíèè ôèíñêèõ è ðîññèéñêèõ
êàðåë çàêëþ÷àëàñü â òèïå ïîçåìåëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé – ðîññèéñêèå êàðåëû ïî÷òè ïîãîëîâíî áûëè ãîñóäàðñòâåííûìè êðåñòüÿíàìè,21 ïîâñåìåñòíûì â êðàå ÿâëÿëîñü îáùèííîå âëàäåíèå çåìë¸é.  êàðåëüñêèõ çåìëÿõ,
ïðèíàäëåæàâøèõ Øâåöèè, êàê è â êîðîëåâñòâå â öåëîì, êðåñòüÿíå áûëè
ëè÷íî ñâîáîäíûìè, à èíñòèòóòà îáùèíû íå ñóùåñòâîâàëî.
Ñ XVIII âåêà ñèòóàöèÿ â ôèíñêîé Êàðåëèè ñòàëà ìåíÿòüñÿ. Ïðåæäå
âñåãî, â ðåçóëüòàòå Ñåâåðíîé âîéíû è ò.í. “âîéíû øëÿï”22 þãî-âîñòî÷íàÿ Ôèíëÿíäèÿ, íàñåë¸ííàÿ ïî áîëüøåé ÷àñòè êàðåëàìè è íàçûâàåìàÿ
â ôèíñêîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè Ñòàðîé Ôèíëÿíäèåé èëè Þæíîé Êàðåëèåé,
âîøëà â ñîñòàâ Ðîññèè.23 Çåìëè çäåñü íà÷àëè àêòèâíî ðàçäàðèâàòüñÿ
Ïîìèìî ýòîãî, ñî âðåì¸í ñðåäíåâåêîâüÿ îäíèì èç âàæíåéøèõ çàíÿòèé êàðåë
áûëà òîðãîâëÿ, êîòîðóþ êàðåëüñêèå êóïöû âåëè ïî íåñêîëüêèì íàïðàâëåíèÿì,
áëàãîäàðÿ ñâîåìó âûãîäíîìó ïîëîæåíèþ íà ïåðåñå÷åíèè âîäíûõ òîðãîâûõ ïóòåé.
21
Êðàéíå íåçíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü çåìåëü è, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, êðåñòüÿí ïðèíàäëåæàëà
ìîíàñòûðÿì èëè ïîìåùèêàì.
22
Òàê â øâåäñêîé è ôèíñêîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè íàçûâàåòñÿ ðóññêî-øâåäñêàÿ âîéíà
1741-1743 ãã.
23
 êóëüòóðíî-ðåëèãèîçíîì îòíîøåíèè ýòîò ðåãèîí äåëèëñÿ íà äâå ÷àñòè:
ïðàâîñëàâíóþ Ïðèëàäîæñêóþ Êàðåëèþ è ëþòåðàíñêóþ Âûáîðãñêóþ Êàðåëèþ (Ñì.
Õåéêêè Êèðêèíåí, Ïåêêà Íåâàëàéíåí, Õàííåñ Ñèõâî. Èñòîðèÿ êàðåëüñêîãî íàðîäà.
Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1998. Ñ. 143).
20
120
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ðóññêîé çíàòè,24 õîòÿ ìåñòíûå êðåñòüÿíå ïðè ýòîì çàêîíîäàòåëüíî ñîõðàíÿëè ëè÷íóþ è ýêîíîìè÷åñêóþ ñâîáîäó. Ñèòóàöèÿ â Þæíîé Êàðåëèè (Ñòàðîé Ôèíëÿíäèè) èçìåíèëàñü ñ ïðèñîåäèíåíèåì Ôèíëÿíäèè ê
Ðîññèè â 1809 ãîäó: óæå â äåêàáðå 1811 ãîäà Àëåêñàíäð I èçäàë óêàçû î
ñîåäèíåíèè Ñòàðîé è îñòàëüíîé Ôèíëÿíäèè. Ïîñòåïåííî Þæíàÿ Êàðåëèÿ áûëà âíîâü èíòåãðèðîâàíà â Ôèíëÿíäèþ, è å¸ ýêîíîìè÷åñêàÿ è
ñîöèàëüíàÿ æèçíü âîøëà â ðàìêè îáùåôèíñêèõ óñòàíîâëåíèé.25 Îäíàêî îòñòàâàíèå ñåëüñêîãî õîçÿéñòâà, ñâÿçàííîå ñ äîíàöèîííîé ñèñòåìîé, åù¸ äîëãî îñòàâàëîñü áè÷îì ýòîãî ðåãèîíà è ïðåîäîëåâàëîñü ëèøü
ïîñòåïåííî, ïî ìåðå ðåøåíèÿ âîïðîñà î ïîæàëîâàííûõ çåìëÿõ.
Ìåæäó òåì äðóãàÿ ÷àñòü ôèíñêîé Êàðåëèè, îñòàâàâøàÿñÿ â ñîñòàâå
Ôèíëÿíäèè è íàçûâàþùàÿñÿ òðàäèöèîííî Ñåâåðíîé Êàðåëèåé, ðàçâèâàëàñü â îáùåøâåäñêîé ñèñòåìå êîîðäèíàò. Â XVIII âåêå Øâåöèåé áûë
ïðåäïðèíÿò øàã, êîòîðûé îáóñëîâèë ðåøèòåëüíûé ðûâîê â å¸ ýêîíîìèêå è ñîöèàëüíîé ñôåðå – óêàçîì îò 1757 ãîäà áûë íà÷àò òàê íàçûâàåìûé Áîëüøîé ïåðåäåë.26 Ñóòü ýòîé çåìåëüíîé ðåôîðìû ñâîäèëàñü ê
ïåðåðàñïðåäåëåíèþ çåìåëü â äåðåâíÿõ, â ðåçóëüòàòå ÷åãî ÷åðåñïîëîñèöà ñìåíèëàñü îòðóáàìè è áûëà ñîçäàíà õóòîðñêàÿ ñèñòåìà õîçÿéñòâ.
Êðåñòüÿíå ñòàíîâèëèñü ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíûìè õîçÿåâàìè íà ñâîåé çåìëå
è, âëàäåÿ öåëüíûì è àâòîíîìíûì ó÷àñòêîì çåìëè, áûëè íåçàâèñèìû â
ñâîèõ çåìëåäåëü÷åñêèõ ñòðàòåãèÿõ.  îáùèõ ÷åðòàõ Áîëüøîé ïåðåäåë
áûë ñõîæ ñî ñòîëûïèíñêîé çåìåëüíîé ðåôîðìîé, íà÷àòîé â Ðîññèè íà
150 ëåò ïîçæå, – õîòÿ îáå ðåôîðìû èìåëè è ñóùåñòâåííûå ðàçëè÷èÿ, â
÷àñòíîñòè, ïðîáëåìà ëèêâèäàöèè îáùèíû íèêîãäà â Øâåöèè íå ñòî24
Êðåñòüÿíå, ïðîæèâàâøèå â äîíàöèîííûõ âëàäåíèÿõ, ïëàòèëè íàëîã, èç êîòîðîãî
òðåòüÿ ÷àñòü øëà êàçíå, à îñòàëüíîå – âëàäåëüöó óñàäüáû. Ïî óêàçó 1798 ãîäà
êðåñòüÿíå áûëè ïðèêðåïëåíû ê óñàäüáàì, à ñ 1784 ãîäà êðåñòüÿíêàì çàïðåòèëè
âûõîäèòü çàìóæ â äðóãîå èìåíèå áåç ñîãëàñèÿ õîçÿèíà (ñì. Õåéêêè Êèðêèíåí,
Ïåêêà Íåâàëàéíåí, Õàííåñ Ñèõâî. Èñòîðèÿ êàðåëüñêîãî íàðîäà. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê,
1998. Ñ. 156-157).
25
Ñ 1811 ãîäà Ñòàðàÿ Ôèíëÿíäèÿ ñòàëà Âûáîðãñêîé ãóáåðíèåé Âåëèêîãî êíÿæåñòâà.
Ñ îñîáîé îñòðîòîé çäåñü âñòàë âîïðîñ î çåìëÿõ, ïîæàëîâàííûõ ðóññêîìó
äâîðÿíñòâó, – äâîðÿíå íå õîòåëè ñ íèìè ðàññòàâàòüñÿ, à êðåñòüÿíå – ìèðèòüñÿ ñ
ñîçäàâøèìñÿ ïîëîæåíèåì. Íà ïðîòÿæåíèè áîëåå ÷åì âîñüìèäåñÿòè ëåò
Ôèíëÿíäèåé ïðîâåäèëàñü ãðàíäèîçíàÿ âûêóïíàÿ îïåðàöèÿ, â ðåçóëüòàòå êîòîðîé ê
1891 ãîäó ó ÷àñòíûõ âëàäåëüöåâ áûë âûêóïëåí ìèëëèîí ãåêòàðîâ çåìëè, è 76 òûñÿ÷
êðåñòüÿí ïîëó÷èëè îñâîáîæäåíèå.
26
Î ðîëè Áîëüøîãî ïåðåäåëà â ýêîíîìèêå Ôèíëÿíäèè ñì., íàïðèìåð: Pekka
Kauppala. The Russian North. The Rise, Evolution and Current Condition of State
Settlement Policy. (Tutkimuksia pohjoisesta ulottuvuudesta 2). Helsinki, 1998.
121
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
ÿëà.27 Ðåçóëüòàòîì Áîëüøîãî ïåðåäåëà ñòàëî è òî íåìàëîâàæíîå îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî, ÷òî êðåñòüÿíå îêàçàëèñü ñîáñòâåííèêàìè çíà÷èòåëüíûõ ëåñíûõ íàäåëîâ.
Áîëüøîé ïåðåäåë çàòÿíóëñÿ áîëåå ÷åì íà ñòî ëåò – â Ôèíëÿíäèè åãî
çàêàí÷èâàëè óæå ïîñëå âõîæäåíèÿ â Ðîññèþ. Åãî âîçäåéñòâèå íà ðàçâèòèå ñåëüñêîãî õîçÿéñòâà áûëî ýêîíîìè÷åñêè èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî áëàãîòâîðíûì – êàæäàÿ êðåñòüÿíñêàÿ óñàäüáà ñòàëà àáñîëþòíî íåçàâèñèìîé åäèíèöåé, å¸ âëàäåëåö ïîëó÷èë âîçìîæíîñòü ðàçðàáàòûâàòü ñâîþ
õîçÿéñòâåííóþ ñòðàòåãèþ, ïðîäàâàòü ñâîé ëåñ è âûðó÷åííûå äåíüãè
âêëàäûâàòü â ðàçâèòèå ñâîåãî õîçÿéñòâà. Íî, ïîæàëóé, ãëàâíûì èòîãîì
Áîëüøîãî ïåðåäåëà ñòàëî ðàññðåäîòî÷åíèå ïîñåëåíèé â ñîîòâåòñòâèè
ñ ðàñïîëîæåíèåì ó÷àñòêîâ ïàõîòíîé è ñåíîêîñíîé çåìëè è ïàñòáèù.
Åñëè ðàíüøå, â ýïîõó ÷åðåñïîëîñèöû, êðåñòüÿíå êîíöåíòðèðîâàëèñü â
êðóïíûõ ïîñåëåíèÿõ, êîòîðûå îáû÷íî ðàñïîëàãàëèñü âäàëåêå îò ëó÷øèõ ñåëüõîççåìåëü, ïîñëå Áîëüøîãî ïåðåäåëà êîíöåíòðàöèÿ çåìëè
îäíîãî õîçÿéñòâà â îäíîì ìåñòå ïðåäîïðåäåëèëà ïåðåõîä ê ñèñòåìå
ïîñåëåíèé õóòîðñêîãî òèïà, ÷òî â óñëîâèÿõ Ñåâåðà ïîçâîëÿëî âåñòè
õîçÿéñòâî áîëåå ðàöèîíàëüíî.
Ìåæäó òåì â ñåëüñêîì õîçÿéñòâå ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè, êàê è ïî âñåé
èìïåðèè, íèêàêèõ ïðèíöèïèàëüíûõ ïåðåìåí íå ïðîèñõîäèëî, è â ðåçóëüòàòå ê òîìó âðåìåíè, êîãäà â Ðîññèè íà÷àëàñü ìîäåðíèçàöèÿ, ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî ñòàëî çàìåäëÿòü îáùåå ðàçâèòèå ñòðàíû, óñèëèëñÿ ïåðåêîñ â ðîññèéñêîé ýêîíîìèêå.28 Âñå ýòè ïðîöåññû ÿðêî ïðîÿâèëèñü â
ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè è îñîáåííî – â ñðàâíåíèè ñ ñîñåäíåé Ôèíëÿíäèåé. Âåäü, êàê ìû óæå óïîìèíàëè, “ñòàðòîâûå ïîçèöèè” ðîññèéñêîé è
ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèé áûëè ïðàêòè÷åñêè èäåíòè÷íûìè, à êðîìå òîãî,
îäèíàêîâûìè áûëè è ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèå, è ïðèðîäíûå óñëîâèÿ (â îáîèõ
ðåãèîíàõ ãëàâíûì ïðèðîäíûì áîãàòñòâîì áûë ëåñ).29 Ïîýòîìó íå áóÂàæíîé îñîáåííîñòüþ Áîëüøîãî ïåðåäåëà áûëî ðàçìåæåâàíèå ëåñíûõ óãîäèé:
âíîâü ñôîðìèðîâàííûå õîçÿéñòâà ñîñòîÿëè êàê èç ëåñíûõ ó÷àñòêîâ, òàê è èç ïîëåé.
Êðîìå òîãî, â îòëè÷èå îò, íàïðèìåð, ñòîëûïèíñêîé ðåôîðìû, Áîëüøîé ïåðåäåë
ðàäèêàëüíåå ðåøàë âîïðîñ îáúåäèíåíèÿ çåìåëü îòäåëüíûõ õîçÿåâ: ïåðåäåë ìîã
ïðîèçâîäèòüñÿ íà îñíîâå òðåáîâàíèÿ êàæäîãî îòäåëüíîãî êðåñòüÿíèíà.
28
Ñì. îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð: Teodor Shanin. Russia as a “Developing Society”. The Roots
of Otherness: Russia’s Turn of Century. Vol. 1. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire
and London, 1985.
29
 îïèñûâàåìûé ïåðèîä ëåñèñòîñòü Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè è Êåìñêîãî óåçäà Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè áûëà äàæå âûøå, ÷åì Ôèíëÿíäèè, ãäå ïëîùàäü ëåñîâ ñîñòàâëÿëà â 1912 ãîäó 45,6% âñåé ïëîùàäè ñòðàíû (Â. Â. Ôààñ. Ëåñà è ëåñíàÿ òîðãîâëÿ Ôèíëÿíäèè. Îò÷¸ò ïî êîìàíäèðîâêå 1912 ã. ÑÏá, 1914. C. 5). Ïî ñòàòèñòèêå
27
122
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äåò ïðåóâåëè÷åíèåì ñêàçàòü, ÷òî ïðîöåññû, ïðîèñõîäèâøèå íà ýòèõ
ïîãðàíè÷íûõ òåððèòîðèÿõ, äîñòèãøèõ â ïåðèîä ìîäåðíèçàöèè ñòîëü
ðàçëè÷íûõ óñïåõîâ ïðè îäèíàêîâûõ èçíà÷àëüíûõ ïðåäïîñûëêàõ, ìîãóò ñëóæèòü óíèêàëüíûì “íàãëÿäíûì ïîñîáèåì” äëÿ âñåõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé, çàíèìàþùèõñÿ òåîðèÿìè ðàçâèòèÿ.
“Äâå Êàðåëèè” â ýïîõó ìîäåðíèçàöèè
Íåîáõîäèìîñòü ìîäåðíèçàöèè áûëà îñîçíàíà è â Ðîññèè, è â Ôèíëÿíäñêîì Âåëèêîì êíÿæåñòâå ïðàêòè÷åñêè îäíîâðåìåííî, ïðèáëèçèòåëüíî ê ñåðåäèíå XIX âåêà. Îäíàêî ìîäåðíèçàöèîííûå ïðîöåññû â
Ðîññèè íà÷àëèñü ïîçæå è íå îòëè÷àëèñü òàêîé öåëüíîñòüþ è ïîñòóïàòåëüíîé ýíåðãèåé, êàê â Ôèíëÿíäèè. Èìåííî ýòîò ïåðèîä – âòîðàÿ ïîëîâèíà XIX âåêà – åäèíîäóøíî õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ ñïåöèàëèñòàìè êàê
âðåìÿ ñòðåìèòåëüíîãî ïîäú¸ìà ýêîíîìèêè Ôèíëÿíäèè, êîòîðûé âûâåë ýòó ñðàâíèòåëüíî áåäíóþ è ýêîíîìè÷åñêè íåðàçâèòóþ àâòîíîìèþ
íà óðîâåíü ñàìûõ ðàçâèòûõ ñòðàí Åâðîïû. Íàèáîëåå ãëóáîêèé àíàëèç
“ôèíëÿíäñêîãî ÷óäà” ïðèíàäëåæèò Äèòåðó Ñåíãõààçó (Dieter Senghaas),
êîòîðûé õàðàêòåðèçîâàë ôèíëÿíäñêèé ïóòü â XIX è XX âåêàõ êàê íàèáîëåå ÿðêèé ïðèìåð ”ñêàíäèíàâñêîãî ïóòè ðàçâèòèÿ”. Ïî ìíåíèþ Ñåíãõààçà, èìåííî ñêàíäèíàâñêèå ñòðàíû ñóìåëè ðåøèòü ïðîáëåìû “äîãîíÿþùåãî ðàçâèòèÿ” ëó÷øå âñåõ â òîãäàøíåé Åâðîïå è èçáåæàëè ïðè
ýòîì ó÷àñòè ñòðàí òðåòüåãî ìèðà. ßäðîì ôèíëÿíäñêîãî “ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ÷óäà” Ñåíãõààç ñ÷èòàë óäà÷íîå ñîåäèíåíèå ëåñíîãî è ñåëüñêîãî
õîçÿéñòâà – â Ôèíëÿíäèè ëåñíîå õîçÿéñòâî áûëî èñòî÷íèêîì äîõîäîâ
êðåñòüÿí, äàâàÿ òåì ñàìûì ñòàðòîâûé êàïèòàë äëÿ ìîäåðíèçàöèè ñåëüñêîãî õîçÿéñòâà, êîòîðîå, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, ñòèìóëèðîâàëî ìîäåðíèçàöèþ â äðóãèõ îáëàñòÿõ ýêîíîìèêè.30
1913 ãîäà â Êåìñêîì óåçäå Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè ýòîò ïîêàçàòåëü ñîñòàëÿë 89 %,
à â Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè – 66 % (Â. Â. Ôààñ. Ëåñà Ñåâåðíîãî ðàéîíà è èõ ýêñïëîàòàöèÿ. Òðóäû Ñåâåðíîé íàó÷íî-ïðîìûñëîâîé ýêñïåäèöèè ÂÑÍÕ. Âûï. 15. Ì.-Ïã.,
1922. C. 5-6). Îáùàÿ ïëîùàäü ëåñîâ Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè îïðåäåëÿëàñü â 8 ìèëëèîíîâ äåñÿòèí, ÷òî ñîñòàâëÿëî, íàïðèìåð, 2/3 ëåñîâ âñåé Ãåðìàíèè è ïîëîâèíó âñåõ
ëåñîâ Øâåöèè (È. Êèùåíêî. Çíà÷åíèå ëåñîîõðàíèòåëüíîãî çàêîíà äëÿ Îëîíåöêîé
ãóáåðíèè // Âåñòíèê Îëîíåöêîãî ãóáåðíñêîãî çåìñòâà. 1913. ¹ 1. C. 6). Êðîìå
òîãî, è ãèäðîãðàôè÷åñêèå óñëîâèÿ ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè (êàê è Ôèíëÿíäèè) áûëè
êðàéíå áëàãîïðèÿòíû äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ëåñíîãî äåëà – âñ¸ ïðîñòðàíñòâî êðàÿ ïîêðûâàëà ãóñòàÿ ñåòü ðåê è îç¸ð, ïî êîòîðûì ìîæíî áûëî ñïëàâëÿòü ëåñ. Óäîáíûì áûë
è äîñòóï íà ìèðîâûå ðûíêè – ÷åðåç Áàëòèéñêîå è Áåëîå ìîðÿ.
30
Dieter Senghaas.Von Europa lernen Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Betrachtungen.
Frankfurt am Main, 1982.
123
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
Îäíîé èç ïðåäïîñûëîê ìîäåðíèçàöèè ýêîíîìèêè Ôèíëÿíäèè ñòàëî ñèñòåìíîå ðåôîðìèðîâàíèå å¸ çàêîíîäàòåëüñòâà, ïðåäïðèíÿòîå â
1860-õ ãîäàõ. Â ýòî âðåìÿ áûëà èçäàíà öåëàÿ ñåðèÿ çàêîíîâ, îòìåíÿâøèõ ïðåæíèå ìåðêàíòèëèñòñêèå ïðåäïèñàíèÿ è îòêðûâàâøèõ øëþçû
â ðàçâèòèè ïðîìûøëåííîñòè. Ïîëèòèêà ìåðêàíòèëèçìà ñìåíèëàñü
ïîëèòèêîé ëèáåðàëèçàöèè, è ýòî îòðàçèëîñü ïðåæäå âñåãî íà ðàçâèòèè
ôèíñêîé ëåñîïèëüíîé ïðîìûøëåííîñòè, ñòàâøåé êàòàëèçàòîðîì âñåé
ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé æèçíè ñòðàíû. Íà÷àëñÿ àêòèâíûé ýêñïîðò ëåñà, ÷òî äàëî
âîçìîæíîñòü ìàññèðîâàííî ââîçèòü â Âåëèêîå êíÿæåñòâî êàïèòàëû è
ïóñêàòü èõ â îáîðîò.31 Â Ôèíëÿíäèè ðàçâèâàëàñü æåëåçíîäîðîæíàÿ è
äîðîæíàÿ ñåòü, óìíîæèëîñü ÷èñëî áàíêîâ (ïåðâûé áàíê çäåñü áûë îòêðûò â 1862 ãîäó), áûëà ââåäåíà ñîáñòâåííàÿ âàëþòà (â 1865 ãîäó) è
îñóùåñòâë¸í ïåðåõîä ê çîëîòîìó äåíåæíîìó îáðàùåíèþ (â 1879 ãîäó).32
È âñ¸ æå íåëüçÿ íå íàïîìíèòü, ÷òî ýòîò ðåçêèé ýêîíîìè÷åñêèé ðûâîê
áûë áû ïîïðîñòó íåâîçìîæåí, åñëè áû ôèíñêèé êðåñòüÿíèí íå âëàäåë
áîëüøèìè ëåñíûìè óãîäüÿìè è íåîãðàíè÷åííûì ïðàâîì ðàñïîðÿæàòüñÿ
èìè è ïðîäàâàòü ëåñ â ëþáûõ æåëàåìûõ îáú¸ìàõ. Òàêèõ âîçìîæíîñòåé
êðåñòüÿíå, îáèòàâøèå â ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè, áûëè ëèøåíû.
 ñåâåðî-çàïàäíûõ ãóáåðíèÿõ Ðîññèè ïðåîáëàäàëà ãîñóäàðñòâåííàÿ
ñîáñòâåííîñòü íà ëåñíûå óãîäüÿ è ñóùåñòâîâàëè æ¸ñòêèå îãðàíè÷åíèÿ
äëÿ êðåñòüÿí â ïîëüçîâàíèè ñâîèì ëåñîì.33  êàðåëüñêèõ óåçäàõ ÎëîÍà ïðîòÿæåíèè âòîðîé ïîëîâèíû XIX âåêà ýêñïîðò äðåâåñèíû èç Ôèíëÿíäèè
àêòèâíî óâåëè÷èâàëñÿ, è êî âòîðîìó äåñÿòèëåòèþ ÕÕ âåêà ñòîèìîñòü ýêñïîðòèðîâàííûõ èç Âåëèêîãî êíÿæåñòâà ïðîäóêòîâ ëåñíîãî õîçÿéñòâà ñîñòàâëÿëà 70 % öåííîñòè îáùåãî ýêñïîðòà, òîãäà êàê â 1886 ãîäó ýòî ñîîòíîøåíèå âûðàæàëîñü öèôðîé 48,5 % (ñì. T. W. Paavonen. Suomen metsätuotteiden vienti 25-vuotiskaudella
1886 – 1910. Helsinki, 1911. S. 83).  1912 ãîäó âûâîç èç Ôèíëÿíäèè ëåñîìàòåðèàëîâ, èçäåëèé èç äåðåâà, äðåâåñíîé ìàññû è áóìàãè ïðèí¸ñ ñòðàíå â öåëîì 90 ìèëëèîíîâ ðóáëåé, ÷òî áûëî ëèøü â 1,7 ðàçà ìåíüøå îáùåðîññèéñêîãî ýêñïîðòà (152,5
ìëí.ðóá.) (ñì. Â. Â. Ôààñ. Ëåñà è ëåñíàÿ òîðãîâëÿ Ôèíëÿíäèè. Îò÷¸ò ïî êîìàíäèðîâêå 1912 ã. ÑÏá., 1914. C. 104-105).
32
Ñì. îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð: Suomen talous- ja sosiaalihistorian kehityslinjoja. Toim.
Eino Jutikkala. Porvoo, Helsinki, 1968. S. 211.
33
Ñðàâíèòåëüíûé àíàëèç ýêîíîìèê Ôèíëÿíäèè è ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè â ïåðèîä
ìîäåðíèçàöèè ñîäåðæèòñÿ â ñòàòüå: Marina Vituhnovskaja, Pekka Kauppala. OstKarelien am Vorabend der Großen Russischen Revolution. Immobiler Staatsmonopolismus und innere Einmauerung // Heiko Haumann ja Stefan Plaggenborg (Hg.). Aufbruch der Gesellschaft im verordneten Staat. Rußland in der Spätphase des Zarenreiches. Frankfurt am Main, 1994. (=Menschen und Struturen Historisch-sozialwissenschaftliche Studen. (Toim.): Heiko Haumann. Band 6.). S. 42-70.
31
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
íåöêîé ãóáåðíèè êðåñòüÿíàì ïðèíàäëåæàëî 26,4% îò âñåõ ëåñîâ ðåãèîíà.34  Êåìñêîì óåçäå êðåñòüÿíñêèå ëåñíûå íàäåëû áûëè è âîâñå íè÷òîæíû – îíè ñîñòàâëÿëè ëèøü 0,3% îò îáùåé ëåñíîé ïëîùàäè.35 Îäíàêî îñíîâíàÿ ïðîáëåìà äëÿ êðåñòüÿí çàêëþ÷àëàñü íå òîëüêî â íåäîñòàòî÷íîñòè ëåñíûõ íàäåëîâ. Ïî ðàñ÷¸òàì îëîíåöêèõ çåìñêèõ äåÿòåëåé,
äàæå è íàëè÷íîãî êîëè÷åñòâà ëåñà36 ìîãëî õâàòèòü ñåâåðíûì êðåñòüÿíàì äëÿ îñóùåñòâëåíèÿ äîñòàòî÷íûõ îáú¸ìîâ ïðîäàæ è ïîëó÷åíèÿ
íåîáõîäèìûõ äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ñâîåãî õîçÿéñòâà ñóìì. Ãëàâíîé ïðîáëåìîé äëÿ êðåñòüÿí áûëà íåâîçìîæíîñòü ñâîáîäíî ðàñïîðÿæàòüñÿ ñîáñòâåííûìè ëåñíûìè íàäåëàìè. Çåìñêîå èçäàíèå ïèñàëî: “ â îòëè÷èå
îò ïðî÷èõ ìåñòíîñòåé, ãäå êðåñòüÿíå ÿâëÿþòñÿ ïîëíûìè õîçÿåâàìè
ñâîèõ ëåñîâ, îëîíåöêèå êðåñòüÿíå èìåþò òîëüêî óñëîâíîå ïðàâî íà
ëåñíûå ìàòåðèàëû èç ñâîåãî ëåñà. Èìåÿ ïðàâî áðàòü äëÿ ñâîèõ íóæä –
ïîñòðîéêè, òîïëèâî – ñêîëüêî òðåáóåòñÿ, èìåÿ ïðàâî ïðîäàòü ÷àñòü ëåñà
íà ñðóá, îíè ëèøåíû ïðàâà ïîëó÷åíèÿ íà ðóêè âûðó÷åííûõ îò ïðîäàæè ëåñà äåíåã. Äåíüãè âíîñÿò â êàçíà÷åéñòâî è ìîãóò áûòü ïîëó÷åíû
îòòóäà êðåñòüÿíàìè ëèøü â òîì ñëó÷àå, åñëè íà ýòî äàñò ñîãëàñèå ïðèñóòñòâèå ïî êðåñòüÿíñêèì äåëàì”.37 Çäåñü óòâåðæäàëîñü, ÷òî ëåñ ÿâëÿåòñÿ “ïî÷òè òîëüêî íîìèíàëüíî” ñîáñòâåííîñòüþ êðåñòüÿí è îáëàäàíèå èì “â ñëàáîé ëèøü ñòåïåíè îòðàæàåòñÿ íà áþäæåòå êðåñòüÿíèíà”.38  èòîãå, êðåñòüÿíå íå èìåëè ïî÷òè íèêàêîé âîçìîæíîñòè âêëàäûâàòü “ëåñíûå” äåíüãè â óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèå è ìîäåðíèçàöèþ ñâîèõ
õîçÿéñòâ, – êàê âèäèì, ìîäåëü “ôèíñêîãî ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ÷óäà” (ïî
Ñåíãõààçó) íà ñåâåðî-çàïàäå Ðîññèè íå ðàáîòàëà.39
 öèôðîâîì âûðàæåíèè – 1.001.181 äåñÿòèí, èëè 1.093.289 ãåêòàðîâ.
Äëÿ ñðàâíåíèÿ: â Ôèíëÿíäèè ïî ñâåäåíèÿì 1911 ãîäà èç âñåé ëåñíîé ïëîùàäè
ñòðàíû (ïðèáëèçèòåëüíî 13.900 òûñÿ÷ äåñÿòèí, èëè 15.178 òûñ. ãåêòàðîâ) êàç¸ííûå
ëåñà ñîñòàâëÿëè 35,1%, à îñòàëüíàÿ ÷àñòü ëåñîâ íàõîäèëàñü â ÷àñòíîì âëàäåíèè.
Ïðè÷¸ì ïðîöåíò ëåñîâ, ïðèíàäëåæàùèõ ãîñóäàðñòâó, ñèëüíî ðàçëè÷àëñÿ ïî
ãóáåðíèÿì, è, íàïðèìåð, â çàñåë¸ííîé êàðåëàìè Âûáîðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè îí ñîñòàâëÿë
âñåãî 0,3%. (Â. Â. Ôààñ. Ëåñà è ëåñíàÿ òîðãîâëÿ Ôèíëÿíäèè. Ñ. 175).
36
 ñðåäíåì íà äâîð ïðèõîäèëîñü ïî 39 äåñÿòèí ëåñà, ÷òî áûëî íå òàê óæ ìàëî.
(Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. ÑÏá, 1910.
Ñ. 307).
37
Òàì æå. Äåíüãè, ïîëó÷åííûå êðåñòüÿíàìè çà ëåñ, ðàñõîäîâàëèñü, êàê ïðàâèëî,
íà óïëàòó òåêóùèõ ñáîðîâ, ïîãàøåíèå íåäîèìîê, âûêóïíûõ ïëàòåæåé, ïîêóïêó
ñåìÿí è ïðîäîâîëüñòâåííîãî õëåáà, îáùåñòâåííóþ òîðãîâëþ, óñòðîéñòâî äîðîã,
îñóøêó áîëîò è ò.ï.
38
Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. Ñ. 421.
39
Ñì. îá ýòîì: Marina Vituhnovskaja, Pekka Kauppala. Ost-Karelien am Vorabend der
Großen Russischen Revolution.
34
35
125
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
Îäíèì èç ñëåäñòâèé ýòîãî áûëî êðàéíå ìåäëåííîå ðàçâèòèå ëåñíîé ïðîìûøëåííîñòè êðàÿ. Åñëè â 1905 ãîäó òîëüêî â Âûáîðãñêîé
ãóáåðíèè, ÿâëÿâøåéñÿ ÷àñòüþ ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèè, áûëî 85 äåðåâîîáðàáàòûâàþùèõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé, òî ê 1913 ãîäó âî âñåé Îëîíåöêîé
ãóáåðíèè íàñ÷èòûâàëîñü ëèøü 18 ëåñîïèëüíûõ çàâîäîâ40 (äëÿ ñðàâíåíèÿ: â 1908 ãîäó íàñåëåíèå Âûáîðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè ñîñòàâëÿëî 496.503,41
à Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè â 1909 ãîäó – 364.135 ÷åëîâåê42). È åñëè Ôèíëÿíäèÿ àêòèâíî ðàçâèâàëà ëåñîîáðàáàòûâàþùóþ ïðîìûøëåííîñòü è
çäåñü ïîñòîÿííî ðîñëî êîëè÷åñòâî áóìàæíûõ è öåëëþëîçíûõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé, òî ëåñíàÿ ïðîìûøëåííîñòü ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè ñîõðàíÿëà
ñâîé ñûðüåâîé õàðàêòåð, ÷èñëî îáðàáàòûâàþùèõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé ìîæíî
áûëî ïåðåñ÷èòàòü ïî ïàëüöàì.43 Çåìñêèå äåÿòåëè ñåòîâàëè: “ âìåñòî
òîãî, ÷òîáû âåñòè ïðàâèëüíóþ ðóáêó ëåñà è ñîðòèðîâêó âûðàáîòàííîãî ìàòåðèàëà, âìåñòî òîãî, ÷òîáû çàáîòèòüñÿ îá óñòðîéñòâå íà ìåñòàõ
ðàçëè÷íûõ çàâîäîâ ïî âûðàáîòêå ðàçëè÷íûõ ïðîäóêòîâ èç äðåâåñíîãî
ñûðüÿ, ìåñòíûå ïðîìûøëåííèêè ïðåäïî÷èòàþò ñáûâàòü èìåííî ñûðü¸, êîòîðîå çà ãðàíèöåé ïåðåðàáàòûâàåòñÿ è âîçâðàùàåòñÿ ê íàì æå â
âèäå öåëëþëîçû, áóìàæíîé ìàññû è äð., íî óæå ïî äîðîãîé öåíå”.44
Ëåñíàÿ ïðîìûøëåííîñòü ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè, â îòëè÷èå îò çàïàäíîãî ñîñåäà, áûëà ïî÷òè öåëèêîì îðèåíòèðîâàíà íà âûâîç ñûðüÿ èëè
ïðîäóêòîâ ïåðâè÷íîé ïåðåðàáîòêè. Ïðè÷¸ì îäíèì èç ãëàâíûõ ýêñïîðò¸ðîâ îëîíåöêîé ëåñíîé ïðîäóêöèè ÿâëÿëàñü èìåííî Ôèíëÿíäèÿ. Ðîññèéñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ ñòàíîâèëàñü ñûðüåâûì ïðèäàòêîì Êàðåëèè ôèíëÿíäñêîé.
Íåïðåìåííûì óñëîâèåì ðàñøèðåíèÿ ïðîìûøëåííîñòè è òîðãîâûõ
ñâÿçåé ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèè ñòàëà õîðîøàÿ äîðîæíàÿ ñåòü. Î íåé ñ
âîñõèùåíèåì ïèñàëè îëîíåöêèå çåìöû: “ Âîñòî÷íàÿ Ôèíëÿíäèÿ,
ïðèìûêàþùàÿ ê Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ ïðåâîñõîäÈñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè ñ äðåâíåéøèõ âðåì¸í äî íàøèõ äíåé. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 2001. Ñ.
312.
41
Tietosanakirja. ×àñòü10. Helsinki, 1909. Ñ. 1235.
42
Ïîäñ÷èòàíî ïî: Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. Ñ. 186.
43
×èñëî ëåñîîáðàáàòûâàþùèõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé â Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè ïî ñòàòèñòèêå
1910 ãîäà êîëåáàëîñü “ìåæäó 10 è 13” (Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó
îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. Ñ. 241), à â 1912 ãîäó âûðàæàëîñü öèôðîé 18 (Â. Â. Ôààñ.
Ëåñà Ñåâåðíîãî ðàéîíà. Ñ. 105). Ïî÷òè âñå ïðåäïðèÿòèÿ áûëè ëåñîïèëüíûìè çàâîäàìè, è òîëüêî äâå ôàáðèêè âûðàáàòûâàëè äðåâåñíûé êàðòîí (òàì æå).
44
Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. Ñ. 313.
40
126
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
íûìè øîññèðîâàííûìè äîðîãàìè, ñîåäèíÿþùèìè ìåæäó ñîáîþ ñàìûå óåäèí¸ííûå å¸ ïóíêòû ”45 Î íàñûùåííîñòè êðàÿ ãðóíòîâûìè
äîðîãàìè ìîæåò äàòü ïðåäñòàâëåíèå îäèí ïðèìåð: â êîíöå XIX âåêà
äîðîæíàÿ ñåòü òîëüêî Âûáîðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè ñîñòàâëÿëà áîëåå 4 òûñÿ÷
êèëîìåòðîâ.46 È íàïðîòèâ, èìåííî ñëàáîå ðàçâèòèå òðàíñïîðòà, ìàëîå
÷èñëî äîðîã â ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè áûëî âàæíåéøèì ïðåïÿòñòâèåì ê
âûâåäåíèþ õîçÿéñòâà ýòîãî êðàÿ èç ïàòðèàðõàëüíîãî ñîñòîÿíèÿ. Ïî÷òè ïîëíîå áåçäîðîæüå Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè è î÷åíü ñëàáîå ðàçâèòèå
òðàíñïîðòíîé ñåòè â Îëîíåöêîé Êàðåëèè áûëî äëÿ ìåñòíûõ äåÿòåëåé
îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå òðåâîæíûõ ôàêòîðîâ. Âî âñåé Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè
îêîëî òðåòè ñåëåíèé áûëî ñîâåðøåííî ëèøåíî êàêèõ áû òî íè áûëî
äîðîã, è èõ æèòåëè ïîëüçîâàëèñü ïåøåõîäíûìè èëè âåðõîâûìè ëåñíûìè òðîïàìè.47 Ïîëîæåíèå â êàðåëüñêèõ ðàéîíàõ áûëî åù¸ õóæå – â
óåçäàõ, íàñåë¸ííûõ êàðåëàìè, ëèø¸ííûìè äîðîã îêàçàëîñü â ñðåäíåì
54,9% âñåõ ñåëåíèé48 – ïðè÷¸ì áåçäîðîæüå óñèëèâàëîñü èìåííî â ïîãðàíè÷íûõ ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé ðàéîíàõ.49
Ïðèâåä¸ì îäíî èç ìíîãî÷èñëåííûõ ñâèäåòåëüñòâ î áåçäîðîæüå â
òàê íàçûâàåìûõ “çàáûòûõ óãîëêàõ” Êàðåëèè:
Òàì æå. Ñ. 144.
Tapio Hämynen. Karjalan yhteiskunta ja talous 1800-luvun lopulta toiseen
maailmansotaan // Pekka Nevalainen, Hannes Sihvo (Ðåä.). Historia, kansa, kulttuuri.
Helsinki, 1998. S. 184.
47
Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. C. 143.
48
 Ïîâåíåöêîì óåçäå èç 402 ñåëåíèé áûëî ëèøåíî äîðîã 252, èëè 62,9%, â
Ïåòðîçàâîäñêîì óåçäå 370 èç 636, èëè 58,1%, à â Îëîíåöêîì óåçäå íà 534 ñåëåíèÿ
ïðèõîäèëîñü 229, èëè 43,7% áåçäîðîæíûõ (ñì. Ìàòåðèàëû. C. 143).
49
Îòñóòñòâèå ïðîåçæèõ ïóòåé ïðèâîäèëî ê òîìó, ÷òî ìíîãèå êðåñòüÿíå,
âûíóæäåííûå ïðèêóïàòü õëåá â òå÷åíèå áîëüøåé ÷àñòè ãîäà, äîëæíû áûëè òàùèòü
ìåøêè ñ ìóêîé íà ñîáñòâåííûõ ïëå÷àõ èíîãäà çà ìíîãèå äåñÿòêè â¸ðñò. Òàêèì æå
îáðàçîì ÷àñòî ïåðåíîñèëàñü è ïî÷òà. Ñëåäñòâèåì áåçäîðîæüÿ îêàçûâàëàñü è
íåïîìåðíàÿ äîðîãîâèçíà ñàìûõ ýëåìåíòàðíûõ òîâàðîâ. Íàïðèìåð, Ïîâåíåöêîå
çåìñòâî âûíóæäåíî áûëî çàêóïàòü õëåá äëÿ ïðèãðàíè÷íûõ ðàéîíîâ â Ôèíëÿíäèè,
ò.ê., åñëè áû îíî òðàíñïîðòèðîâàëî ìóêó ïðÿìî èç Ðîññèè, íóæíî áûëî áû
äîñòàâëÿòü å¸ çà 383 âåðñòû (406 êì.) ïðàêòè÷åñêè áåç äîðîã. Ïðè÷¸ì âûâîçèìûé
èç Ôèíëÿíäèè õëåá áûë âûðàùåí â Ðîññèè è äîñòàâëåí â Ôèíëÿíäèþ ÷åðåç Ñâèðü,
Ëàäîãó è Ïåòåðáóðã. Èç-çà íåîáõîäèìîñòè òàêîãî êðóæíîãî ïóòè (èç Ðîññèè – â
Ôèíëÿíäèþ, à îòòóäà îáðàòíî â Ðîññèþ) öåíà õëåáà äëÿ êàðåëüñêèõ ðàéîíîâ
ñòàíîâèëàñü íåïîìåðíî âûñîêîé – ìåøîê õëåáà çäåñü ñòîèë 18 ðóáëåé, òîãäà êàê â
ñðåäíåé Ðîññèè åãî öåíà áûëà ìåíåå 9 ðóáëåé. ÍÀ ÐÊ. Ô. 1. Îï. 1. Ä. 106/61. Ë.
24îá. Öåíà õëåáà â ñðåäíåðóññêèõ ðàéîíàõ íà 1913 ãîä äà¸òñÿ ïî: Ðîññèÿ, 1913
ãîä. Ñòàòèñòèêî-äîêóìåíòàëüíûé ñïðàâî÷íèê. ÑÏá, 1995. C. 319.
45
46
127
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
Ïðî ýòè äåðåâíè ìåñòíûå êðåñòüÿíå ãîâîðÿò: êòî òóäà õîòü îäèí
ðàç ñõîäèò, òîìó Áîã ïðîñòèò ïîëîâèíó ãðåõîâ Äîðîãè (åñëè
òîëüêî ìîæíî óïîòðåáèòü â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ýòîò òåðìèí) ïðîëåãàþò ñþäà ñàìûå ïåðâîáûòíûå (ïî áîëîòàì, ïíÿì è êàìíÿì), òàê
÷òî, êðîìå çèìíåãî ïóòè, âîçìîæíî åõàòü â ýòè äåðåâíè ñî ñêîðîñòüþ ëèøü 3 â¸ðñò â ÷àñ, âåðõîì íà ëîøàäè, è òî ñ áîëüøîé îñòîðîæíîñòüþ, èíà÷å ëåãêî ìîæíî óïàñòü ñ ëîøàäè, åñëè ïîñëåäíÿÿ
çàâÿçíåò â áîëîòå èëè â ìîñòàõ ÷òî îñåíüþ è âåñíîé íå ðåäêîñòü. Íàõîäÿñü â òàêèõ òÿæ¸ëûõ óñëîâèÿõ, êðåñòüÿíå ýòèõ äåðåâåíü íå æèâóò, à ïîèñòèíå áåäñòâóþò.  ñàìîì äåëå, íóæíî
ìóæèêó êóïèòü íåîáõîäèìóþ ïðîâèçèþ È âîò áåäíÿãà áåð¸ò
äâå æåðäè, âïðÿãàåò â íèõ ñâîþ “ãîðåìû÷íóþ” ëîøàäêó, ïîëàãàåò ñâîþ êëàäü è òàùèòñÿ òàê äî äîìó, íå áåç ïðèêëþ÷åíèé, êîíå÷íî. À ñëó÷èñü â òàêîé äåðåâíå íåçäîðîâûé ÷åëîâåê êàê òóò
áûòü?50
Îäíàêî åù¸ áîëåå ïëà÷åâíîé ñèòóàöèÿ ñ ïóòÿìè ñîîáùåíèÿ áûëà â
Àðõàíãåëüñêîé (Êåìñêîé) Êàðåëèè. Âíîâü íàçíà÷åííûé â Àðõàíãåëüñêóþ ãóáåðíèþ â êîíöå 1907 ã. ãóáåðíàòîð Ñîñíîâñêèé, ñîâåðøèâøèé
èíñïåêòîðñêóþ ïîåçäêó ïî âñåìó êðàþ, îòìå÷àë, â ÷àñòíîñòè, ÷òî â
Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè íåò íè îäíîé ãðóíòîâîé äîðîãè.51 Îïèñûâàÿ òÿãîòû
ñâîåãî ïóòåøåñòâèÿ, ãóáåðíàòîð êîíñòàòèðîâàë, ÷òî, ÷òîáû äîáðàòüñÿ
îò ãîðîäà Êåìè äî ñåëà Óõòû, “ïðèøëîñü ñäåëàòü â îáà êîíöà 450 â¸ðñò
â ëîäêå è îêîëè 60 â¸ðñò ïåøêîì è âåðõîì.”52 Ñîñíîâñêèé îòìå÷àåò,
÷òî âî âñåé Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè “ñîîáùåíèå â ëåòíåå âðåìÿ ìåæäó íàñåë¸ííûìè ïóíêòàìè ïîääåðæèâàåòñÿ ëèáî â ëîäêàõ ïî îáøèðíûì îç¸ðàì è ïîðîæèñòûì ðåêàì, íåðåäêî ñ îïàñíîñòüþ äëÿ æèçíè, ëèáî ïåøêîì ïî òðîïèíêàì è íàñòëàííûì ÷åðåç áîëîòî æåðäÿì.”53
Íàèáîëåå ÿðêî òðàíñïîðòíàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ â ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè îòðàçèëàñü â áîðüáå çà ïðîâåäåíèå çäåñü æåëåçíîé äîðîãè, êîòîðàÿ âåëàñü
Ñâ. À. Ï-èé. Äåðåâíè Êàðòàøåâà Ñåëüãà è Ïàëàÿ Ëàìáà, Ïåòðîçàâîäñêîãî óåçäà //
Âåñòíèê Îëîíåöêîãî ãóáåðíñêîãî çåìñòâà. 1912. ¹ 20. C. 19.
51
Ñîñíîâñêèé íåìíîãî îøèáàëñÿ: ïî Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè â íà÷àëå âåêà ïðîõîäèë
ñåâåðíûé ó÷àñòîê ãðóíòîâîé ïî÷òîâîé äîðîãè, âåäøåé èç Ïîâåíöà â Ñóìó. Äîðîãà
áûëà óñòðîåíà â 1897 ãîäó Îëîíåöêèì çåìñòâîì. Ýòîò ó÷àñòîê áûë ïðîòÿæ¸ííîñòüþ
38,5 â¸ðñò è ñîñòàâëÿë 2% âñåé ëèíèè ñîîáùåíèé â óåçäå. Ñì.: Àðõàíãåëüñêàÿ
Êàðåëèÿ. Àðõàíãåëüñê, 1908. C. 40.
52
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1284. Îï. 194, 1908. Ä. 74-76. Ë. 27. Âñåïîääàííåéøèé îò÷¸ò î
ñîñòîÿíèè Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè çà 1908 ãîä. (Ñïðàâêà àâòîðà: ðàññòîÿíèå îò
Êåìè äî Óõòû 182 êì; 1 âåðñòà= 1,06 êì.)
53
Òàì æå. Âñåïîääàííåéøèé îò÷¸ò. Ë. 17.
50
128
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
íà ïðîòÿæåíèè ìíîãèõ ëåò ìåæäó Îëîíåöêèì ãóáåðíàòîðîì è çåìñòâîì,
ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, è ìèíèñòåðñòâîì ôèíàíñî⠖ ñ äðóãîé. Îëîí÷àíå íå
ñìîãëè ïðîðâàòü “ëèíèþ îáîðîíû” ìèíèñòðà ôèíàíñîâ,54 ÷òî ïðèâåëî
ê çàìîðàæèâàíèþ âîïðîñà î æåëåçíîé äîðîãå âïëîòü äî íà÷àëà Ïåðâîé ìèðîâîé âîéíû. Ìåæäó òåì Ôèíëÿíäèÿ àêòèâíî ðàçâèâàëà ñâîþ
æåëåçíîäîðîæíóþ ñåòü, áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü êîòîðîé êîíöåíòðèðîâàëàñü
èìåííî â Þæíîé, à ïîçäíåå – è â Ñåâåðíîé Êàðåëèè.55
Êðàéíå ñëàáàÿ äîðîæíàÿ ñåòü (ñêàçàííîå êàñàåòñÿ è âîäíûõ ïóòåé
ñîîáùåíèÿ56) ñî÷åòàëàñü â ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè ñ ðåäêîé çàñåë¸ííîñòüþ – â 1897 ãîäó ïëîòíîñòü íàñåëåíèÿ çäåñü ñîñòàâëÿëà 1,4 ÷åë. íà
êâ.êì., â òî âðåìÿ êàê â ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèè – 9,4 ÷åë./êâ. êì.57 Ýòî
âûçûâàëî òðåâîãó çåìñêèõ äåÿòåëåé Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè,58 êîòîðûå
íåîäíîêðàòíî âûñêàçûâàëè ïðåäëîæåíèÿ î íåîáõîäèìîñòè êîëîíèçàöèè êðàÿ. Îäíàêî, êàê òîëüêî ñòàëî ÿñíî, ÷òî îñíîâíûìè êàíäèäàòàìè
Ñì. îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð: Alpo Juntunen. Aunuksen rata kansallisuuspolitiikan
välineenä // Kainuussa ja Vienassa. Näkökulma naapuristen elämään. Joensuu, 1997. S.
103-114, èëè: Alpo Juntunen. Valta ja rautatiet. Luonteis-Venäjän rautateiden
rakentamista keskeisesti ohjanneet tekijät 1890-luvulta 2. maailmansotaan. Jyväskylä,
1997.
55
Óæå íà÷èíàÿ ñ 1870-õ ãîäîâ äåéñòâîâàëà æåëåçíîäîðîæíàÿ ëèíèÿ èç Ðèèõèìÿêè
â Ïåòåðáóðã ÷åðåç Êîóâîëó è Âûáîðã. Ê 1894 ãîäó áûëà ïðîòÿíóòà âåòêà â Ñåâåðíóþ
Êàðåëèþ, ñíà÷àëà äî Ñîðòàâàëà è Éîýíñóó, à ê 1911 ã. äîðîãà áûëà äîâåäåíà äî
áîëåå ñåâåðíîãî Íóðìåñà. Íà ïðîòÿæåíèè 1890-õ – 1910-õ ãîäîâ ê ýòèì îñíîâíûì
æåëåçíîäîðîæíûì ëèíèÿì ïðèñîåäèíÿëèñü óæå ðàíåå ñîçäàííûå äîðîãè, è âñ¸
âìåñòå âçÿòîå â êîíöå êîíöîâ ñîçäàëî ðàçâåòâë¸ííóþ äîðîæíóþ ñåòü, êîòîðàÿ
ñûãðàëà îãðîìíóþ ðîëü â ðàçâèòèè ýêîíîìèêè ðåãèîíà, óïðîùàÿ âûâîç è ââîç
ïîëåçíûõ èñêîïàåìûõ, óäåøåâëÿÿ ïåðåâîçêè è ñòèìóëèðóÿ ñîîðóæåíèå íîâûõ
ïðîìûøëåííûõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé. Ñì.: Tapio Hämynen. Karjalan yhteiskunta ja talous
1800-luvun lopulta toiseen maailmansotaan // Pekka Nevalainen, Hannes Sihvo (Eds.).
Karjala. Historia, kansa, kulttuuri. Helsinki, 1998. S. 184, èëè: Marina Vituhnovskaja,
Pekka Kauppala. Ost-Karelien am Vorabend der Großen Russischen Revolution.
56
Õîòÿ ðîññèéñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ, êàê è Ôèíëÿíäèÿ, îáëàäàëà áîãàòåéøèìè ïðèðîäíûìè
óñëîâèÿìè äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ñóäîõîäñòâà (â êðàå áûëî äâà êðóïíûõ îçåðà – Ëàäîæñêîå
è Îíåæñêîå – è òûñÿ÷è ìåëêèõ îç¸ð), å¸ âîäíàÿ òðàíñïîðòíàÿ ñåòü îñòàâàëàñü êðàéíå
íåðàçâèòîé. Ïî îïðåäåëåíèþ çåìñêîãî èçäàíèÿ, â ïëàíå ñóäîõîäñòâà Îëîíåöêàÿ
ãóáåðíèÿ ïðåäñòàâëÿëà ñîáîé “ñîâåðøåííóþ ïóñòûíþ” (Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêîýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. Ñ. 178).
57
Âû÷èñëåíèÿ ïðîèçâåäåíû íà îñíîâå: Tapio Hämynen. Karjalan yhteiskunta ja talous
1800-luvun lopulta toiseen maailmansotaan. S. 153. Èç öèôð, ïðèâåäåííûõ â ñòàòüå
Õÿìþíåíà, âèäíî, ÷òî äàæå â ñàìîì ðåäêîíàñåë¸ííîì ðàéîíå ôèíëÿíäñêîé
Êàðåëèè, Ñåâåðíîé Êàðåëèè, ïëîòíîñòü íàñåëåíèÿ ñîñòàâëÿëà 5,9 ÷åëîâåê íà êâ.êì.
58
 Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè íå áûëî çåìñòâà.
54
129
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
íà ïåðåñåëåíèå â Îëîíåöêóþ è Àðõàíãåëüñêóþ ãóáåðíèè äîëæíû ñòàòü
ôèííû (ê òîìó âðåìåíè â Ôèíëÿíäèè óæå áûëî àãðàðíîå ïåðåíàñåëåíèå) èëè, ïî àíàëîãèè ñ Íîâãîðîäñêîé è Ïåòåðáóðãñêîé ãóáåðíèÿìè,
ëàòûøè è ýñòîíöû, îáëàäàþùèå îïûòîì âåäåíèÿ õîçÿéñòâà íà ñåâåðå,
èäåÿ áûëà îòâåðãíóòà âëàñòíûìè ñòðóêòóðàìè.59 Ìåæäó òåì ïðèâëå÷ü
íà Ñåâåð êðåñòüÿí èç áîëåå þæíûõ ðåãèîíîâ áûëî çíà÷èòåëüíî ñëîæíåå, è, êðîìå òîãî, ýòî îçíà÷àëî áû, ïî ñóòè äåëà, äèñêðåäèòàöèþ èäåè
êîëîíèçàöèè, ò.ê. ñåâåðíîå ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî îáëàäàëî ñóùåñòâåííîé ñïåöèôèêîé ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ äðóãèìè ðåãèîíàìè ñòðàíû.
Íåçíà÷èòåëüíîñòü ëþäñêèõ ðåñóðñîâ è íåðàçâèòàÿ èíôðàñòðóêòóðà
áûëè ïðè÷èíîé îòñóòñòâèÿ èíòåðåñà ê ýòîìó êðàþ ó ïðîìûøëåííèêîâ, â ðåçóëüòàòå ÷åãî òåìïû èíäóñòðèàëèçàöèè çäåñü îñòàâàëèñü êðàéíå
ìåäëåííûìè, à â íåñêîëüêèõ ïðîìûøëåííûõ îòðàñëÿõ – ïðÿìî ðåãðåññèâíûìè. Íàïðèìåð, ìåòàëëîîáðàáîòêà, èìåâøàÿ â Êàðåëèè ìíîãîâåêîâóþ òðàäèöèþ, íàõîäèëàñü ê íà÷àëó XX âåêà â òÿæåëåéøåì êðèçèñå.60 Ñðàâíåíèå ïðîìûøëåííîé ñòàòèñòèêè Âûáîðãñêîé è Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèé äà¸ò íàãëÿäíîå ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î òîì, íàñêîëüêî áîëåå
ðàçâèòîé áûëà èíäóñòðèÿ ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèè. ×èñëî ïðîìûøëåííûõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé â Âûáîðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè ñîñòàâëÿëî íà 1905 ãîä 281
(îäíî ïðåäïðèÿòèå íà 1770 ÷åëîâåê), à â Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè â 1906
ãîäó – 43 (îäíî ïðåäïðèÿòèå íà 8.470 ÷åëîâåê).  Âûáîðãñêîé ãóáåðíèè ÷èñëî ðàáî÷èõ òîëüêî êðóïíûõ è ñðåäíèõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé (ñ êîëè÷åñòâîì ðàáîòíèêîâ íå ìåíåå ïÿòè ÷åëîâåê) áûëî áîëåå 19.000 (3,8% íàñåëåíèÿ), à âåñü îòðÿä ðàáî÷èõ Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè íàñ÷èòûâàë 6.000
÷åëîâåê (1,6% íàñåëåíèÿ). Ïðè ýòîì ïîäàâëÿþùåå áîëüøèíñòâî èç íèõ
ñîñòàâëÿëè ðóññêèå.61 Ïðîöåíò êàðåë ñðåäè ðàáî÷èõ Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè è Êåìñêîãî óåçäà âìåñòå áûë íè÷òîæåí – íåìíîãèì áîëåå 200 ÷åëîâåê, èëè 0,25% îò âñåãî êàðåëüñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ. Ýòî îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ ëèøü
êðàéíåé ïðîìûøëåííîé îòñòàëîñòüþ êàðåëüñêèõ ðåãèîíîâ.62
Ñì.: Marina Vituhnovskaja, Pekka Kauppala. Ost-Karelien am Vorabend der Großen
Russischen Revolution. Ñ. 59, 60; Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó
îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. Ñ. 424-426.
60
Çà äåñÿòü ëåò ñ 1897 ïî 1906 ãîäû âûïëàâêà æåëåçíîé ðóäû ñîêðàòèëàñü â 2,8
ðàçà ñ 1067790 äî 384069 ïóäîâ, à ïðîèçâîäñòâî ÷óãóíà – â 2,2 ðàçà ñ 348189 äî
156838 ïóäîâ. (Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî
êðàÿ. Ñ. 201).
61
Ïîäñ÷èòàíî ïî: È. Ï. Ïîêðîâñêàÿ. Íàñåëåíèå äîðåâîëþöèîííîé Êàðåëèè ïî
ðåçóëüòàòàì ïåðåïèñè 1897 ã. // Âîïðîñû èñòîðèè Åâðîïåéñêîãî Ñåâåðà.
Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1974. Ñ. 93, è Èñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè. Ñ. 279.
62
Èñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè. Ñ. 279.
59
130
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
È âñ¸ æå ñàìûì ñëàáûì çâåíîì ýêîíîìèêè ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè áûëî
ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî. Äàæå åñëè çäåñü è ïðîèñõîäèëè ïåðåìåíû, ñâÿçàííûå ñ îáùåðîññèéñêèìè ðåôîðìàìè, õîä èõ áûë âÿëûì è ÷ðåçâû÷àéíî
çàìåäëåííûì, à ðåçóëüòàòû íå îïðàâäûâàëè îæèäàíèé. Òàê áûëî, íàïðèìåð, ñ êðåñòüÿíñêîé ðåôîðìîé Àëåêñàíäðà II: îôîðìëåíèå íîâûõ
ïîçåìåëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé ïðîèñõîäèëî ñî çíà÷èòåëüíîé çàäåðæêîé. Â
Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè âûäà÷à âëàäåííûõ çàïèñåé çàâåðøèëàñü ñ îïîçäàíèåì ïî÷òè íà 20 ëåò, à â Êåìñêîì óåçäå Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè ïî
óêàçó îò 1870 ãîäà âûäà÷à âëàäåííûõ çàïèñåé áûëà îòëîæåíà íà íåîïðåäåë¸ííûé ñðîê è, â êîíå÷íîì èòîãå, òàê è íå îñóùåñòâèëàñü.63 Ïðè÷èíîé çàòÿãèâàíèÿ ïðîöåññà áûëè áîëüøîé îáú¸ì ðàáîò, íåäîñòàòîê
çåìëåìåðîâ, çàïóòàííîñòü çåìëåïîëüçîâàíèÿ è îòñóòñòâèå ëåñîóñòðîéñòâà.64 Ïðè÷¸ì ðåçóëüòàòû çåìëåóñòðîéñòâà, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå óñòðàèâàëè êðåñòüÿí, èáî îíè ïîëó÷àëè ìåíåå êà÷åñòâåííóþ çåìëþ, ÷åì ïðåæäå, è çà÷àñòóþ â ìåíüøèõ îáú¸ìàõ.  ðåçóëüòàòå ðåôîðìû çåìåëüíàÿ
áàçà äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ñåëüñêîãî õîçÿéñòâà òîëüêî ñóæàëàñü.65
Äîïîëíèòåëüíûé óäàð ïî ïîëîæåíèþ áåëîìîðñêèõ êàðåë íàíåñëî
ïîëíîå çàïðåùåíèå ïîäñå÷íîãî çåìëåäåëèÿ â Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè
óæå ñ ñåðåäèíû XIX âåêà. Ðîëü ïîäñåêè â ñåâåðíûõ ðàéîíàõ íåîäíîçíà÷íà, íî òðàäèöèîííî îíà áûëà çäåñü î÷åíü âàæíà. Çàïðåò íà ïîäñåêè
íàí¸ñ ñèëüíûé óäàð ïî – ïðàâäà, ïðèìèòèâíîìó, íî äåéñòâóþùåìó –
ñåëüñêîìó õîçÿéñòâó, ïðè÷¸ì íèêàêîé áîëåå ñîâðåìåííîé çàìåíû ïîäñåêå ñîçäàíî íå áûëî.66 Ðåçóëüòàòîì ñòàëî îáùåå ïîíèæåíèå èíòåðåñà
Èñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè. Ñ. 249.
Ñì. îá ýòîì: Òàì æå. Ñ. 247.
65
Íàïðèìåð, â Ïîâåíåöêîì óåçäå ïðè îáùåì ñðåäíåì íàäåëå íà äâîð â 76,5 äåñÿòèíû â õîçÿéñòâåííûõ öåëÿõ ìîãëè áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíû (ïàøíè, ñåíîêîñ) òîëüêî
6,4 äåñÿòèí, èëè 8,4%. Â Ïåòðîçàâîäñêîì óåçäå ýòè öèôðû áûëè ñîîòâåòñòâåííî
46,5 è 8,9 (19,1%), à â Îëîíåöêîì óåçäå íà 38,9 äåñÿòèíû íàäåëà ïðèõîäèëîñü 6,4
(16,5%) äåñÿòèí äëÿ õîçÿéñòâåííîãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ. Îñòàëüíàÿ çåìëÿ áûëà íåïðèãîäíîé äëÿ çåìëåäåíèÿ èëè ñåíîêîñîâ. Ïîñêîëüêó íà äâîð â ñðåäíåì ïðèõîäèëîñü 3 äóøè ìóæñêîãî ïîëà, ìîæíî ñäåëàòü âûâîä, ÷òî êðåñòüÿíå òàê è íå ïîëó÷èëè ïîëîæåííûõ ïî çàêîíó 1866 ãîäà 15 àðøèí íà äóøó (Èñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè. Ñ. 249.)
Íî, êàê âñåãäà, ñàìîé õóäøåé áûëà ñèòóàöèÿ â Êåìñêîì óåçäå – çäåñü ê íà÷àëó ÕÕ
âåêà íà êàæäûé êðåñòüÿíñêèé äâîð ïðèõîäèëîñü 5 äåñÿòèí ïîëåâûõ óãîäèé è 0,5
äåñÿòèíû ðàñ÷èñòîê (Àðõàíãåëüñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ. Àðõàíãåëüñê, 1907. Ñ. 25).
66
Ñì., íàïðèìåð, Theodor Homén (Eds.). Itä-Karjala ja Kuolan Lappi. Suomalaisten
luonnon- ja kielentutkijain kuvaamina. Helsinki, 1918. S. 225, 210. Î ðîëè ïîäñåêè è
å¸ çàïðåòà ñì.: Marina Vituhnovskaja, Pekka Kauppala. Ost-Karelien am Vorabend der
Großen Russischen Revolution. S. 47.
63
64
131
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
êðåñòüÿí ê ñåëüñêîìó õîçÿéñòâó è çàìåíà åãî ïîäñîáíûìè ïðîìûñëàìè. Íàêîíåö, è ñòîëûïèíñêàÿ ðåôîðìà íå ïðèâåëà ê ïåðåëîìó ñèòóàöèè â ñåâåðíûõ ðåãèîíàõ è ïðîõîäèëà çäåñü êðàéíå âÿëî.67 Ê 1 ÿíâàðÿ
1916 ãîäà ïî âñåé Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè èç îáùèíû âûøëî 13,6% îáùèííûõ äâîðîâ è îêîëî 4% ïëîùàäè îáùèííûõ çåìåëü.68  íàñåë¸ííûõ êàðåëàìè óåçäàõ âûõîä èç îáùèíû ø¸ë åù¸ ìåäëåííåå – ñ 1909 ïî
1914 ãã. â Îëîíåöêîì óåçäå îñâîáîäèëîñü 5%, â Ïîâåíåöêîì óåçäå –
4%, è â Ïåòðîçàâîäñêîì óåçäå – íè÷òîæíàÿ äîëÿ ïðîöåíòà.69  Êåìñêîì óåçäå àãðàðíàÿ ðåôîðìà íå îñóùåñòâëÿëàñü âîâñå èç-çà îòñóòñòâèÿ
â Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè çåìñòâà (çåìëåóñòðîéñòâî çäåñü âñ¸ åù¸ íå
áûëî ïðîâåäåíî).
Èç âñåãî ñêàçàííîãî âèäíî, ÷òî ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè ïðåáûâàëî â îïèñàííûé ïåðèîä â ñîñòîÿíèè ñòàãíàöèè. Ïî ñòåïåíè îáåñïå÷åííîñòè õëåáîì ñîáñòâåííîãî ïðîèçâîäñòâà êðàé çàíèìàë
îäíî èç ïîñëåäíèõ ìåñò ïî Ðîññèè.70 Íà êàæäûå äåñÿòü ëåò ïðèõîäèëîñü â ñðåäíåì ïî äâà-òðè íåóðîæàéíûõ ãîäà. Îáðàáîòêà çåìëè âåëàñü
äåäîâñêèìè îðóäèÿìè, ïî÷òè íèêàêèõ ìàøèí íå èñïîëüçîâàëîñü.
Ìåæäó òåì â ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèè, êàê è â öåëîì ïî ñòðàíå, ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî áûñòðî ðåôîðìèðîâàëîñü. Ñóòü ïåðåìåí ñâîäèëàñü ê
Î ñòîëûïèíñêîé ðåôîðìå â Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè ñì.: Ò. Â. Íèêóëèíà. Ê âîïðîñó
îá àãðàðíîé ïîëèòèêå öàðèçìà â Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè (1906-1917ãã.) // Âîïðîñû
èñòîðèè Åâðîïåéñêîãî Ñåâåðà (Ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå ïðîáëåìû). Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1986. C. 49-62.
68
 öèôðàõ ÷èñëî âûøåäøèõ èç îáùèíû ñîñòàâëÿëî 8062 äîìîõîçÿèíà, è ïðè íèõ –
158,3 òûñ. äåñÿòèí íàäåëüíûõ çåìåëü. Ê òîìó æå 1916 ãîäó äîëÿ âëàäåëüöåâ õóòîðîâ â êðàå ñîñòàâèëà âñåãî 1,3% êî âñåé ìàññå êðåñòüÿí-äîìîõîçÿåâ (Èñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè. C. 310).
69
 Îëîíåöêîì óåçäå îñâîáîäèëîñü 450 õîçÿéñòâ èç 7 800, â Ïîâåíåöêîì óåçäå – 176
õîçÿéñòâ èç 4 417, à â Ïåòðîçàâîäñêîì óåçäå – 8 õîçÿéñòâ èç 12.304 (Tapio Hämynen.
Karjalan yhteiskunta ja talous. C. 165 è Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó
îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. C. 362). Õÿìþíåí ñïðàâåäëèâî îòìå÷àåò, ÷òî ðàçíèöà â
öèôðàõ ïî óåçäàì ñâÿçàíà ñ òåì, ÷òî â Îëîíåöêîì óåçäå ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî áûëî
ðàçâèòûì è áîãàòûå êðåñòüÿíå õîòåëè âûäåëÿòüñÿ èç îáùèíû, êðîìå òîãî, çäåñü
âëèÿëè òîðãîâûå ñâÿçè ñ Ïåòåðáóðãîì è ôèíñêîé Êàðåëèåé; â Ïåòðîçàâîäñêîì óåçäå
õîçÿéñòâà áûëè áîëåå áåäíûìè è íå èìåëè ñòèìóëà ê âûõîäó èç îáùèíû.
70
 1890 ã. ñðåäíåãîäîâîé ñáîð çåðíà â ðàñ÷¸òå íà äóøó íàñåëåíèÿ ñîñòàâëÿë òîëüêî 53% ê ìèíèìàëüíîé íîðìå ïîòðåáëåíèÿ (2,25 ÷åòâåðòè íà åäîêà). Ïðè ýòîì â
þæíîé ÷àñòè Êàðåëèè (Ïåòðîçàâîäñêèé, Îëîíåöêèé óåçäû) ñðåäíåãîäîâîé ñáîð
çåðíà äîñòèãàë 63%, â Ïîâåíåöêîì óåçäå – 47%, â Êåìñêîì óåçäå – 31%.  ñðåäíåì æå ïî íå÷åðíîç¸ìíîé çîíå Ðîññèè ñðåäíåå êîëè÷åñòâî çåðíà íà äóøó íàñåëåíèÿ ïðåâûøàëî íîðìó ïîòðåáëåíèÿ íà 11% (Îá ýòîì: Èñòîðèÿ Êàðåëèè. Ñ. 260).
67
132
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ïåðåïðîôèëèðîâàíèþ õîçÿéñòâà ñ çåìëåäåëèÿ íà ìîëî÷íîå æèâîòíîâîäñòâî, êîòîðîå ãîðàçäî áîëåå ñîîòâåòñòâîâàëî ïðèðîäíûì óñëîâèÿì
êðàÿ. Ýòà ïåðåîðèåíòàöèÿ ñòàëà âîçìîæíîé òîëüêî áëàãîäàðÿ Áîëüøîìó ïåðåäåëó, èòîãîì êîòîðîãî ñòàëà êîíöåíòðàöèÿ çåìåëüíûõ ó÷àñòêîâ
è èõ ðîñò çà ñ÷¸ò ìåëèîðàöèè. Ðàñïàõàííûå íîâûå ïîëÿ çàñåâàëèñü êîðìîâûìè òðàâàìè è òóðíåïñîì. Ýòà ñèñòåìà îêàçàëàñü â Ôèíëÿíäèè
âåñüìà ïðîäóêòèâíîé, ïîñêîëüêó, êàê îòìå÷àëè îëîíåöêèå çåìñêèå äåÿòåëè, “óñëîâèÿ ñåâåðíîãî êðàÿ, íå îñîáåííî áëàãîïðèÿòíûå äëÿ çåðíîâîãî õîçÿéñòâà, äàþò, îäíàêî, âîçìîæíîñòü ïîëó÷åíèÿ çíà÷èòåëüíûõ
êîëè÷åñòâ ðàçëè÷íûõ êîðìîâûõ ïðîäóêòî⠔71  îòëè÷èå îò ñèòóàöèè â ñîñåäíèõ ðîññèéñêèõ ðåãèîíàõ, ôèíëÿíäñêîå ìîëî÷íîå æèâîòíîâîäñòâî èìåëî ÿðêî âûðàæåííûé òîâàðíûé õàðàêòåð è îñîáåííî áûëî
îðèåíòèðîâàíî íà ïðîèçâîäñòâî è ñáûò ìàñëà.72 Ïðè ýòîì ïðîäîëæàëî
ðàçâèâàòüñÿ çåìëåäåëèå, êîòîðîå òîëüêî óêðåïëÿëîñü áëàãîäàðÿ ðàçâèòèþ ìîëî÷íîãî æèâîòíîâîäñòâà: ÷åì áîëüøå ñêîòà, òåì áîëüøå óäîáðåíèé è òåì áîëüøèé óðîæàé äà¸ò çåìëÿ. Õîòÿ ÷àñòü ìàñëà è ñûðà èç
Ôèíëÿíäèè ýêñïîðòèðîâàëàñü â çàïàäíûå ñòðàíû, îñíîâíûì íàïðàâëåíèåì ñáûòà îñòàâàëñÿ âíóòðåííèé ðûíîê ñòðàíû, êîòîðûé ðàñøèðÿëñÿ â ñâÿçè ñ îáùèì ðîñòîì óðîâíÿ æèçíè.73 Îñîáûì ñòèìóëîì äëÿ
ðàçâèòèÿ ìîëî÷íîãî æèâîòíîâîäñòâà ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèè îêàçàëàñü
áëèçîñòü Ïåòåðáóðãà ñ åãî îãðîìíûìè ïîòðåáíîñòÿìè â ìÿñíûõ è ìîëî÷íûõ ïðîäóêòàõ.74
Çåìñêèå äåÿòåëè ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè ïðåêðàñíî îñîçíàâàëè íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïîâåðíóòü ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî êðàÿ, ïî ïðèìåðó ôèííîâ, â
ñòîðîíó òîâàðíîãî ìîëî÷íîãî æèâîòíîâîäñòâà.  çåìñêîì èçäàíèè
ïèñàëîñü: “Êðåñòüÿíå íàøåé ãóáåðíèè íå äîëæíû çàíèìàòüñÿ õëåáîïàøåñòâîì â øèðîêèõ ðàçìåðàõ, à èì íåîáõîäèìî îáðàòèòü ãëàâíîå
âíèìàíèå íà êîðìîäîáûâàíèå, ñêîòîâîäñòâî è ìîëî÷íîå õîçÿéñòâî. Âñå
ýòè îòðàñëè ñåëüñêîãî õîçÿéñòâà êîðìÿò ñîñåäíèå ñ íàìè ôèíëÿíäñêèå
ãóáåðíèè, â îñîáåííîñòè Êóîïèîñêóþ”.75 Çåìöû ñ÷èòàëè, ÷òî, êàê è â
Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. Ñ. 422.
Ýêñïîðò ìàñëà èç Ôèíëÿíäèè ñ 1890 ïî 1913 ãîä âûðîñ â 1,8 ðàçà. (Gösta Grotenfelt.
Vanhanaikainen suomalainen maitotalous. Helsinki, 1916. S. 8).
73
Èìåííî â ýòî âðåìÿ ñôîðìèðîâàëîñü îñîáîå ïðèñòðàñòèå ôèííîâ ê ìîëî÷íûì
ïðîäóêòàì è îñîáåííî ê ìîëîêó, êîòîðîå â ýòîé ñòðàíå è ïîíûíå ïîòðåáëÿþò
åæåäíåâíî è â áîëüøèõ êîëè÷åñòâàõ.
74
Ñì. Tapio Hämynen. Karjalan yhteiskunta ja talous. S. 166, 167.
75
Ã.Ã.Ã. Ê âîïðîñó î êîëîíèçàöèè Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè // Âåñòíèê Îëîíåöêîãî
ãóáåðíñêîãî çåìñòâà. 1915. ¹ 1. C. 6.
71
72
133
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
Ôèíëÿíäèè, â ñåâåðíûõ ðåãèîíàõ Ðîññèè ìîæíî ðàññ÷èòûâàòü íà âíóòðåííèé ðûíîê ñáûòà è íàõîäÿùèéñÿ ñîâñåì áëèçêî ðàñòóùèé ïðîìûøëåííûé Ïåòåðáóðã. Áîëåå òîãî – ÷åðåç ïðèãðàíè÷íûå ðàéîíû Êàðåëèè
ìàñëî øëî äëÿ ïðîäàæè èç Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè â Ôèíëÿíäèþ (õîòÿ è
â íåáîëüøèõ îáú¸ìàõ), ÷òî ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î òîì, ÷òî è ôèíñêèé ðûíîê íå áûë äîñòàòî÷íî íàñûùåí. Îäíàêî, íåñìîòðÿ íà âñå ïðèêëàäûâàâøèåñÿ óñèëèÿ, ýòè ïðîöåññû çäåñü ðàçâèâàëèñü êðàéíå ìåäëåííî.
Íåïîâîðîòëèâàÿ, óñòàðåâøàÿ ñèñòåìà ïîçåìåëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé, áåçäîðîæüå, àãðîíîìè÷åñêàÿ íåïîäãîòîâëåííîñòü íàñåëåíèÿ è îòñóòñòâèå
ó íåãî íà÷àëüíûõ êàïèòàëîâ ñèëüíî òîðìîçèëè ñåëüñêîõîçÿéñòâåííîå
ðàçâèòèå ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè. Îñîáåííî ïàãóáíî îòðàæàëàñü íà ñåëüñêîì õîçÿéñòâå ÷åðåñïîëîñèöà – ïëîäîðîäíîé çåìëè áûëî íåìíîãî, è
å¸ ó÷àñòêè îòñòîÿëè äðóã îò äðóãà è îò ïîñåëåíèÿ, ãäå ïðîæèâàë èõ
ïîëüçîâàòåëü, ïîä÷àñ íà äåñÿòêè êèëîìåòðîâ. Çåìñêîå èçäàíèå ñåòîâàëî íà òî, ÷òî êðåñòüÿíå, âñ¸ áîëüøå ñîêðàùàÿ ñåëüñêîõîçÿéñòâåííóþ
äåÿòåëüíîñòü, êàê ïðàâèëî, îáðàùàþòñÿ ê ïîáî÷íûì ïðîìûñëàì êàê ê
èñòî÷íèêó ñðåäñòâ ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ.
Ýíåðãè÷íîå ðàçâèòèå ñåëüñêîãî õîçÿéñòâà â Ôèíëÿíäèè ïðèâåëî ê
òîìó, ÷òî ïî ñâîåìó áëàãîñîñòîÿíèþ ôèíñêèå êðåñòüÿíå íàìíîãî îáîãíàëè ñâîèõ âîñòî÷íûõ ñîñåäåé.  çåìñêîì èçäàíèè ïðèâåäåí ñðàâíèòåëüíûé àíàëèç áþäæåòîâ ôèíñêèõ è îëîíåöêèõ êðåñòüÿí, äàþùèé
ÿðêîå ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î ñðàâíèòåëüíî áîëüøåé çàæèòî÷íîñòè ïåðâûõ.
“Åñëè ñäåëàòü ðàñ÷¸ò èìóùåñòâà, – ãîâîðèòñÿ â ýòîì èçäàíèè, – òî
îêàæåòñÿ, ÷òî â ñðåäíåì íà 1 ëèöî, â ñðåäíåì õîçÿéñòâå Îëîíåöêîãî
êðåñòüÿíèíà, âñÿêîãî èìóùåñòâà ïðèõîäèòñÿ íà 230,6 ðóáëåé, â ôèíñêîì ñðåäíåì õîçÿéñòâå íà 493,7 ðóáëåé. Ðàçíèöà, ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì, â
ñêîòå è ðàáî÷åì èíâåíòàðå òîãäà êàê îëîíåöêèé êðåñòüÿíèí ïàøåò
ñîõîé è êîñèò òðàâó êîñîé, ôèíí çàâ¸ë â ñâî¸ì õîçÿéñòâå ïëóã è êîñèëêó”. Åù¸ áîëåå ÿâñòâåííîé áûëà ðàçíèöà ìåæäó öåííîñòüþ èìóùåñòâà çàæèòî÷íûõ êðåñòüÿí – îëîíåöêîå çàæèòî÷íîå õîçÿéñòâî îöåíèâàëîñü (èç ðàñ÷¸òà íà îäíó äóøó) â 303,2 ðóáëÿ, à ôèíñêîå – â 914,5
ðóáëÿ, òî åñòü çàæèòî÷íûé ôèíí áûë áîãà÷å â òðè ðàçà.76 Ãîäîâîé äîõîä â ñðåäíåì ôèíñêîì õîçÿéñòâå òàêæå áûë âäâîå âûøå, ÷åì â îëîíåöêîì: äîõîä ôèííà â öåëîì ñîñòàâëÿë 262 ðóáëÿ, à îëîí÷àíèíà –
135 ðóáëåé.77
76
77
Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. C. 415.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 419.
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Ïðèãðàíè÷íàÿ Êàðåëèÿ ⠓ñèëîâîì ïîëå” Ôèíëÿíäèè
Èòàê, ìîäåðíèçàöèîííûå ïðîöåññû ñåðü¸çíî óãëóáèëè ðàçëè÷èÿ
ìåæäó äâóìÿ Êàðåëèÿìè, óñèëèâ è âûâåäÿ íà ïåðâûé ïëàí èõ ñîöèîýêîíîìè÷åñêóþ ñîñòàâëÿþùóþ. Áîëåå ðàçâèòàÿ, áûñòðî ìîäåðíèçèðóþùàÿ ñâî¸ õîçÿéñòâî ôèíëÿíäñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ ñòàëà èãðàòü âñ¸ áîëåå âàæíóþ ðîëü â æèçíè ïðèëåãàþùèõ ê íåé îáëàñòåé Êàðåëèè ðîññèéñêîé,
âëèÿÿ ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì íà ñèòóàöèþ â çàïàäíîé, ïðèãðàíè÷íîé ÷àñòè
ðåãèîíà. Èìåííî çäåñü, â Êåìñêîì óåçäå Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè è
ïðèëåãàþùèõ ê ãðàíèöå âîëîñòÿõ Îëîíåöêîé Êàðåëèè, “ñèëîâîå ïîëå”
Ôèíëÿíäèè îòðàçèëîñü íà ýâîëþöèè êàðåëüñêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà è ðàçâèòèè íàöèîíàëüíûõ âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé.78
Âàæíåéøèì èòîãîì îïèñàííîãî ðàçâèòèÿ ñîáûòèé ñòàëî óñèëåíèå
ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé çàâèñèìîñòè ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè îò ôèíëÿíäñêîé.
Àâòîð îäíîé èç ðàáîò, ïîñâÿù¸ííûõ õîçÿéñòâåííûì ñâÿçÿì äâóõ Êàðåëèé, íàçâàë Ôèíëÿíäèþ “çîëîòûì äíîì” äëÿ ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè,79 è
ýòà ôîðìóëà î÷åíü òî÷íî îòðàæàåò ïîëîæåíèå äåë. Òðàäèöèîííûì ïðîìûñëîì äëÿ ïðèãðàíè÷íûõ êàðåë, îñîáåííî â Êåìñêîì óåçäå, áûëî êîðîáåéíè÷åñòâî – ðàçíîñíàÿ òîðãîâëÿ íà òåððèòîðèè Ôèíëÿíäèè, êîòîðóþ ìåñòíûå êàðåëû âåëè íà ïðîòÿæåíèè ìíîãèõ âåêîâ.80 Ê êîíöó XIX
âåêà ýòîò ïðîìûñåë ïåðåæèâàë ïåðèîä óïàäêà èç-çà êîíêóðåíöèè ñî
ñòîðîíû ôèíñêèõ êóïöîâ-ëàâî÷íèêîâ è êàçàëîñü, ÷òî êîðîáåéíè÷åñòâî
óæå íå ñìîæåò âîçðîäèòüñÿ, îäíàêî â íà÷àëå XX âåêà íåîæèäàííî íà÷àëñÿ åãî íîâûé ïîäú¸ì. Îí áûë ñâÿçàí ïðåæäå âñåãî ñ ðîñòîì áëàãîÐîññèéñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ íå áûëà îäíîðîäíûì ðåãèîíîì íè â ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì, íè â
êóëüòóðíî-ÿçûêîâîì îòíîøåíèè. Åñëè êîíäîïîæñêèå êàðåëû áûëè â áîëüøîé ñòåïåíè ýêîíîìè÷åñêè îðèåíòèðîâàíû íà Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, âîñòî÷íàÿ è þæíàÿ ÷àñòè
îëîíåöêîé Êàðåëèè – íà Ïåòåðáóðã, òî ïðèãðàíè÷íûå ðàéîíû Îëîíåöêîé è Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèé áûëè òåñíåéøèì îáðàçîì ñâÿçàíû ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé. Èìåííî ýòè
ðåãèîíû ñòàëè êîëûáåëüþ êàðåëüñêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà, è èìåííî î íèõ èä¸ò ðå÷ü â
íàøåé ðàáîòå.
79
Ñì. Dmitri Bazegski. Vienan karjalaisten laukkukauppa. Venäjän ja Suomen
kauppasuhteet 1800-luvulla ja 1900-luvun alussa // Kainuussa ja Vienassa. Näkökulma
naapurusten elämään. Joensuu, 1997. S. 85.
80
Î êîðîáåéíè÷åñòâå è åãî èñòîðèè ñì.: Kauko Joustela. Suomen Venäjän-kauppa
autonomian ajan alkupuoliskolla vv. 1809-65. Historiallisia Tutkimuksia LXII. Lahti,
1963; Mervi Naakka-Korhonen, Maiju Keynäs. Halpa hinta, pitkä matka. Helsinki, 1988;
Tapio Hämynen. Raja ei erottanut – karjalaisen laukkukaupan monta vuosisataa //
Kainuussa ja Vienassa. Näkökulma naapuristen elämään. Studia carelica humanistica
10. Joensuu, 1997. S. 55-75.
78
135
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
ñîñòîÿíèÿ ôèíñêîãî êðåñòüÿíñòâà.81 Êîðîáåéíè÷åñòâî ñòàëî âàæíåéøèì èç ïðîìûñëîâ, äàëåêî îñòàâèâ çà ñîáîé âñå îñòàëüíûå ïî ñòåïåíè
äîõîäíîñòè è êîëè÷åñòâó êðåñòüÿí, â íèõ çàäåéñòâîâàííûõ.
Ðàçíîñíàÿ òîðãîâëÿ, êàê íè îäèí äðóãîé ïðîìûñåë, îðèåíòèðîâàëà
êàðåë íà Ôèíëÿíäèþ – íåâîçìîæíî áûëî áû çàíèìàòüñÿ åþ áåç çíàíèÿ
ôèíñêîãî ÿçûêà, óìåíèÿ ÷èòàòü è ïèñàòü ïî-ôèíñêè è îðèåíòèðîâàòüñÿ â ðåàëèÿõ ôèíñêîé æèçíè. Êîðîáåéíè÷åñòâî ñòàëî âàæíåéøèì êàíàëîì øèðîêîãî ôèíñêîãî âëèÿíèÿ íà æèçíü ðîññèéñêèõ êàðåë. “Ðàçíîñíàÿ òîðãîâëÿ, – îòìå÷àëîñü â àðõàíãåëüñêîì èçäàíèè 1912 ãîäà, –
îòðàæàåòñÿ íà ìèðîâîççðåíèè êàðåëîâ â ñòîðîíó íåáëàãîïðèÿòíóþ äëÿ
íàøåãî íàöèîíàëèçìà è ðåëèãèè”.82 Íåäàðîì íàöèîíàëüíîå êàðåëüñêîå äâèæåíèå, òåñíî ñâÿçàííîå ñ ôèíñêèì âëèÿíèåì, çàðîäèëîñü èìåííî
â Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè, òðàäèöèîííîì êðàå êîðîáåéíèêîâ. ßäðîì âîçíèêøåé â àâãóñòå 1906 ãîäà ïåðâîé êàðåëüñêîé íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêîé îðãàíèçàöèè, Ñîþçà áåëîìîðñêèõ êàðåë, áûëè ïðîæèâàâøèå â Ôèíëÿíäèè
êàðåëüñêèå êóïöû, íà÷àëî êàðüåðû êîòîðûõ áûëî ñâÿçàíî èìåííî ñ
êîðîáåéíè÷åñòâîì.83
Âîîáùå òîðãîâûå ñâÿçè êàðåë ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé ñòàëè âàæíûì ôàêòîðîì, óñóãóáëÿâøèì èõ çàâèñèìîñòü îò çàïàäíîãî ñîñåäà. Æèòåëÿì ïðèãðàíè÷íûõ ðàéîíîâ áûëî íàìíîãî âûãîäíåå è äåøåâëå ïðèîáðåòàòü
ïðîäóêòû è òîâàðû ïåðâîé íåîáõîäèìîñòè â ñîñåäíèõ ôèíñêèõ ñ¸ëàõ,
êóäà îíè äîñòàâëÿëèñü ïî æåëåçíîé äîðîãå, ÷åì ïåðåïðàâëÿòü çà ìíîãèå äåñÿòêè â¸ðñò òå æå ñàìûå ïîêóïêè èç äàë¸êèõ ðîññèéñêèõ ñåëåíèé. Îëîíåöêèé ãóáåðíàòîð Í. Â. Ïðîòàñüåâ ñîîáùàë â Äåïàðòàìåíò
ïîëèöèè, ÷òî “ïîãðàíè÷íîå ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé êàðåëüñêîå íàñåëåíèå Îëîíåöêîãî, Ïåòðîçàâîäñêîãî è Ïîâåíåöêîãî óåçäîâ çà îòñóòñòâèåì íà ãðàíèöå êîðäîíîâ, ïî÷òè âñå ïðåäìåòû ïåðâîé íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïîëó÷àåò â
Ôèíëÿíäèè, ãäå îíè ãîðàçäî äåøåâëå è ãäå èõ ëåã÷å äîñòàòü. Îòòóäà
âûâîçÿò êîôå, ñàõàð, ãðå÷íåâóþ êðóïó, ñïè÷êè, òîïîðû, íîæè, êîíñêóþ ñáðóþ, ìàíóôàêòóðíûé òîâàð è äðóãèå ïðåäìåòû, à â ñåâåðíîé
Äîõîäû êàðåëüñêèõ êîðîáåéíèêîâ ñ 1904 ïî 1914 ã. âûðîñëè â 2,2 ðàçà. Dmitri
Bazegski. Vienan karjalaisten laukkukauppa. S. 85.
82
Í. Ãîëóáöîâ. Êåìñêèé óåçä // Ïàìÿòíàÿ êíèæêà Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè íà 1912
ãîä. Àðõàíãåëüñê, 1912. Ñ. 123.
83
Ñì. îá ýòîì: Raimo Ranta. Vienan karjalaisten liitosta Karjalan sivistysseuraksi v.
1906-1922. Tampere, 1997, èëè: M. Vituhnovskaia. Cultural and political reaction in
Russian Karelia in 1906-1907. State Power, the Orthodox Church, and the “Black
Hundreds” against Karelian Nationalism // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 2001.
Bd. 48. H. 1. S. 24-44.
81
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÷àñòè Ïîâåíåöêîãî óåçäà äàæå è ìóêó”.84 Ìèíèñòåðñòâî ôèíàíñîâ òàê
ðåçþìèðîâàëî ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå îáðàùåíèÿ Ïðîòàñüåâà: “ ñîãëàñíî
óâåäîìëåíèþ îëîíåöêîãî ãóáåðíàòîðà, êàðåëüñêîå íàñåëåíèå ïîñòàâëåíî, â âèäó îòñóòñòâèÿ óäîáíûõ ïóòåé ñîîáùåíèÿ, â ïîëíóþ ýêîíîìè÷åñêóþ çàâèñèìîñòü îò Ôèíëÿíäèè”.85
Âàæíåéøóþ ðîëü ⠓ïðèîáùåíèè” êàðåë ê ôèíñêîìó “ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó ÷óäó” èãðàëà ëåñíàÿ ïðîìûøëåííîñòü. Íàìè óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, ÷òî
Ôèíëÿíäèÿ ñòàëà ê íà÷àëó XX âåêà îäíèì èç ãëàâíûõ ýêñïîðò¸ðîâ îëîíåöêîãî ëåñà. Äëÿ ìíîãèõ ðåãèîíîâ Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè îðãàíèçîâàòü
ýêñïîðò ëåñà â Ôèíëÿíäèþ áûëî, áëàãîäàðÿ ðàçâèòûì ôèíñêèì òðàíñïîðòíûì ñåòÿì, íàìíîãî ïðîùå, ÷åì, ñêàæåì, â Ïåòåðáóðã, íå ãîâîðÿ
óæå î áîëåå îòäàë¸ííûõ ïðîìûøëåííûõ öåíòðàõ.  îñîáåííî âûèãðûøíîì ïîëîæåíèè íàõîäèëèñü êàðåëüñêèå âîëîñòè, ðàñïîëîæåííûå
âäîëü çàïàäíîé ãðàíèöû, êîòîðûå ÿâëÿëè ñîáîþ íåêóþ ìîäåëü âîçìîæíîé ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé êîîïåðàöèè ðîññèéñêîãî ñåâåðî-çàïàäà è Ôèíëÿíäèè. Îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå ÿðêèõ ïðèìåðîâ áûëà Ðåáîëüñêàÿ âîëîñòü,
õîçÿéñòâî êîòîðîé áûëî îðèåíòèðîâàíî íà ïðèãðàíè÷íûå ôèíëÿíäñêèå ðàéîíû è “ïîäñò¸ãíóòî” áëèçîñòüþ ôèíëÿíäñêîé âåòêè æåëåçíîé
äîðîãè è âîçìîæíîñòüþ ðå÷íîãî ñïëàâà ëåñà â Ôèíëÿíäèþ.86 Ñèìïòîìàòè÷íî, ÷òî äî ïîÿâëåíèÿ ôèíñêîé æåëåçíîäîðîæíîé ñòàíöèè â íåïîñðåäñòâåííîé áëèçîñòè ñ Ðåáîëàìè âîëîñòü áûëà îäíîé èç áåäíåéøèõ â Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè. Îäíàêî ñ ïîÿâëåíèåì æåëåçíîé äîðîãè
âñ¸ èçìåíèëîñü êàê ïî âîëøåáñòâó, è ýòîò ìîëíèåíîñíûé ýêîíîìè÷åñêèé ðûâîê êðàñî÷íî îïèñàë î÷åâèäåö, ìåñòíûé ó÷èòåëü. Ïðèâåä¸ì
ôðàãìåíòû èç åãî ñòàòüè:
Íåäàëåêî åù¸ óøëî òî âðåìÿ, êîãäà æèòåëè âîëîñòè åëè õëåá
ñ ïðèìåñüþ ñîñíîâîé êîðû, êîãäà îíè ìàññàìè áåæàëè “çà õëåáóøêîì” â áîëåå áîãàòûå è õëåáíûå ìåñòà ãóáåðíèè. [ ] Çàðàáîòêîâ òîãäà ïî÷òè íèêàêèõ íå áûëî. Äàæå ïðè äåíüãàõ òðóäíî
áûëî äîñòàòü õëåá. Ïóòåé ñîîáùåíèÿ íå ñóùåñòâîâàëî. [ ] ÒåÍÀÐÊ. Ô. 1. Îï. 1. Ä. 102/1. Ë. 32îá. Ïèñüìî ãóáåðíàòîðà Í. Â. Ïðîòàñüåâà â
Äåïàðòàìåíò ïîëèöèè îò 27 ìàðòà 1907 ã.
85
ÍÀÐÊ. Ô. 1. Îï. 1. Ä. 106/61. Ë. 128. Ìåðîïðèÿòèÿ, ïðåäïðèíÿòûå Îëîíåöêèì
ãóáåðíàòîðîì òàéíûì ñîâåòíèêîì Í.Â. Ïðîòàñüåâûì äëÿ ñêîðåéøåãî ïðîâåäåíèÿ
æåëåçíîé äîðîãè îò Ïåòðîçàâîäñêà äî Ëåíäåð è âîîáùå äëÿ ïîäíÿòèÿ ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ïîëîæåíèÿ êàðåëüñêîãî êðàÿ.
86
Èñòîðèè Ðåáîë öåëèêîì ïîñâÿùåíî èçäàíèå: Heikki Tarma (Eds.). Aunuksen Repola.
Joensuu, 2001, à òàêæå: Þ. À. Æóêîâ, Í. À. Êîðàáë¸â, Â. Ã. Ìàêóðîâ, Ì. Â. Ïóëüêèí.
Ðåáîëüñêèé êðàé. Èñòîðè÷åñêèé î÷åðê. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1999.
84
137
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
ïåðü êàðòèíà ðåçêî èçìåíèëàñü. Ïî äåâñòâåííûì ëåñàì çàñòó÷àë
òîïîð, åæåãîäíî âàëÿ òûñÿ÷è äåðåâüåâ; óãðþìóþ òèøèíó ëåñà
ñòàëè íàðóøàòü ÷àñòûå âûñòðåëû âèíòîâêè, â îç¸ðàõ ñòàëà ëîâèòüñÿ ðûáà; áîëîòà ñòàëè îñóøàòü è íà èõ ìåñòå âûðàñòàþò ñåíîêîñíûå ëóãà. Ìàññàìè ñòàë ñïëàâëÿòüñÿ ëåñ â Ôèíëÿíäèþ, âîçàìè îòïðàâëÿåòñÿ äè÷ü è ðûáà è ïðåâîñõîäíîå “÷óõîíñêîå” ìàñëî êàðåëüñêîãî ïðîèçâîäñòâà. Ïðèîáîäðèëñÿ ðåáîëåö Õëåá âîò
òîëüêî ïëîõî ðîäèòñÿ Íó, äà ýòî íè÷åãî! Áûëè áû äåíüãè òîëüêî (à îíè åñòü, áëàãî çàðàáîòêè íà ðåäêîñòü õîðîøèå), à õëåá êóïèòü ìîæíî è íåäîðîãî è íåäàëåêî – â ñîñåäíåì ôèíñêîì ñåëå 87
Ðåáîëüñêàÿ “ýêîíîìè÷åñêàÿ ìîäåëü” âûãëÿäåëà ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì. Ñ 1890-õ ãîäîâ ëåñîçàãîòîâêè çäåñü âåëà èçâåñòíàÿ ôèíñêàÿ ôèðìà “Ãóòöàéò è Êî”. Ëåñ ñïëàâëÿëñÿ ÷åðåç ñèñòåìó ðåê è îç¸ð â Ôèíëÿíäèþ. Ëåñíîé ïðîìûñåë äàâàë ñòàáèëüíóþ è õîðîøî îïëà÷èâàåìóþ
ðàáîòó ìåñòíûì êðåñòüÿíàì, ïðè÷¸ì ðàáî÷èõ ðóê íå õâàòàëî è â Ðåáîëû òÿíóëèñü ëåñíûå ðàáî÷èå èç Ôèíëÿíäèè. Òîò æå àâòîð îòìå÷àë: “Ëåñà
[ ] ïðîäà¸òñÿ åæåãîäíî òàê ìíîãî, ÷òî äàëåêî íå õâàòàåò ìåñòíûõ ðàáî÷èõ ðóê, è èç Ôèíëÿíäèè ÿâëÿþòñÿ è íàâîäíÿþò âîëîñòü ñîòíè ôèííî⠖ âîç÷èêîâ, ðóáùèêîâ è ñïëàâùèêîâ”.88 Ôèíñêèå ïðîìûøëåííèêè
ïëàòèëè ðàáî÷èì ïðèáëèçèòåëüíî â äâà ðàçà áîëüøå, ÷åì ðîññèéñêèå,
äåéñòâîâàâøèå â äðóãèõ ÷àñòÿõ îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ.89
Íåòðóäíî ïðåäñòàâèòü, êàêîâà áûëà ðåàêöèÿ ìåñòíûõ êàðåëüñêèõ
êðåñòüÿí íà òàêèå áëàãîäàòíûå ïåðåìåíû â ñâîåé æèçíè, êîòîðûå îíè
ñîâåðøåííî ñïðàâåäëèâî ñâÿçûâàëè ñ ñîñåäíåé Ôèíëÿíäèåé. Ðåáîëû
ñòàëè êàê áû îïûòíûì ïîëèãîíîì, íåêèì ïîäîáèåì “ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé
çîíû”, íà ïðèìåðå êîòîðîé êàðåëàì áûëî íàãëÿäíî ïîêàçàíî, íàñêîëüêî ïîëåçíîé áûëà áû õîçÿéñòâåííàÿ êîîïåðàöèÿ ñ ôèíëÿíäñêîé Êàðåëèåé, à òî è ñëèÿíèå ñ íåé.90 Ýêîíîìè÷åñêîå òÿãîòåíèå ê Ôèíëÿíäèè
Ñ. Ì. Ôåñâèòÿíèíîâ. Íà ãðàíèöå Ôèíëÿíäèè. (Î÷åðê) // Âåñòíèê Îëîíåöêîãî
ãóáåðíñêîãî çåìñòâà. 1911. ¹ 14. C. 10.
88
Òàì æå. C. 10-12.
89
Ðàáî÷èå íà ëåñíûõ è ñïëàâíûõ ðàáîòàõ ïîëó÷àëè îò 1,3 äî 1,65 ðóáëåé â äåíü.
(Þ. À. Æóêîâ, Í. À. Êîðàáë¸â, Â. Ã. Ìàêóðîâ, Ì. Â. Ïóëüêèí. Ðåáîëüñêèé êðàé.
Èñòîðè÷åñêèé î÷åðê. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1999. C. 12).
90
Êðîìå Ðåáîëüñêîé âîëîñòè, ïðèìåðû ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé èíòåãðàöèè ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé
ïîêàçûâàëè ïðèãðàíè÷íûå âîëîñòè Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè, îäíàêî ïî÷òè ïîëíîå
îòñóòñòâèå òðàíñïîðòíûõ ñâÿçåé ñ ðîññèéñêîé ñòîðîíû ñèëüíî ñâÿçûâàëî ðàçâèòèå
îáîþäíîé òîðãîâëè. Òî æå ìîæíî ñêàçàòü è î ïðèãðàíè÷íûõ âîëîñòÿõ Îëîíåöêîãî
óåçäà – çäåñü “ñíîøåíèÿ ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé” èìåëè “áîëåå ñêðîìíûå ðàçìåðû”.
87
138
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
çäåñü áûëî îãðîìíûì è ïîñòåïåííî îõâàòûâàëî âñå ñòîðîíû æèçíè
ðåáîëüöåâ. Òåñíîå âçàèìîäåéñòâèå ñ ôèíñêèì áûòîì, âëèÿíèå ôèíñêîé êóëüòóðû, îñîçíàíèå âûñîêîãî óðîâíÿ ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ðàçâèòèÿ
Ôèíëÿíäèè – âñ¸ ýòî ïðèâîäèëî ê òîìó, ÷òî ìåñòíûå êàðåëû âñ¸ áîëåå
îùóùàëè ñåáÿ “ýòíè÷åñêèìè áðàòüÿìè” ôèííîâ è ñòðåìèëèñü ê ñáëèæåíèþ ñ íèìè. Èäåÿ “Âåëèêîé Ôèíëÿíäèè”, ïîäêðåïë¸ííàÿ åñòåñòâåííûì ñòðåìëåíèåì ïðèìêíóòü ê áîëåå áîãàòîìó è ñèëüíîìó ñîñåäó, ïîäñïóäíî è íåîñîçíàííî ïðîíèêàëà â ñîçíàíèå êàðåë. Âåñü óêëàä æèçíè
ðåáîëüöåâ ñòàíîâèëñÿ ïîñòåïåííî ôèíñêèì. Â âîëîñòè õîäèëà ôèíñêàÿ ìîíåòà, ìíîãèå êðåñòüÿíå âëàäåëè ôèíñêîé ãðàìîòîé ïðè òîì, ÷òî
ìàëî êòî óìåë ÷èòàòü ïî-ðóññêè, ïî ôèíñêèì îáðàçöàì îñóùåñòâëÿëàñü ìåëèîðàöèÿ çåìåëü è ñîçäàâàëèñü õóòîðñêèå õîçÿéñòâà, äàæå îäåâàëèñü ðåáîëüöû íà ôèíñêèé ëàä è ïî âíåøíåìó âèäó ìàëî îòëè÷àëèñü “îò ñîñåäà ôèííà”.91
Êàçàëîñü áû, ïðèìåð Ðåáîëüñêîé “ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé çîíû” äîëæåí áûë
âäîõíîâèòü ìåñòíûå âëàñòè – âåäü èì íàãëÿäíî áûë ïîêàçàí ïóòü, ñëåäóÿ êîòîðîìó îíè ìîãëè áû ïîñòåïåííî äîáèòüñÿ ðàçâèòèÿ êðàÿ. Ïðè÷¸ì ôîðìàëüíî êîîïåðàöèÿ ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé íå áûëà áû ÷ðåâàòà ïîëèòè÷åñêèì îòðûâîì êàðåëüñêèõ çåìåëü îò Ðîññèè, ïîñêîëüêó Ôèíëÿíäèÿ
ñàìà òîæå áûëà ÷àñòüþ èìïåðèè. Îáà ðåãèîíà – è Ôèíëÿíäèÿ è, â áóäóùåì – ïðîöâåòàþùàÿ Êàðåëèÿ, îñòàâàëèñü áû â ñîñòàâå Ðîññèè, ÿâëÿÿñü ïðè ýòîì å¸ íàèáîëåå ðàçâèòûìè ÷àñòÿìè. Îäíàêî èìåííî òàêîé
ïîâîðîò ñîáûòèé áîëåå âñåãî ñòðàøèë èìïåðñêèõ äåÿòåëåé. Âåäü ïî
íåîôèöèàëüíîé êëàññèôèêàöèè ðîññèéñêèõ èíîðîäöåâ, ñëîæèâøåéñÿ
â óìàõ “âëàñòü ïðåäåðæàùèõ”,92 ôèííû (íàðÿäó ñ ïîëÿêàìè) çàíèìàëè
ïî÷òè ìàðãèíàëüíûå ïîçèöèè, ñ÷èòàëèñü ïðèçíàííûìè “âðàãàìè” èìïåðèè è, áîëåå òîãî, óãðîçîé å¸ öåëîñòíîñòè.  ïðàâûõ èçäàíèÿõ, êîòîÊðåñòüÿíå ïîãðàíè÷íûõ äåðåâåíü Ïîðîñîçåðñêîé âîëîñòè ïîêóïàëè â ïðèõîäå
Èëîìàíñè ãóáåðíèè Êóîïèî ïðåäìåòû êðåñòüÿíñêîãî îáèõîäà, ñáûâàÿ òóäà ðûáó,
äè÷ü, ìàñëî. Òîðãîâëÿ íå íîñèëà ñòîëü ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà, êàê â Ðåáîëàõ,
è ïîñòåïåííî øëà íà óáûëü (Ìàòåðèàëû ïî ñòàòèñòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó îïèñàíèþ
Îëîíåöêîãî êðàÿ. C. 359).
91
Òàì æå. C. 10-14.
92
Ñì. îá ýòîì: Àíäðåàñ Êàïïåëåð. Ìàçåïèíöû, ìàëîðîññû, õîõëû: óêðàèíöû â
ýòíè÷åñêîé èåðàðõèè Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè // Îòâ. Ðåä. À. È. Ìèëëåð, Â. Ô. Ðåïðèíöåâ, Á. Í. Ôëîðÿ. Ðîññèÿ – Óêðàèíà: èñòîðèÿ âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé. Ì., 1997, à
òàêæå: John W. Slocum. Who, and When, Were the Inorodtsy? The Evolution of the
Category of “Aliens” in Imperial Russia // The Russian Review. 1998. Vol. 57. No.2.
Pp. 173-190.
139
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
ðûå ñ÷èòàëè ñâîåé ïðèâèëåãèåé ïðÿìî âûñêàçûâàòü òå ñóæäåíèÿ ïî
íàöèîíàëüíîìó âîïðîñó, êîòîðûå íå ñìåëè îòêðûòî îçâó÷èâàòü âëàñòè, âñòðå÷àëèñü, íàïðèìåð, òàêèå ïàññàæè: “ òàêàÿ çàñòàðåëàÿ áîëÿ÷êà, êàê âîïðîñ ôèíëÿíäñêèé” óãðîæàåò “ãàíãðåíîçíûì çàðàæåíèåì
âñåìó íàøåìó ñåâåðó ”.93 Ñîîòâåòñâåííî, áëàãîòâîðíîå ýêîíîìè÷åñêîå âëèÿíèå Ôèíëÿíäèè íà ïðèãðàíè÷íûå êàðåëüñêèå ðàéîíû îòíþäü
íå ðàäîâàëî, à, íàîáîðîò, òðåâîæèëî êàê ìåñòíûõ, òàê è ñòîëè÷íûõ
ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé âëàñòè. Îá ýòîé îïàñíîñòè íåîäíîêðàòíî ïèñàë â ðàçëè÷íûå ïåòåðáóðãñêèå èíñòàíöèè îëîíåöêèé ãóáåðíàòîð Í. Â. Ïðîòàñüåâ. Îí ïîä÷¸ðêèâàë, ÷òî “ïðåèìóùåñòâî Ôèíëÿíäèè äà¸ò îòñóòñòâèå
â Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè óäîáíûõ ïóòåé ñîîáùåíèÿ è ïðîèñõîäÿùèé îò
ñåãî çàñòîé â ïðîìûøëåííîñòè è äîðîãîâèçíà âñåõ æèçíåííûõ ïðîäóêòîâ”, êîòîðûå êàðåëàì äåøåâëå è óäîáíåå ïðèîáðåòàòü çà çàïàäíîé
ãðàíèöåé. Ãóáåðíàòîð ñ÷èòàë íåîáõîäèìûì ýêîíîìè÷åñêè ïåðåîðèåíòèðîâàòü êàðåë ñ Ôèíëÿíäèè íà Ðîññèþ, “ïîäíÿòü áëàãîñîñòîÿíèå ñåëüñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè âîîáùå è â ÷àñòíîñòè êàðåëüñêîãî è òåì óñòðàíèòü çàâèñèìîñòü åãî îò Ôèíëÿíäèè â ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì
îòíîøåíèè ”, “ïðèâÿçà┠êàðåë ê öåíòðàëüíûì îáëàñòÿì ñòðàíû æåëåçíîé äîðîãîé, êîòîðàÿ “çàêðåïèëà áû ýòîò êðàé ê Ðîññèè ïóò¸ì ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî çàâîåâàíèÿ ”.94 Èíûìè ñëîâàìè, Ïðîòàñüåâ, êàê è ìíîãèå åãî åäèíîìûøëåííèêè, âêëþ÷àÿ è ãîðÿ÷î èíòåðåñîâàâøåãîñÿ “êàðåëüñêèì âîïðîñîì” Ï. À. Ñòîëûïèíà,95 ïðåäëàãàë óñèëèòü ðîññèéñêóþ ýêîíîìè÷åñêóþ ýêñïàíñèþ â Êàðåëèþ â ïðîòèâîâåñ ôèíñêîé.
Âîîáùå ñòîèò ïîä÷åðêíóòü, ÷òî íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêè ìûñëÿùèå ìåñòíûå äåÿòåëè (ïðåæäå âñåãî ãóáåðíàòîðû Îëîíåöêîé è Àðõàíãåëüñêîé ãóáåðíèé) óìåëî ðàçûãðûâàëè êàðòó “ïàíôèíñêîé óãðîçû” äëÿ “âûÏî îêðàèíàì // Ìîñêîâñêèå âåäîìîñòè, 31 ìàÿ 1908 ã. C. 1.
ÍÀÐÊ. Ô. 1. Îï. 1. Ä. 102/1. Ë. 32îá.–33. Ïèñüìî ãóáåðíàòîðà Í. Â. Ïðîòàñüåâà
â Äåïàðòàìåíò ïîëèöèè îò 27 ìàðòà 1907 ã.
95
Íàïðèìåð, Ñòîëûïèí äåÿòåëüíî ïîääåðæàë ïðîñüáó àðõàíãåëüñêèõ âëàñòåé î
ñêîðåéøåì ñîîðóæåíèè äîðîãè ìåæäó êàðåëüñêèìè è ðóññêèìè ðàéîíàìè Êåìñêîãî
óåçäà. Ïîñêîëüêó ñàìà ãóáåðíèÿ íå îáëàäàëà íåîáõîäèìîé ñóììîé (438.746 ðóáëåé),
ïðîñüáà î ôèíàíñèðîâàíèè áûëà àäðåñîâàíà Ìèíèñòåðñòâó âíóòðåííèõ äåë. Ê
íåé ïðèñîåäèíèëñÿ ñàì Ñòîëûïèí, êîòîðûé íàïðàâèë ïðîøåíèå ìèíèñòðó
ôèíàíñîâ, ïðèñîâîêóïèâ, ÷òî óñòðîéñòâî ãðóíòîâîé äîðîãè ñòîèò “â ðÿäó
ïðîåêòèðóåìûõ ìåð áîðüáû ñ ïàíôèíñêèì âëèÿíèåì â Àðõàíãåëüñêîé Êàðåëèè”.
Ïðåêðàñíî ñîçíàâàÿ, ÷òî âñþ ñóììó ïîëó÷èòü âðÿä ëè áóäåò âîçìîæíî, Ñòîëûïèí
ïðîñèë Êîêîâöîâà îòïóñòèòü “õîòÿ áû 10 òûñÿ÷ ðóáëåé”. Íî è ýòó ñóììó
ìèíèñòåðñòâî ôèíàíñîâ íå ñî÷ëî âîçìîæíûì âûäåëèòü, äàæå íåâçèðàÿ íà ïðîñüáó
ìîãóùåñòâåííîãî ïðåìüåð-ìèíèñòðà (ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 565. Îï. 5. Ä. 19584. Ë. 51).
93
94
140
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
áèâàíèÿ” äîïîëíèòåëüíûõ ñðåäñòâ è ïîìîùè èç öåíòðà.96 Îäíàêî òÿãàòüñÿ â ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì îòíîøåíèè ñî ñâîåé áîëåå ðàçâèòîé àâòîíîìèåé Ðîññèè áûëî íå ïî ñèëàì. Óïîìÿíóòàÿ óæå íàìè äëèòåëüíàÿ òÿæáà ïî ïîâîäó ïðîâåäåíèÿ æåëåçíîé äîðîãè â Îëîíåöêóþ ãóáåðíèþ áûëà
íàèáîëåå ÿðêèì è ïîêàçàòåëüíûì ýïèçîäîì ýòîé áîðüáû – îäíàêî è
îíà íå äàëà íèêàêèõ ðåçóëüòàòîâ. Èìïåðèÿ ïîñòîÿííî è áåçíàä¸æíî
îòñòàâàëà îò ñâîåé îêðàèíû.
Õîòÿ âëàñòü ïðåäåðæàùèå áîëåå âñåãî îïàñàëèñü ïðèòÿãàòåëüíîãî
âëèÿíèÿ çàïàäíîãî ñîñåäà íà óìû è äóøè ðîññèéñêèõ êàðåë, ïðèìåðû
òàêîãî âëèÿíèÿ ê íà÷àëó ÕÕ âåêà âñòðå÷àëèñü âñ¸ ÷àùå. Ñóùåñòâóþò
íåìíîãî÷èñëåííûå, íî óáåäèòåëüíûå ñâèäåòåëüñòâà òîãî, ñ êàêèì èíòåðåñîì ïðèãðàíè÷íûå êàðåëüñêèå êðåñòüÿíå îòíîñèëèñü ê ïðèìåòàì
íîâîãî â áûòó è æèçíè ôèíñêèõ êàðåë, êàê áëèçêî ê ñåðäöó ïðèíèìàëè
îíè ýëåìåíòû ìîäåðíèçàöèè â õîçÿéñòâå ñîñåäåé, ñâèäåòåëüñòâà áëàãîóñòðîéñòâà è ïðîñâåù¸ííîñòè èõ æèçíè. “Ôèíñêèå êàðåëû, – ïèñàë
íåêèé “ðóññêèé êàðåë” â 1908 ã., – íàìíîãî îïåðåäèëè ðóññêèõ, õîòü è
æèâóò ñîâñåì ðÿäîì. Õîðîøî óñòðîåí áûò ôèíñêèõ êàðåë. Âåçäå øêîëû, áèáëèîòåêè, áëàãîäàðÿ ÷åìó áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü íàðîäà ãðàìîòíà.97 Ó
íèõ õîðîøî âåä¸òñÿ ñåëüñêîå õîçÿéñòâî, îáðàáàòûâàþòñÿ ïîëÿ, âûñóøèâàþòñÿ è çàñåâàþòñÿ áîëîòà, ïðîöâåòàåò ñêîòîâîäñòâî, ðåì¸ñëà, õîðîøèå äîðîãè. Âñ¸ ýòî ó ôèíñêèõ êàðåë ïîñòàâëåíî òîëüêî ïîòîìó, ÷òî
ó íèõ ðàñïðîñòðàíåíà ôèíëÿíäñêàÿ êyëüòópa.”98
96
Ðàçäóâàíèå “ïàíôèíñêîé” îïàñíîñòè áûëî âåñüìà âûãîäíî âëàñòü ïðåäåðæàùèì
íà ìåñòàõ è ïîìîãàëî ðåøàòü ñâîè ïðîáëåìû. Ïîýòîìó íåðåäêî â ïóáëèêàöèÿõ è
çàïèñêàõ î “ïàíôèíñêîé” óãðîçå ïîâòîðÿëèñü è âàðüèðîâàëèñü îäíè è òå æå, ïðè÷¸ì
÷àñòî óñòàðåâøèå, ñâåäåíèÿ, ñàìè ôàêòû ðàçäóâàëèñü è èì ïðèäàâàëîñü ãîðàçäî áîëåå
óãðîæàþùåå çâó÷àíèå. Ñëåäóåò ó÷èòûâàòü, ÷òî óæå ñ 1908 ã. ðåàëüíàÿ “ïàíôèíñêàÿ
ïðîïàãàíäà” â êàðåëüñêèõ ðàéîíàõ ïðàêòè÷åñêè ïðåêðàòèëàñü, ò.ê. êàæäûé “ïðîïàãàíäèñò” è äàæå äîñòàâùèê èëè ïîëó÷àòåëü ãàçåò èç Ôèíëÿíäèè ïðåñëåäîâàëñÿ ïîëèöèåé âïëîòü äî àðåñòà. Òàê ÷òî â êà÷åñòâå “ïàíôèíñêîé ïðîïàãàíäû” ðàññìàòðèâàëèñü â îñíîâíîì ïóáëèêàöèè â ôèíñêèõ èçäàíèÿõ, íîñèâøèå â òî âðåìÿ, äåéñòâèòåëüíî, äîñòàòî÷íî àãðåññèâíûé àíòèðóññêèé õàðàêòåð.
97
 Ôèíëÿíäèè â 1910 ã. áûëî 0,6 % íåãðàìîòíûõ (ò. å. íå óìåþùèõ ÷èòàòü è
ïèñàòü), à ñðåäè êàðåë Îëîíåöêîé ãóáåðíèè ÷èñëî ãðàìîòíûõ ñîñòàâëÿëî ëèøü
12,9 %. Ñì. Suomen Tilastollinen Vuosikirja. Uusi sarja. Neljastoista vuosikerta. 1916.
Helsinki, 1917. S. 38, 51; Îëîíåöêàÿ ãóáåðíèÿ. Ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèé ñïðàâî÷íèê.
Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1913. C. 34.
98
Ðóññêèé êàðåë. Çàìåòêè êàðåëà // Oëîíåöêèå ãóáåðíñêèå âåäîìîñòè. 1908. ¹ 64.
14 èþíÿ. C. 1. Íåëüçÿ íå îòìåòèòü â ñâÿçè ñ ïðèâåäåííîé öèòàòîé, ÷òî, õîòÿ ýòà
õàðàêòåðèñòèêà è âåðíà â öåëîì, ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó ðàçíûìè ðåãèîíàìè ôèíëÿíäñêîé
Êàðåëèè áûëè âåñüìà çíà÷èòåëüíû.
141
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
Ïðîâîäèâøèé èñïîäâîëü îïðîñ ìåñòíûõ æèòåëåé çåìñêèé íà÷àëüíèê êàðåëüñêîãî ðåãèîíà ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàë, ÷òî âî âñåõ ðàçãîâîðàõ çâó÷àëà “òàéíàÿ íîòêà çàâèñòè” ê Ôèíëÿíäèè: “òàìîøíèé íàðîä æèâ¸ò
÷èùå, áîãà÷å è äàæå îáðàçîâàííåå, ÷åì ðóññêèå ”99 Îáðàçöîì äëÿ
ïðèãðàíè÷íîãî íàñåëåíèÿ Êàðåëèè ñòàëà äàæå àíòèàëêîãîëüíàÿ ïîëèòèêà, ïðîâîäèâøàÿñÿ â Ôèíëÿíäèè. Æåíùèíû ñåëà Ðåáîëû â ñâî¸ì
ïðèãîâîðå ïðîòèâ âèííîé ëàâêè ïèñàëè: “Ñïàñèòå Ðåáîëû îò ëàâêè,
‘íðàâñòâåííîé ñìåðòè’. Âåäü â Ôèíëÿíäèè ýòî ñäåëàíî è ìû æåíùèíû
ãîðäèìñÿ ñâîèìè òîâàðêàìè – ôèíêàìè”.100 Îëîíåöêèé ãóáåðíàòîð,
ïðåïðîâîæäàÿ ýòî ïðîøåíèå â Äåïàðòàìåíò ïîëèöèè, îòìå÷àåò, ÷òî ýòî
“îäèí èç ïðèìåðîâ òîãî âëèÿíèÿ íà ýòîò îòäàë¸ííûé êðàé, êîòîðîå íà
íåãî îêàçûâàåò áëèçëåæàùàÿ Ôèíëÿíäèÿ.
Õàðàêòåðíà ññûëêà íà
òîâàðîê-ôèíîê; èç ýòîãî ìîæíî çàêëþ÷èòü, ÷òî êàðåëû ñ èíòåðåñîì
ñëåäÿò çà õîäîì îáùåñòâåííîé æèçíè ôèííîâ è ñòàðàþòñÿ èì ïîäðàæàòü”.101
Ôèíñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ ñòàíîâèëàñü äëÿ ðîññèéñêèõ êàðåë âñ¸ ïðèâëåêàòåëüíåå. Áëàãîóñòðîåííàÿ æèçíü èõ ñîïëåìåííèêîâ íàãëÿäíî äåìîíñòðèðîâàëà, êàêèì ìîã áû ñòàòü èõ ñîáñòâåííûé êðàé áåç ìåëî÷íîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé îïåêè, ñ äðóãèìè æèçíåííûìè óñòàíîâëåíèÿìè è çàêîíàìè, à âîçìîæíî, è ïîä íåïîñðåäñòâåííûì ðóêîâîäñòâîì ôèíñêèõ âëàñòåé. “ Ôèíëÿíäèè êàðåëû âñþäó âèäÿò ñëåäû áëàãîóñòðîéñòâà æèçíè, – ñ áåñïîêîéñòâîì îòìå÷àëîñü â ñòàòüå íà÷àëà âåêà, – à âåðíóâøèñü
äîìîé, â ñâîþ Êàðåëèþ, òîëüêî òåðïÿò ëèøåíèÿ äà íåäîñòàòîê, à ýòî â
ñâîþ î÷åðåäü ëåãêî ïðèâîäèò ê êðèòèêå ñâîèõ ïîðÿäêîâ è íåäîâîëüñòâó”.102 Ïðèâîäèëî ýòî íå òîëüêî ê êðèòèêå è íåäîâîëüñòâó, íî è ê
îòòîðæåíèþ êàðåë îò ðóññêèõ âëàñòåé, íåñïîñîáíûõ áëàãîóñòðîèòü èõ
æèçíü, è ê ïîäñïóäíîìó æåëàíèþ èäåíòèôèöèðîâàòüñÿ ñ “ôèíñêèìè
áðàòüÿìè”. Òàê ñîöèî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèé “ðàçëîì” àêòèâèçèðîâàë ñåïàðàòèñòñêèå íàñòðîåíèÿ, ñòàë êàòàëèçàòîðîì ïðîöåññà ýòíî-íàöèîíàëüíîé ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè.
Êîíêðåòíûé õàðàêòåð êàðåëüñêîé ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè íåâîçìîæíî
îïðåäåëèòü îäíîçíà÷íî – ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, êîðïóñ èñòî÷íèêîâ, íàõîäÿùèõñÿ â íàøåì ðàñïîðÿæåíèè, íè÷òîæíî ìàë, à ñ äðóãîé, îïðåäåëåÍÀÐÊ. Ô. 1. Îï. 1. Ä. 106/61. Ë. 55îá. Ïðåäñòàâëåíèå çåìñêîãî íà÷àëüíèêà IV
ó÷àñòêà Ïîâåíåöêîãî óåçäà ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðó Ïðîòàñüåâó îò 26 àâãóñòà 1908 ã.
100
ÍÀÐÊ. Ô. 1. Îï. 1. Ä. 102/2. Ë. 113îá, 114.
101
Òàì æå. Ë. 116, 116îá.
102
N. Âîêíàâîëîöêèé ïðèõîä // Àðõàíãåëüñêèå åïàðõèàëüíûå âåäîìîñòè. 1908. ¹
5. C. 139.
99
142
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
íèå ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè íåêîåãî ñîöèóìà ÿâëÿåòñÿ âîîáùå îäíîé èç
íàèáîëåå ñëîæíûõ çàäà÷ äëÿ èñòîðèêà. Êàê ñïðàâåäëèâî îòìåòèë Ýðèê
Õîáñáàóì (Eric Hobsbawm), “îáúåêò êîëëåêòèâíîé ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè ëþäè âûáèðàëè ñîâñåì íå òàê, êàê âûáèðàþò îíè áîòèíêè, çíàÿ,
÷òî áîëüøå îäíîé ïàðû çà îäèí ðàç íàäåòü íåâîçìîæíî. Îíè èìåþò
ðàçëè÷íûå ïðèâÿçàííîñòè, ñèìïàòèè è îáúåêòû ëîÿëüíîñòè îäíîâðåìåííî, â òîì ÷èñëå è â íàöèîíàëüíîé ñôåðå ”103 Õîáñáàóì êîíñòàòèðóåò, ÷òî ïðîáëåìà âûáîðà èäåíòè÷íîñòè âîçíèêàåò òîëüêî òîãäà, êîãäà îäíà èç ïðèâÿçàííîñòåé âñòóïàåò â ïðîòèâîðå÷èå ñ äðóãîé (èëè äðóãèìè). Òàê è ïðîèçîøëî ñ êàðåëàìè – îùóùàâøèå ñåáÿ äî ïîðû äî
âðåìåíè îäíîâðåìåííî è íàñëåäíèêàìè êàðåëî-ôèíñêîé êóëüòóðû, è
îñîáûì êàðåëüñêèì ýòíîñîì, è ïðàâîñëàâíûìè, êàê ðóññêèå, è ïîääàííûìè Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè – îíè âäðóã îñîçíàëè íåîáõîäèìîñòü
ñäåëàòü âûáîð ìåæäó ýòèìè ðàçíûìè èäåíòè÷íîñòÿìè. Óñòîè èõ ìèðà
çàøàòàëèñü, Ôèíëÿíäèÿ âñòóïèëà â ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèå ñ Ðîññèåé è îäíîâðåìåííî ïðèîáðåëà äëÿ íèõ îñîáóþ ïðèâëåêàòåëüíîñòü, ðóññêèå âëàñòè, íàïðîòèâ, îêàçàëèñü íåñïîñîáíûìè âûâåñòè êðàé èç ñîñòîÿíèÿ
çàòÿæíîãî êðèçèñà. Ðåâîëþöèÿ, êîòîðàÿ, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ïðåðâàëà
ïðîöåññ ýâîëþöèè èäåíòè÷íîñòè êàðåë, ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû äàëà èì âîçìîæíîñòü âïåðâûå îòêðûòî ìàíèôåñòèðîâàòü íàöèîíàëüíûå è ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ïðèñòðàñòèÿ è òåì ñàìûì ïîêàçàëà âñþ ñëîæíîñòü ñèòóàöèè
â, òàê ñêàçàòü, ïðåïàðèðîâàííîì âèäå.
Ðîññèéñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ è “Âåëèêàÿ Ôèíëÿíäèÿ”
Ìû óæå ãîâîðèëè íà ýòèõ ñòðàíèöàõ, ÷òî ôèíñêèå íàöèîíàëüíûå
àêòèâèñòû îòíîñèëèñü ê ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè êàê ê èððåäåíòå. Ýðíåñò
Ãåëëíåð (Ernest Gellner) îòìå÷àë, ÷òî â èñòîðèè ñóùåñòâóåò íåñêîëüêî
ñïîñîáî⠓ðàñòâîðèòü” èððåäåíòó ⠓áàçîâîé” íàöèîíàëüíîé îáùíîñòè, îäèí èç êîòîðûõ – “èçìåíÿòü ëþäåé, ïðèâèâàÿ èì íîâóþ êóëüòóðó Îòïðàâíîé òî÷êîé ìîæåò áûòü â äàííîì ñëó÷àå êàêîé-òî äèàëåêò
èëè êóëüòóðà, áëèçêàÿ ê òîé, êîòîðóþ èì ïðåäñòîèò îñâîèòü... Ïðîöåññ...
ìîæåò îñóùåñòâëÿòüñÿ ñàìîäåÿòåëüíûìè êóëüòóðíûìè àêòèâèñòàìè,
íå çàâèñÿùèìè îò âëàñòåé è äàæå äåéñòâóþùèìè âðàçðåç ñ èõ óêàçàíèÿìè”.104 Ôèíëÿíäöû äåéñòâîâàëè òî÷íî ïî ýòîé ñõåìå: óñèëèâàÿ â êàÝðèê Õîáñáàóì. Íàöèè è íàöèîíàëèçì ïîñëå 1780 ãîäà. ÑÏá., 1998. C. 196-197.
Ýðíåñò Ãåëëíåð. Ïðèøåñòâèå íàöèîíàëèçìà. Ìèôû íàöèè è êëàññà // Íàöèè è
íàöèîíàëèçì. Ì., 2002. Ñ. 166-167.
103
104
143
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
ðåëàõ ôèííî-óãîðñêóþ èäåíòè÷íîñòü, ïðèâëåêàÿ èõ ýêîíîìè÷åñêè è
êóëüòóðíî íà ñâîþ ñòîðîíó, ïîä÷¸ðêèâàÿ èõ îò÷óæäåíèå îò Ðîññèè,
îíè ñòðåìèëèñü ïðèâèòü êàðåëàì ìûñëü î òîì, ÷òî îíè ÿâëÿþòñÿ ÷àñòüþ áîëüøîé ôèíñêîé íàöèè. Ýòè ïîïûòêè èìåëè íåêîòîðûé óñïåõ –
÷àñòü êàðåëüñêèõ êóïöîâ, òåñíî ñâÿçàííûõ ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé, à òàêæå ÷àñòü
íàðîæäàâøåéñÿ êàðåëüñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè íà÷èíàëè â ïîëíîé ìåðå
îùóùàòü ñåáÿ ôèííàìè. Íàïðèìåð, îäèí èç ñîçäàòåëåé Ñîþçà áåëîìîðñêèõ êàðåë, êóïåö Ïààâî Àõàâà, â ðå÷è, ïðîèçíåñ¸ííîé ïî ïîâîäó
ãîäîâùèíû Ñîþçà, ñêàçàë, ÷òî åñëè ðàíüøå îí è òàêèå æå, êàê îí, êàðåëüñêèå êóïöû “îêàçàëèñü áåç îòå÷åñòâà, áåç ìåñòà òàì è çäåñü”, ïîñêîëüêó â Ôèíëÿíäèè èõ çâàëè “ðþññÿ”,105 à â Ðîññèè – “÷óõíàìè”, òî
òåïåðü îíè “ïîíèìàþò, ÷òî îíè ôèííû, ÷òî îíè ïðèíàäëåæàò ê Ôèíëÿíäèè, ÷òî èõ çåìëÿ ïðèíàäëåæèò ê íåé, ÷òî îíè æåëàþò ïðèñîåäèíåíèÿ ê Ôèíëÿíäèè”.106
Òÿãîòåíèå ÷àñòè êàðåë ê Ôèíëÿíäèè â ïîëíîé ìåðå ïðîÿâèëîñü â
õîäå ïîñëåðåâîëþöèîííûõ ñîáûòèé â ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè. Â ïåðâûå
ïîñëåðåâîëþöèîííûå ãîäû, êîãäà ïîÿâèëàñü âîçìîæíîñòü ñâîáîäíî
îáúÿâëÿòü î ñâîèõ íàöèîíàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ óñòðåìëåíèÿõ, ïðèãðàíè÷íûå òåððèòîðèè ñòàëè îïîðíûìè ïóíêòàìè êàðåëüñêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà. Èõ æèòåëè åäèíîäóøíî äåêëàðèðîâàëè ñâî¸ ñòðåìëåíèå óéäè
èç-ïîä ðîññèéñêîé îïåêè, è â áîëüøåé èëè ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè ñòðåìèëèñü ñâÿçàòü ñâîþ ñóäüáó ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé. Íàèáîëåå ðàäèêàëüíûìè èç
âñåõ êàðåëüñêèõ ñòîðîííèêî⠓Âåëèêîé Ôèíëÿíäèè” îêàçàëèñü æèòåëè Ðåáîëüñêîé è Ïîðîñîçåðñêîé âîëîñòåé, ñâÿçàííûå ñ Ôèíëÿíäèåé
õîçÿéñòâåííûìè óçàìè.107 Îíè ïðèíÿëè ðåøåíèå ïðèñîåäèíèòüñÿ ê
Ôèíëÿíäèè, íî íà óñëîâèÿõ ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ, è ýòî ñòðåìëåíèå ñîõðàíèòü àâòîíîìèþ ãîâîðèò âñ¸ æå î ïîïûòêå ñïàñòè êàðåëüñêóþ íàöèîíàëüíóþ ñàìîáûòíîñòü.
“Ðþññÿ (ryssä)” – îñêîðáèòåëüíîå íàçâàíèå ðóññêèõ â Ôèíëÿíäèè. Ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêè ïðèìåíÿëîñü ê êàðåëüñêèì êóïöàì-êîðîáåéíèêàì, òîðãîâàâøèì â ôèíñêèõ
äåðåâíÿõ.
106
Íàöèîíàëüíûé àðõèâ Ôèíëÿíäèè (Suomen Kansallisarkisto). ÊÊÊ, 1907. I-3. Ë.
13îá. Ñîáðàíèå ñîþçà Àðõàíãåëüñêèõ êàðåë â Òàììåðôîðñå è ïàíôèíñêàÿ àãèòàöèÿ
ñðåäè êàðåë.
107
 àâãóñòå 1918 ãîäà æèòåëè Ðåáîë íà îáùåì ñîáðàíèè ïðèíÿëè ðåøåíèå
ïðèñîåäèíèòüñÿ ê Ôèíëÿíäèè íà óñëîâèÿõ ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ, è èõ ïðèìåðó
ïîñëåäîâàëà Ïîðîñîçåðñêàÿ âîëîñòü (Ñì. îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð: Ïåêêà Êàóïïàëà.
Ôîðìèðîâàíèå è ðàñöâåò àâòîíîìíîé Ñîâåòñêîé Êàðåëèè, 1918-1929 ãã. Çàáûòûé
óñïåõ ðàííåñîâåòñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè // Ab Imperio. 2002. ¹ 2. Ñ. 317).
105
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Äðóãèå ðåãèîíû Êàðåëèè âûäâèãàëè áîëåå ñäåðæàííóþ ïðîãðàììó.
Íàèáîëåå íàöèîíàëüíî è ïðîôèíñêè íàñòðîåííàÿ Êåìñêàÿ Êàðåëèÿ,
ïðèíÿâ ðåøåíèå î íåçàâèñèìîñòè ñâîåãî ðåãèîíà îò Ðîññèè, âîçäåðæàëàñü ðåøàòü âîïðîñ î ïðèñîåäèíåíèè ê Ôèíëÿíäèè äî ïðîâåäåíèÿ ðåôåðåíäóìà.108 Êîãäà ôèíñêèå âîéñêà íà÷àëè òàê íàçûâàåìûé Îëîíåöêèé ïîõîä, â ðåçóëüòàòå êîòîðîãî áûëî ñîçäàíî Âðåìåííîå îëîíåöêîå
ïðàâèòåëüñòâî, ìåñòíûå æèòåëè íå âûñêàçûâàëèñü íè â ïîëüçó, íè ïðîòèâ ïðèñîåäèíåíèÿ ê Ôèíëÿíäèè, ïðè ýòîì îêîëî òûñÿ÷è îëîí÷àí âñòóïèëî â ôèíñêèå âîéñêà.109 Ïîñëå ïîðàæåíèÿ Êàðåëüñêîé àðìèè, êîíòðîëèðîâàâøåé áîëüøóþ ÷àñòü Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè, â íà÷àëå 1922 ãîäà â
Ôèíëÿíäèþ áåæàëî èç Ñîâåòñêîé Ðîññèè áîëåå 11.200 êàðåë.110
Ìû äàëåêè îò ìûñëè îáúÿñíÿòü âñå ïðîèñõîäèâøèå â ðîññèéñêîé
Êàðåëèè â ãîäû ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû ñîáûòèÿ õàðàêòåðîì íàöèîíàëüíîé ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè êàðåë. Êàæäîå êîíêðåòíîå ñîáûòèå áûëî ìîòèâèðîâàíî öåëîé ãðóïïîé ðàçíîõàðàêòåðíûõ ïðè÷èí, íå ñâîäèìûõ
èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî ê íàöèîíàëüíûì ïðîöåññàì – íàïðèìåð, áåãñòâî êàðåë
â Ôèíëÿíäèþ íàâåðíÿêà áûëî âûçâàíî ïðåæäå âñåãî ãîëîäîì è íåæåëàíèåì ñîñóùåñòâîâàòü ñ áîëüøåâèñòñêîé âëàñòüþ.111 Îäíàêî ðåàëü ôåâðàëå 1919 ãîäà ïðåäñòàâèòåëè äåñÿòè âîëîñòåé Áåëîìîðñêîé (Êåìñêîé)
Êàðåëèè ñîáðàëèñü ñ òåì, ÷òîáû ïîòðåáîâàòü ïðåäîñòàâëåíèÿ ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè ïðàâî íà ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Îêîí÷àòåëüíîå ðåøåíèå î ïðèñîåäèíåíèè ê Ôèíëÿíäèè èëè Ñîâåòñêîé Ðîññèè äåëåãèðîâàëîñü íàðîäíîìó ðåôåðåíäóìó.  ðÿäàõ
êàðåëüñêîãî ðóêîâîäñòâà íå áûëî åäèíñòâà – ÷àñòü èç íèõ, áåæåíöû, óøåäøèå â
Ôèíëÿíäèþ, íàäåÿëèñü íà âîîðóæ¸ííóþ ïîääåðæêó Ôèíëÿíäèè, äðóãàÿ ÷àñòü
èìåëà ñâîåé öåëüþ ñîçäàíèå ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîé Âîñòî÷íîé (ðîññèéñêîé) Êàðåëèè.
 ìàðòå 1920 ã. â Óõòå, êîòîðàÿ ñ÷èòàëàñü ñòîëèöåé Êåìñêîé Êàðåëèè, áûëî ïðîâåäåíî ñîáðàíèå âñåõ âîëîñòåé ðåãèîíà, êîòîðûå âûñêàçàëèñü çà îòäåëåíèå îò Ðîññèè è íåçàâèñèìîñòü. (Õåéêêè Êèðêèíåí, Ïåêêà Íåâàëàéíåí, Õàííåñ Ñèõâî. Èñòîðèÿ êàðåëüñêîãî íàðîäà. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1998. Ñ. 251).
109
Ò.í. Îëîíåöêèé ïîõîä ñîñòîÿëñÿ â àïðåëå-ñåíòÿáðå 1919 ãîäà. (Ñì.: Jouko Vahtola.
Nuorukaisten sota: Suomen sotaretki Aunukseen 1919. Helsinki, 1997).
110
Òàì æå. Ñ. 254.
111
Î ñîáûòèÿõ â ðîññèéñêîé Êàðåëèè â ïåðèîä ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû ñì.: Stacy
Churchill. Itä-Karjalan kohtalo 1917-1922. Itä-Karjalan itsehallintokysymys Suomen
ja Neuvosto-Venäjän välisissä suhteissa 1917-1922. Helsinki, 1970; Þ. Ì. Êèëèí.
Êàðåëèÿ â ïîëèòèêå Ñîâåòñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà 1920 – 1941. Ïåòðîçàâîäñê, 1999; Jelena
Dubrovskaja. Karjalan volostien valtuutettujen Uhtuan edustajakokouksen v. 1920
historiaa // Kainuussa ja Vienassa. Joensuu, 1997 (=Studia Carelica Humanistica 10);
èññëåäîâàíèå Jouko Vahtola. Suomi suureksi – Viena vapaaksi // Valkoisen Suomen
pyrkimykset Ita-Karjalan valtaamiseksi vuonna 1918. Rovaniemi, 1988. (= Studia
Historica Septentrionalia 17).
108
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Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
íàÿ ïîëèòèêà â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ïîçâîëÿåò íàãëÿäíî óâèäåòü, êàêèå íàöèîíàëüíûå ñòðàòåãèè áûëè ãîòîâû âûñòðàèâàòü ðîññèéñêèå êàðåëû, îêàçàâøèåñÿ ê íà÷àëó XX âåêà îáúåêòàìè äâóõ íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêèõ ïðîåêòî⠖ ôèíëÿíäñêîãî è ðîññèéñêîãî.
Çàêëþ÷åíèå
Óñèëèâøååñÿ ê íà÷àëó XX âåêà ýêîíîìè÷åñêîå, èäåéíîå è êóëüòóðíîå âëèÿíèå Ôèíëÿíäèè íà ðîññèéñêóþ Êàðåëèþ, å¸ îòíîñèòåëüíîå ïðîöâåòàíèå â ñðàâíåíèè ñ ïîñëåäíåé ñòàëî ñèëüíåéøèì ïîáóäèòåëüíûì ìîòèâîì ê ðàçðàáîòêå ïðîòèâîäåéñòâóþùèõ èìïåðñêèõ
ñòðàòåãèé ñî ñòîðîíû ìåòðîïîëèè è óñèëåíèþ íàïðàâëåííîé ðóñèôèêàöèè êàðåë. Ðîññèéñêèå êàðåëû îêàçàëèñü “ìåæäó äâóõ îãíåé”,
èñïûòûâàÿ íà ñåáå âñ¸ âîçðàñòàþùåå âîçäåéñòâèå ïðîòèâîïîëîæíûõ
íàöèîíàëüíûõ ïðîåêòî⠖ ðóññêîãî è ôèíñêîãî. Ïðè÷¸ì êàæäûé èç
ïðîåêòî⠓ïðîèãðûâàë” íà îäíîì ïîëå è “îïåðåæàë” ñîïåðíèêà íà
äðóãîì. Íàïðèìåð, ýêîíîìè÷åñêè Ôèíëÿíäèÿ áûëà íåñîìíåííî ïðèòÿãàòåëüíåå Ðîññèè, çàòî â ðåëèãèîçíîì îòíîøåíèè ïðàâîñëàâíûì
ðîññèéñêèì êàðåëàì (è äàæå ñòàðîîáðÿäöàì, êîòîðûõ ñðåäè êàðåë
áûëî ìíîãî) íàìíîãî áëèæå áûëà ìåòðîïîëèÿ; “ïàíôèíñêàÿ” àãèòàöèÿ èìåëà â êàðåëüñêîé ñðåäå çíà÷èòåëüíûé óñïåõ, íî æ¸ñòêèå ïîëèöåéñêèå ìåðû, ïðåäïðèíÿòûå âëàñòÿìè, ñíèæàëè ýôôåêò ýòîé ïðîïàãàíäû, çàòðóäíÿÿ äåéñòâèÿ àãèòàòîðîâ. È âñ¸ æå âëèÿíèå ôèíëÿíäñêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî ïðîåêòà äàëî ñèëüíûé òîë÷îê ê ðîñòó ñåïàðàòèñòñêèõ íàñòðîåíèé ðîññèéñêèõ êàðåë ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê èìïåðèè.
Óñïåõè Ôèíëÿíäèè ïðèâåëè ê óãëóáëåíèþ å¸ ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé êîîïåðàöèè ñ çàñåë¸ííûì êàðåëàìè ðîññèéñêèì ñåâåðî-çàïàäîì, ÷òî, â
ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, âûçâàëî óñèëåíèå íàöèîíàëüíîé ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè
êàðåë.
Îäíàêî ýòîò ïðîöåññ íå ïîâë¸ê çà ñîáîé, êàê ìîæíî áûëî áû ïðåäïîëîæèòü, òîòàëüíîé ôèííèçàöèè ðîññèéñêèõ êàðåë. Áîëåå òîãî, ïîãðàíè÷íàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ ìåæäó äâóìÿ ïðîòèâîáîðñòâóþùèìè íàöèîíàëüíûìè ïðîåêòàìè ñòèìóëèðîâàëà ñîáñòâåííî êàðåëüñêèé íàöèîíàëèçì, íàøåäøèé â ãîäû ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû âûðàæåíèå â ôàêòå
íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèÿ êàðåëüñêèõ òåððèòîðèé. “Ñèëîâîå
ïîëå” Ôèíëÿíäèè, ïðèòÿãèâàÿ ê ñåáå ïîãðàíè÷íîå íàñåëåíèå, óãëóáëÿëî îòòîðæåíèå êàðåë îò ìåòðîïîëèè, îäíàêî ñïåöèôèêà èõ íàöèî146
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íàëüíîé êóëüòóðû è ïðàâîñëàâèå (èëè ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü ê ñòàðîîáðÿä÷åñòâó) íå ïîçâîëÿëè èì îùóòèòü ñåáÿ â ïîëíîé ìåðå ôèííàìè (â
ðàìêàõ ðîìàíòè÷åñêîãî ôèíñêîãî ïðîåêòà). Ïîìèìî êóëüòóðíî-êîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ ïðè÷èí, íåæåëàíèå êàðåë ïðèìêíóòü ê “ñòàðøåìó”
ýòíè÷åñêîìó áðàòó îáúÿñíÿëîñü îïàñåíèåì ñòàòü ñûðüåâûì ïðèäàòêîì Ôèíëÿíäèè áåç ïðàâ ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé àâòîíîìèè.
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, íàðàñòàâøèå â êàðåëüñêîé ñðåäå ñåïàðàòèñòñêèå
íàñòðîåíèÿ ïðèâåëè ê óãëóáëåíèþ ñîáñòâåííî êàðåëüñêîé ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè. “Èððåäåíòà” îñîçíàëà ñåáÿ ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíûì íàöèîíàëüíûì îðãàíèçìîì è ãîòîâèëàñü ñîçäàòü ñîáñòâåííóþ àâòîíîìèþ
â ðàìêàõ îäíîãî èç äâóõ ïðîòèâîäåéñòâóþùèõ ãîñóäàðñòâ. Ïðîåêò
àâòîíîìèçàöèè Êàðåëèè íå îñóùåñòâèëñÿ (à âåðíåå, îñóùåñòâèëñÿ â
äðóãîì ôîðìàòå, ïðè áîëüøåâèñòñêîé âëàñòè è ïîä ýãèäîé ôèíñêèõ
ýìèãðàíòîâ), íî ìû âïðàâå àíàëèçèðîâàòü êàê íåðåàëèçîâàâøèåñÿ òåíäåíöèè, òàê è ðåàëèçîâàííûå ïðîåêòû.
SUMMARY
This article aims at analyzing differences between Finnish and Russian Karelia. Karelians have been divided between Russia and Sweden/
Finland since the Middle Ages. Even the inclusion of Finland in the Russian Empire did not lead to the unification of Karelia as Finland was given a special status within the Empire. The realization of the so called
“Scandinavian economic miracle” in late 19th century Finland made the
Grand Duchy an important socioeconomic and cultural factor for the
emerging Karelian national consciousness. Karelians in Russian Karelia
were attracted to the economic center of gravity in Finland, while the
imperial authorities were unable to provide measures that would guarantee the economic development of the region. Although the economic expansion of Finland in Karelia was highly efficient, Russian Karelians still
147
Ì. Âèòóõíîâñêàÿ, Êàðåëû íà ãðàíèöå...
remained Orthodox Christians, which pulled them toward Russia. Finally, as a result of multiple factors of development, Karelians were drawn
increasingly to specifically Karelian identities rather than joining in Finnish or Russian national projects.
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Ïàâåë ÂÀÐÍÀÂÑÊÈÉ
ÃÐÀÍÈÖÛ ÑÎÂÅÒÑÊÎÉ ÁÓÐßÒÑÊÎÉ ÍÀÖÈÈ:
“ÍÀÖÈÎÍÀËÜÍÎ-ÊÓËÜÒÓÐÍÎÅ ÑÒÐÎÈÒÅËÜÑÒÂΔ
 ÁÓÐßÒÈÈ Â 1926-1929 ãã.
 ÏÐÎÅÊÒÀÕ ÍÀÖÈÎÍÀËÜÍÎÉ ÈÍÒÅËËÈÃÅÍÖÈÈ
È ÍÀÖÈÎÍÀË-ÁÎËÜØÅÂÈÊÎÂ*
Ïåðèîä ñòàíîâëåíèÿ ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè íà âîñòî÷íûõ îêðàèíàõ áûâøåé Ðîññèéñêîé Èìïåðèè ïðèøåëñÿ íà 1922-1924 ãã.  ïðîöåññå ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ íîâûõ èíñòðóìåíòîâ èíòåãðàöèè è óïðàâëåíèÿ ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíûì íàñåëåíèåì Ñèáèðè è Äàëüíåãî Âîñòîêà áîëüøåâèêè,
âûèãðàâøèå ãðàæäàíñêóþ âîéíó áëàãîäàðÿ ïîääåðæêå “èíîðîä÷åñêèõ”
íàöèîíàëüíûõ äâèæåíèé è â äîñòàòî÷íî êîðîòêèé ñðîê ïîñòàâèâøèå
ýòè äâèæåíèÿ ïîä ñâîé êîíòðîëü, ñòèìóëèðîâàëè êîìïëåêñíûé ïðîöåññ ïåðåêðîéêè ãðàíèö â ðåãèîíå – ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ, òåððèòîðèàëüíûõ,
ñîöèàëüíûõ, ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ è ò.ä. Ïðîöåññ ýòîò ïðîõîäèë êàê íà óðîâíå èíñòèòóöèé (ê ïðèìåðó, îïðåäåëåíèå òåððèòîðèàëüíûõ è ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö ðåñïóáëèêè îñóùåñòâëÿëîñü â êîíòåêñòå âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ
öåíòðà, áóðÿòñêîé áîëüøåâèñòñêîé îðãàíèçàöèè è ñîâåòñêèõ ðåãèîíàëüíûõ ñòðóêòóð óïðàâëåíèÿ), òàê è íà óðîâíå ïåðñîíàëèé (ýòî îò÷åòëèâåå âñåãî ïðîÿâèëîñü â õîäå âûðàáîòêè êóðñà ÿçûêîâîé ðåôîðìû, ãäå
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Ðàáîòà âûïîëíåíà ïðè ïîääåðæêå ãðàíòà ÐÃÍÔ ¹02-01-00263à.
149
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
êîíêóðèðîâàëî òðè ïðîåêòà: ëàòèíèçàöèÿ áóðÿòñêîãî àëôàâèòà –
Á. Áàðàäèí; åãî êèðèëëèçàöèÿ – Ã. Ñàíæååâ; è “àðõàèçàöèÿ”, ò.å. ñîõðàíåíèå òðàäèöèîííîé ñòàðîìîíãîëüñêîé ïèñüìåííîñòè – Ã. Öûáèêîâ).
Ýòî, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, ïðèâåëî ê òîìó, ÷òî êîíñòèòóèðîâàíèå íîâîé
âëàñòè íà íàöèîíàëüíûõ òåððèòîðèÿõ ÷àùå âñåãî îôîðìëÿëîñü â âèäå
ñîâåòñêèõ àâòîíîìèé: â ÐÑÔÑÐ áûëî ñîçäàíî îãðîìíîå êîëè÷åñòâî
íàöèîíàëüíî-òåððèòîðèàëüíûõ îáðàçîâàíèé, âîçãëàâëÿåìûõ, êàê ïðàâèëî, “íàöèîíàë-áîëüøåâèêàìè”, ò.å. ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿìè “êîðåííûõ”
ýòíîñîâ, ÿâëÿâøèìèñÿ ÷ëåíàìè ÂÊÏ(á). Êðîìå òîãî, áîëüøåâèêè íàìåðåâàëèñü ðàçðàáîòàòü ïðîãðàììó êóëüòóðíîé ìîäåðíèçàöèè íàðîäîâ Ñèáèðè è Äàëüíåãî Âîñòîêà, ñ ïîìîùüþ êîòîðîé â êðàòêîñðî÷íîé
ïåðñïåêòèâå îíè ñòðåìèëèñü óñèëèòü àâòîðèòåò ñîáñòâåííîé âëàñòè
ñðåäè ìåñòíîãî íàñåëåíèÿ, à â äîëãîñðî÷íîé – èíòåãðèðîâàòü “ðàçíîøåðñòíîå” â ýòíîêóëüòóðíîì ñìûñëå íàñåëåíèå â åäèíîå ñîâåòñêîå
ïîëèòèêî-èäåîëîãè÷åñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî. Ïðîãðàììà êóëüòóðíîé ìîäåðíèçàöèè îôîðìëÿëàñü â âèäå èäåîëîãåìû íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî
ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, ïðè÷åì îíà çà÷àñòóþ ðåàëèçîâûâàëàñü â óíèêàëüíîé
ñèòóàöèè âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ, ïóñòü è âûíóæäåííîãî, äîðåâîëþöèîííîé
íàöèîíàëüíîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè è áîëüøåâèêîâ–âûõîäöåâ èç ìåñòíîãî
íàñåëåíèÿ.
Äàííàÿ ñòàòüÿ ïîñâÿùåíà íåìàëîâàæíîìó â êîíòåêñòå ñòàíîâëåíèÿ
è ðàçâèòèÿ áóðÿòñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé àâòîíîìèè ïðîöåññó – ðàçðàáîòêå
èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýëèòîé íîâîîáðàçîâàííîé ðåñïóáëèêè (êàê ñòàðîé èíòåëëèãåíöèåé, òàê è ìåñòíûìè áîëüøåâèêàìè) ñîáñòâåííîãî ïðîåêòà íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà, êîíñòðóèðîâàíèþ èìè ãðàíèö
áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè. Àâòîð ïðè ýòîì èñõîäèò èç óòâåðæäåíèÿ, ÷òî íîâûé
íàöèîíàëüíûé ïðîåêò ñîçäàâàëñÿ ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿìè “ñòàðîé” èíòåëëèãåíöèè, ñôîðìèðîâàâøåéñÿ â äîñîâåòñêèé ïåðèîä, è ìîäèôèöèðîâàëñÿ ìåñòíûìè áîëüøåâèêàìè â êîíòåêñòå êîììóíèñòè÷åñêèõ èäåé è
ïðàêòèêè. Ýòîò ïðîåêò íåñ íà ñåáå íåñìûâàåìóþ ïå÷àòü “áóðæóàçíîãî
íàöèîíàëèçìà”, ñòîëü íåëþáèìîãî áîëüøåâèñòñêèìè âîæäÿìè. Óæå ê
1926 ã. ñòàëî ñîâåðøåííî î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî äàëüíåéøåå ðàçâèòèå ïîñòèìïåðñêèõ òåððèòîðèé áóäåò îïðåäåëÿòüñÿ ïîëèòèêîé ïîáåäèâøèõ ðîññèéñêèõ ðåâîëþöèîíåðîâ. Íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêè íàñòðîåííàÿ èíòåëëåêòóàëüíàÿ ýëèòà áûëà âûíóæäåíà àäàïòèðîâàòü ñïåöèôèêó íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêîé ðèòîðèêè ê òðåáîâàíèÿì ñîâåòñêîãî èäåîëîãè÷åñêîãî òåêñòà. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, â ñèëó ðÿäà ïðè÷èí îáùåðîññèéñêîãî ìàñøòàáà, àíàëèç êîòîðûõ íå âõîäèò â çàäà÷è äàííîé ðàáîòû, áîëüøåâèêè íå
ìîãëè îñóùåñòâëÿòü (è íà òîò ìîìåíò – íå ñòðåìèëèñü) æåñòêèé êîíò150
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ðîëü íàä ïðîöåññîì êîíêðåòíîãî íàïîëíåíèÿ ïðîãðàììû íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà ðåãèîíàëüíîé ýëèòîé.
Ïîäîáíîå ñòå÷åíèå îáñòîÿòåëüñòâ ïðèâåëî ê òîìó, ÷òî “íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî” ïî ñâîåé ôîðìå ïðåâðàòèëîñü â íåêèé
êîìïðîìèññ, ïðèìèðèâ íà âðåìÿ íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêèå ïðåòåíçèè ñòàðîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè è ðåâîëþöèîííûé çàïàë íîâîé âëàñòíîé ýëèòû. Â
òî æå âðåìÿ âåðáàëèçîâàííàÿ ïðîãðàììà ðàçâèòèÿ áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðû
â íåêîòîðîì ñìûñëå âñòóïèëà â ïðîòèâîðå÷èå ñ èçâåñòíûì ñòàëèíñêèì îïðåäåëåíèåì íàöèîíàëüíûõ êóëüòóð: ïðîåêò áóðÿòñêîé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýëèòû áûë íàïðàâëåí ñêîðåå íà ñîçäàíèå “ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé
ïî ôîðìå, íàöèîíàëüíîé ïî ñîäåðæàíèþ” áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðû, íåæåëè íàîáîðîò. Èìåííî ýòà îñîáåííîñòü ïðîãðàììû êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà â Áóðÿòèè ïîçâîëÿåò îõàðàêòåðèçîâàòü åå êàê îïïîçèöèîííóþ
ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê îôèöèàëüíîé èäåîëîãè÷åñêîé äîêòðèíå, íî îäíîâðåìåííî ñîçäàâàâøóþñÿ â êîíòåêñòå ýòîé äîêòðèíû.
Íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ñîçäàíèþ êîíöåïöèè íàöèîíàëüíîêóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, â ðàìêàõ êîòîðîé áîëüøåâèêè è íàöèîíàëèñòû åñëè è íå ñîòðóäíè÷àëè, òî, âî âñÿêîì ñëó÷àå, íå ñîïåðíè÷àëè
äðóã ñ äðóãîì îòêðûòî, ïðåäøåñòâîâàë ïðîäîëæèòåëüíûé ïåðèîä ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèÿ. Îí áûë ñâÿçàí ñ áîðüáîé çà êîíòðîëü íàä ïðîöåññîì îôîðìëåíèÿ è èíñòèòóöèîíàëèçàöèè Áóðÿòñêîé àâòîíîìèè, êîãäà êàæäàÿ
èç ñòîðîí èìåëà è ïûòàëàñü ðåàëèçîâàòü ñîáñòâåííóþ ïðîãðàììó íàöèîíàëüíî-ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà.
Áóðÿòñêàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ íà ïðîòÿæåíèè 1917-1922 ãã. âûñòóïàëà
çà îñóùåñòâëåíèå èäåè ñîåäèíåíèÿ ýòíè÷íîñòè è ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè. Äåéñòâóÿ â ðàìêàõ ïðèìîðäèàëèñòñêîé ïàðàäèãìû, îíà êîíöåïòóàëèçèðîâàëà è ïûòàëàñü ðåàëèçîâàòü èäåþ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýòíîíàöèè.1
Ïëàíèðîâàâøàÿñÿ åþ àâòîíîìèÿ äîëæíà áûëà îáëàäàòü äîñòàòî÷íî
øèðîêèìè ïðàâàìè â ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñôåðàõ è îñíîâûâàòüñÿ ïðè ýòîì íà ÷èñòî ýòíè÷åñêîì ïðèíöèïå îðãàíèçàöèè. Òî åñòü
ïðåäïîëàãàëîñü, ÷òî àâòîíîìèÿ îáúåäèíèò èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî áóðÿòñêîå
íàñåëåíèå; ýòíè÷åñêàÿ èäåíòè÷íîñòü, áàçèðîâàâøàÿñÿ íà êóëüòóðíîé
òîæäåñòâåííîñòè, âûñòóïàëà ïðè ýòîì äîñòàòî÷íûì îñíîâàíèåì äëÿ
ïðåòåíçèé íà ñîáñòâåííóþ ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòü. Ôàêòè÷åñêè, íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêè íàñòðîåííàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ ïûòàëàñü êîíñîëèäèðîâàòü
âåñü áóðÿòñêèé ýòíîñ â ðàìêàõ åäèíîé ïîëèòè÷åñêè èíñòèòóöèîíàëèÑì. Ï. Ê. Âàðíàâñêèé. Èäåÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýòíîíàöèè è ñòðîèòåëüñòâî ÁÌÀÎ
ÄÂÐ // Ýòíîëîãèÿ è îáðàçîâàíèå. Âëàäèâîñòîê, 2002. Ñ. 133-138.
1
151
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
çèðîâàííîé òåððèòîðèè. Íàèáîëåå ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíî ýòîò ïðîåêò íà÷àë ðåàëèçîâûâàòüñÿ â ïðîöåññå îáðàçîâàíèÿ Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé àâòîíîìíîé îáëàñòè Äàëüíå-Âîñòî÷íîé Ðåñïóáëèêè.2
Áóðÿòñêèå áîëüøåâèêè, íàõîäÿñü íà ïîçèöèÿõ êëàññîâîãî èíòåðíàöèîíàëèçìà è ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî äåòåðìèíèçìà, àêòèâíî âûñòóïàëè ïðîòèâ ïëàíîâ íàöèîíàëèñòîâ.3 Ñîáñòâåííûé ïðîåêò íàöèîíàëüíî-ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà îíè íà÷àëè îñóùåñòâëÿòü ïðè îáðàçîâàíèè Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé àâòîíîìíîé îáëàñòè ÐÑÔÑÐ,4 à ïðîäîëæèëè è
çàâåðøèëè â õîäå îáúåäèíåíèÿ äâóõ àâòîíîìíûõ îáëàñòåé è ñîçäàíèÿ
Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ.5 Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ñîçäàíèå àâòîíîìíîé ðåñÏðîâîçãëàøåííàÿ â àïðåëå 1921 ã. ÁÌÀÎ ÄÂÐ âêëþ÷àëà òîëüêî áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå, íî íå áûëà òåððèòîðèàëüíî öåëîñòíîé. Îäíàêî íàöèîíàëèñòû ðàññìàòðèâàëè îáðàçîâàíèå àâòîíîìíîé îáëàñòè êàê íà÷àëüíûé ýòàï íàöèîíàëüíî-ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, êîòîðîå äîëæíî áûëî çàâåðøèòüñÿ ñîçäàíèåì åäèíîé
àâòîíîìíîé áóðÿòñêîé òåððèòîðèè.
3
Îïðåäåëåííîå âðåìÿ áóðÿòñêèå áîëüøåâèêè âî ãëàâå ñ Ì. Ì. Ñàõüÿíîâîé ñ÷èòàëè, ÷òî íàöèîíàëüíàÿ àâòîíîìèÿ áóðÿòàì íå íóæíà, ò.ê. îíè, “êàê ïðîèçâîäèòåëüíî-ïîòðåáèòåëüíàÿ åäèíèöà, âîâëå÷åíû â îáùóþ õîçÿéñòâåííóþ æèçíü Ðîññèè
îáìåíîì”, “òåððèòîðèàëüíî è ýêîíîìè÷åñêè òåñíî ñâÿçàííûå ñ äðóãîé íàöèåé ñ
âûñîêîé êóëüòóðîé, åæåäíåâíî òåðÿþò ñëîé çà ñëîåì ñàìîáûòíûå íàöèîíàëüíûå
êðàñêè” (Íàöèîíàëüíîå äâèæåíèå â Áóðÿòèè â 1917-1919 ã.ã.: äîêóìåíòû è ìàòåðèàëû / Ñîñò. Á. Á. Áàòóåâ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1994. Ñ. 121). Êðîìå òîãî, “...åñòü åùå äðóãèå
ôàêòû, ñïîñîáñòâóþùèå áûñòðîé àññèìèëÿöèè, – ñ÷èòàëà Ñàõüÿíîâà, – èìåííî
ìàëî÷èñëåííîñòü, òåððèòîðèàëüíîå ñìåøåíèå, îòñóòñòâèå íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû, êîòîðàÿ çàäåðæèâàåò äî íåêîòîðîé ñòåïåíè íèâåëèðîâêó íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé”.
(Òàì æå.). Îäíàêî ïîçæå ïîä äàâëåíèåì öåíòðà (ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì, â ñâÿçè ñ ïðèíÿòèåì 14 îêòÿáðÿ 1920 ã. ÖÊ ÐÊÏ(á) äåêðåòà î íåîáõîäèìîñòè ñîçäàíèÿ íàöèîíàëüíûõ àâòîíîìèé äëÿ âîñòî÷íûõ íàðîäîâ, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü – äëÿ áóðÿò è êàëìûêîâ) áóðÿòñêèå áîëüøåâèêè äèàìåòðàëüíî èçìåíèëè ñâîþ ïîçèöèþ ïî ýòîìó
âîïðîñó è ïðèñòóïèëè ê àêòèâíîé ðàáîòå ïî ñîçäàíèþ àâòîíîìèè.
4
Äåêðåò ÂÖÈÊ îá îáðàçîâàíèè ÁÌÀÎ ÐÑÔÑÐ áûë èçäàí â ÿíâàðå 1922 ã.
5
Ïðîöåññ îáúåäèíåíèÿ äëèëñÿ â òå÷åíèå ãîäà è çàêîí÷èëñÿ â äåêàáðå 1923 ã. íà I
ñúåçäå Ñîâåòîâ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ. Íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ñîçäàíèå íàöèîíàëüíîé ðåñïóáëèêè áûëî íåãàòèâíî âîñïðèíÿòî îðãàíàìè Ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè Èðêóòñêîé è Çàáàéêàëüñêîé ãóáåðíèé, à òàêæå êðàåâûì îðãàíîì Äàëüíåãî Âîñòîêà - Äàëüðåâêîìîì. Ïîñëåäíèé âûñòóïèë ñ ïðåäëîæåíèåì ñîçäàíèÿ Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ãóáåðíèè
â ñîñòàâå Äàëüíåãî Âîñòîêà, à ãóáåðíñêèå àäìèíèñòðàöèè îñïàðèâàëè âêëþ÷åíèå
íåêîòîðûõ òåððèòîðèé â ñîñòàâ ðåñïóáëèêè. Îáå ñòîðîíû êîíôëèêòà, åñòåñòâåííî,
àïåëëèðîâàëè ê öåíòðàëüíîé âëàñòè, êîòîðàÿ, â êîíå÷íîì èòîãå, ïîääåðæàëà ñòîðîíó íàöèîíàëüíîé ðåñïóáëèêè (ïîäðîáíåå îá ýòîì êîíôëèêòå ñì.: À. À. Åëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå, ðàçâèòèå, ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ì., 2000. Ñ. 160-162,
167-169). Îäíàêî ñïîðû î ñòàòóñå íàöèîíàëüíîé ðåñïóáëèêè íà ýòîì íå çàêîí÷èëèñü. Óæå â 1924 ã. áûëà ïðåäïðèíÿòà ïîïûòêà èçìåíåíèÿ àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîé
2
152
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ïóáëèêè èíòåðïðåòèðîâàëîñü áîëüøåâèêàìè â êîíòåêñòå îáùåãî ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî êóðñà, îñóùåñòâëÿåìîãî êîììóíèñòè÷åñêèìè ëèäåðàìè,
êîòîðûå “ðóêîâîäñòâîâàëèñü, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, êëàññîâûìè èíòåðåñàìè è íàõîäèëèñü ïîä âëèÿíèåì óòîïè÷åñêîé òåîðèè ‘ìèðîâîé ðåâîëþöèè’.”6 Äëÿ áîëüøåâèêîâ äîñòèæåíèå íàöèîíàëüíîé àâòîíîìèè
áûëî ñðåäñòâîì ïîïóëÿðèçàöèè ñðåäè áóðÿò öåííîñòåé êîììóíèñòè÷åñêîé èäåîëîãèè: “...Ïåðåä íàìè, ïåðåä ãðóïïîé áóðÿò-êîììóíèñòîâ
(áîëüøåâèêîâ), – óòâåðæäàëà Ì. Ì. Ñàõüÿíîâà, – ñòîèò çàäà÷à áîëüøîé âàæíîñòè, çàäà÷à áîðüáû íå òîëüêî çà âëàñòü Ñîâåòîâ, íî è çà III
Èíòåðíàöèîíàë, èáî ïîáåäà òðóäÿùèõñÿ âîçìîæíà òîëüêî â ìèðîâîì
ìàñøòàáå, íå çàêëþ÷åííàÿ â íàöèîíàëüíûå ðàìêè. Ìû, êîììóíèñòû –
ðåâîëþöèîííàÿ ïàðòèÿ ðàáî÷èõ áåç ðàçëè÷èÿ íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé, íå âîçâîäèì íàöèþ â ïðèíöèï öåííîñòè, êîòîðóþ íåîáõîäèìî ñîõðàíÿòü”.7
 ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñî ñâîèìè ïðèíöèïàìè áóðÿòñêèå áîëüøåâèêè ïðàêêàðòû ðåãèîíà: èðêóòñêèå ãóáåðíñêèå îðãàíû âëàñòè âûñòóïèëè ñ èíèöèàòèâîé
ñîçäàíèÿ Ëåíñêî-Áàéêàëüñêîé îáëàñòè â ñîñòàâå Èðêóòñêîé, Çàáàéêàëüñêîé
ãóáåðíèé è ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ (ñì.: Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ Ðåñïóáëèêà - Îáëàñòü. Äîêëàä
ïðåäñåäàòåëÿ Ñåêöèè ïî ðàéîíèðîâàíèþ ïðè Ãîñïëàíå ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ. Èðêóòñê. 1924.
Ñ. 3). Ïîñëåäíÿÿ äîëæíà áûëà âîéòè â ñîñòàâ íîâîé îáëàñòè íà ïðàâàõ îêðóãà.
Ðóêîâîäñòâî ðåñïóáëèêè îïðîòåñòîâàëî ýòîò ïðîåêò â öåíòðå è íàøëî òàì
ïîääåðæêó â ëèöå ÍÊÈÄ âî ãëàâå ñ Ã. ×è÷åðèíûì, êîòîðûé â ïèñüìå Ñòàëèíó
ïîä÷åðêèâàë: “ ñîçäàíèå Áóðÿòî-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè â ïðåäåëàõ
ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîé Ñîâåòñêîé Ðåñïóáëèêè èìåëî, ïðåæäå âñåãî, öåëüþ íàèëó÷øåå
âëèÿíèå ÑÑÑÐ íà íàðîäû Äàëüíåãî Âîñòîêà, ïðîáóæäåíèå èõ è ñáëèæåíèå ñ ÑÑÑÐ
â áîðüáå ïðîòèâ èíîñòðàííîãî èìïåðèàëèçìà, îçíà÷àëî áû, ÷òî ýòîò àêò íåèçáåæíî
ïðîèçâåë áû ãëóáîêî îòðèöàòåëüíîå âïå÷àòëåíèå íà íàðîäû è ïðàâèòåëüñòâà
Ìîíãîëèè, Òèáåòà è äð Ïðèçíàòü âêëþ÷åíèå Áóðÿòî-Ìîíãîëüñêîé Ðåñïóáëèêè
â ñîñòàâ Ëåíñêî-Áàéêàëüñêîé îáëàñòè çíà÷èò ôàêòè÷åñêè îòêàçàòüñÿ îò ïðîâîäèìîé
â Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè è Ìîíãîëèè íàøåé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ëèíèè ÍÊÈÄ ðåøèòåëüíî
âîçðàæàåò ïðîòèâ âõîæäåíèÿ Áóðÿòî-Ìîíãîëüñêîé Ðåñïóáëèêè â ñîñòàâ ËåíñêîÁàéêàëüñêîé îáëàñòè íà ïðàâàõ îêðóãà è ñ÷èòàåò ïîëèòè÷åñêè íåîáõîäèìûì
ñîõðàíåíèå çà ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ çíà÷åíèÿ è ïðàâ ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîé îáëàñòè
ó÷èòûâàÿ
òî ãðîìàäíîå çíà÷åíèå ôàêòà ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ Áóðÿòî-Ìîíãîëüñêîé Ðåñïóáëèêè äëÿ
âñåãî áóääèéñêîãî Âîñòîêà” (öèò. ïî: À. À. Åëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå,
ðàçâèòèå, ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ì., 2000. Ñ. 187-188).  êîíå÷íîì èòîãå öåíòðàëüíûå
îðãàíû âëàñòè îòêàçàëèñü îò èçìåíåíèÿ àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûõ ãðàíèö, ÷òî
ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëî î ïðèîðèòåòå âíåøíåïîëèòè÷åñêèõ èíòåðåñîâ ñîâåòñêîãî
ãîñóäàðñòâà íàä ðåçîíàìè âíóòðèïîëèòè÷åñêîãî è àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîõîçÿéñòâåííîãî õàðàêòåðà.
6
À. À. Åëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå, ðàçâèòèå, ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ì., 2000.
Ñ. 158.
7
Íàöèîíàëüíîå äâèæåíèå â Áóðÿòèè. Ñ. 122.
153
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
òèêîâàëè ñîçäàíèå ñìåøàííûõ â ýòíè÷åñêîì îòíîøåíèè îðãàíîâ âëàñòè. Âîçðàæàÿ ñâîèì îïïîíåíòàì, âûñòóïàâøèì çà ñîçäàíèå îáîñîáëåííûõ îò äðóãèõ íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé áóðÿòñêèõ àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûõ îðãàíîâ, îíè ñ÷èòàëè íåîáõîäèìûì “îáðàçîâûâàòü ñìåøàííûå óåçäíûå,
ãóáåðíñêèå Ñîâåòû ðàáî÷èõ, êðåñòüÿíñêèõ è áóðÿòñêèõ äåïóòàòîâ”.8
Ïî ñëîâàì Ì. Ì. Ñàõüÿíîâîé, áóðÿòñêèå êîììóíèñòû “íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêèì èäåÿì ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëÿëè ìàðêñèñòñêî-ëåíèíñêèå èäåè ïðîëåòàðñêîãî èíòåðíàöèîíàëèçìà, èäåè êëàññîâîé ñîëèäàðíîñòè è åäèíñòâà äåéñòâèé áóðÿòñêèõ òðóäÿùèõñÿ ìàññ ñ ðóññêèìè ðàáî÷èìè è êðåñòüÿíàìè â áîðüáå çà ñîâåòñêóþ âëàñòü”.9
Êàê áû òî íè áûëî, ê êîíöó 1923 ã. áóðÿòû îáðåëè, íàêîíåö, ñîáñòâåííóþ ãîñóäàðñòâåííóþ àâòîíîìèþ. Ïðè ýòîì áîëüøåâèêàì óäàëîñü îâëàäåòü íàöèîíàëüíî-àâòîíîìèñòñêèì äâèæåíèåì áóðÿò è ðåàëèçîâàòü ñâîþ êîíöåïöèþ àâòîíîìíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, âñëåäñòâèå ÷åãî
îáðàçîâàííàÿ ðåñïóáëèêà ñòàëà ïðåäñòàâëÿòü ñîáîé íå ýòíîïîëèòè÷åñêóþ (êàê íà òî ðàññ÷èòûâàëè íàöèîíàëèñòû), à òåððèòîðèàëüíîïîëèòè÷åñêóþ îáùíîñòü. Äåéñòâèòåëüíî, Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ àâòîíîìèÿ ïðåäñòàâëÿëà ñîáîé öåëîñòíóþ òåððèòîðèþ (çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì Àëàðñêîãî àéìàêà íà çàïàäå è Àãèíñêîãî – íà âîñòîêå, êîòîðûå áûëè îòîðâàíû îò îñíîâíîãî òåððèòîðèàëüíîãî ìàññèâà ðåñïóáëèêè), ÷òî áûëî
äîñòèãíóòî ïóòåì “âêëþ÷åíèÿ â áóðÿòñêèå àéìàêè ðóññêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ, âêðàïëåííîãî ñðåäè áóðÿòñêèõ óëóñîâ...”.10 Áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå
ðåñïóáëèêè ñîñòàâèëî ïðè ýòîì 56,3%, à ðóññêîå – 43,7%.11
Àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîå óïðàâëåíèå â ðåñïóáëèêå îñóùåñòâëÿëîñü â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ “Ïîëîæåíèåì î ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì óñòðîéñòâå ÁÌ ÀÑÑД,
êîòîðîå, ôàêòè÷åñêè, èãðàëî ðîëü êîíñòèòóöèè. Àíàëèç ýòîãî äîêóìåíòà
ïîçâîëÿåò çàêëþ÷èòü, ÷òî êîììóíèñòû ðàññ÷èòûâàëè èñïîëüçîâàòü àäìèíèñòðàòèâíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ñòðóêòóðû àâòîíîìèè âîâñå íå äëÿ “ñîõðàíåíèÿ è ðàçâèòèÿ” ýòíîêóëüòóðíîé ñïåöèôèêè áóðÿò, à äëÿ äîñòèæåíèÿ ñâîèõ èäåîëîãè÷åñêèõ öåëåé. Ñîãëàñíî “Ïîëîæåíèþ î ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì óñòðîéñòâå ÁÌ ÀÑÑД, äëÿ óïðàâëåíèÿ äåëàìè ðåñïóáëèêè
Íàöèîíàëüíîå äâèæåíèå â Áóðÿòèè. Ñ. 128.
Ì. Ì. Ñàõüÿíîâà. Êîììóíèñòû Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëèè â áîðüáå çà Ñîâåòñêóþ âëàñòü //
Ïàðòèçàíû Ïðèáàéêàëüÿ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1957. Ñ. 33.
10
Ã. Ë. Ñàíæèåâ. Â. È. Ëåíèí è íàöèîíàëüíî-ãîñóäàðñòâåííîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â
Ñèáèðè (1917-1930). Óëàí-Óäý, 1971. Ñ. 96.
11
Í. Ä. Øóëóíîâ. Ñòàíîâëåíèå Ñîâåòñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè â
Áóðÿòèè. Óëàí-Óäý, 1972. Ñ. 400; Ã. Ë. Ñàíæèåâ. Â. È. Ëåíèí è íàöèîíàëüíîãîñóäàðñòâåííîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî. Ñ. 100.
8
9
154
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
áûëî ó÷ðåæäåíî 9 íàðîäíûõ êîìèññàðèàòîâ. Ïðè ýòîì óòâåðæäàëîñü,
÷òî “èíîñòðàííûå äåëà è âíåøíÿÿ òîðãîâëÿ îñòàþòñÿ âñåöåëî â âåäåíèè Íàðêîìèíäåëà è Íàðêîìâíåøòîðãà ÑÑÑД.12 Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêèé
âîåííûé êîìèññàðèàò, ñîçäàííûé äëÿ óïðàâëåíèÿ âîåííûìè äåëàìè,
áûë “íåïîñðåäñòâåííî ïîä÷èíåí áëèæàéøåìó îêðóæíîìó âîåííîìó
êîìèññàðèàòó”.13 Óïðàâëåí÷åñêèå ñòðóêòóðû òðàíñïîðòà è ñâÿçè îðãàíèçîâûâàëèñü “ðàñïîðÿæåíèåì íàðîäíûõ êîìèññàðîâ ïóòåé ñîîáùåíèÿ è ÍÊÏî÷òåëü ÑÑÑД14 è, òàêèì îáðàçîì, òàêæå íàõîäèëèñü ïîä
êîíòðîëåì öåíòðà.
Êàê óêàçûâàëîñü ⠓Ïîëîæåíèè...”, “â öåëÿõ ñîõðàíåíèÿ åäèíñòâà
ôèíàíñîâîé è õîçÿéñòâåííîé ïîëèòèêè ÐÑÔÑÐ íàðîäíûå êîìèññàðèàòû ÁÌÀÑÑÐ ôèíàíñîâ, òðóäà è ðàáî÷å-êðåñòüÿíñêîé èíñïåêöèè îñòàþòñÿ â íåïîñðåäñòâåííîì ïîä÷èíåíèè îäíîèìåííûõ íàðîäíûõ êîìèññàðèàòîâ ÐÑÔÑÐ...”.15 Î÷åíü õàðàêòåðíàÿ îãîâîðêà, ïîçâîëÿþùàÿ
çàêëþ÷èòü, ÷òî ïðè îñóùåñòâëåíèè ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè óïðàâëåí÷åñêèå ñòðóêòóðû ðåñïóáëèêè èñõîäèëè âîâñå íå èç “íàöèîíàëüíîé ñïåöèôèêè” õîçÿéñòâåííîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà, à èç
ñòðåìëåíèÿ (èëè óêàçàíèÿ) “ñîõðàíÿòü åäèíñòâî ôèíàíñîâîé è õîçÿéñòâåííîé ïîëèòèêè ÐÑÔÑД. ßâíî âûðàæåííîå ñòðåìëåíèå ê ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé öåíòðàëèçàöèè áûëî íå ñëó÷àéíûì. Êàê îòìå÷àåò Í. Áàðîí,
“ñîçäàíèå óíèôèöèðîâàííîãî ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà ñ ðàöèîíàëüíûì ðàçäåëåíèåì òðóäà, ðàçóìååòñÿ, èìåëî ìîùíûé èìïåðñêèé
ïîäòåêñò”.16
Àâòîíîìíûìè îáúÿâëÿëèñü íàðîäíûå êîìèññàðèàòû âíóòðåííèõ
äåë, þñòèöèè, ïðîñâåùåíèÿ, çäðàâîîõðàíåíèÿ è çåìëåäåëèÿ. Îäíàêî è
îíè áûëè îòâåòñòâåííû íå òîëüêî ïåðåä ÖÈÊîì è Ñîâíàðêîìîì ÁÌ
ÀÑÑÐ, íî è ïåðåä Âñåðîññèéñêèì ÖÈÊîì.17 Êðîìå òîãî, ïðè íàðîäíîì
êîìèññàðèàòå âíóòðåííèõ äåë ñîçäàâàëñÿ “îðãàí óïîëíîìî÷åííîãî ÃÏÓ
ÐÑÔÑД.18 Ñïåöèôèêà Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ,
êàê èçâåñòíî, çàêëþ÷àëàñü â òîì, ÷òî óæå íà ñàìûõ ðàííèõ ïîðàõ ñóÎáðàçîâàíèå Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ñáîðíèê àðõèâíûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ. ÓëàíÓäý. 1964. Ñ. 207.
13
Òàì æå.
14
Òàì æå.
15
Òàì æå.
16
Í. Áàðîí. Ðåãèîíàëüíîå êîíñòðóèðîâàíèå Êàðåëüñêîé Àâòîíîìèè // Ab Imperio.
2002. ¹ 2. Ñ. 288.
17
Îáðàçîâàíèå Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 208.
18
Òàì æå. Ñ. 208.
12
155
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
ùåñòâîâàíèÿ ñîâåòñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà ýòîò îðãàí óñòàíàâëèâàë æåñòêèé
ïîëèòè÷åñêèé êîíòðîëü íàä ñèñòåìîé îðãàíîâ ïðàâîïîðÿäêà (ñëåäñòâèåì, ñóäîì è ïðîêóðàòóðîé). Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ãîâîðèòü î äåéñòâèòåëüíî
àâòîíîìíûõ êîìèññàðèàòàõ âíóòðåííèõ äåë è þñòèöèè òàêæå íå ïðèõîäèòñÿ. Îòíîñèòåëüíî Íàðêîìþñòà ðåñïóáëèêè íåîáõîäèìî òàêæå
äîáàâèòü, ÷òî îí äåéñòâîâàë èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî â ïðàâîâîì ïîëå çàêîíîäàòåëüñòâà ÐÑÔÑÐ, ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü î òîì, ÷òî îäíî èç
âàæíåéøèõ òðåáîâàíèé íàöèîíàëèñòî⠖ îá óñòàíîâëåíèè ñðåäè áóðÿò “íàöèîíàëüíîãî” ñóäà, áàçèðóþùåãîñÿ íà òðàäèöèîííîì ïðàâå, –
ôàêòè÷åñêè, íå áûëî âûïîëíåíî.
Îïðåäåëåííîé ñòåïåíüþ àâòîíîìíîñòè îáëàäàëè òîëüêî Íàðêîìçäðàâ è Íàðêîìïðîñ ðåñïóáëèêè. Íî, ââèäó ôèíàíñîâîãî êðèçèñà, è îíè
íàõîäèëèñü ïîä êîíòðîëåì öåíòðà. Òàê, íà I-ì ñúåçäå Ñîâåòîâ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ
áûëî îòìå÷åíî, ÷òî “òÿæåëîå ôèíàíñîâîå ïîëîæåíèå ðåñïóáëèêè íå
ïîçâîëÿåò ïîñòàâèòü äåëî íàðîäíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ íàäëåæàùèì îáðàçîì. Ïðàâèòåëüñòâî ÐÑÔÑÐ âçÿëî íà ñâîå ñîäåðæàíèå àïïàðàò Íàðêîìïðîñà”.19  òî æå âðåìÿ, â ñèëó òîãî, ÷òî Íàðêîìïðîñ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ âñå
æå èìåë íåêîòîðóþ ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîñòü, òî, êàê áóäåò ïîêàçàíî äàëåå,
èìåííî ÷åðåç ïðîñâåùåíèå íàöèîíàëüíàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ ïîïûòàåòñÿ
óæå â óñëîâèÿõ ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè îñóùåñòâëÿòü ïðîöåññ êîíñòðóèðîâàíèÿ áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè.
Èòàê, ïîä÷åðêíåì åùå ðàç äâå âàæíûå äåòàëè: âî-ïåðâûõ, ÁóðÿòÌîíãîëüñêàÿ ðåñïóáëèêà ñ ñàìîãî íà÷àëà êîíñòèòóèðîâàëàñü êàê ïîëèýòíè÷åñêîå îáðàçîâàíèå, è, âî-âòîðûõ, îíà ÿâëÿëàñü èåðàðõè÷åñêîé
åäèíèöåé, æåñòêî ïîä÷èíåííîé â àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîì ñìûñëå ïîëèòè÷åñêîìó öåíòðó.  îáùåñîâåòñêîì êîíòåêñòå ýòî äåéñòâèòåëüíî îçíà÷àëî, ÷òî áîëüøåâèêè ïðåäïðèíèìàëè “ïîëîæèòåëüíûå äåéñòâèÿ äëÿ
ñîçäàíèÿ ñîâåòñêèõ èíòåðíàöèîíàëüíûõ íàöèé (íàöèé ïî ôîðìå, íå
ïî ñîäåðæàíèþ), êîòîðûå áû â ïåðñïåêòèâå ïðèíÿëè ìîäåëü óíèòàðíîãî öåíòðàëèçîâàííîãî ñîâåòñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà”.20
Íåñìîòðÿ íà ýòî, îôèöèàëüíàÿ áóðÿòñêàÿ âëàñòü ðàñöåíèâàëà îáðàçîâàíèå ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ êàê àêò “ôîðìàëüíîãî è ôàêòè÷åñêîãî çàâåðøåíèÿ
ñòðåìëåíèé áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà ê íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèþ”.21
Í. Ä. Øóëóíîâ. Ñòàíîâëåíèå Ñîâåòñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè. Ñ.
468.
20
Ò. Ìàðòèí. Èìïåðèÿ ïîçèòèâíîãî äåéñòâèÿ: Ñîâåòñêèé Ñîþç êàê âûñøàÿ ôîðìà
èìïåðèàëèçìà? // Ab Imperio. 2002. ¹ 2. Ñ. 81.
21
À. À. Áàðòàíîâà. Îáðàçîâàíèå Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1964. Ñ. 86.
19
156
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Ýòà ïîçèöèÿ áûëà îçâó÷åíà ëèäåðîì áóðÿòñêèõ êîììóíèñòîâ Ì. Í. Åðáàíîâûì: “ñîçäàíèå Áóððåñïóáëèêè åñòü ôàêòè÷åñêîå îñóùåñòâëåíèå
îñíîâíûõ òðåáîâàíèé áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî íàðîäà, êàê â îáëàñòè ïîëèòè÷åñêîé, òàê è õîçÿéñòâåííîé ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîñòè”.22 Îäíàêî ñîçäàííàÿ àâòîíîìèÿ â àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîì, ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì è ïîëèòè÷åñêîì
îòíîøåíèÿõ íå ðåàëèçîâûâàëà òåõ ïðåòåíçèé, êîòîðûå ëåæàëè â îñíîâå ïðèìîðäèàëèñòñêîãî íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêîãî ïðîåêòà.  ñàìîì äåëå,
áîëüøåâèêè ðàññìàòðèâàëè àâòîíîìíóþ ðåñïóáëèêó â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü
êàê êàíàë èíòåãðàöèè áóðÿò â ñèñòåìó ñîâåòñêîãî îáùåñòâà, êîòîðîå, â
ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, êîíñòðóèðîâàëîñü â êîíòåêñòå ðåâîëþöèîííîé ìàðêñèñòñêî-ëåíèíñêîé ïàðàäèãìû. Êàê îòìå÷àåò ïî ýòîìó ïîâîäó Ò. Ìàðòèí, “ ïàðòèÿ ìîãëà âûâåñòè íàöèîíàëüíûå äâèæåíèÿ çà ïðåäåëû
ïðèìîðäèàëèñòñêîãî áóðæóàçíîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà ê ñîâåòñêîìó èíòåðíàöèîíàëüíîìó íàöèîíàëèçìó”.23 Èíûìè ñëîâàìè, â òåðìèíàõ ðåâîëþöèîííîãî ìàðêñèçìà è ÷åðåç ïîíÿòèå èíòåðíàöèîíàëèçìà áóðÿòñêèå áîëüøåâèêè âïëîòíóþ ïîäîøëè ê ñîçäàíèþ èäåîëîãè÷åñêîãî êîíñòðóêòà “ñîâåòñêèé íàðîä”. Õàðàêòåðíî â ýòîì îòíîøåíèè îáðàùåíèå
Áóðíàððåâêîìà (âðåìåííûé âåðõîâíûé îðãàí óïðàâëåíèÿ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ) ê
áóðÿòñêîìó íàðîäó: “Òðóäÿùèåñÿ ìàññû Áóððåñïóáëèêè, – ïîä÷åðêèâàåòñÿ â íåì, – äîëæíû ñàìûì òåñíûì îáðàçîì ñâÿçàòüñÿ ñ ðàáî÷åêðåñòüÿíñêîé ìàññîé è ïðàâèòåëüñòâîì ÐÑÔÑÐ â äåëå âîññòàíîâëåíèÿ
è óêðåïëåíèÿ ñâîåãî õîçÿéñòâà è çàùèòû ñâîèõ êëàññîâûõ èíòåðåñîâ”.24
Ñ ñîçäàíèåì Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ çàêîí÷èëîñü “êîíöåïòóàëüíîå ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèå” ìåæäó íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêè íàñòðîåííîé èíòåëëèãåíöèåé è ñòîðîííèêàìè êîììóíèñòè÷åñêîé äîêòðèíû: ñàìî îáðàçîâàíèå áóðÿòñêîé àâòîíîìèè ïîñòàâèëî òî÷êó â ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ äèñêóññèÿõ ïî ïîâîäó åå ôîðìû.  ñâÿçè ñ ýòèì äèñêóðñ íàöèîíàëüíîñòè
ïåðåìåñòèëñÿ èç ñôåðû ïîëèòèêè â ñôåðó êóëüòóðû è àêòóàëèçèðîâàëñÿ â ôîðìå èäåîëîãåìû “íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà”. Ýòà
ïðîáëåìà çàòðàãèâàëàñü â òîé èëè èíîé ìåðå íà ïðîòÿæåíèè âñåãî ïåðèîäà ýòíîíàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ áóðÿò. Òàê, óæå âî âðåìåíà ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ äâóõ áóðÿòñêèõ àâòîíîìíûõ îáëàñòåé áûë ñîçäàí Öåíòðàëüíûé Ñîâåò ïî êóëüòóðíûì äåëàì áóðÿò-ìîíãîëîâ ÐÑÔÑÐ è ÄÂÐ. Îí
ïðåäïîëàãàë “îáúåäèíåíèå ìåðîïðèÿòèé ïî ïîäíÿòèþ ïðîñâåùåíèÿ è
êóëüòóðû áóðÿòñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ è îáùåãî ðóêîâîäñòâà â ïðåäåëàõ
Ì. Í. Åðáàíîâ. Ñòðîèòåëüñòâî Êðàñíîé Áóðÿòèè. Âåðõíåóäèíñê, 1925. Ñ. 5.
Ìàðòèí. Èìïåðèÿ ïîçèòèâíîãî äåéñòâèÿ. Ñ. 76.
24
Îáðàçîâàíèå Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 166.
22
23
157
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
àâòîíîìíûõ áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêèõ îáëàñòåé äåÿòåëüíîñòüþ îðãàíîâ
íàðîäíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ è âñÿêîãî ðîäà êóëüòóðíî-ïðîñâåòèòåëüíûõ
ó÷ðåæäåíèé ”.25  íà÷àëå èþëÿ 1922 ã. áûë îðãàíèçîâàí Áóðÿòñêèé
ó÷åíûé êîìèòåò (Áóðó÷êîì), îñíîâíîé çàäà÷åé êîòîðîãî áûëî “èçó÷åíèå è ðàçðàáîòêà âîïðîñîâ íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû”.26 Åãî îñíîâíûå
óñèëèÿ áûëè ñîñðåäîòî÷åíû íà èçó÷åíèè èñòîðèè Áóðÿòèè è ïîäãîòîâêå êâàëèôèöèðîâàííûõ ó÷èòåëüñêèõ êàäðîâ èç áóðÿò.27 ×óòü ðàíüøå â Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé àâòîíîìíîé îáëàñòè ÄÂÐ âîçíèêëî “Îáùåñòâî íàöèîíàëüíîãî êóëüòóðíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèÿ áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà” (Áóðíàöêóëüò).  ïðîãðàììå Áóðíàöêóëüòà ñòàâèëàñü
“çàäà÷à íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî âîçðîæäåíèÿ áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà”,
êîòîðóþ ïðåäïîëàãàëîñü ðåøàòü, â ÷àñòíîñòè, ïîñðåäñòâîì “âñåñòîðîííåãî êóëüòóðíîãî è ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî âîñïèòàíèÿ è ðàçâèòèÿ òðóäÿùèõñÿ ìàññ áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî íàðîäà”.28
Îäíàêî àêöåíòèðîâàíèå âíèìàíèÿ è äåÿòåëüíîñòè ýòíè÷åñêèõ àêòèâèñòîâ íà ñôåðå ïðîñâåùåíèÿ è îñîçíàíèå åå â êà÷åñòâå êëþ÷åâîé â
äåëå êîíñîëèäàöèè áóðÿò ïðîèçîøëî èìåííî ïîñëå îáðàçîâàíèÿ àâòîíîìíîé ðåñïóáëèêè. Ðóêîâîäñòâî âñåé êóëüòóðíîé æèçíüþ ðåñïóáëèêè ê ýòîìó âðåìåíè ñîñðåäîòî÷èëîñü â ñòðóêòóðàõ Íàðîäíîãî êîìèññàðèàòà ïðîñâåùåíèÿ, â âåäåíèå êîòîðîãî âõîäèëè “îðãàíèçàöèÿ ðàáîòû îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ øêîë, äåòñêèå äîøêîëüíûå ó÷ðåæäåíèÿ,
îðãàíèçàöèÿ ìàññîâîé ðàáîòû ïî ëèêâèäàöèè íåãðàìîòíîñòè âçðîñëîãî íàñåëåíèÿ, ðóêîâîäñòâî äåÿòåëüíîñòüþ êóëüòóðíî-ïðîñâåòèòåëüíûõ
ó÷ðåæäåíèé (êëóáîâ, áèáëèîòåê, íàðîäíûõ äîìîâ è ò.ä.), èçäàòåëüñêîãî äåëà”.29  òå÷åíèå 1923-1928 ãîäîâ Íàðêîìïðîñ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ äåéñòâîâàë â íàïðàâëåíèè îðãàíèçàöèè íàó÷íî-ïðîñâåòèòåëüñêîé ñåòè, êîòîðàÿ äîëæíà áûëà, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, îõâàòèòü âñå áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå
ðåñïóáëèêè è, ñ äðóãîé – “ãåíåðèðîâàòü ýòíè÷íîñòü” ñ ïîìîùüþ íàöèîíàëèçèðîâàííîé áóðÿòñêîé øêîëû è àêòèâíûõ íàó÷íûõ èñòîðèêî-ýòíîãðàôè÷åñêèõ è ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé. Âàæíåéøèìè óçëàìè ýòîé ñåòè ÿâëÿëèñü íàó÷íî-èññëåäîâàòåëüñêèå ó÷ðåæäåíèÿ – Áóðó÷êîì, Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîå íàó÷íîå îáùåñòâî èìåíè Äîðæè Áàíçàðîâà
(ñîçäàíî â 1924 ãîäó äëÿ “èçó÷åíèÿ êðàÿ è ïðîïàãàíäû èñòîðè÷åñêèõ
Êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Äîêóìåíòû è ìàòåðèàëû. ÓëàíÓäý, 1983. Ñ. 45.
26
Òàì æå. Ñ. 51.
27
Íåèçâåñòíûå ñòðàíèöû èñòîðèè Áóðÿòèè. Óëàí-Óäý, 1991. Ñ. 13.
28
Òàì æå. Ñ. 10.
29
Òàì æå. Ñ. 13.
25
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çíàíèé ñðåäè íàñåëåíèÿ ðåñïóáëèêè”30), à òàêæå Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêèé
ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé òåõíèêóì (ñîçäàí â 1924), çàíèìàâøèéñÿ ïîäãîòîâêîé
áóðÿòñêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî ó÷èòåëüñòâà.
Îôîðìëåíèå êîíöåïöèè íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà
(=ïðîñâåùåíèÿ) êàê äîñòàòî÷íî öåëîñòíîé ñèñòåìû âçãëÿäîâ è èäåé
áóðÿòñêîé èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé ýëèòû ïðèõîäèòñÿ íà 1926 ãîä è ñâÿçàíî
ñ ïðîâåäåíèåì ïëåíóìà îáêîìà ÂÊÏ(á) (25 àâãóñòà 1926 ã.) è, ãëàâíûì
îáðàçîì, ïåðâîãî êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñîâåùàíèÿ Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ (ñåíòÿáðü 1926). Íà ïàðòèéíîì ïëåíóìå ðå÷ü øëà î ñòðàòåãè÷åñêîì íàïðàâëåíèè ðàçâèòèÿ “êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà” â Áóðÿòèè. Áûëî ïîä÷åðêíóòî, ÷òî “ïðèîáùåíèå Áóðÿòèè ê ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðå âîçìîæíî ïóòåì íàñàæäåíèÿ ýëåìåíòîâ
îáùåïðîëåòàðñêîé ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû, ïóòåì èçó÷åíèÿ è óñâîåíèÿ, ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì, ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà è ëèòåðàòóðû, ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ è âíåäðåíèÿ â ïîâñåäíåâíîé æèçíè êóëüòóðíîé îáñòàíîâêè, íà÷èíàÿ ñ ïèùåâîãî ðåæèìà, êîí÷àÿ òðåáîâàíèÿìè ãèãèåíû è âíåøíåé
ôîðìû îáùåæèòèÿ”.31  òî æå âðåìÿ íå îòðèöàëàñü âîçìîæíîñòü “ðàçâèòèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû – ÿçûêà, ëèòåðàòóðû, ïèñüìåííîñòè,
èñêóññòâà è ïðî÷åãî íà îñíîâå âûÿâëåíèÿ òâîð÷åñêîé èíèöèàòèâû è
ñàìîäåÿòåëüíîñòè òðóäÿùèõñÿ ìàññ ”.32 Ïðè ýòîì îòìå÷àëîñü, ÷òî
àêòèâíîãî êóëüòóðíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ ìîæíî äîáèòüñÿ òîëüêî òîãäà, “êîãäà
íàöèîíàëèçàöèÿ øêîë áóäåò îñóùåñòâëåíà ïîëíîñòüþ, êîãäà âåñü ó÷èòåëüñêèé ïåðñîíàë âî âñåõ íàøèõ øêîëàõ áóäåò äîñòàòî÷íî ïîäãîòîâëåí ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ óñâîåíèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû, êîãäà âåñü óëóñíûé àêòèâ êóëüòóðíûõ ðàáîòíèêîâ ñòàíåò íîñèòåëåì è ðàñïðîñòðàíèòåëåì äëÿ òðóäîâîé ìàññû ýëåìåíòîâ íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû ”.33 À
äëÿ ýòîãî, êàê ìèíèìóì, “íàäî øêîëüíóþ ñåòü ïåðåñòðîèòü ñòðîãî ïî
íàöèîíàëüíîìó ïðèçíàêó”.34
Äåêëàðèðîâàíèå êîììóíèñòàìè äîñòàòî÷íî ëèáåðàëüíîé ïîçèöèè
â âîïðîñå î íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðå ñîçäàëî ïðåäïîñûëêè äëÿ òîãî,
÷òîáû áóðÿòñêàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ ñêîíöåíòðèðîâàëà ñâîè òâîð÷åñêèå
óñèëèÿ íà ðàçðàáîòêå ìåõàíèçìîâ âîñïðîèçâîäñòâà è ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû â óùåðá (ê ðàçî÷àðîâàíèþ ïàðòèè) èíòåãðàÅëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå, ðàçâèòèå, ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ñ. 193.
Êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. 1917-1981. Äîêóìåíòû è
ìàòåðèàëû. Óëàí-Óäý. 1983. Ñ. 85.
32
Òàì æå.
33
Òàì æå. Ñ. 89.
34
Òàì æå.
30
31
159
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
òèâíîìó ìîìåíòó, ïðåäïîëàãàâøåìó êóëüòóðíîå ðàçâèòèå áóðÿò â îáùåñîâåòñêîì êîíòåêñòå. Ýòà òåíäåíöèÿ ÿðêî ïðîÿâèëàñü â õîäå ðàáîòû
ïåðâîãî êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñîâåùàíèÿ, íà êîòîðîì áûëà âûðàáîòàíà äîñòàòî÷íî ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíàÿ ïðîãðàììà “êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà”, îðèåíòèðîâàííàÿ íà êàê ìîæíî áîëåå ïîëíîå “ñîõðàíåíèå” ýëåìåíòà òðàäèöèîííîñòè â ôîðìèðóåìîé (ò.å. êîíñòðóèðóåìîé) íîâîé “ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé” êóëüòóðå áóðÿò.
Îäíèì èç âàæíåéøèõ ýëåìåíòîâ êîíöåïöèè “êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà” ñòàëà ðàäèêàëüíàÿ ÿçûêîâàÿ ðåôîðìà, ïðåäïîëàãàâøàÿ ñîçäàíèå îáùåãî äëÿ âñåõ òåððèòîðèàëüíî-ïëåìåííûõ ãðóïï
áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà è íîâîé ïèñüìåííîñòè. Ñ
ïîìîùüþ ðåôîðìû íàìå÷àëîñü, âî-ïåðâûõ, ðåàëèçîâàòü (“ñîõðàíèòü”)
ÿçûêîâîå åäèíñòâî ñ îñòàëüíûì ìîíãîëüñêèì ìèðîì, âî-âòîðûõ, äîáèòüñÿ êîíñîëèäàöèè è âîçðîæäåíèÿ áóðÿòñêîãî ýòíîñà â öåëîì è, âòðåòüèõ, ìîäåðíèçèðîâàòü ÿçûêîâóþ êóëüòóðó áóðÿò â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ
òðåáîâàíèÿìè ñîâðåìåííîñòè.  êà÷åñòâå àêñèîìû áðàëñÿ òåçèñ î òîì,
÷òî “ìîíãîëüñêèå ïëåìåíà, ïåðåæèâ ìíîãî èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ýïîõ, ñîõðàíèëè â ãëàâíîé ñâîåé ÷àñòè íàöèîíàëüíûé ÿçûê, åäèíñòâî êîòîðîãî
óäåðæàëîñü òîëüêî â ïèñüìåííîì âèäå”.35 Ïîýòîìó, óòâåðæäàëè ó÷àñòíèêè ñîâåùàíèÿ, “îáúåäèíåíèå è ñîõðàíåíèå ìîíãîëüñêîé íàöèè îñóùåñòâèòñÿ òîëüêî íà ïî÷âå åäèíîãî ïèñüìåííîãî ÿçûêà...”,36 à “âîïðîñ
î ïîâûøåíèè êâàëèôèêàöèè ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû äîëæåí áûòü ïîñòàâëåí è ðàçðåøåí... â ìàñøòàáå îáùåìîíãîëüñêîì”.37
 ðåçîëþöèè ïî äîêëàäàì “Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ ïèñüìåííîñòü êàê îðóäèå
êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà Áóðÿòèè” è “Âîïðîñû ïîâûøåíèÿ êâàëèôèêàöèè ìîíãîëüñêîé ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû” ãîâîðèëîñü: “Îòðûâ ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî íàðîäà îò îñòàëüíûõ ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí ïóòåì ñîçäàíèÿ êàêîé-ëèáî ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîé áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîé ïèñüìåííîñòè ñ÷èòàòü ñîâåðøåííî íåäîïóñòèìûì”.38 Èñõîäÿ èç ýòîãî, ñîâåùàíèå ñ÷èòàëî “íåîáõîäèìûì ñîõðàíåíèå ìîíãîëüñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé ïèñüìåííîñòè âî âñåé åå ñèëå” è ïîñòàíîâèëî “â
öåëÿõ îáúåäèíåíèÿ ñóùåñòâóþùèõ ó áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî íàðîäà ðàçëè÷íûõ íàðå÷èé è âûðàáîòêè ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà ïðèçíàòü íåîáõîÁ. Á. Áàðàäèí. Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ ïèñüìåííîñòü êàê îðóäèå êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà
Áóðÿòèè // Ìàòåðèàëû ïåðâîãî êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñîâåùàíèÿ ÁóðÿòÌîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Âåðõíåóäèíñê, 1926. Ñ. 1.
36
Òàì æå. Ñ. 2.
37
Òàì æå. Ñ. 9.
38
Èñòîðèÿ Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ò2. Óëàí-Óäý, 1959. Ñ. 350-351.
35
160
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
äèìûì âçÿòü çà îñíîâó â äåëå äàëüíåéøåãî ðàçâèòèÿ áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîé ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû õàëõà-ìîíãîëüñêîå íàðå÷èå ñ îõâàòîì âñåãî
ëåêñè÷åñêîãî ñîñòàâà íûíåøíåãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ìîíãîëüñêîãî ÿçûêà è
ãëàâíåéøèõ æèâûõ íàðå÷èé ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí”.39
 âîïðîñå î ÿçûêîâîé êîíñîëèäàöèè áóðÿòñêîãî ýòíîñà ñîâåùàíèå
èñõîäèëî èç òåõ ñîîáðàæåíèé, ÷òî “íè åäèíñòâî ïðîèñõîæäåíèÿ, íè
àíòðîïîëîãè÷åñêîå ðîäñòâî ëþäåé íå ìîãóò áûòü îïðåäåëèòåëÿìè íàöèîíàëüíîñòè, åñëè íåò íàëè÷èÿ åäèíñòâà ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû”, êîòîðàÿ, ïî ñóùåñòâó, ÿâëÿåòñÿ “îñíîâíûì îïðåäåëèòåëåì íàöèîíàëüíîñòè èëè íàðîäíîñòè ”.40 Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñòåïåíü êîíñîëèäèðîâàííîñòè ýòíè÷åñêîé îáùíîñòè “îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ äîñòèæåíèåì åäèíîé ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû”,41 êîòîðàÿ, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, âûðàæàåòñÿ ⠓ôîðìå îáùåãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà, êîãäà îí ñòàíîâèòñÿ îñíîâíûì îðóäèåì âñåõ
÷ëåíîâ äàííîé íàöèîíàëüíîñòè â äåëå èõ ïîâñåäíåâíûõ îáùåíèé”.42
Ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, “ áåç ðåàëèçàöèè ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà è åãî ïèñüìåííîñòè,
ò.å. âñåãî òîãî, ÷òî íàçûâàåòñÿ ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðîé, íå áóäåò âîçðîæäåíèÿ áóðÿò-ìîíãîëîâ êàê ýòíè÷åñêîé åäèíèöû ”.43 Äàííàÿ ïðîáëåìà ïðèçíàâàëàñü íàñòîëüêî âàæíîé, ÷òî åå áûëî ïðåäëîæåíî “âûäâèíóòü â ðåñïóáëèêàíñêîì ìàñøòàáå êàê îñîáóþ ïîëèòèêó, ïîëèòèêó ÿçûêîâóþ. Òîëüêî òàêèì ïóòåì ìû ñìîæåì âûâåñòè èõ (áóðÿò-ìîíãîëîâ) íà âåðíûé ïóòü íàöèîíàëüíî-ÿçûêîâîé êîíñîëèäàöèè”.44
Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, â óñëîâèÿõ íàáèðàâøåãî ñèëó ïðîöåññà êóëüòóðíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ìîäåðíèçàöèè âñå îò÷åòëèâåå îáíàðóæèâàëàñü íåïðèñïîñîáëåííîñòü ìîíãîëüñêîãî ïèñüìà ê çàïðîñàì ñîâðåìåííîé
æèçíè, è áóðÿòñêàÿ èíòåëëåêòóàëüíàÿ ýëèòà çàäóìàëàñü î âîçìîæíûõ
ïóòÿõ èçìåíåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîé ïîëèòèêè. Íàèáîëåå ÷åòêî ñôîðìóëèðîâàë
ýòó ïðîáëåìó Á. Á. Áàðàäèí, êîòîðûé îòìå÷àë, ÷òî “íåñîâåðøåíñòâà
ìîíãîëüñêîãî ïèñüìà îùóùàþòñÿ îñîáåííî â ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ, êîãäà ìîíãîëüñêèå ïëåìåíà, ïîëó÷èâøèå ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ ñâîáîäó, ñòàëè
ëèöîì ê ëèöó ñ íîâîé êóëüòóðîé, èíòåíñèâíî èäóùåé èç Åâðîïû â Àçèþ
Òàì æå.
Á. Á. Áàðàäèí. Âîïðîñû êâàëèôèêàöèè ìîíãîëüñêîé ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû //
Ìàòåðèàëû ïåðâîãî êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñîâåùàíèÿ Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé
ÀÑÑÐ. Âåðõíåóäèíñê, 1926. Ñ. 15.
41
Ìàòåðèàëû ê ïåðâîìó êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñîâåùàíèþ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ.
Âåðõíåóäèíñê, 1926. Ñ. 66.
42
Òàì æå.
43
Òàì æå. Ñ. 69.
44
Òàì æå. Ñ. 66.
39
40
161
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
÷åðåç ÑÑÑД.45 “ Íîâîå êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî áóðÿò-ìîíãîëîâ, – ðàçâèâàåò îí ñâîþ ìûñëü íåñêîëüêî ïîçæå, – ïðåæäå
âñåãî, ïîâåäåò ê ñèëüíåéøåé èíòåíñèôèêàöèè óñâîåíèÿ èíòåðíàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû ”,46 â õîäå êîòîðîé “ïðèäåòñÿ ñòîëêíóòüñÿ ñ íåïðåîäîëèìîé òåõíè÷åñêîé òðóäíîñòüþ â äåëå ïðèìåíåíèÿ ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà
è ïèñüìà ”.47 Ýòî ïðîèçîéäåò íåèçáåæíî, ïîñêîëüêó ïèñüìåííîñòü
áóðÿò “áëàãîäàðÿ åå àðõàè÷íîñòè è íåïðèñïîñîáëåííîñòè ê ñîâðåìåííîé êóëüòóðå” ìåõàíè÷åñêè ëèøàåò èõ “âîçìîæíîñòè èñïîëüçîâàòü â
ïîëíîé ìåðå âñå êóëüòóðíûå ôóíêöèè ñâîåãî ÿçûêà”.48 Ýòè ìîìåíòû
ñäåëàëè “àêòóàëüíûì âîïðîñ îá óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèè ïèñüìà”,49 “î ââåäåíèè èíòåðíàöèîíàëüíîãî àëôàâèòà ”.50
Äëÿ ðåøåíèÿ ïðîáëåìû áûëà ïðåäëîæåíà ïðîãðàììà ìîäåðíèçàöèè áóðÿòñêîãî ÿçûêà, ïîäðàçóìåâàâøàÿ “ïðèìåíåíèå ê ýòîé àðõàè÷åñêîé ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðå íîâåéøèõ äîñòèæåíèé ëèíãâèñòèêè è òåõíèêè ïèñüìà (ðó÷íîãî, ìàøèííîãî è ïå÷àòíîãî) ”.51 Ñîãëàñíî ýòîé
ïðîãðàììå, ïëàíèðîâàëèñü àêòèâèçàöèÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòè ïî èçäàíèþ
“ó÷åáíîé è ïîëèòèêî-ïðîñâåòèòåëüíîé ëèòåðàòóðû , ãàçåò è æóðíàëîâ”, “ïåðåõîä âñåõ ïðîñâåòèòåëüíûõ è ïðî÷. ó÷ðåæäåíèé íà íîâûé
ÿçûê è ïèñüìî ”.52 Ïðåäïîëàãàëàñü òàêæå “îðãàíèçàöèÿ íàó÷íî-èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî èíñòèòóòà ìîíãîëüñêîãî ÿçûêîçíàíèÿ, â çàäà÷ó êîòîðîãî âõîäÿò: ñîäåéñòâèå ê äàëüíåéøåìó ïîâûøåíèþ êâàëèôèêàöèè ÿçûêîâîé è äðóãèõ ýòíè÷åñêèõ êóëüòóð ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí ”, ïîäãîòîâêà “ïåäàãîãîâ-ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé íîâî-ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà è íàöèîíàëüíîãî èñêóññòâà ; ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ äåÿòåëåé íàöèîíàëüíîãî
èñêóññòâà ; ðàáîòíèêîâ ïîëèòïðîñâåòà ; ãàçåòíûõ ðàáîòíèêî⠔.53
Èíûìè ñëîâàìè, âûäâèãàëñÿ ïðîåêò ñîçäàíèÿ åäèíîãî èíôîðìàöèîííîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, êîòîðîå ñ âûñîêîé ñòåïåíüþ èíòåíñèâíîñòè îõâàòèëî áû âåñü áóðÿòñêèé ýòíîñ è ñòàëî áû áàçèñîì äëÿ äîñòèæåíèÿ
âñåîáúåìëþùåãî êóëüòóðíî-ÿçûêîâîãî êîíòèíóóìà. Äåéñòâèòåëüíî,
Ìàòåðèàëû ê ïåðâîìó êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñîâåùàíèþ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 2.
Á. Á. Áàðàäèí. Âîïðîñû ïîâûøåíèÿ áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîé ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû. Áàêó,
1929. Ñ. 8.
47
Òàì æå.
48
Òàì æå. Ñ. 9.
49
Òàì æå. Ñ. 2.
50
Òàì æå. Ñ. 7.
51
Áàðàäèí. Âîïðîñû êâàëèôèêàöèè. 1926. Ñ. 9.
52
Ìàòåðèàëû ê ïåðâîìó êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñîâåùàíèþ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 13.
53
Òàì æå. Ñ. 14.
45
46
162
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îñóùåñòâëåíèå òàêîãî ïðîåêòà ïðèâåëî áû ê “îáùåäîñòóïíîñòè ÿçûêà
äëÿ øèðîêîé ìàññû è âîçìîæíîñòè øèðîêîãî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ãðàìîòíîñòè è ïðîñâåùåíèÿ è ðåàëèçàöèè ÿçûêà âî âñåé îáëàñòè êóëüòóðíîé æèçíè íàðîäà”.54 Ôàêòè÷åñêè, ïîäîáíûé ïðîåêò áûë íàïðàâëåí íà
ñîçäàíèå òîãî, ÷òî Á. Àíäåðñîí îáîçíà÷èë êàê “âîîáðàæàåìîå ñîîáùåñòâî” è áåç ÷åãî íåâîçìîæíî âîçíèêíîâåíèå îáùíîñòè, ïðåòåíäóþùåé
íà ñòàòóñ “íàöèè”.55
Èòàê, â êîíöåïöèè íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà áóðÿòñêîìó (áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîìó) ÿçûêó ïðèäàâàëîñü îñîáîå çíà÷åíèå, ïîñêîëüêó îí ìîã âûñòóïàòü, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, êàê ðåàëüíûé ìåõàíèçì êîíñîëèäàöèè â åäèíîå
êóëüòóðíî-ÿçûêîâîå öåëîå íåñêîëüêî ðàçëè÷àþùèõñÿ ìåæäó ñîáîé
áóðÿòñêèõ ýòíîòåððèòîðèàëüíûõ ãðóïï è, ñ äðóãîé, – êàê âàæíåéøèé
ñèìâîë îáùåé ýòíè÷åñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè áóðÿò. Ïðè÷åì ýòà èäåíòè÷íîñòü ìûñëèëàñü áóðÿòñêèìè èíòåëëåêòóàëàìè êàê íåîòúåìëåìàÿ, õîòÿ
è àâòîíîìíàÿ, ÷àñòü áîëåå âûñîêîãî îáùåìîíãîëüñêîãî óðîâíÿ èäåíòè÷íîñòè.
Âòîðûì íå ìåíåå âàæíûì ýëåìåíòîì íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî
ñòðîèòåëüñòâà ÿâëÿëàñü ïðîãðàììà íàöèîíàëèçàöèè øêîëû. Îíà ïîäðàçóìåâàëà îðãàíèçàöèþ ñèñòåìû îáðàçîâàíèÿ, îáñëóæèâàþùåé íóæäû èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî áóðÿòñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ. Áóðÿòñêàÿ íàöèîíàëèçèðîâàííàÿ øêîëà ðàññìàòðèâàëàñü â êà÷åñòâå âàæíåéøåãî èíñòðóìåíòà
ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ è âîñïðîèçâîäñòâà ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû: îíà “ÿâëÿåòñÿ íàèáîëåå ìîùíûì îðóäèåì êóëüòóðû è ïðîñâåùåíèÿ ”,56 à
ïîýòîìó òîëüêî ñ åå ïîìîùüþ âîçìîæíî “îñóùåñòâëåíèå äåëà íàèáîÁàðàäèí. Âîïðîñû êâàëèôèêàöèè. 1926. Ñ. 12.
Íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî êðîìå äâóõ òåíäåíöèé ðàçâèòèÿ ÿçûêîâîé ïîëèòèêè,
ïðîÿâèâøèõñÿ íà ïåðâîì êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîì ñîâåùàíèè (ò.å., ñîõðàíåíèå
ñòàðîìîíãîëüñêîé ïèñüìåííîñòè è ââåäåíèÿ ëàòèíñêîãî àëôàâèòà), ñóùåñòâîâàëà
è òðåòüÿ àëüòåðíàòèâà. Ïðàâäà, ïðîÿâèëàñü îíà íåñêîëüêî ïîçæå - â ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå 30-õ ãã., è, â êîíå÷íîì èòîãå, â 1936-1939 ãã. èìåííî îíà è áûëà ðåàëèçîâàíà.
Ðå÷ü èäåò î ââåäåíèè àëôàâèòà íà îñíîâå êèðèëëèöû è èñïîëüçîâàíèè õîðèíñêîãî
äèàëåêòà â êà÷åñòâå îñíîâû äëÿ ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà. Ðàçðàáîòêà è ðåàëèçàöèÿ
òàêîãî ïðîåêòà îñóùåñòâëÿëàñü ïîä äàâëåíèåì öåíòðà, êîòîðûé óñìàòðèâàë â ôàêòå
ñîõðàíåíèÿ ó áóðÿò ìîíãîëüñêîé ïèñüìåííîñòè îïàñíîñòü ðåâèòàëèçàöèè ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ïàíìîíãîëèçìà (ïðèçûâà ê ñîçäàíèþ åäèíîãî ìîíãîëüñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà). Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, íåîáõîäèìîñòü ââåäåíèÿ êèðèëëèöû ìîòèâèðîâàëàñü
ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé öåëåñîîáðàçíîñòüþ (ñíèæåíèå èçäåðæåê â èçäàòåëüñêîì ïðîèçâîäñòâå), à õîðèíñêîãî äèàëåêòà - òåì, ÷òî îí ÿêîáû áëèæå è ïîíÿòíåå áóðÿòñêîìó
íàñåëåíèþ, ÷åì êàêèå-ëèáî äðóãèå ìîíãîëüñêèå íàðå÷èÿ.
56
Ìàòåðèàëû ê ïåðâîìó êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñîâåùàíèþ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 16.
54
55
163
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
ëåå ïîëíîé ðåàëèçàöèè ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà â ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêîì è îðãàíèçîâàííîì ïîðÿäêå”.57 Äåéñòâèòåëüíî, ó÷àñòíèêè ñîâåùàíèÿ ñ÷èòàëè, ÷òî “îñíîâíûì ïðèçíàêîì âñÿêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé øêîëû ÿâëÿåòñÿ
ïîëíîå âûÿâëåíèå ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà ó÷àùèõñÿ”,58 ÷òî “ÿçûêîì ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ äîëæåí áûòü åäèíûé è îáÿçàòåëüíûé äëÿ âñåõ øêîë ðîäíîé ïðîèçíîñèòåëüíî-çðèòåëüíûé ÿçûê ”.59 Òîëüêî â ýòîì ñëó÷àå áóðÿòñêàÿ
øêîëà áóäåò ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü “ðåàëèçàöèè ÿçûêîâîé êóëüòóðû áóðÿòìîíãîëüñêîãî íàðîäà è êîíñîëèäàöèè íàöèîíàëüíîñòè, åå äåéñòâèòåëüíîìó ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèþ è âîçðîæäåíèþ”.60
Èòàê, áóðÿòñêàÿ èíòåëëåêòóàëüíàÿ ýëèòà ïîëàãàëà, ÷òî íàöèîíàëüíàÿ
øêîëà – ýòî ïðåæäå âñåãî èíñòðóìåíò êóëüòèâèðîâàíèÿ ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà.
Îòñþäà âûòåêàëè òàêèå ïðèíöèïû åå îðãàíèçàöèè, êàê “îáåñïå÷åíèå
øêîë ïðåïîäàâàòåëüñêèì áóðÿòñêèì ñîñòàâîì” è “ïðîâåäåíèå îðãàíèçàöèîííûõ ìåðîïðèÿòèé, íàïðàâëåííûõ ê èçæèòèþ ñìåøàííîñòè íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñîñòàâà ó÷àùèõñÿ”.61 Ïîëèýòíè÷íîñòü øêîëû (êàê â îòíîøåíèè ó÷èòåëåé, òàê è ó÷àùèõñÿ) ðàñöåíèâàëàñü êàê “ÿâëåíèå íåíîðìàëüíîå” èìåííî â êîíòåêñòå ÿçûêîâîé ïðîáëåìû, âåäü “ðåàëèçàöèÿ ðîäíîãî ÿçûêà â ñìåøàííîì êëàññå äåëàåòñÿ íåðàçðåøèìîé, ò.ê. ó÷èòåëü íåèçáåæíî äîëæåí äàâàòü îáúÿñíåíèÿ ðóññêîé ÷àñòè ó÷àùèõñÿ íà ðóññêîì
ÿçûêå”.62 Åñëè æå ó÷èòåëåì ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðåäñòàâèòåëü ðóññêîãî ýòíîñà, òî
“ïðîèçîéäåò íåèçáåæíàÿ ðóñèôèêàöèÿ, êîòîðàÿ ïðîòèâîðå÷èò îñíîâíîìó ïðèíöèïó íàöèîíàëüíîé øêîëû”.63 Ïîñëåäíèé àñïåêò íàöèîíàëèçàöèè îáðàçîâàíèÿ áûë äîñòàòî÷íî àêòóàëåí, ïîñêîëüêó áóðÿòñêèå øêîëû
áûëè “îáåñïå÷åíû áóðÿòñêèì ñîñòàâîì ó÷èòåëåé äàëåêî íå ïîëíîñòüþ,
òîëüêî íà 79% ; øêîëû ïîâûøåííîãî òèïà îáåñïå÷åíû áóðÿòñêèì ñîñòàâîì åùå ìåíüøå, íå áîëåå 25% îáùåãî êîëè÷åñòâà ó÷àùèõ”.64 Ïðåäëîæåííàÿ íà ïåðâîì íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîì ñîâåùàíèè ïðîãðàììà
ïðåäïîëàãàëà äîñòèæåíèå ïîëíîé íàöèîíàëèçàöèè áóðÿòñêîé øêîëû,
ò.å. ïðåâðàùåíèÿ áóðÿòñêîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà â îñíîâíîé, è “èçæèòèÿ ýòíè÷åñêîé ñìåøàííîñòè” ïðèìåðíî ê 1930-1931 ãîäàì.65
Òàì æå. Ñ. 69.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 16.
59
Òàì æå. Ñ. 16-17.
60
Òàì æå. Ñ. 39.
61
Òàì æå. Ñ. 40.
62
Òàì æå. Ñ. 56.
63
Òàì æå.
64
Òàì æå. Ñ. 42.
65
Òàì æå. Ñ. 63-64.
57
58
164
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Èòàê, áóðÿòñêàÿ íàöèîíàëüíàÿ øêîëà âûñòóïàëà â ðîëè âàæíåéøåé
ñòðóêòóðû, êîòîðàÿ, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, äîëæíà áûëà èíòåãðèðîâàòü âåñü
áóðÿòñêèé ýòíîñ è, ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, îáó÷àòü èíäèâèäà, ïðåæäå âñåãî,
÷åðåç ÿçûê, ñïåöèôè÷åñêèì ïðàêòèêàì ýòíè÷åñêè îêðàøåííîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ â îáùåñòâå.
 êîíòåêñòå íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà ðàññìàòðèâàëàñü è ïðîáëåìà ðàçâèòèÿ áóðÿòñêîãî èñêóññòâà “êàê íåîòúåìëåìîé
÷àñòè áóðÿòñêîé ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû”. “Îñíîâíàÿ íàøà ðàáîòà, – ïîä÷åðêèâàëè ó÷àñòíèêè ñîâåùàíèÿ, – äîëæíà áûòü íàïðàâëåíà ïî ëèíèè îðãàíèçàöèè íàøåãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî èñêóññòâà âî âñåõ åãî âèäàõ ”.66 Ïðè ýòîì îòìå÷àëîñü, ÷òî “õóäîæåñòâåííîå èñêóññòâî – æèâîïèñü, àðõèòåêòóðà, ñêóëüïòóðà, îðíàìåíò è ò.ä. íàèáîëåå ÿðêî âûÿâëåíî â äàöàíàõ ”.67 È ïîýòîìó íåîáõîäèìî âåñòè “ñïåöèàëüíîå èçó÷åíèå è ðàçðàáîòêó âîïðîñîâ î äàöàíñêîì èñêóññòâå”,68 ñ òåì, ÷òîáû
èñïîëüçîâàòü “åãî äëÿ ïîñòðîéêè íîâîãî áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî èñêóññòâà ”.69 Ïîïóëÿðèçèðîâàòü è ðàñïðîñòðàíÿòü íîâîå áóðÿòñêîå èñêóññòâî “â ìàññàõ” äîëæíû áûëè îáðàçîâàòåëüíûå ñòðóêòóðû – íàöèîíàëüíàÿ øêîëà, áóðÿòñêîå ó÷èòåëüñòâî, à òàêæå ñïåöèàëüíî ïîäãîòîâëåííûå äëÿ ýòîãî “ïðîôåññèîíàë-ðàáîòíèêè ïî íàöèîíàëüíîìó èñêóññòâó”.70 Ïîñëåäíèå “äîëæíû áûòü îðãàíèçàòîðàìè, ðóêîâîäèòåëÿìè íàöèîíàëüíî-õóäîæåñòâåííîãî âîñïèòàíèÿ â øêîëå è áóäèëüíèêàìè íàöèîíàëüíîãî èñêóññòâà ñðåäè íàðîäíîé ìàññû íà ìåñòàõ”.71 Ïðè
ýòîì ïîä÷åðêèâàëîñü, ÷òî “ñîçäàíèå ïðî÷íîé áàçû äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî èñêóññòâà” äîëæíî ïðîèñõîäèòü “â
óæå áîëåå îðãàíèçîâàííîì ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì ìàñøòàáå”.72 Èíûìè ñëîâàìè, ïëàíèðîâàëîñü ñîçäàòü îñîáóþ ãðóïïó ëþäåé, êîòîðûå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíî çàíèìàëèñü áû âíåäðåíèåì îïðåäåëåííûõ ýòíè÷åñêè íàïîëíåííûõ êóëüòóðíî-ýñòåòè÷åñêèõ ìîäåëåé â ïîâñåäíåâíóþ æèçíü áóðÿò.
 ðàìêàõ êîíöåïöèè “íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà”
áûëî òàêæå óäåëåíî íåêîòîðîå âíèìàíèå ïðîáëåìå àäàïòàöèè áóðÿòñêîãî ýòíîñà ê ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîìó è êóëüòóðíîìó îêðóæåíèþ.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 28.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 30.
68
Òàì æå.
69
Òàì æå.
70
Òàì æå. Ñ. 33.
71
Òàì æå. Ñ. 32.
72
Òàì æå. Ñ. 28.
66
67
165
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
Ó÷àñòíèêè ñîâåùàíèÿ îñîçíàâàëè, ÷òî “áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä ïîëèòè÷åñêè, ýêîíîìè÷åñêè è êóëüòóðíî ñâÿçàí ñ ðóññêèì íàðîäîì, ñ ñîâåòñêîé
ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ïîëèòèêîé, ýêîíîìèêîé è êóëüòóðîé”.73  ñèëó òîãî,
÷òî Áóðÿòèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ “â ïîëèòèêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì îòíîøåíèè ÷àñòüþ
åäèíîãî ÑÑÑД îíà “è â êóëüòóðíîì ñòðîèòåëüñòâå äîëæíà èñïîëüçîâàòü ðóññêóþ íàóêó, ñðåäíèå è âûñøèå ó÷åáíûå çàâåäåíèÿ äëÿ ïîäãîòîâêè êâàëèôèöèðîâàííîé ðàáî÷åé ñèëû è ò.ä.”.74 Ïîýòîìó ïîä÷åðêèâàëàñü “íåîáõîäèìîñòü çíàíèÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà äëÿ ãðàæäàí áóðÿòñêîé
íàöèîíàëüíîñòè”. 75 È, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, äåëàëñÿ ñëåäóþùèé âûâîä:
“Ðóññêèé ÿçûê äîëæåí ïîëó÷èòü âïîëíå óñòîé÷èâîå ïîëîæåíèå â áóðÿòñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé øêîëå, ò.ê. íåîáõîäèìîñòü óäîâëåòâîðåíèÿ èçó÷åíèÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà âûçûâàåòñÿ ýêîíîìè÷åñêèìè, ïîëèòè÷åñêèìè è
êóëüòóðíûìè ñîîáðàæåíèÿìè”.76 Òàêèì îáðàçîì, çíàíèå ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà ðàññìàòðèâàëîñü â êà÷åñòâå íåîáõîäèìîãî óñëîâèÿ äëÿ ïîâûøåíèÿ
óðîâíÿ ñîöèàëüíîé ìîáèëüíîñòè áóðÿò â êîíòåêñòå ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîé
ìîäåðíèçàöèè ñîâåòñêîãî îáùåñòâà.
Îñîáîå ìåñòî â êîíöåïöèè “êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà” çàíÿë êîìïëåêñ èäåé, êàñàþùèõñÿ ýòíîêóëüòóðíîé îáùíîñòè
áóðÿò è ìîíãîëîâ, óæå óïîìèíàâøåéñÿ âûøå â êîíòåêñòå ÿçûêîâîé
ïîëèòèêè. Êàê îòìå÷àþò íåêîòîðûå èññëåäîâàòåëè, ïðè îáñóæäåíèè
ïðîãðàììû êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ “ìíîãèå âèäíûå äåÿòåëè Áóðÿòèè èñõîäèëè èç îáùíîñòè êóëüòóðû è èñòîðèè ìîíãîëüñêèõ
íàðîäîâ”.77 “Íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü, – ïèøåò À. À. Åëàåâ, – ÷òî ìîíãîëüñêàÿ îðèåíòàöèÿ áûëà ïðèñóùà âñåìó íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîìó ñòðîèòåëüñòâó â Áóðÿòèè â 20-å ãîäû è â íàèáîëüøåé ñòåïåíè ñîîòâåòñòâîâàëà ñîõðàíåíèþ è ðàçâèòèþ ýòíè÷åñêîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðû â îðãàíè÷åñêîé ñâÿçè åå ñ ðîäñòâåííîé îáùåìîíãîëüñêîé îñíîâîé”.78
Äåéñòâèòåëüíî, ó÷àñòíèêè êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñîâåùàíèÿ
èñõîäèëè èç òîãî, ÷òî “ìîíãîëüñêèå ïëåìåíà, â òîì ÷èñëå áóðÿò-ìîíãîëû, õîòÿ ðàçîáùåíû ìåæäó ñîáîé â òåððèòîðèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîì è
õîçÿéñòâåííî-ýòíè÷åñêîì îòíîøåíèÿõ, íî â ÿçûêîâîì è êóëüòóðíîÒàì æå. Ñ. 53.
Òàì æå.
75
Òàì æå.
76
Òàì æå. Ñ. 41.
77
Íåèçâåñòíûå ñòðàíèöû èñòîðèè Áóðÿòèè. Ñ. 14.
78
Åëàåâ. Ñ. 193.
73
74
166
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì – ïðåäñòàâëÿþò åäèíîå öåëîå”.79 Ñëåäîâàòåëüíî, ïî èõ
ìíåíèþ, “âñå âîïðîñû ïðèíöèïèàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà, êàñàþùèåñÿ ïîâûøåíèÿ êâàëèôèêàöèè ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû ìîíãîëîâ, ÿçûêà, ïèñüìåííîñòè, èñêóññòâà, øêîëû è ò.ä., ÿâëÿþòñÿ âîïðîñàìè, îáùèìè äëÿ
âñåõ ìîíãîëîâ. Ðàçðåøåíèå ýòèõ âîïðîñîâ èìååò àêòóàëüíåéøåå çíà÷åíèå äëÿ êóëüòóðíîé ñóäüáû âñåõ ìîíãîëîâ è âîçìîæíî òîëüêî ïðè
ñîâìåñòíîì ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâå âñåõ êóëüòóðíûõ ñèë Áóðÿòèè è Ìîíãîëèè”.80 À çíà÷èò, íåîáõîäèìî “âî ãëàâó óãëà ïîñòàâèòü âîïðîñ êóëüòóðíîãî îáúåäèíåíèÿ ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí ”.81
Îñìûñëåíèå ïðîáëåìû êóëüòóðíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ â òàêîì ðàêóðñå ïîáóæäàëî áóðÿòñêóþ èíòåëëèãåíöèþ ê àêòèâèçàöèè ñîöèîêóëüòóðíûõ
êîíòàêòîâ ñ Ìîíãîëèåé: “ Öåíòðàëüíûì âîïðîñîì äîëæåí âñòàòü
âîïðîñ îá îðãàíèçàöèè íàó÷íî-èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî èíñòèòóòà ÿçûêîâîé è ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóð ìîíãîëîâ äëÿ ðàçðàáîòêè è ðàçðåøåíèÿ âîïðîñîâ ïîâûøåíèÿ ÿçûêîâîé êâàëèôèêàöèè ÿçûêà, ïèñüìåííîñòè, èñêóññòâà , øêîëû è ïðî÷. ýëåìåíòîâ ìîíãîëüñêîé ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû è äëÿ ïîäãîòîâêè êàäðà êâàëèôèöèðîâàííûõ íàó÷íûõ ðàáîòíèêîâðóêîâîäîâ â îáëàñòè âîïðîñîâ òåîðèè è ïðàêòèêè ïîâûøåíèÿ êâàëèôèêàöèè ýòèõ êóëüòóð”;82 “â ïîðÿäêå ïîæåëàíèÿ ìû âîçáóæäàåì âîïðîñ îá îðãàíèçàöèè ñîâìåñòíî ñ Ìîíãîëèåé òàêîãî ó÷åáíîãî çàâåäåíèÿ, â êîòîðîì ïîäãîòàâëèâàëèñü áû îðãàíèçàòîðû è ïðîôåññèîíàëðàáîòíèêè ïî íàöèîíàëüíîìó èñêóññòâó”.83 Òàêèì îáðàçîì, áóðÿòñêàÿ
èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ ñòðåìèëàñü ñîçäàòü èíñòèòóòû, ÷åðåç êîòîðûå åäèíñòâî
áóðÿò è ìîíãîëîâ ðåàëèçîâûâàëîñü áû â ôîðìå ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ.84
Íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî áóðÿòñêèå êîììóíèñòû, ÿâëÿÿñü ðóêîâîäèòåëÿìè àâòîíîìíîé ðåñïóáëèêè, íå ïðåïÿòñòâîâàëè ïîíà÷àëó òàêîìó ðàçâèòèþ ñîáûòèé, à, íàïðîòèâ, â îïðåäåëåííîé ìåðå ñïîñîáñòâîâàëè åìó. Ïî ìíåíèþ À. À. Åëàåâà, “ìîíãîëüñêàÿ îðèåíòàöèÿ ðàçâèòèÿ
Ìàòåðèàëû ê ïåðâîìó êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñîâåùàíèþ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 23.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 23.
81
Òàì æå. Ñ. 2.
82
Òàì æå. Ñ. 24.
83
Òàì æå. Ñ. 33.
84
Íåëüçÿ íå âñïîìíèòü, ÷òî ýòîìó ñïîñîáñòâîâàëî ïðåáûâàíèå â Ìîíãîëèè Ö. Æàìöàðàíî, êîòîðûé â 1920 ã. áûë íàïðàâëåí òóäà ÷åðåç Äàëüíåâîñòî÷íûé ñåêðåòàðèàò Êîìèíòåðíà è ó÷àñòâîâàë â îáùåñòâåííîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé æèçíè Ìîíãîëèè. Ñ
Ó÷åíûì Êîìèòåòîì Ìîíãîëèè, ÷ëåíîì êîòîðîãî áûë Ö. Æàìöàðàíî, ïîääåðæèâàëè ïîñòîÿííóþ ñâÿçü Á. Áàðàäèí, Ã. Öûáèêîâ è äð.
79
80
167
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðû â òî âðåìÿ áûëà âîçìîæíà ïîòîìó, ÷òî åùå îòâå÷àëà êîìèíòåðíîâñêèì óñòàíîâêàì íà ðàçâèòèå ìèðîâîé ðåâîëþöèè â
ñîïðåäåëüíûõ ñòðàíàõ Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè è ðîëè Áóððåñïóáëèêè êàê
“ôîðïîñòà ñîöèàëèçìà’’ íà “Áóääèéñêîì Âîñòîêå”.85 Òîãî æå âçãëÿäà
ïðèäåðæèâàåòñÿ è Ë. Â. Êóðàñ, êîòîðûé ñ÷èòàåò, ÷òî èäåÿ î êóëüòóðíîì åäèíñòâå ìîíãîëüñêîãî ìèðà ñòàëà “âàæíûì ïîëèòè÷åñêèì ðû÷àãîì â èìïåðñêèõ ïëàíàõ Êîìèíòåðíà. Ñïåöèôèêîé åãî äåÿòåëüíîñòè
ñòàëî èñïîëüçîâàíèå òåððèòîðèè âñåé Ñèáèðè â êà÷åñòâå ïëàöäàðìà
äëÿ ðåâîëþöèîííîé ðàáîòû â ñòðàíàõ Äàëüíåãî Âîñòîêà”.86  ýòîé ñâÿçè
íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ñîçäàíèå íàöèîíàëüíîé àâòîíîìèè äëÿ áóðÿò ñ ñàìîãî íà÷àëà ðàññìàòðèâàëîñü áîëüøåâèêàìè (êàê íà öåíòðàëüíîì, òàê è íà ëîêàëüíîì óðîâíÿõ) â êîíòåêñòå ðàçðåøåíèÿ ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ öåëåé âíåøíåïîëèòè÷åñêîãî êóðñà Ñîâåòñêîãî ïðàâèòåëüñòâà.
Åùå 14 îêòÿáðÿ 1920 ã. Ïîëèòáþðî ÖÊ ÐÊÏ(á) ïðèíÿëî ïîñòàíîâëåíèå “Î çàäà÷àõ ÐÊÏ(á) â ìåñòíîñòÿõ, íàñåëåííûõ âîñòî÷íûìè íàðîäàìè”, â êîòîðîì ãîâîðèëîñü î íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïðåäîñòàâëåíèÿ áóðÿòàì
íàöèîíàëüíîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè. Ïðèíÿòèå òàêîãî ðåøåíèÿ îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ âíåøíåïîëèòè÷åñêîé öåëåñîîáðàçíîñòüþ, î ÷åì ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò
ðåàêöèÿ íà íåãî áóðÿòñêèõ áîëüøåâèêîâ: “ äåëî óñòàíîâëåíèÿ áóðÿòìîíãîëüñêîé àâòîíîìèè äèêòóåòñÿ ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì ñîîáðàæåíèÿìè
ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî õàðàêòåðà, èìåþùèìè â äàííûé ïåðèîä ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ Ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè ïåðâîñòåïåííîå çíà÷åíèå â áîðüáå ñ ìèðîâûì
èìïåðèàëèçìîì ”.87 Îíè ïîä÷åðêèâàëè, ÷òî îáðàçîâàíèå ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ,
“âíåøíå ÿâëÿÿñü äåìîíñòðàöèåé ñîâåòñêèõ ïðèíöèïîâ ðåøåíèÿ íàöèîíàëüíî-êîëîíèàëüíîãî âîïðîñà è ïîëèòè÷åñêè èìïîíèðóÿ âñåìó ìîíãîëî-òèáåòñêîìó ìèðó, ÿâèòñÿ áîëüøèì ïëþñîì äëÿ óñèëåíèÿ Ñîâåòñêîé âíåøíåé ïîëèòèêè íà Äàëüíåì Âîñòîêå è â Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè”.88
Íà ïåðâîì ñúåçäå Ñîâåòîâ ðåñïóáëèêè, ñîñòîÿâøåìñÿ â äåêàáðå 1923 ã.,
îòìå÷àëîñü, ÷òî “ðàáîòà ñúåçäà èìååò êîëîññàëüíîå ïîëèòè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå. Òðóäÿùèåñÿ Ìîíãîëèè âíèìàòåëüíî ïðèñëóøèâàþòñÿ ê ðàáîòå
Åëàåâ. Ñ. 193.
Ë. Â. Êóðàñ. Ïàíìîíãîëèçì êàê ïîëèòè÷åñêèé ôåíîìåí // Dialogue Among
Civilization: Interaction Between Nomadic and other Cultures of Central Asia.
Ulaanbaatar, 2001. Ñ. 276.
87
Ðåàêöèÿ ìåñòíûõ êîììóíèñòîâ áûëà èçëîæåíà íà çàñåäàíèè Áóðÿòñêîé ñåêöèè
Èðêóòñêîé îðãàíèçàöèè ÐÊÏ(á) ïî áóðÿòñêîìó âîïðîñó (29 ÿíâàðÿ 1921). Ñì.:
Îáðàçîâàíèå Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 45.
88
Öèò. ïî: Øóëóíîâ. Ñòàíîâëåíèå Ñîâåòñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè â
Áóðÿòèè. Ñ. 396.
85
86
168
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ñúåçäà, è ñúåçä ýòîò ñîçäàñò áëàãîïðèÿòíóþ ïî÷âó äëÿ äàëüíåéøåãî
óêðåïëåíèÿ ñâÿçè ñ Ìîíãîëèåé. Íàø ñúåçä – êðàñíûé ìàÿê íà Äàëüíåì
Âîñòîêå”.89 Áîëüøåâèñòñêàÿ ðèòîðèêà íàâîäèò íà ìûñëü î òîì, ÷òî ðåàëèçàöèÿ íàöèîíàëèñòè÷åñêîãî ïðîåêòà â îòíîøåíèè áóðÿò, ïðîâîäèâøàÿñÿ ïîä ïàòðîíàæåì êîìïàðòèè, ïðåäñòàâëÿëà ñîáîé îäèí èç ñïîñîáîâ äîñòèæåíèÿ ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ öåëåé ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé ðåâîëþöèè,
ñðåäè êîòîðûõ ñàìîé âàæíîé ÿâëÿëàñü ìèðîâàÿ ðåâîëþöèÿ. Â ýòîì êîíòåêñòå åäâà ëè ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü î êîíêóðåíöèè è ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèè ìåæäó áóðÿòñêèì íàöèîíàëèçìîì (êîíòðîëèðóåìûì è, â îïðåäåëåííîé
ìåðå, èíñïèðèðóåìûì êîììóíèñòàìè), ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, è áîëüøåâèñòñêèì ïðîåêòîì ãëîáàëüíîãî ïåðåóñòðîéñòâà, ñ äðóãîé. Ñêîðåå íàäî
ãîâîðèòü î íåêîåì ñèìáèîçå ìåæäó íèìè, îáóñëîâëåííûì òåì, ÷òî
èíòåðåñû íàöèîíàëèçìà è áîëüøåâèçìà íà íåêîòîðîå âðåìÿ ñîâïàëè.
 ñâÿçè ñ ýòèì, áîëüøåâèêè ðàññìàòðèâàëè ïîïûòêè áóðÿòñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè àêòèâèçèðîâàòü ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîå âçàèìîäåéñòâèå êàê òàêòè÷åñêèé øàã, ïîçâîëÿþùèé ýêñïîðòèðîâàòü ðåâîëþöèþ íà Âîñòîê.
 îæèäàíèè íåìèíóåìîãî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ðåâîëþöèè çà ïðåäåëû ãðàíèö Ñîâåòñêîé Ðîññèè êàê ìåñòíûå, òàê è âûñøèå ëèäåðû êîìïàðòèè
íå ìåøàëè íåêîòîðîé ðåâèòàëèçàöèè ïàíìîíãîëüñêèõ íàñòðîåíèé. Òàê,
â ñâîåì âûñòóïëåíèè íà Ïåðâîì Âåëèêîì Õóðàëäàíå ÌÍÐ â íîÿáðå
1924 ãîäà Ì. Í. Åðáàíîâ çàÿâèë: “ß óâåðåí, ÷òî âû (ìîíãîëû) íàïðàâèòå ñâîþ äåÿòåëüíîñòü ê îáúåäèíåíèþ âñåõ ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí è
îêàæåòå ïîääåðæêó è ïîìîùü â äåëå ðàñêðåïîùåíèÿ âñåõ ìàëûõ è
óãíåòåííûõ íàðîäíîñòåé Àçèè. Äà çäðàâñòâóåò îáúåäèíåíèå âñåõ ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí è ñ÷àñòëèâîå èõ áóäóùåå!”.90 Íàèáîëåå ÷åòêî ìûñëü
îá ýêñïîðòå ðåâîëþöèè íà Âîñòîê áûëà ñôîðìóëèðîâàíà ó È. Àðõèí÷ååâà: “ Ïåðåä áóðÿòñêèì íàðîäîì âûäâèãàåòñÿ çàäà÷à ñòàòü êóëüòóðíûì àâàíãàðäîì ñðåäè âîñòî÷íî-ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí, íîñèòåëåì
è ïðîâîäíèêîì ðåâîëþöèîííûõ èäåé íàøåãî âðåìåíè, ïðåæäå âñåãî,
â Ìîíãîëèè ”.91 Áóðÿòñêèå áîëüøåâèêè, òàêèì îáðàçîì, ïûòàëèñü
èñïîëüçîâàòü ïàíìîíãîëüñêèå ñþæåòû âïîëíå èíñòðóìåíòàëüíî. Ïðè
ýòîì îíè ïîëíîñòüþ îñòàâàëèñü â ðóñëå ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî êóðñà, îïðåäåëÿåìîãî öåíòðîì, ñîõðàíÿëè ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê íåìó ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ ëîÿëüíîñòü è íå ñòðåìèëèñü ê ðåàëèçàöèè çà ñ÷åò ýòèõ ñþæåòîâ ñîáñòâåíÎáðàçîâàíèå Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 256.
Íåèçâåñòíûå ñòðàíèöû èñòîðèè Áóðÿòèè. Ñ. 1.
91
È. Àðõèí÷ååâ. Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ àâòîíîìíàÿ îáëàñòü // Æèçíü íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé.
Ìîñêâà, 1923. Êíèãà 2. Ñ. 131.
89
90
169
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
íûõ âëàñòíûõ àìáèöèé (íàïðèìåð, îíè íå äîáèâàëèñü áîëüøèõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ïðàâ äëÿ áóðÿòñêîé àâòîíîìèè).
 öåëîì ïîäõîä áóðÿòñêèõ êîììóíèñòîâ ê ïðîáëåìå íàöèîíàëüíîêóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà ñåðüåçíî îòëè÷àëñÿ îò ïîäõîäà íàöèîíàëüíîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè. Êîììóíèñòû ïðåäïî÷èòàëè, ÷òîáû ýòíîêóëüòóðíîå ðàçâèòèå áóðÿò ïîøëî â íåñêîëüêî èíîì íàïðàâëåíèè. è â áîëüøåé
ñòåïåíè ñòðåìèëèñü ðåàëèçîâàòü òåíäåíöèþ, çàëîæåííóþ â ðåøåíèÿõ
óæå óïîìèíàâøåãîñÿ àâãóñòîâñêîãî ïëåíóìà îáêîìà ÂÊÏ(á) 1926 ãîäà.
Êàê ñêàçàíî ⠓Èñòîðèè Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑД, “ñ ðàçâèòèåì êóëüòóðíîãî
ñòðîèòåëüñòâà â Áóðÿòèè ñòàë î÷åíü àêòóàëüíûì âîïðîñ î òîì, ÷òî òàêîå íàöèîíàëüíàÿ êóëüòóðà è êàê ñîâìåñòèòü åå ñ êóëüòóðîé ïðîëåòàðñêîé?”92 Áóðÿòñêèå êîììóíèñòû îòâåòèëè íà ýòîò âîïðîñ äðóãèì âîïðîñîì, àäðåñîâàííûì â 1925 ãîäó È. Â. Ñòàëèíó: “Êàê ìûñëèòñÿ ïåðåõîä ÷åðåç íàöèîíàëüíûå êóëüòóðû, ðàçâèâàþùèåñÿ â ïðåäåëàõ îòäåëüíûõ íàøèõ àâòîíîìíûõ ðåñïóáëèê, ê åäèíîé îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêîé êóëüòóðå? Êàê äîëæíà ïðîèñõîäèòü àññèìèëÿöèÿ îñîáåííîñòåé îòäåëüíûõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ êóëüòóð?”93 Èç ñàìîé ïîñòàíîâêè âîïðîñà ñòàíîâèòñÿ ÿñíûì, ÷òî áóðÿòñêèå êîììóíèñòû íå ñîìíåâàëèñü â ïðåäðåøåííîñòè ñóäüáû êóëüòóðû ñâîåãî íàðîäà. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, çàäà÷è, êîòîðûå
äîëæíî áûëî ðàçðåøèòü “íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî”,
çàêëþ÷àëèñü íå ñòîëüêî â ñîõðàíåíèè è ðàçâèòèè òðàäèöèîííîé (èëè
îñíîâàííîé íà òðàäèöèè) ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû, ñêîëüêî â òîì, ÷òîáû
èíòåãðèðîâàòü â êóëüòóðíîì ñìûñëå áóðÿòñêèé ýòíîñ â ñîñòàâ ñîâåòñêîãî îáùåñòâà. Ïðàâäà, äîïóñêàëîñü âíåøíåå ïðîÿâëåíèå íåêîòîðûõ
ýëåìåíòîâ ýòíè÷íîñòè, îäíàêî â öåëîì áóðÿòû, ïî ìíåíèþ êîììóíèñòîâ, äîëæíû áûëè ÿâëÿòüñÿ, ïðåæäå âñåãî, ñîâåòñêèìè áóðÿòàìè, ðàçäåëÿþùèìè öåííîñòè ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé èäåîëîãèè è ëîÿëüíûìè ïî
îòíîøåíèþ ê âëàñòè ÂÊÏ(á). Áîëüøåâèêè, òàêèì îáðàçîì, äåéñòâèòåëüíî ñîáèðàëèñü óäîâëåòâîðèòü íåêîòîðûå íàöèîíàëüíûå ïðåòåíçèè,
ïîñðåäñòâîì ÷åãî îíè ðàññ÷èòûâàëè “ðàçðóøèòü íàäêëàññîâûé íàöèîíàëüíûé àëüÿíñ” è “ïðèâëå÷ü íåðóññêèé ïðîëåòàðèàò è êðåñòüÿíñòâî
íà îñíîâå ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé ïðîãðàììû”.94 Èìåííî â ýòîì êîíòåêñòå
ñëåäóåò ïîíèìàòü èçâåñòíûé ïàññàæ È. Â. Ñòàëèíà (ê êîòîðîìó, êñòàòè, àïåëëèðóåò è ëèäåð áóðÿòñêèõ êîììóíèñòîâ Ì. Í. Åðáàíîâ): “ ÏðîÈñòîðèÿ Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ò 2. Ñ. 346.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 347.
94
Ìàðòèí. Èìïåðèÿ ïîçèòèâíîãî äåéñòâèÿ: Ñîâåòñêèé Ñîþç êàê âûñøàÿ ôîðìà
èìïåðèàëèçìà? Ñ. 67.
92
93
170
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ëåòàðñêàÿ êóëüòóðà, ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêàÿ ïî ñâîåìó ñîäåðæàíèþ, ïðèíèìàåò ðàçëè÷íûå ôîðìû è ñïîñîáû âûðàæåíèÿ ó ðàçëè÷íûõ íàðîäîâ,
âòÿíóòûõ â ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî, â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ÿçûêà,
áûòà è ò.ä. Ïðîëåòàðñêàÿ ïî ñâîåìó ñîäåðæàíèþ, íàöèîíàëüíàÿ ïî
ôîðìå – òàêîâà òà îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêàÿ êóëüòóðà, ê êîòîðîé èäåò ñîöèàëèçì Ïðîëåòàðñêàÿ êóëüòóðà íå îòìåíÿåò íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû,
à äàåò åé ñîäåðæàíèå”.95
Ñòðåìëåíèå êîììóíèñòîâ âïèñàòü áóðÿò â îáùåñîâåòñêèé êóëüòóðíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèé êîíòåêñò âïîëíå îò÷åòëèâî ïðîñëåæèâàåòñÿ â èõ âûñêàçûâàíèÿõ. Òàê, Ì. Í. Åðáàíîâ ïèñàë, ÷òî “ïðèîáùåíèå áóðÿò-ìîíãîëîâ ê ñîöèàëèçìó åñòü îñíîâíàÿ ãåíåðàëüíàÿ çàäà÷à ”.96 ×òîáû äîáèòüñÿ ýòîãî, ðóêîâîäñòâî ðåñïóáëèêè â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü äîëæíî “îáåñïå÷èòü áóðÿò-ìîíãîëàì íàèáîëåå ïðàâèëüíûé ïåðåõîä îò îòñòàëûõ
ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ è êóëüòóðíûõ ôîðì áûòà è æèçíè ê ñîöèàëèçìó ”.97
Äëÿ ðåøåíèÿ òàêîé çàäà÷è íåîáõîäèìî ìàêñèìóì âíèìàíèÿ óäåëèòü
áóðÿòñêîìó ïðîñâåùåíèþ: “Ðåâîëþöèîííàÿ îáùåñòâåííîñòü àâòîíîìíîé Áóðÿòèè îòïðàâíûì ïóíêòîì ñâîåé òâîð÷åñêîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè
ñòàâèò âî âñåé øèðîòå çàäà÷è ïðîñâåùåíèÿ ñâîåãî íàðîäà”.98 Ïðè÷åì
ýòî ïðîñâåùåíèå äîëæíî îñóùåñòâëÿòüñÿ òàêèì îáðàçîì, ÷òîáû, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, áóðÿòû ñìîãëè “ïðèîáùèòüñÿ ê íà÷àëàì íîâîé êîëëåêòèâèñòè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû, ìèíóÿ ñòàäèþ êàïèòàëèñòè÷åñêîãî ðàçâèòèÿ ”99 è, ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ïðîèçîøëî áû “äåéñòâèòåëüíîå âíåäðåíèå è ïîïóëÿðèçàöèÿ èäåé ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè â òîëùå íàðîäíîãî ñîçíàíèÿ”.100  òî æå âðåìÿ, åñòåñòâåííî, ïîä÷åðêèâàëîñü è òî, ÷òî “ïðèîáùåíèå èõ [áóðÿò] ê ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîìó ñòðîþ è êóëüòóðå, – ÷òî è ÿâëÿëîñü êîíå÷íîé öåëüþ “êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà”, – âîçìîæíî òîëüêî ïðè äèêòàòóðå ïðîëåòàðèàòà â ëèöå ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè”.101
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìîæíî óòâåðæäàòü, ÷òî âçãëÿäû áóðÿòñêèõ êîììóíèñòîâ ñâîäèëèñü ê îòðèöàíèþ öåííîñòíîé çíà÷èìîñòè òðàäèöèîííîé
êóëüòóðû è áàçèðóþùåéñÿ íà íåé ýòíè÷íîñòè. Íî, ñ÷èòàÿñü ñ ñèëîé
âëèÿíèÿ ýòèõ ôàêòîðîâ, êîììóíèñòû â òî æå âðåìÿ äîïóñêàëè íåêîòîðîå èõ ïðîÿâëåíèå â îáùåñòâåííîé ïðàêòèêå, ñòðåìÿñü ïðè ýòîì “ðàÊóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 82.
Ì. Í. Åðáàíîâ. Ïÿòü ëåò àâòîíîìèè Áóðÿòèè. Âåðõíåóäèíñê, 1926. Ñ. 14
97
Òàì æå. Ñ. 13.
98
Àðõèí÷ååâ. Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ àâòîíîìíàÿ îáëàñòü. Ñ. 131.
99
Òàì æå.
100
Òàì æå. Ñ. 130.
101
Ì. Í. Åðáàíîâ. Ïÿòü ëåò àâòîíîìèè Áóðÿòèè. Âåðõíåóäèíñê, 1926. Ñ. 13.
95
96
171
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
ñòâîðèòü” ýòíè÷åñêóþ èäåíòè÷íîñòü â ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé è èäåîëîãè÷åñêîé ëîÿëüíîñòè.  ñâÿçè ñ ýòèì ýòíè÷åñêóþ êóëüòóðó, êîíñòðóèðóåìóþ â êîíòåêñòå êîììóíèñòè÷åñêîãî äèñêóðñà íàöèîíàëüíîñòè, êàê
òî÷íî îòìå÷àåò Ò. Ìàðòèí, ïðàâîìåðíî áûëî áû íàçûâàòü ñèìâîëè÷åñêîé ýòíè÷íîñòüþ.102
Âîçâðàùàÿñü ê êîíöåïöèè íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà,
èçëîæåííîé íà ñîâåùàíèè 1926 ãîäà, íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü ñëåäóþùåå. Îçâó÷åííûå òîãäà áóðÿòñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèåé èäåè, â ñóùíîñòè,
ïðåäñòàâëÿëè ñîáîé ïðîåêò ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîé ìîäåðíèçàöèè áóðÿòñêîãî ýòíîñà. Ñ ïîìîùüþ ââåäåíèÿ íîâîãî è îáùåãî äëÿ âñåõ áóðÿò ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà, ðàçâèòèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîé øêîëû è íàöèîíàëüíîãî èñêóññòâà, àêòèâèçàöèè êóëüòóðíî-íàó÷íîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ñ Ìîíãîëèåé ïðåäïîëàãàëîñü, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, äàòü òîë÷îê äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ â íîâûõ óñëîâèÿõ áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðû (òî åñòü ïåðåôîðìóëèðîâàòü çàíîâî
êóëüòóðíûé êîìïëåêñ è íà îñíîâå òðàäèöèè ñêîíñòðóèðîâàòü “íîâóþ”
ñîâðåìåííóþ áóðÿòñêóþ êóëüòóðó, àäàïòèðîâàííóþ ê íîâîìó ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîìó êîíòåêñòó è âñòðîåííóþ â íåãî) è, ñ äðóãîé – àêòóàëèçèðîâàòü îáùåáóðÿòñêèé óðîâåíü èäåíòè÷íîñòè. Èíûìè ñëîâàìè,
ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü î òîì, ÷òî ìîäåðíèçàöèÿ, êîòîðàÿ äîëæíà áûëà îñóùåñòâëÿòüñÿ ñèñòåìîé êóëüòóðíî-ïðîñâåòèòåëüíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèé, ðàññìàòðèâàëàñü áóðÿòñêèìè èíòåëëèãåíòàìè êàê ñðåäñòâî äëÿ ñîçäàíèÿ
“êóëüòóðíîé” (èëè ýòíè÷åñêîé) íàöèè. Íå ñëó÷àéíî âåäü îíè ãîâîðÿò î
“äåéñòâèòåëüíîì íàöèîíàëüíîì ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèè” áóðÿò ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì êàê î êóëüòóðíîì è ÿçûêîâîì ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèè.103
Òî, ÷òî ïðè ýòîì ïðåäïîëàãàëîñü èñïîëüçîâàòü ïðîñâåùåíèå, òàêæå
íå âûãëÿäèò ñëó÷àéíîñòüþ. Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ïðàâÿùèé ðåæèì óâåðåííî ìîíîïîëèçèðîâàë ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ è ýêîíîìè÷åñêóþ ñôåðû è òåì
ñàìûì îòñåê âîçìîæíîñòü äîñòèæåíèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîé êîíñîëèäàöèè
íà îñíîâå, ñêàæåì, òåððèòîðèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî îáúåäèíåíèÿ áóðÿò:
àâòîíîìíàÿ ðåñïóáëèêà âêëþ÷àëà â ñåáÿ íå òîëüêî áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå, íî è ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé äðóãèõ ýòíîñîâ, ïîýòîìó áóðÿòàì ïðèõîäèëîñü èñêàòü äîïîëíèòåëüíûå ìåòîäû è ôîðìû ýòíè÷åñêîãî îáúåäèíåíèÿ è ìàðêèðîâàíèÿ (â ýòîì ñìûñëå ñîçäàíèå òåððèòîðèàëüíîé áóðÿòñêîé àâòîíîìèè èìåëî äàæå è íåãàòèâíûå ïîñëåäñòâèÿ, ïîñêîëüêó èçÌàðòèí. Èìïåðèÿ ïîçèòèâíîãî äåéñòâèÿ: Ñîâåòñêèé Ñîþç êàê âûñøàÿ ôîðìà
èìïåðèàëèçìà? Ñ. 71.
103
Ìàòåðèàëû ê ïåðâîìó êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñîâåùàíèþ ÁÌ ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 39,
66-67.
102
172
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
çà îñîáåííîñòåé ïðîâåäåíèÿ ãðàíèö îòðåçàëî íåêîòîðóþ ÷àñòü áóðÿòñêîãî ýòíîñà îò “ñâîåãî” ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ è àâòîìàòè÷åñêè ëèøèëî åå âîçìîæíîñòè ðåàëèçîâûâàòü ñâîè ýòíîêóëüòóðíûå ïîòðåáíîñòè). Òî æå êàñàåòñÿ è ýêîíîìèêè, êîòîðàÿ â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ñîçäàâàëà íå ñòîëüêî âíóòðèýòíè÷åñêèå ïðîèçâîäñòâåííûå ñâÿçè, íà îñíîâå êîòîðûõ áóðÿòû ìîãëè áû êîíñîëèäèðîâàòüñÿ â íàöèþ (òàêàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ âïîëíå ëîãè÷íî âïèñûâàëàñü áû â êîíòåêñò ìàðêñèñòñêî-ëåíèíñêîé ïàðàäèãìû ñ åå ïðîèçâîäñòâåííî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèì äåòåðìèíèçìîì,
÷åãî, òåì íå ìåíåå, íå ïðîèçîøëî), ñêîëüêî ñâÿçè, êîòîðûå âòÿãèâàëè
áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå â îáùåñîþçíûé ïðîèçâîäñòâåííûé ìåõàíèçì. Ñ
äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, â ñîçäàííîé Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ òîëüêî Íàðîäíûé Êîìèññàðèàò ïðîñâåùåíèÿ îáëàäàë ðåàëüíîé àâòîíîìíîñòüþ, ÷òî
è ïîçâîëèëî ñòàâèòü âîïðîñ îá îáúåäèíåíèè áóðÿò ÷åðåç êóëüòóðó âîîáùå è ñèñòåìó ïðîñâåùåíèÿ â ÷àñòíîñòè.
Áóðÿòñêàÿ íàöèîíàëüíàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ â ïåðèîä ñ 1926 ïî 1929
ãîäû äîâîëüíî ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíî ïûòàëàñü ðåàëèçîâàòü èäåþ íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîé àâòîíîìèè íà òåððèòîðèè Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Êàê
îêàçàëîñü, “ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèÿ” 1923 ãîäà áûëî íåäîñòàòî÷íî, â ñèëó òîãî, ÷òî îíî íîñèëî â áîëüøåé ñòåïåíè ôîðìàëüíûé
õàðàêòåð, è ïîýòîìó â îáùåñòâåííîì äèñêóðñå àêòóàëèçèðîâàëàñü åùå
è ïðîáëåìà “êóëüòóðíîãî ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèÿ” áóðÿò. Êîíå÷íûì ðåçóëüòàòîì “êóëüòóðíîãî ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèÿ” äîëæíî áûëî ÿâëÿòüñÿ ñîçäàíèå “êóëüòóðíîé” ýòíîíàöèè (ò.å. íàöèè, îñíîâàííîé íà êóëüòóðíî-ÿçûêîâîé òîæäåñòâåííîñòè ñâîèõ ÷ëåíîâ), èäåÿ êîòîðîé ñòàíîâèòñÿ äîìèíèðóþùåé ñðåäè áóðÿòñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå 20-õ
ãîäîâ è âûòåñíÿåò èäåþ òåððèòîðèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýòíîíàöèè, ãîñïîäñòâîâàâøåé åùå â íà÷àëå 20-õ ãîäîâ.
Îäíàêî çàäóìàííîìó íà ïåðâîì êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîì ñîâåùàíèè íå ñóæäåíî áûëî ñáûòüñÿ. Äåëî â òîì, ÷òî ñ 1929 ãîäà ñîâåòñêîå
ãîñóäàðñòâî êàðäèíàëüíî ìåíÿåò ïîäõîäû ê ðåøåíèþ ïðîáëåìû êóëüòóðíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ íàöèîíàëüíûõ îêðàèí. Îòêàçàâøèñü îò äîñòàòî÷íî
ëèáåðàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè â ýòîì âîïðîñå, îíî áåðåò óñòàíîâêó íà öåíòðàëèçàöèþ è æåñòêèé êîíòðîëü íàä ïðîöåññàìè “êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà”. Ýòîìó ñïîñîáñòâîâàëè êîíñîëèäàöèÿ âëàñòè â
ïåðèîä ÍÝÏà è îêîí÷àòåëüíîå âíóòðèïîëèòè÷åñêîå óêðåïëåíèå áîëüøåâèñòñêîãî ðåæèìà â ÑÑÑÐ. Êðîìå òîãî, â ýòî âðåìÿ áîëüøåâèñòñêîå
ðóêîâîäñòâî ñòàëî îòõîäèòü îò äîêòðèíû “ìèðîâîé ðåâîëþöèè” âî
âíåøíåé ïîëèòèêå, â ñâÿçè ñ ÷åì “ïîëèòè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå Áóððåñïóáëèêè óæå ñòàëî îöåíèâàòüñÿ íå ÷åðåç ïðèçìó ìèðîâîé ðåâîëþöèè , à
173
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
â ñâÿçè ñ òîé îïàñíîñòüþ, êàêóþ îíà ìîãëà ïðåäñòàâëÿòü êàê íàöèîíàëüíîå îáðàçîâàíèå, çàíèìàþùåå ïðèãðàíè÷íîå ïîëîæåíèå â ñëó÷àå
âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ âíåøíåé óãðîçû ”.104 Ê êîíöó 1920-õ ãã. “äèíàìè÷åñêîå, áåçãðàíè÷íîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî ðåâîëþöèè ñâåðíóëîñü è çàñòûëî â
îïðåäåëåííîé è îãðàíè÷åííîé ôîðìå ãîñóäàðñòâà, çàìêíóâøåãîñÿ íà
ñåáÿ Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ðàñòóùàÿ ïîãëîùåííîñòü ãðàíèöàìè ïðèâåëà
ê ïîñòåïåííîìó ïåðåîñìûñëåíèþ ïåðèôåðèè – èç îòêðûòîãî ïîëÿ âîçìîæíîñòåé è ïëàöäàðìà äëÿ ýêñïàíñèè îíà ïðåâðàòèëàñü â çàêðûòóþ
çîíó, ïîäâåðæåííóþ îïàñíîñòÿì èíîñòðàííîãî âòîðæåíèÿ èëè çàðàæåíèÿ ÷óæäûìè ñèëàìè”.105
Îäíîé èç ïåðâûõ ìåð ïî óñèëåíèþ êîíòðîëÿ áûëî ïîñòàíîâëåíèå
ÖÊ ÂÊÏ(á) “Î ñîñòîÿíèè è ðàáîòå Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ïàðòèéíîé îðãàíèçàöèè”, ïðèíÿòîå 27 ìàÿ 1929 ã.  íåì ïîä÷åðêèâàëîñü, ÷òî “êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé ðåñïóáëèêè âñå åùå íàõîäèòñÿ â íåóäîâëåòâîðèòåëüíîì ñîñòîÿíèè”.106 Öåíòðàëüíûé Êîìèòåò
ïîòðåáîâàë ðåøèòåëüíûõ ìåð ïðîòèâ óñèëèâøèõñÿ, ïî åãî ìíåíèþ,
“ïðîÿâëåíèé âåëèêîäåðæàâíîãî øîâèíèçìà, ïàíìîíãîëèçìà è áóðÿòñêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà”.107 Äëÿ èçæèâàíèÿ íåãàòèâíûõ, ïî ìíåíèþ êîììóíèñòîâ, òåíäåíöèé â êóëüòóðíîì ñòðîèòåëüñòâå “Ïîñòàíîâëåíèå” ñ÷èòàëî íåîáõîäèìûì àêòèâíîå ïðèâëå÷åíèå ê ýòîìó ïðîöåññó “åñòåñòâåííûõ” ñòîðîííèêîâ Ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè èç “ñîöèàëüíî áëèçêèõ” ñëîåâ è
ïðèçûâàëî âçÿòü, “íàðÿäó ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ñòàðîé ëîÿëüíî íàñòðîåííîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè, òâåðäûé êóðñ íà âûðàùèâàíèå íîâûõ êàäðîâ áóðÿòñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè èç ðàáî÷èõ, áàòðàêîâ è ëó÷øåé ÷àñòè ñåðåäíÿêîâ”.108 Òàêæå ïðåäïèñûâàëîñü “óñèëèòü âûäâèæåíèå íà ðóêîâîäÿùóþ ðàáîòó è â ñðåäíèå çâåíüÿ àïïàðàòà áóðÿò-ìîíãîëîâ ðàáî÷èõ,
áàòðàêîâ è áåäíÿêîâ, îðãàíèçîâàâ èõ ñïåöèàëüíóþ ïîäãîòîâêó è ïåðåïîäãîòîâêó”.109
 íîÿáðå 1930 ãîäà ñîñòîÿëîñü ðåñïóáëèêàíñêîå ïàðòèéíîå ñîâåùàíèå ïî âîïðîñàì êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà. Íà ýòîì ñîâåùàíèè
áûëà ïîëíîñòüþ îñóæäåíà ïðèíÿòàÿ ðàíåå óñòàíîâêà â îáëàñòè ÿçûêîâîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, ïî êîòîðîé â îñíîâó íîâîãî áóðÿòñêîãî ëèòåðàòóðÅëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå, ðàçâèòèå, ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ñ. 196.
Áàðîí. Ðåãèîíàëüíîå êîíñòðóèðîâàíèå Êàðåëüñêîé Àâòîíîìèè. Ñ. 307.
106
Êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ñ. 120.
107
Åëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå, ðàçâèòèå, ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ñ. 196.
108
Êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. 1983. Ñ. 120.
109
Êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. 1983. Ñ. 120.
104
105
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
íîãî ÿçûêà áûëî ïîëîæåíî õàëõà-ìîíãîëüñêîå íàðå÷èå.110 Ïîäâåðãëàñü
êðèòèêå ïîïûòêà èñïîëüçîâàòü íåêîòîðûå ýëåìåíòû áóääèçìà äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû.111 Ñîâåùàíèå êâàëèôèöèðîâàëî äåÿòåëåé èíòåëëèãåíöèè, âûäâèíóâøèõ òåçèñû î ÿçûêîâîì åäèíñòâå áóðÿò
è ìîíãîëîâ è îá èñïîëüçîâàíèè ýëåìåíòîâ ðåëèãèîçíîé òðàäèöèè â
áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðå, êàê “íîñèòåëåé èäåîëîãèè ïðàâîãî îïïîðòóíèçìà, ìåñòíîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà è êîíòððåâîëþöèîííîãî ïàíìîíãîëèçìà”.112 Áóðÿòñêèå êîììóíèñòû ïîä÷åðêèâàëè: “Âîïðîñû êóëüòóðíîãî
ñòðîèòåëüñòâà íå ìîãóò áûòü óëîæåíû â óçêèå ðàìêè ‘ïðîñâåòèòåëüíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíè钔, – îíè äîëæíû ñòàòü “îðãàíè÷åñêîé ÷àñòüþ ðàáîòû
âñåõ ïàðòèéíûõ, ñîâåòñêèõ, ïðîôñîþçíûõ, õîçÿéñòâåííûõ, êîìñîìîëüñêèõ è äð. îáùåñòâåííûõ îðãàíèçàöèé”.113
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ðàçâèòèå áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðû áûëî ïîëíîñòüþ îòäàíî â ðóêè ïàðòèéíûõ ñòðóêòóð è ïîñòàâëåíî ïîä èõ èäåîëîãè÷åñêèé
êîíòðîëü. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ïîëèòèêà êóëüòóðíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, ðàçðàáîòàííàÿ áóðÿòñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèåé, ïîäâåðãëàñü îáñòðóêöèè, à âîçîáëàäàëà òî÷êà çðåíèÿ êîììóíèñòîâ, êîòîðûå ñ ýòîãî âðåìåíè íà÷àëè
ôîðñèðîâàòü ïðîöåññ “êóëüòóðíî-íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà” ïî
ñâîåìó ñöåíàðèþ. Ïðè ýòîì îíè îòâåðãàëè â êà÷åñòâå áàçèñà äëÿ òàêîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà òðàäèöèîííóþ êóëüòóðó è ïðè êîíñòðóèðîâàíèè “áóðÿòñêîé ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé íàöèè” â áîëüøåé ñòåïåíè îðèåíòèðîâàëèñü íà èäåîëîãè÷åñêèå öåííîñòè ðåâîëþöèîííîé êëàññîâîé òåîðèè,
ïðåñëåäóÿ öåëè “ñîçäàíèÿ íîâîé ñîöèàëüíîé êîëëåêòèâíîñòè (íàöèè)
è ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ñóáúåêòà (ñîâåòñêîãî ãðàæäàíèíà, ïîòåíöèàëüíîãî
ó÷àñòíèêà ìèðîâîé ðåâîëþöèè)”.114
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå äâàäöàòûõ ãîäîâ ïðîèñõîäèë
èíòåíñèâíûé ïðîöåññ íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà â Áóðÿòèè, ïðè÷åì ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî èëè ñîïåðíè÷åñòâî äâóõ ðàçíûõ âåðñèé íàöèîíàëüíîãî ïðîåêòà – ïðîåêòà ñòàðîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè è ïðîåêòà ìåñòíûõ áîëüøåâèêî⠖
îïðåäåëÿëî òî, êàêèì îáðàçîì è â êàêîé ñôåðå (ÿçûêîâîé, êóëüòóðíîé
èëè ïîëèòè÷åñêîé) âûñòðàèâàëèñü ãðàíèöû áóäóùåé íàöèè. Áóäó÷è
Èñòîðèÿ Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ò 2. Ñ. 352.
Á. Ì. Ìèòóïîâ, Ã. Ë. Ñàíæèåâ. Ðóêîâîäñòâî áóðÿòñêîé ïàðòèéíîé îðãàíèçàöèåé
êóëüòóðíîé ðåâîëþöèåé â ðåñïóáëèêå. Óëàí-Óäý, 1962. Ñ. 17.
112
Èñòîðèÿ Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. Ò 2. Ñ. 352.
123
Êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî â Áóðÿòñêîé ÀÑÑÐ. 1983. Ñ. 127-128.
114
Ñ. Ãëåáîâ, À. Ñåìåíîâ. Îò ðåäàêöèè. Ïîëèòèêà, èìïåðèÿ è íàöèîíàëèçì â
ðàííåñîâåòñêèé ïåðèîä (ïðåäèñëîâèå ê ïóáëèêàöèè) // Ab Imperio. 2002. ¹ 2. Ñ.
339.
110
111
175
Ï. Âàðíàâñêèé, Ãðàíèöû ñîâåòñêîé áóðÿòñêîé íàöèè...
âûòåñíåííîé èç ïîëèòè÷åñêîé è ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé ñôåð, ãäå áîëüøåâèñòñêîå ðóêîâîäñòâî íå áûëî ãîòîâî óñòóïèòü ðåøàþùèé ãîëîñ, ñòàðàÿ
èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ îáðàòèëà ñâîè âçãëÿäû íà êóëüòóðíîå ñòðîèòåëüñòâî
áóäóùåé íàöèè, ïîä÷åðêèâàÿ ýòíè÷åñêóþ ñîñòàâëÿþùóþ. Çäåñü èìåëî îãðîìíîå çíà÷åíèå è òî, êàêèì îáðàçîì öåíòð îöåíèâàë çíà÷èìîñòü
ðàçëè÷íûõ àñïåêòîâ íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà, íàëàãàÿ íà ìåñòíûå ïðîåêòû
ñâîè îãðàíè÷åíèÿ èëè, íàïðîòèâ, ñïîíñèðóÿ âàæíûå äëÿ ðåàëèçàöèè
îáùåñîâåòñêèõ èäåîëîãè÷åñêèõ öåëåé ýëåìåíòû.  çàêëþ÷åíèå ìîæíî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî äî ïîëíîé ïåðåêðîéêè íàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè â ñòàëèíñêîì ÑÑÑÐ ìåñòíûå ýëèòû èãðàëè âåñüìà çíà÷èòåëüíóþ ðîëü â
êîíñòðóèðîâàíèè ãðàíèö ñîâåòñêèõ íàöèé è ñîâåòñêîé ñèñòåìû íàöèîíàëüíûõ àâòîíîìèé â öåëîì.
SUMMARY
This article explores different projects aimed at constructing a modern
Buriat national identity in the second half of the 1920s. Having won the
Civil War with the support or indifference of the local elites, the Bolsheviks
granted these elites a degree of autonomy. In the Buriat case, two autonomous regions were organized, one in the framework of the Russian Federation and one in the framework of the Far Eastern Republic. The author argues that despite the autonomy granted to the local elites, the Buriat intelligentsia had a limited impact on the political and economic sphere. Hence it
focused on cultural and educational institutions in order to pursue its own
project of constructing an ethnic Buriat national consciousness. At the same
time, the needs of Communist ideology often took precedence over the local elites’ projects, modifying policies in the sphere of language and culture
(regarding the use of a pan-Mongol alphabet). Therefore, the result was the
creation of a multiethnic autonomous republic within the RSFSR, which
was vertically integrated into structures of Bolshevik control, while displaying a degree of culturally colored nationalism.
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Âëàäèìèð ÁÎÁÐÎÂÍÈÊÎÂ
ÍÀÑÈËÈÅ È ÂËÀÑÒÜ Â ÈÑÒÎÐÈ×ÅÑÊÎÉ
ÏÀÌßÒÈ ÌÓÑÓËÜÌÀÍÑÊÎÃÎ ÏÎÃÐÀÍÈ×Üß
(Ê ÍÎÂÎÉ ÈÍÒÅÐÏÐÅÒÀÖÈÈ ÏÅÑÍÈ Î ÕÎ×ÁÀÐÅ)*
XVIII è ïåðâàÿ ïîëîâèíà XIX â. áûëè ïåðåëîìíîé ýïîõîé â èñòîðèè
Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà. Ïî ìåðå ðóññêîãî çàâîåâàíèÿ ðåãèîí ïðåâðàùàëñÿ
â áóôåðíóþ çîíó ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ èìïåðèè. Îòëè÷èòåëüíûìè ÷åðòàìè ìåñòíîãî îáùåñòâà ñòàëè êîíôëèêòíîñòü, ïîäâèæíîñòü
è ìàðãèíàëüíîñòü. Ãîðöû-ìóñóëüìàíå Äàãåñòàíà íå ïðèíàäëåæàëè
âïîëíå íè ê ìóñóëüìàíàì Ðîññèè, íè ê ïîääàííûì Îñìàíñêîé èìïåðèè è Èðàíà. Ñîõðàíèâ ñâÿçè ñ èñëàìñêèìè öåíòðàìè Áëèæíåãî è Ñðåäíåãî Âîñòîêà, îíè ïîääåðæèâàëè êîíòàêòû è ñ âíóòðåííèìè ìóñóëüìàíñêèìè ðåãèîíàìè èìïåðèè – ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì, ñ Ïîâîëæüåì. Êðîìå ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ãðàíèöû (Êàâêàçñêîé ëèíèè), ïî ãîðíûì ðàéîíàì
ïðîõîäèë è áîëåå ïîäâèæíûé ðóáåæ, îòäåëÿâøèé òåððèòîðèè, íàõîäèâøèåñÿ ïîä âëàñòüþ èìàìàòà Äàãåñòàíà è ×å÷íè (â èñëàìñêîé òåðìèíîëîãèè – äàð àë-èñëàì, èëè “çåìëè èñëàìà”), îò òåõ, çà êîòîðûå
øëà áîðüáà ìåæäó ìóñóëüìàíàìè è ðóññêèìè (àðàá. äàð àë-õàðá, “òåðÀâòîð âûðàæàåò áëàãîäàðíîñòü ïðîôåññîðàì Ì. Å. Àëåêñååâó (Ìîñêâà), Ì. À. Àãëàðîâó è À. Ð. Øèõñàèäîâó (Ìàõà÷êëà), ìíîãîêðàòíûå êîíñóëüòàöèè ñ êîòîðûìè
ïîìîãëè åìó â ðàáîòå íàä ïåðåâîäîì è èçó÷åíèåì ïåñíè î Õî÷áàðå. Ýòó ñòàòüþ
àâòîð ïîñâÿùàåò 75-ëåòèþ ñâîåãî ó÷èòåëÿ â êàâêàçîâåäåíèè À. Ð. Øèõñàèäîâà.
*
177
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
ðèòîðèè âîéíû”).  âîéíå ãîðöû ñðàæàëèñü êàê íà ñòîðîíå ðóññêîé
àðìèè, òàê è â îïîë÷åíèè èìàìàòà. Âîîáùå èñëàìñêîå ïîâñòàí÷åñòâî
XVIII – ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíû XIX â. îêàçàëî íåìàëîå âëèÿíèå íà ôîðìèðîâàíèå èäåíòè÷íîñòè ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ.
Óæå òîãäà î Äàãåñòàíå øëà äóðíàÿ ñëàâà “ðàçáîéíè÷üåãî ãíåçäà”.
Êàê ðóññêèå, òàê è ìóñóëüìàíñêèå àâòîðû óäèâèòåëüíî åäèíîäóøíî
îòçûâàëèñü î ãîðöàõ êàê î “ïðèðîäíûõ õèùíèêàõ”,1 ðàçáîéíèêàõ è
âîðàõ. Î ðàçáîéíèêàõ-àáðåêàõ è èõ íàïàäåíèÿõ íà ñîñåäåé íàïèñàíû
ãîðû ëèòåðàòóðû.2 Íî ìàëî êòî èçó÷àë îòíîøåíèå ê íàñèëèþ ñàìèõ
ãîðöåâ. Ê òîìó æå èñòîðèêîâ èíòåðåñîâàëè â îñíîâíîì ðåàëüíûå ñîáûòèÿ è ëèöà, à íå çàïå÷àòëåííûå â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î ïðîøëîì. Ìíîãèå ïåðâîèñòî÷íèêè, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü ôîëüêëîðíûå ìàòåðèàëû, îñòàëèñü âíå ïîëÿ çðåíèÿ. Ìåæäó òåì ñðåäè íèõ åñòü
òàêèå âàæíûå òåêñòû, êàê Äæàðñêèå ïåñíè (ÖIîðàëúóë êIó÷Iäóë) î âîåííûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëÿõ àâàðöåâ è èõ íàáåãàõ â Ãðóçèþ (àâàð. ÖIîð, “Çàãîðüå”), ïåñíè î áëàãîðîäíûõ ðàçáîéíèêàõ-àáðåêàõ íà÷àëà XX â., öèêë
ïåñåí î ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèè çíàìåíèòîãî ðàçáîéíèêà Õî÷áàðà èç Ãèäàòëÿ
è àâàðñêîãî õàíà Õóíçàõà. Ýòîò öèêë è áóäåò ïðåäìåòîì äàííîé ñòàòüè,
â êîòîðîé ÿ õî÷ó ðàññìîòðåòü îòíîøåíèÿ âëàñòè è íàñèëèÿ ñðåäè ãîðöåâ, èõ îòðàæåíèå â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè, ïåðåõîäÿ îò ðàçáîðà ñþæåòà ïåñíè ê åå èñòîðè÷åñêîìó êîíòåêñòó è ïîñòåïåííî ðàñøèðÿÿ êðóã
ïðèâëåêàåìûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ.
Îá îðèåíòàëèñòñêîì äèñêóðñå “âîñòî÷íîé äèêîñòè” â êàâêàçîâåäåíèè ñì. â ìîåé
êíèãå: Â. Î. Áîáðîâíèêîâ. Ìóñóëüìàíå Ñåâåðíîãî Êàâêàçà: îáû÷àé, ïðàâî, íàñèëèå.
Ì., 2002. Ñ. 16–26. Òåìà åãî èñëàìñêèõ êîðíåé â ìóñóëüìàíñêèõ ðåãèîíàõ
Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè åùå æäåò ñâîåãî èññëåäîâàòåëÿ. Ïðèìåðû îðèåíòàëèñòñêèõ
âûñêàçûâàíèé ñåâåðîêàâêàçñêèõ ‘óëàìà’ ñì.: Àáäóðàõìàí èç Ãàçèêóìóõà. Êíèãà
âîñïîìèíàíèé. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1997. Ë. 201à; Ìóõàììàäðàôè. Òàðèõ Äàãåñòàí //
À.Ð. Øèõñàèäîâà, Ò.Ì. Àéòáåðîâà, Ã.Ì.-Ð. Îðàçàåâà (Ñîñò. è ïåðåâîä). Äàãåñòàíñêèå
èñòîðè÷åñêèå ñî÷èíåíèÿ. Ì., 1993. Ñ. 97–98.
2
Àííîòèðîâàííóþ áèáëèîãðàôèþ äîðåâîëþöèîííûõ ðàáîò î êàâêàçñêîì
“õèùíè÷åñòâå” ÷èòàòåëü íàéäåò â êíèãå Ô. È. Ëåîíòîâè÷à. Àäàòû êàâêàçñêèõ
ãîðöåâ, Íàëü÷èê, 2002 (ðåïðèíò îäåññêîãî èçäàíèÿ 1882 ã.). Âûï. I. Ñ. 257–259,
261, 262, 264–271, 275, 277–280, 282, 285–292; Âûï. II. Ñ. 253–261, 267, 270–273,
278, 280. Èç ëèòåðàòóðû îá àáðåêàõ íàèáîëåå èíôîðìàòèâíû: Â. Êîçà÷êîâñêèé.
Ðàçáîè íà Êàâêàçå. Âëàäèêàâêàç, 1913; Ê. Ãàòóåâ. Çåëèìõàí. Ðîñòîâ-íà-Äîíó–
Êðàñíîäàð, 1926; Ñ. Ê. Áåðäÿåâ. ×å÷íÿ è ðàçáîéíèê Çåëèìõàí. Ïàðèæ, 1930; Îí
æå. Ðàçáîè íà Êàâêàçå. Ïàðèæ, 1936.  ïîçäíåå ñîâåòñêîå âðåìÿ èçó÷åíèå àáðå÷åñòâà
è íàáåãîâ îêàçàëîñü ïîä íåãëàñíûì çàïðåòîì â ñèëó îôèöèàëüíîé óñòàíîâêè íà
“äðóæáó íàðîäî┠â ÑÑÑÐ.
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Ïåñíÿ î Õî÷áàðå
Íà÷íåì ñ êðàòêîé èñòîðèêî-ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé õàðàêòåðèñòèêè ïàìÿòíèêà. Ïåñíÿ ýòà, ïîæàëóé, ÷óòü ëè íå ñàìàÿ çíàìåíèòàÿ â äàãåñòàíñêîì ôîëüêëîðå. Èçâåñòíî íåñêîëüêî äåñÿòêîâ åå àâàðñêèõ âåðñèé, äàðãèíñêèå è ëàêñêèå âàðèàíòû.  íà÷àëå 60-õ ãîäîâ XIX â. åå
âïåðâûå çàïèñàë è ââåë â íàó÷íûé îáîðîò èçâåñòíûé êàâêàçîâåä áàðîí Ï. Ê. Óñëàð.  1868 ã. áûë èçäàí åãî ïðîçàè÷åñêèé ïåðåâîä ïåñíè
î Õî÷áàðå ñ àâàðñêîãî íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê. Åùå ðàç åå òåêñò ñ êîììåíòàðèÿìè Óñëàðà áûë íàïå÷àòàí â ïîñìåðòíîì èçäàíèè åãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ ïî àâàðñêîìó ÿçûêó.3 Âûñîêóþ îöåíêó õóäîæåñòâåííûì äîñòîèíñòâàì ïåñíè äàë Ë. Í. Òîëñòîé, ïîçíàêîìèâøèéñÿ ñ çàïèñÿìè Óñëàðà âî âðåìÿ ðàáîòû íàä “Õàäæè-Ìóðàòîì”.4 Ñ òåõ ïîð ïåñíþ î
Õî÷áàðå íå ïåðåñòàâàëè çàïèñûâàòü è ïóáëèêîâàòü êàê â ðóññêèõ ïåðåâîäàõ, òàê è â àâàðñêîì îðèãèíàëå. Ñåãîäíÿ îíà âõîäèò â êàæäóþ
õðåñòîìàòèþ íàðîäíûõ ïåñåí Äàãåñòàíà. Åå àâàðñêèé òåêñò èçó÷àåòñÿ â 6-ì êëàññå ñðåäíåé øêîëû â àâàðñêèõ ðàéîíàõ Äàãåñòàíà, òàêæå
êàê, ñêàæåì, â ðóññêèõ øêîëàõ “Ñëîâî î ïîëêó Èãîðåâå”. Íåïëîõîé
ïîýòè÷åñêèé ïåðåâîä ïåñíè íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê ñäåëàí óæå â ñîâåòñêîå
âðåìÿ êðóïíûì äàãåñòàíñêèì ïèñàòåëåì è ïåðåâîä÷èêîì Ýôôåíäè
Êàïèåâûì.5
Íåñìîòðÿ íà âñå äîñòîèíñòâà ïåðåâîäà Ý. Êàïèåâà, îí ñîâåðøåííî
íå ãîäèòñÿ äëÿ íàó÷íîãî àíàëèçà ïàìÿòíèêà. Äåëî â òîì, ÷òî Êàïèåâ
äîïîëíèë óñëàðîâñêèé òåêñò äåòàëÿìè èç áîëåå ïîçäíèõ àâàðñêèõ âåðñèé ïåñíè, à òàêæå åå äàðãèíñêîãî è ëàêñêîãî âàðèàíòîâ, îñíîâûâàÿñü
íà çàïèñÿõ, ñäåëàííûõ èì â Íàãîðíîì Äàãåñòàíå â 1915–1934 ãã. Ïî
ñïðàâåäëèâîìó çàìå÷àíèþ äàãåñòàíñêîãî ôîëüêëîðèñòà À. À. Àõëàêîâà, ïåðåä íàìè íå ñòîëüêî ïåðåâîä, ñêîëüêî “ñâîäíàÿ ëèòåðàòóðíàÿ”
âåðñèÿ.6 Àâàðñêèé îðèãèíàë ïåñíè îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò ïåðåâîäà Êàïèåâà ïî
ñîäåðæàíèþ, ôîðìå è äàæå ïî îáúåìó. Â ïåðåâîäå Êàïèåâà ïåñíÿ î
Õî÷áàðå çàíèìàåò 158 ñòðîê, à â îðèãèíàëå – òîëüêî 67, ïåðåâîä áîëåå
Ï. Ê. [Óñëàð]. Êîå-÷òî î ñëîâåñíûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ ãîðöåâ // Ñáîðíèê ñâåäåíèé î
êàâêàçñêèõ ãîðöàõ (äàëåå: ÑÑÊÃ). Òèôëèñ, 1868. Âûï. I. Îòä. V. Ñ. 41–42; Ï. Ê. Óñëàð. Ýòíîãðàôèÿ Êàâêàçà. ßçûêîçíàíèå. Ò. III. Ìààðóëüñêèé (àâàðñêèé) ÿçûê. Òèôëèñ, 1889.
4
Ë. Í. Òîëñòîé. Ïîëíîå ñîáðàíèå ñî÷èíåíèé. Ì., 1950. Ò. 35. Ñ. 635.
5
Ïåðåâîä Ý. Êàïèåâà íåîäíîêðàòíî ïåðåèçäàâàëñÿ. Ñì., íàïðèìåð: Õî÷áàð // Ïåñíè
ãîðöåâ. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1990. Ñ. 26–31.
6
À. À. Àõëàêîâ. Ãåðîèêî-èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåñíè àâàðöåâ. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1968. Ñ. 12.
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Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
÷åì âäâîå ïðåâûøàåò îðèãèíàë!7 Êàïèåâ ââîäèò â ïåñíþ ñâÿçêè ìåæäó
ýïèçîäàìè. Îò ýòîãî ïðîïàäàåò ýíåðãèÿ îðèãèíàëà, ñòèëü ñòàíîâèòñÿ
ñëèøêîì âÿëûì. Êðàòêîñòü è î÷àðîâàíèå àâàðñêîé ïåñíè â ýòîì ïåðåâîäå ïðîïàëè. Åñòü îòëè÷èÿ â ñîñòàâå äåéñòâóþùèõ ëèö: ó Êàïèåâà
ãèäàòëèíåö çàìåíåí íà ìàòü Õî÷áàðà, íåò õóíçàõñêîãî êàäè, ââåäåíû
æåíà Õî÷áàðà, õàíñêèå íóêåðû, æåíùèíû è ñòàðèêè Õóíçàõà.  ïåðåâîäå èñ÷åçàåò ãðàíè÷àùàÿ ñ íèùåòîé áåäíîñòü ãîðöåâ Õóíçàõà è Ãèäàòëÿ. Âìåñòî ýòîãî ïåðåâîä÷èê ùåäðî ðàññûïàåò ïåðåä ÷èòàòåëåì áîãàòñòâà Âîñòîêà.
Ýòè ñîîáðàæåíèÿ çàñòàâèëè ìåíÿ âçÿòüñÿ çà íîâûé ïðîçàè÷åñêèé
ïåðåâîä ïåñíè. Èç ìíîæåñòâà àâàðñêèõ âàðèàíòîâ ÿ âûáðàë íå ñàìóþ
äðåâíþþ (óñëàðîâñêóþ), à íàèáîëåå ïîïóëÿðíóþ âåðñèþ ïîñëåäíåé
òðåòè XIX â.8  îòëè÷èå îò Êàïèåâà è Óñëàðà ÿ îòêàçàëñÿ îò âêëþ÷åíèÿ
â ïåðåâîä îòñóòñòâóþùèõ â îðèãèíàëå ñâÿçîê-îïèñàíèé, ïîÿñíÿþùèõ
ðàçâèòèå äåéñòâèÿ. Ýòî ïîçâîëèëî äàòü íàèáîëåå àäåêâàòíîå ïðî÷òåíèå ïàìÿòíèêà. Ïîäðîáíûé êîììåíòàðèé è ðàçáîð ñþæåòà ÷èòàòåëü
íàéäåò â ñëåäóþùèõ ðàçäåëàõ ñòàòüè.
Ïåñíÿ î Õî÷áàðå ñëóæèò ÿðêèì ïðèìåðîì èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ôîëüêëîðà àâàðöåâ. Èñïîëíÿëè åå íà îáùåàâàðñêîì êîéíå (àâàð. áîëìàöIöI), â
îñíîâó êîòîðîãî áûë ïîëîæåí ÿçûê îáùåñòâà (áî) Õóíçàõñêîãî ïëàòî.
Êàê è äðóãèå ãåðîè÷åñêèå ïåñíè, îíà èìååò 11-ñëîæíóþ ñòðîêó ñ öåçóðîé ïîñðåäèíå, áëèçêóþ ê àðàáñêîìó ðàçìåðó áàñèò.9 Ïîðàæàåò îáèëèå äèàëîãîâ â ïåñíå. Âñå âàæíåéøèå ñþæåòíûå óçëû ïåðåäàíû â äèàëîãàõ. Ñóäÿ ïî ðàññêàçàì î÷åâèäöåâ, çàïèñàííûì â ñåðåäèíå ÕÕ â.,
àâàðöû ëþáèëè ïåòü ãåðîè÷åñêèå ïåñíè äóýòîì ïîä àêêîìïàíåìåíò
òðåõñòðóííîãî ïàíäóðà èëè ÷àãàíû. Ìåëîäèè èñïîëíÿëèñü â î÷åíü
áûñòðîì ðèòìå, áëèçêîì ê ïëÿñîâîìó.10 Ñòîëü æå ñòðåìèòåëüíî ðàçâîðà÷èâàåòñÿ äåéñòâèå ïåñíè.
Ñòðîêè 3–4, 6, 8, 10–20, 22–26, 30–41, 43–45, 48–50, 52, 55–56, 58–60, 63–64, 69,
71–79, 82, 87–136, 140, 142–149, 155–158 ïîýòè÷åñêîãî ïåðåâîäà Êàïèåâà íå èìåþò
ïàðàëëåëåé ñ àâàðñêèì îðèãèíàëîì ïåñíè.  ïåðåâîäå îïóùåíà ïåðåáðàíêà Õî÷áàðà
ñ õóíçàõñêèì êàäè, â êîòîðîé óïîìÿíóòû ãåðîé Ìóðòóçàëè è ìå÷ Çó-ë-ôàêàð. Ýïèçîä
ñ ãëàøàòàåì ïåðåíåñåí èç íà÷àëà ïåñíè â ñåðåäèíó, ïîñëå ïðèåçäà Õî÷áàðà â Õóíçàõ
è çàòî÷åíèÿ åãî â ñåëüñêóþ òþðüìó.
8
Ýòîò òåêñò è ïîïàë â øêîëüíóþ õðåñòîìàòèþ: Ëèòåðàòóðèÿá õðåñòîìàòèÿ. 6
êëàññàëúå. ÌàõIà÷õúàëà, 10-å èçä., 1988. Ñ. 34–37.
9
Ó. Á. Äàëãàò. Ôîëüêëîð è ëèòåðàòóðà íàðîäîâ Äàãåñòàíà. Ì., 1962. Ñ. 60–61;
À. À. Àõëàêîâ. Ãåðîèêî-èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåñíè àâàðöåâ. Ñ. 213–215.
10
Òàì æå. Ñ. 188.
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Öåíòðàëüíàÿ òåìà ïåñíè – âëàñòü è íàñèëèå ñðåäè ãîðöåâ-ìóñóëüìàí Àâàðèè. Ïî ñîäåðæàíèþ îíà ñìûêàåòñÿ ñ ïåðå÷èñëåííûìè âûøå
æàíðàìè, ïîâåñòâóþùèìè î âîåííûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëÿõ è àáðåêàõ, íî ïðè
ýòîì âîçíèêëà ðàíüøå è ïðîñóùåñòâîâàëà äîëüøå è òåõ, è äðóãèõ. Íà
ýòî óêàçûâàåò åå ñîäåðæàíèå. Â íåé íåò íè ïîõîäà íà âðàãà, íè ïðèãîòîâëåíèé ê íåìó, ñîñòàâëÿþùèõ îñíîâó ëþáîé ïåñíè î íàáåãàõ. Åùå
äàëüøå îò íåå ïåñíè î “ïîäâèãàõ” îòäåëüíûõ ðåàëüíûõ àáðåêîâ íà÷àëà
XX ñòîëåòèÿ. Ñþæåò ïåñíè íå òðàôàðåòåí, íî åå ñòðóêòóðà è õóäîæåñòâåííûå ïðèåìû â öåëîì òèïè÷íû äëÿ ìåñòíîãî ãåðîè÷åñêîãî ôîëüêëîðà, ê êîòîðîìó îòíîñÿòñÿ è äâà îòìå÷åííûõ âûøå æàíðà. Êðîìå äèàëîãè÷íîñòè, ñþäà íóæíî îòíåñòè îòñóòñòâèå çà÷èíà, îáðàùåíèå ãåðîÿ â íà÷àëå ïåñíè ê äðóãó (ïî äðóãîé âåðñèè – ê ìàòåðè) çà ñîâåòîì,
ãèáåëü ãåðîÿ â êîíöå ïåñíè, ðåçêèå ïåðåõîäû îò ãåðîèêè ê õâàñòîâñòâó
è ðóãàòåëüñòâàì, õàðàêòåðíûå ýïèòåòû (íàïðèìåð, “êîðîòêîóõèé âîëê”),
ðàññêàç îò ïåðâîãî ëèöà, óïîòðåáëåíèå êðàòêèõ ôîðì ïðèëàãàòåëüíûõ
â ðîëè ïîñòîÿííûõ ýïèòåòîâ, çàìåíà ëè÷íûõ ôîðì ãëàãîëîâ ïðè÷àñòèÿìè ïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè,11 ÷òî â àâàðñêîì ÿçûêå ïðèäàåò ïîâåñòâîâàíèþ îòòåíîê óâåðåííîñòè, óáåæäåííîñòè â ñâîåé ïðàâîòå.
Îáðàòèìñÿ ñíà÷àëà ê òåêñòó ñàìîé ïåñíè:
1. Ïðèõîäèò ïèñüìî îò Õóíçàõñêîãî õàíà:
– “ Õóíçàõ ïðèåçæàé, Ãèäàòëèíñêèé Õî÷áàð,
Ñòàðèêè ñîáðàëèñü, ñòàðøèíû (÷IóõIáè) ñîáðàëèñü,
Ñõîä (ðóêêåë) ïðîâåäåì ó âõîäà â ìå÷åòü”.
5. – “Íå åçäè â Õóíçàõ, Õî÷áàð!
[Òàì] òû âñòðåòèøü ñèðîò òîáîé óáèòûõ îòöîâ,
[Òàì] òû âñòðåòèøü âäîâ òîáîé óáèòûõ ìóæåé.
8. – “Íå ãîâîðè òàêèõ ñëîâ, ãèäàòëèíåö!
Èíà÷å ïîäóìàþò, ÷òî ÿ, âåðíî, èñïóãàëñÿ êàêîãî-òî õàíà.”
10. Âçÿâ áûêà íà óáîé äëÿ âåðõîâíîãî õàíà,
Íàáðîñèâ áûêó íà ðîãà ñàâàí,
Õî÷áàð îòïðàâèëñÿ íàâåðõ â Õóíçàõ.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 185, 192–193, 198, 202–204, 207. Ñõîäíûå õóäîæåñòâåííûå ïðèåìû â
ñþæåòàõ, ñâÿçàííûõ ñ íàñèëèåì è âëàñòüþ, âñòðå÷àþòñÿ â ãåðîè÷åñêîì ôîëüêëîðå
äðóãèõ ïîãðàíè÷íûõ ðåãèîíîâ ñàìûõ ðàçëè÷íûõ ýïîõ, íàïðèìåð â ïåñíÿõ “Ñòàðøåé
Ýääû” ðàííåñðåäíåâåêîâîé Ñêàíäèíàâèè. Àâòîð áëàãîäàðåí Ò. À. Áîáðîâíèêîâîé
çà ýòî êðèòè÷åñêîå çàìå÷àíèå ê òåêñòó ñòàòüè.
11
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Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
13. Êîãäà ÿ ïîäúåõàë ê “Áåëûì ïëèòàì”12,
ß óñëûøàë, êàê êðè÷èò õóíçàõñêèé ãëàøàòàé (ìàãúóø):
– “Ó êîãî åñòü èøàê, âåçè [äðîâà] íà èøàêå!
Ó êîãî íåò èøàêà, òàùè [äðîâà] â îõàïêå!
Ðàçîææåì êîñòåð, ÷òîáû ñæå÷ü Õî÷áàðà!”
18. – “Àñ-ñàëàì àëåéêóì, õóíçàõñêèé êàäè,”
– “Âà àëåéêóì ñàëàì, Ãèäàòëèíñêèé Õî÷áàð,
Òû âåäü íå âñòðå÷àë Ìóðòóçàëè,
Åãî [øàøêè] Çó-ë-Ôàêàð ïðè òåáÿ íåò,
Êàê æå òû îñìåëèëñÿ ïðèåõàòü, Ãèäàòëèíñêèé Õî÷áàð?”
23. – “Ìóðòóçàëè – ìîé îòåö,
[Åãî] Çó-ë-Ôàêàð – ó ìåíÿ â ðóêå,
Ïî÷åìó áû ìíå íå ïðèåõàòü, êîëè ìåíÿ çâàëè?”
26. – “Ïîéäåì-êà, Õî÷áàð, íà [ãóìíî] ÒIàäãüîöIàáàõúå13,
Óñòðîèì âåñåëûé ïèð ñ ïåñíÿìè è ïëÿñêàìè”.
28. Îòòóäà ïîøëè îíè íà ÒIàäãüîöIàáàõúå.
[Âèäÿò], ïîñðåäè ãóìíà áîëüøîé êîñòåð [ãîðèò],
Âîêðóã îãíÿ ñèäÿò þíîøè-[õóíçàõöû].
31. – “Ñïîé-êà ïåñíþ, Õî÷áàð, óäàðÿÿ â áóáåí (æåðãúåí),
Î÷åíü õî÷åòñÿ ïîñëóøàòü, êàê òû ïîåøü, óäàðÿÿ â áóáåí.
Ïîèãðàé, Õî÷áàð, íà ÷àãàíå èç ëèïû,
Î÷åíü õî÷åòñÿ ïîñëóøàòü òâîþ èãðó íà ÷àãàíå.
35. – “Åé-Áîãó, ÿ ñïîþ [âàì] ïåñíþ,
Åñëè ðàçâÿæóò ðóêè, ÷òîáû áèòü â áóáåí.
Åé-Áîãó, ÿ ñûãðàþ [âàì] íà ÷àãàíå èç ëèïû,
Åñëè ðàçâÿæóò íîãè, ÷òîáû ïîñòàâèòü èõ íà ÷àãàíó.
39. Ðàçâÿçàëè [åìó] ðóêè, ÷òîáû áèòü â áóáåí,
Ðàçâÿçàëè [åìó] íîãè, ÷òîáû ïîñòàâèòü èõ íà ÷àãàíó.
41. – “Ñ ýòèõ ãîð, âîò òóò âçäûìàþùèõñÿ ñíèçó ââåðõ,
Êòî, îïóñòîøèâ èõ, óãíàë îâåö?
ÕúàõIàë êúàíàáàõúå. Íàçâàíèå ìåñòíîñòè ïî äîðîãå èç Ãèäàòëÿ íà ïîäúåìå
íà Õóíçàõñêîå ïëàòî. Ñêëîí ãîðû òàì çàíèìàþò ïàøíè íà òåððàñàõ. Ñì.
ÊúàíàáàáàòIà // Ì.-Ñ. Ñàèäîâ. Àâàðñêî-ðóññêèé ñëîâàðü. Ì., 1967. Ñ. 689.
13
“Íà òîêó” (àâàð. ãüîöIó – “òîê, ãóìíî”). Íàçâàíèå ãóìíà çà õàíñêèì äâîðöîì â
Õóíçàõå.
12
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Èç òåõ çàãîíîâ äëÿ ñêîòà, âîí òàì âíèçó,
Êòî óâåë áûêîâ, òàê ÷òî [òåïåðü òàì] ðàñòåò îäíà òðàâà?
Çà ãîðó õîëåíûõ ãíåäûõ êîíåé
Êòî óãíàë? – Õî÷áàð.
Íà óììàõàíîâîé ðûæåé êëÿ÷å
ß ïðîêàòèëñÿ â Òèôëèñ è îáðàòíî.
Øåëêîâóþ íàòåëüíóþ ðóáàøêó (ãóðäå) æåíû Óììà-õàíà
ß ñòàùèë ñ âåðõó òîé âîí áàøíè,
Ðàçîäðàâ åå [íà ÷àñòè], ðàçäåëèë [åå] â Ãèäàòëèíñêîì ñîþçå (áî),
Ðàçäàðèë [åå] íà ñâàäåáíûå ïîäàðêè êåëåáöàì.
53. Ðàññêàçàâ òàê î ñâîèõ ïîäâèãàõ,
[Îáîèõ] ñûíîâåé õàíà, ïîëçàâøèõ [òàì] íà êîëåíêàõ,
[Ñõâàòèâ è] çàñóíóâ èõ ñåáå ïîä ìûøêè,
Õî÷áàð ïðûãíóë â ñåðåäèíó êîñòðà.
57. – “Ðàäè Áîãà, Ãèäàòëèíñêèé Õî÷áàð,
Âûéäè ñ ýòîé [ñòîðîíû] Òàëî14, âûéäè îòòóäà!
Íå äàé ñãîðåòü äâóì ìàëü÷èêàì èç äâîðöà!”
60. – “×òî âû ïëà÷åòå, íóöàëÿòà,
Âåäü è ïëîòü Ãèäàòëèíñêîãî Õî÷áàðà æàðèòñÿ ñ âàìè!
×òî âû ñòîíåòå, îñèðîòåâøèå ÿãíÿòà,
Âåäü è óñû Ãèäàòëèíñêîãî Õî÷áàðà ïàëÿòñÿ ñ âàìè!”
64. – “Ñêàæèòå ìîåé ìàòåðè, ïóñòü íå ðûäàåò,
Íå íàïðàñíî ïîãèá êîðîòêîóõèé âîëê!
Ñêàæèòå ðîäíûì, ïóñòü íå ñòîíóò,
Íå ñëîìèëè òîãî, ó êîãî ïîâàäêè âîëêà!”
Ñþæåò ïåñíè
Èòàê, ãèäàòëèíñêîãî ðàçáîéíèêà Õî÷áàðà ïîñòèãëà ãèáåëü: îí çàæèâî ñãîðåë íà êîñòðå. Íî âìåñòå ñ íèì ïîãèáëè îáà íàñëåäíèêà õàíñêîãî ïðåñòîëà. Ðîä ïðàâèòåëåé Õóíçàõà ïðåñåêñÿ. Êîãäà õóíçàõöû óæå
òîðæåñòâîâàëè ïîáåäó íàä âðàãîì, èõ ïîñòèãëà Áîæüÿ êàðà. Íåëüçÿ
áåçíàêàçàííî ïîïèðàòü ñâÿùåííûå çàêîíû ãîñòåïðèèìñòâà è êàçíèòü
ãîñòÿ, ïóñòü äàæå îòúÿâëåííîãî ïðåñòóïíèêà. Òàêîâà îñíîâíàÿ èäåÿ
ïåñíè. Åå åùå â 80-å ãîäû ÕÕ â. ðàçîáðàë èçâåñòíûé äàãåñòàíñêèé ýò14
Ìåñòíîñòü âîçëå õàíñêîãî äâîðöà â Õóíçàõå.
183
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
íîãðàô è çíàòîê ãîðñêîãî ôîëüêëîðà Ì. À. Àãëàðîâ.15 È çäåñü íåçà÷åì
ãîâîðèòü î ñóðîâîñòè íðàâà ãîðöåâ, î êîòîðîé òàê ëþáÿò ðàññóæäàòü
ëèòåðàòóðîâåäû.16 Ãóìàííîñòü ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê äåòÿì è êàêèå-ëèáî
èíûå ñîîáðàæåíèÿ çäåñü íè ïðè ÷åì.
Îäíàêî êðîìå îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêîé ìîðàëè, òàê ïîðàçèâøåé Òîëñòîãî,
ó ïåñíè î Õî÷áàðå åñòü è áîëåå ÷àñòíîå ñîöèàëüíîå ñîäåðæàíèå. ×òîáû
ïîíÿòü åãî, íóæíî ðàññìîòðåòü åå ñþæåò è âñòðå÷àþùèåñÿ â íåì ìåñòíûå ðåàëèè. Äåéñòâèå ðàçâîðà÷èâàåòñÿ â ñðåäíåì Äàãåñòàíå (íûíå Øàìèëüñêèé è Õóíçàõñêèé ðàéîíû Ðåñïóáëèêè Äàãåñòàí). Ðîäèíîé Õî÷áàðà áûë Ãèäàòëü (àâàð. Ãüèä) – áîëüøàÿ è ìîãó÷àÿ êîíôåäåðàöèÿ (àâàð.
áî) ñàìîóïðàâëÿâøèõñÿ ñåëüñêèõ îáùèí, ïðîñóùåñòâîâàâøàÿ â äîëèíå
ð. Àâàðñêîå Êîéñó äî íà÷àëà ðóññêîãî ïðàâëåíèÿ. Åå îñíîâó ñîñòàâëÿëè
øåñòü àâàðñêèõ ñåëåíèé – Óðàäà, Ãåíòà, Òèäèá, Õîòîäà, Ãîîð è Êàõèá.
Öåíòðîì ñîþçà áûëà Óðàäà. Â ðàçíîå âðåìÿ ê êîíôåäåðàöèè ïðèñîåäèíÿëèñü äðóãèå ñåëåíèÿ è äàæå ñîþçû îáùèí, íàïðèìåð, óïîìÿíóòûé â
ïåñíå Êåëåá (àâàð. “êåëåáöû”, Êúåë), Êîéñóáóëó (Õèíäàëàë) è äðóãèå.
Íàêàíóíå ðóññêîãî çàâîåâàíèÿ â Ãèäàòëå áûëî 19 ñåëåíèé ñ 3869 äîìîâ.17 Íà ñåâåðî-âîñòîêå îò Ãèäàòëÿ âûñèòñÿ Õóíçàõñêîå ïëàòî – îãðîìíàÿ ñòîëîâàÿ ãîðà âûñîòîé îò 2 äî 2,5 òûñ. ì., – ñ äðåâíåé ðåçèäåíöèåé
äàâíèõ ñîïåðíèêîâ Ãèäàòëÿ àâàðñêèõ õàíîâ (èëè íóöàëîâ).
Ïî ëåãåíäå, çíàìåíèòûé ðàçáîéíèê Õî÷áàð æèë â Ãèäàòëå ïðèáëèçèòåëüíî â XVIII èëè äàæå â XVI–XVII ââ. Îí ïðîñëàâèëñÿ äåðçêèìè
íàëåòàìè íà çåìëè âðàãîâ-ãèäàòëèíöåâ. Õî÷áàð óãîíÿë ñòàäà õóíçàõöåâ, ãðàáèë è óáèâàë èõ.  âàðèàíòå ïåñíè, îïóáëèêîâàííîì Óñëàðîì,
îí áðîñàåò â ëèöî íóöàëó: “Ðàçâå ÿ íå óáèë øåñòüäåñÿò ÷åëîâåê èç
âàøåãî îáùåñòâà (çä. áî – Â.Á.)?”18 Ïîéìàòü åãî íå óäàâàëîñü. Îáðàùåíèÿ ê ñòàðøèíàì Ãèäàòëÿ ñ òðåáîâàíèåì ïðèñòðóíèòü ðàçáîéíèêà òîæå
íå äàâàëè ðåçóëüòàòà. Òîãäà õóíçàõöû ðåøèëè çàìàíèòü Õî÷áàðà ê ñåáå
è óáèòü åãî. Íóöàë ïðèñëàë Õî÷áàðó ïðèãëàøåíèå ïðèíÿòü ó÷àñòèå â
ñõîäå (àâàð. ðóêêåë) ñòàðøèí Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà. Õèòðîñòü õóíçàõöåâ
áûëà øèòà áåëûìè íèòêàìè, íî Õî÷áàð íå ïîñìåë óêëîíèòüñÿ îò ïðèãëàøåíèÿ, áîÿñü îáâèíåíèÿ â òðóñîñòè. Îí çíàë, ÷òî èäåò íà âåðíóþ
ñìåðòü, è ïîýòîìó âìåñòå ñ áûêîì â ïîäàðîê íóöàëó âçÿë äëÿ ñàìîãî
Ì. À. Àãëàðîâ. Ñåëüñêàÿ îáùèíà â Íàãîðíîì Äàãåñòàíå â XVII – íà÷àëå XIX â.
Ì., 1988. Ñ. 103–104.
16
Ñì., íàïðèìåð: Ì. Î. ×óäàêîâà. Ýôôåíäè Êàïèåâ. Ì., 1970. Ñ. 158.
17
Õðèñàíô. Ñâåäåíèÿ îá Àâàðñêîì õàíñòâå // Èñòîðèÿ, ãåîãðàôèÿ è ýòíîãðàôèÿ
Äàãåñòàíà XVIII–XIX ââ. Ñîñò. Õ.-Ì. Î. Õàøàåâ. Ì., 1958. Ñ. 273; Ãèäàòëèíñêèå
àäàòû. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1957. Ñ. 10, 32.
15
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ñåáÿ ñàâàí.  îòëè÷èå îò âàðèàíòà Ý. Êàïèåâà, â íàøåé âåðñèè ðåç÷å
ïîêàçàíà ñòîéêîñòü ðàçáîéíèêà. Ïîäúåçæàÿ ê Õóíçàõó îí ñëó÷àéíî óçíàë î ïðèãîòîâëåíèÿõ ê åãî êàçíè, íî íå ïîâåðíóë íàçàä.
Ïîäíÿâøèñü íà ïëàòî è âúåõàâ íà öåíòðàëüíóþ ïëîùàäü ó ìå÷åòè
(ãîäåêàí), ãäå áûëî íàçíà÷åíî ñîâåùàíèå ñòàðøèí, Õî÷áàð âñòðå÷àåò êàäè Õóíçàõà. Òîò óäèâëåííî ñïðàøèâàåò åãî, êàê æå îí îñìåëèëñÿ ïðèåõàòü â ñòàí ñâîèõ çëåéøèõ âðàãîâ. Ðåïëèêè êàäè ñ óïîìèíàíèåì õîðîøî èçâåñòíûõ â Äàãåñòàíå (íî íå îáúÿñíåííûõ â ïåñíå)
Ðèñ. 1. ×åðêåññêèé íàåçäíèê íà÷àëà XIX â. Ãðàâþðà Ã. Ýíãåëüìàíà (Chevalier de
Gamba. Voyage dans la Russie méridionale et dans les provinces au-delà du Caucase,
fait depuis 1820 jusqu’en 1824. Paris, 1826. Vol. 2, Tabl. 12).
185
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ïåðñîíàæåé òðåáóþò êîììåíòàðèÿ. Íàïðèìåð, îí íàçûâàåò íåêîåãî Ìóðòóçàëè, êîòîðîãî, ïîõîæå, ìîæíî îòîæäåñòâèòü ñ
ñûíîì Ñóðõàé-õàíà Êàçèêóìóõñêîãî, îäíèì èç ïðåäâîäèòåëåé îïîë÷åíèÿ ãîðöåâ, êîòîðîå îñåíüþ 1741 ã. ðàçáèëî âîéñêà Íàäèð-øàõà,
âòîðãøèåñÿ â Äàãåñòàí èç Èðàíà. Ìóðòóçàëè ñòàë îäíèì èç ëþáèìûõ ãåðîåâ èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ôîëüêëîðà àâàðöåâ, ëàêöåâ è äàðãèíöåâ.19
Êàäè ïðèïèñûâàåò åìó ÷óäåñíûé ìå÷ ïðîðîêà Ìóõàììåäà ïî èìåíè
Çóëüôóêàð (îò àðàá. Çó-ë-ôàêàð, “Ñ âîëíèñòûì ëåçâèåì”), äîñòàâøèéñÿ òîìó â áèòâå ïðè Áàäðå (ìàðò 624 ã.), à ïîñëå ñìåðòè ïðîðîêà ïåðåøåäøèé ê Àëè. Øèèòñêèå ëåãåíäû ãîâîðÿò î âîëøåáíûõ ñâîéñòâàõ
ýòîãî ìå÷à.20 Îáùèé ñìûñë ñëîâ êàäè – ñïàñòè Õî÷áàðà ìîæåò òîëüêî ãåðîé Ìóðòóçàëè, è òî ïðè ïîìîùè ñâîåãî ÷óäåñíîãî ìå÷à.  îòâåò åìó Õî÷áàð íàçûâàåò Ìóðòóçàëè ñâîèì îòöîì è ïîêàçûâàåò íà
ñàáëþ Çóëüôóêàð.
Äåéñòâèå áûñòðî ïðèáëèæàåòñÿ ê òðàãè÷åñêîé ðàçâÿçêå. Êàäè âåäåò
Õî÷áàðà íà ãóìíî çà õàíñêèì äâîðöîì. Çäåñü èõ âñòðå÷àþò þíîøèõóíçàõöû, êîòîðûå áðîñàþòñÿ íà Õî÷áàðà, îáåçîðóæèâàþò è âÿæóò åãî.
Ïåðåðåçàþò ãîðëî åãî êîíþ, ðàçáèâàþò î ñêàëó êðåìíåâêó è ÷óäåñíóþ
ñàáëþ Õî÷áàðà. Çàòåì ñàìîãî åãî ïîäâîäÿò ê îãðîìíîìó êîñòðó è èçäåâàòåëüñêè ïðîñÿò ïîòåøèòü èõ ìóçûêîé è ïåíèåì ñ ïëÿñêîé. Õî÷áàð
ïðîñëàâèëñÿ íå òîëüêî êàê ðàçáîéíèê, íî è êàê èñêóñíûé òàíöîð è
ìóçûêàíò. Îí õîðîøî èãðàë íà áóáíå è ÷àãàíå, ñòðóííîì èíñòðóìåíòå
âðîäå ñêðèïêè èëè âèîëîí÷åëè, çâó÷àâøåì íà ìàíåð àðàáñêîãî óäà èëè
íîâîãðå÷åñêîé ëþòíè. Óñëàð, ïîÿñíÿÿ çíà÷åíèå ýòîãî ñëîâà ðóññêîìó
÷èòàòåëþ, íàçâàë åãî “ëèïîâûì ãóäêîì”.21 ×àãàíà îêàí÷èâàëàñü äëèííîé ñïèöåé, êîòîðóþ ïðè èãðå óïèðàëè ìåæäó ñòóïíÿìè. Õî÷áàð ñîãëàøàåòñÿ èñïîëíèòü ïðîñüáó õóíçàõöåâ, åñëè åìó îñâîáîäÿò ðóêè è
íîãè. Ñòàðèêè-ñòàðøèíû íå ñîãëàøàþòñÿ, íî ãîðäàÿ ìîëîäåæü ïåðåñïîðèâàåò èõ, è Õî÷áàðà ðàçâÿçûâàþò. ×óòü ëè íå âñå ýòè ïîäðîáíîñòè
è ðàçâèòèå äåéñòâèÿ â ïåñíå îïóùåíû. Ñëóøàòåëè è òàê ïðåêðàñíî
çíàëè ñþæåò ïåñíè.  íåé îñòàëñÿ òîëüêî äèàëîã-ïåðåáðàíêà õóíçàõñêîé ìîëîäåæè ñ Õî÷áàðîì.
19
Ìóðòóçàëè Êàçèêóìóõñêèé áûë ðåàëüíûì èñòîðè÷åñêèì ëèöîì, î ÷åì
ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò âîñòî÷íûå èñòî÷íèêè XVIII â. Ñì.: Õðîíèêà âîéí Äæàðà â XVIII
ñòîëåòèè. Áàêó, 1931. Ñ. 21, 22, 27, 31.  èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè ãîðöåâ îí ñòàë
ïðåäâîäèòåëåì îáúåäèíåííîãî îïîë÷åíèÿ ãîðöåâ, ðàçáèâøåãî Íàäèð-øàõà. Ñì.:
Ïåñíè ãîðöåâ. Ñ. 209–216.
20
Èñëàì. Ýíöèêëîïåäè÷åñêèé ñëîâàðü. Ì., 1991. Ñ. 79.
21
Ï. Ê. [Óñëàð]. Êîå-÷òî î ñëîâåñíûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ ãîðöåâ. Ñ. 42.
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Ïîä àêêîìïàíåìåíò áóáíà è ÷àãàíû Õî÷áàð ïîåò èìïðîâèçèðîâàííóþ ïåñíþ, â êîòîðîé íàçûâàåò ñâîèõ âðàãîâ-õóíçàõöåâ òðóñàìè, íèê÷åìíûìè ëþäüìè, ñðàâíèâàåò èõ ñ áàðàíàìè, à ñåáÿ ñ îòâàæíûì âîëêîì, ðàçîðÿþùèì îâ÷àðíè. Õî÷áàð íàñìåõàåòñÿ íàä ïðîøëûì âåëè÷èåì Õóíçàõà, ðàññêàçûâàÿ, êàê ñúåçäèë â Òèôëèñ íà ðûæåé êëÿ÷å, ïðåæäå ñëóæèâøåé êîíåì çíàìåíèòîìó ïðàâèòåëþ Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà Óììàõàíó Âåëèêîìó (1774–1800). Ïîä êîíåö îí áåñ÷åñòèò íóöàëà. Ïîêàçûâàÿ íà ñòîÿùóþ ðÿäîì æèëóþ áàøíþ õàíñêîãî äâîðöà â êâàðòàëå Ñàìèëàêõ (àâàð. Ñàìèëàõú), Õî÷áàð ðàññêàçûâàåò î òîì, êàê óêðàë îòòóäà
øåëêîâóþ ñîðî÷êó (ïî äðóãîé âåðñèè øàðîâàðû – àâàð. òIàæó) æåíû
íóöàëà è, ðàçîäðàâ åå íà ÷àñòè, ðàçäåëèë â êà÷åñòâå ñâàäåáíûõ ïîäàðêîâ ñðåäè ãèäàòëèíöåâ è êåëåáöåâ. Ê ýòîìó ìåñòó ïåñíè Óñëàð ñäåëàë
ñëåäóþùåå ïðèìå÷àíèå: “Íåò áîëüøåãî ïîçîðà äëÿ ãîðöà, êàê åñëè
øàðîâàðû åãî æåíû óíåñåò ÷óæîé ìóæ÷èíà”22. Îêîí÷èâ ïåñíþ, Õî÷áàð ïóñòèëñÿ â ïëÿñ. Âíèìàíèå õóíçàõöåâ îñëàáåëî. Îíè è íå çàìåòèëè, êàê ðàçáîéíèê ñõâàòèë îáîèõ ñûíîâåé íóöàëà è, çàæàâ èõ ïîä ìûøêîé, ñàì ïðûãíóë â êîñòåð. Ìàëü÷èêè áûëè ñîâñåì ìàëåíüêèå. Îíè
åùå íå óìåëè õîäèòü, à ïîëçàëè íà êîëåíêàõ. Íåñìîòðÿ íà æåñòîêîñòü
ìåñòè, ñèìïàòèè ïåâöà îñòàþòñÿ âñåöåëî íà ñòîðîíå ãåðîéñêè ïîãèáøåãî Õî÷áàðà.
Èñòîðè÷åñêèé êîíòåêñò
×òî ìîæíî ñêàçàòü îá èñòîðè÷åñêîì êîíòåêñòå òîëüêî ÷òî ðàçîáðàííîãî ñþæåòà? Âîïðîñ ýòîò íåïðîñòîé. Èñòîðè÷åñêèé ôîí îáðèñîâàí â
ïåñíå î Õî÷áàðå ñëèøêîì áåãëî. Íå ñîâñåì ïîíÿòíî äàæå, ê êàêîìó âðåìåíè îíà îòíîñèòñÿ. Ëèòåðàòóðîâåäû ïîìåùàþò åå ìåæäó XVI–XVII è
XVII–XVIII ââ.23 Íî íèêàêèõ òâåðäûõ îñíîâàíèé äëÿ òàêîé äàòèðîâêè
íåò, êðîìå ðàçâå òîãî, ÷òî â ïåñíå íè ñëîâà íå ãîâîðèòñÿ î Ðîññèéñêîé
èìïåðèè è ðóññêèõ, ïîÿâèâøèõñÿ â Àâàðèè â íà÷àëå XIX â. Àðãóìåíò,
ïî-ìîåìó, ñëàáûé. Âåäü Àâàðñêîå õàíñòâî ñóùåñòâîâàëî è â ñîñòàâå
èìïåðèè (äî 1864 ã.). Ê òîìó æå â ïåñíå óïîìÿíóò óìåðøèé â íà÷àëå
XIX â. àâàðñêèé íóöàë Óììà-õàí. Öåëûé ðÿä îáñòîÿòåëüñòâ óêàçûâàåò
íà òî, ÷òî ïåñíÿ ñêëàäûâàëàñü íà ïðîòÿæåíèè ñòîëåòèé.  àâàðñêîì òåêñòå çàìåòíû ñëåäû äâóõ ðàçíûõ ýïîõ: 1) îáúåäèíåíèÿ ñåëüñêèõ êîíôåäåðàöèé ãîðöåâ ïîä âëàñòüþ Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà (XV–XVIII ââ.); 2) ðàñÒàì æå.
Ïåñíè ãîðöåâ. Ñ. 7; Ò. Ì. Àéòáåðîâ. Äðåâíèé Õóíçàõ è õóíçàõöû. Ìàõà÷êàëà,
1990. Ñ. 127.
22
23
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êîëà õàíñòâà è âñåãî ãîðñêîãî îáùåñòâà â õîäå Êàâêàçñêîé âîéíû (êîíåö XVIII – ïåðâàÿ ïîëîâèíà XIX â.), îêîí÷èâøåéñÿ ïðèñîåäèíåíèåì
ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ ê Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè.
Êëþ÷åâîé äëÿ ïîíèìàíèÿ èñòîðè÷åñêîãî êîíòåêñòà îáîèõ ïåðèîäîâ ÿâëÿåòñÿ òåìà âëàñòè è íàñèëèÿ. Îíà ñâÿçûâàåò ãëàâíûõ ãåðîåâ
ïåñíè – ãèäàòëèíñêîãî ðàçáîéíèêà Õî÷áàðà, àâàðñêîãî íóöàëà è ìîëîäåæü Õóíçàõà.  íà÷àëå ïåñíè åñòü ìåëêàÿ, íî ñóùåñòâåííàÿ äåòàëü. ×èòàòåëü, íàâåðíîå, ïîìíèò, ÷òî íóöàë ïðèãëàñèë Õî÷áàðà íà
ñîâåò ñòàðøèí Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà.  èñòîðè÷åñêîì ôîëüêëîðå äðóãèõ íàðîäîâ, íàïðèìåð â ðóññêèõ ïåñíÿõ î Ñòåíüêå Ðàçèíå, òàêîå áûëî
áû ïðîñòî íåâîçìîæíî. Êàê ñâÿçàíû ìåæäó ñîáîé ðàçáîéíèê è “ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé ñîâåò”? Îòâåò íà ýòîò âîïðîñ íóæíî èñêàòü â îòäåëüíûõ àâàðñêèõ ñîöèîíèìàõ XV–XVIII ââ., óïîìÿíóòûõ â ïåñíå. Ýòî
ïîíÿòèÿ áî, ðóêêåë, ìàãúóø è ÷IóõIáè. Ïåðâîå ñëîâî îçíà÷àåò îäíîâðåìåííî êàê “îáùåñòâî, íàðîä” (â ñìûñëå ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ, ñîþçà ñåëüñêèõ îáùèí), òàê è “îïîë÷åíèå”. Îñòàëüíûå òðè òåðìèíà êàñàþòñÿ îðãàíîâ óïðàâëåíèÿ è äîëæíîñòíûõ ëèö êîíôåäåðàöèè-îïîë÷åíèÿ. Íóöàë áûë ëèøü âåðõîâíûì âîåííûì ïðåäâîäèòåëåì (àðàá. àìèð, àâàð. öåâåõúàí) àâàðñêîãî áî, êîòîðûì óïðàâëÿëè
ñòàðøèíû-÷IóõIáè, âðåìÿ îò âðåìåíè ñîáèðàâøèå ÷åðåç ãëàøàòàÿìàíãóøà ñåëüñêèé ñõîä âñåãî îáùåñòâà.
Îïîë÷åíèå îõâàòûâàëî âñåõ ñâîáîäíûõ ãîðöåâ Àâàðèè. Ïîëíîïðàâíûì ÷ëåíîì îáùåñòâà ìîã áûòü ëèøü åãî âîèí. Ïðè ýòîì, êîíå÷íî,
ñîõðàíÿëîñü äåëåíèå íà ïðîñòîëþäèíîâ (óçäåíåé) è çíàòü (õàíîâ, áåêîâ), ê ÷èñëó êîòîðîé îòíîñèëèñü êëàíû (òóõóìû) Øàìõàëîâ Ãèäàòëÿ
è íóöàëîâ Õóíçàõà. Îñíîâó îïîë÷åíèÿ ñîñòàâëÿëè ñîþçû íåæåíàòîé
ìîëîäåæè, ðåëèêòû êîòîðûõ îïèñàíû ýòíîãðàôàìè.24 Þíîøè ñòàðøå
14 ëåò ïðîâîäèëè çèìó è ÷àñòü âåñíû â áîëüøîì äîìå-êðåïîñòè (àâàð.
ãúîðêúî ðóêú), ïèðóÿ è óïðàæíÿÿñü â âîèíñêîì èñêóññòâå. Êðåïîñòè
òàêîãî ðîäà ñîõðàíèëèñü äî íàøèõ äíåé. Îäíó èç íèõ ÿ ñâîèìè ãëàçàìè âèäåë â ñ. Êâàíàäà. Ó ñîþçà áûë âîåííûé ïðåäâîäèòåëü (øàõ) è
ñëîæíàÿ âíóòðåííÿÿ èåðàðõèÿ. Îñîáåííî ïî÷åòíûì ñ÷èòàëñÿ ïîñò ãëàøàòàÿ-öåðåìîíèéìåéñòåðà (ìàíãóø).  ëþáóþ ìèíóòó ãîðñêàÿ îáùèÌ. Å. Øèëëèíã. Êóáà÷èíöû è èõ êóëüòóðà // Òðóäû Èíñòèòóòà ýòíîãðàôèè ÀÍ
ÑÑÑÐ. Ì., 1949. Ò. 8; À. Ã. Áóëàòîâà. Òðàäèöèîííûå ïðàçäíèêè è îáðÿäû íàðîäîâ
Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà â XIX – íà÷àëå XX â. Ë., 1988; Þ. Þ. Êàðïîâ. Äæèãèò è
âîëê. Ìóæñêèå ñîþçû â ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîé òðàäèöèè ãîðöåâ Êàâêàçà. ÑÏá., 1996 è
äð. Ñð.: Þ. Ì. Áîòÿêîâ. Àëàìàí. Ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå àñïåêòû èíñòèòóòà
íàáåãà ó òóðêìåí â ñåðåäèíå XIX – ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå XX â. ÑÏá., 2002.
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íà ìîãëà ïðåâðàòèòüñÿ â âîåííûé îòðÿä, ñïîñîáíûé ñîêðóøèòü âðàãà.
Ïîíèìàíèå îáùåñòâà êàê âîéñêà ìîæíî îáíàðóæèòü â ïîçäíåñðåäíåâåêîâûõ èñòî÷íèêàõ èç Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà. Áî ïåðåâîäèëîñü íà àðàáñêèé êàê “âîéñêî” (äæàéø, ‘àñêàð). Îïîë÷åíèÿ ñåëåíèé îáúåäèíÿëèñü
â êîíôåäåðàöèè, à òå – â ñâåðõñîþçû è õàíñòâà. Ïîõîæàÿ âîåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ èåðàðõèÿ áûëà è ó äðóãèõ íàðîäîâ Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà –
àíäî-öåçñêèõ, äàðãèíöåâ, ëàêöåâ è ëåçãèí. Îíà îòìå÷åíà òàêæå ó õåâñóð, ïøàâîâ è ñâàíîâ ãîðíîé Ãðóçèè.25
Êðóïíåéøèì ïîëèòè÷åñêèì îáðàçîâàíèåì ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ ýòîãî ïåðèîäà áûëî Àâàðñêîå õàíñòâî, ïðåäñòàâëÿâøåå âîåííîïîëèòè÷åñêèé ñîþç êîíôåäåðàöèé, óïðàâëÿâøèéñÿ ñòàðøèíàìè
(÷IóõIáè) Õóíçàõà. Ó ñîáîðíîé ìå÷åòè Õóíçàõà ïðîõîäèëè ñõîäû (ðóêêåë) ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé êîíôåäåðàöèé õàíñòâà. Îòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó Õóíçàõîì è Ãèäàòëåì íå âñåãäà îïðåäåëÿëà âðàæäà. Ñîõðàíèëèñü àðàáñêèå êîïèè ñîãëàøåíèé (àðàá. èòòèôàê) ìåæäó îáîèìè ñîþçàìè. Îäíà
èç íèõ âîøëà äàæå â çíàìåíèòûé ñáîðíèê Ãèäàòëèíñêèõ àäàòîâ XV–
XIX ââ. Ýòîò äîãîâîð çàêðåïëÿë îáúåäèíåíèå Ãèäàòëÿ è Àâàðñêîãî
õàíñòâà â åäèíûé ñîþç-áî. “Ïîèñòèíå ÷ëåíû Õóíçàõñêîãî áî (äæàéø)
ñî ñâîèì ïðåäâîäèòåëåì (àìèðó-õóì, çä. õàí. – Â.Á.) Ìóõàììåä-íóöàëîì è ÷ëåíû Ãèäàòëèíñêîãî ñîþçà (äæàéø Õèä) ñîãëàñèëèñü îáúåäèíèòüñÿ ïðè õîðîøåì è äóðíîì è ñòàòü åäèíûì ñîþçîì (êà-äæàéø
âàõèä)”. Äàëåå â íåì ãîâîðèëîñü îá îáúåäèíåíèè ïðàâîâûõ ñâîäîâ
(‘àäàò) õóíçàõöåâ è ãèäàòëèíöåâ.26 Ìóõàììåä-íóöàë, ïðè êîòîðîì
áûëî çàêëþ÷åíî ñîãëàøåíèå, ïðèõîäèëñÿ îòöîì Óììà-õàíó è ïðàâèë
â 1735/36–1774 ãã. Èòàê, åùå â XVIII â. íóöàë è Õî÷áàð âïîëíå ìîãëè
ñîéòèñü íà ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé ñîâåò “ó âõîäà â ìå÷åòü”. Èõ ïóòè ðàçîøëèñü ïîçäíåå, ê XIX â., à ïåñíÿ îòðàçèëà ñðàçó îáà èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ïåðèîäà, îò÷åãî â íåé ïîÿâèëèñü íåêîòîðûå ïðîòèâîðå÷èÿ.
Ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî ãèäàòëèíöåâ è õóíçàõöåâ ñâÿçûâàëà íå òîëüêî èåðàðõèÿ èíñòèòóòîâ âëàñòè, íî è ñîâìåñòíûå ïîõîäû. Íàñèëèå áûëî íàïðàâëåíî íå ñòîëüêî âíóòðü, ñêîëüêî âîâíå ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ, â îñíîâíîì íà Ãðóçèþ. Îñåíüþ, à ÷àùå â àïðåëå–ìàå, êîãäà ãîðíûå ïåðåâàëû áûëè ñâîáîäíû îò ñíåãà, ìîëîäåæü Õóíçàõà ñîâåðøàëà
íàáåãè íà ãðóçèí-õðèñòèàí. Âî ãëàâå âîéñêà ÷àñòî øåë ñàì íóöàë. Óììàõàí äâàæäû ðàçîðÿë Àëàçàíü, â 1785 è 1800 ãã., à â 1797 ã. ïîõîä íà
Ñèíîíèìàìè àâàðñêîãî ïîíÿòèÿ áî ñëóæèëè àíäèéñêîå èãüà, äàðãèíñêîå õóðåáî,
ãðóçèíñêîå ýðè. Ñì.: Â. Î. Áîáðîâíèêîâ. Ìóñóëüìàíå Ñåâåðíîãî Êàâêàçà. Ñ. 321.
26
Ãèäàòëèíñêèå àäàòû. Ñ. 38, 40.
25
189
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
Ãðóçèþ ñîâåðøèë åãî áðàò Ãåáåê.27 Íóöàë ðàññûëàë ïèñüìà â äðóãèå
êîíôåäåðàöèè ñ ïðèãëàøåíèåì, à ïîðîé ïðèêàçîì ïðèñîåäèíèòüñÿ ê
ïîõîäó. Â êîíöå XVIII â. ïî òðåáîâàíèþ àâàðñêîãî õàíà ãèäàòëèíöû
âûñòàâëÿëè îïîë÷åíèå “íà ñîáñòâåííîì èõ ïðîäîâîëüñòâèè”.28  îäíîé èç ãðóçèíñêèõ õðîíèê ãîâîðèòñÿ, ÷òî, êîãäà âëàäåòåëü Õóíçàõà ñîâåðøèë íàáåã íà Êâàðåëüñêóþ êðåïîñòü, “îí âçÿë ñ ñîáîé âñåõ ëåçãèí,
æèâóùèõ ïî òó è ïî ñþ ñòîðîíó õðåáòà; êòî äîáðîâîëüíî íå ïîøåë,
âçÿë ñèëîé”.29 Ïóòü îò Õóíçàõà äî Òèôëèñà, êîòîðûé ñîãëàñíî ïåñíå
ïðîäåëàë Õî÷áàð íà êîíå Óììà-õàíà, äî 60-õ ãîäîâ XIX â. øåë ÷åðåç
Ñåâåðíûé Àçåðáàéäæàí (Äæàð) è çàíèìàë ïÿòü-øåñòü äíåé. Ñáîðû
þíîøåé â ïîõîä è íàáåã (àâàð. ÷àáõúåí) ñòàëè îáùèì ìåñòîì ïåñåí î
âîåííûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëÿõ:
Êàê óçíàþ ÿ, ìàòóøêà, î íà÷àëå ëåòà,
Êàê íå ïî îòðÿäàì è âîéñêàì (áîÿë), ïîäíèìàþùèìñÿ â Öîð?
Êòî äàë çíàòü ìíå, ìàòóøêà, î ïðèõîäå âåñíû,
Êàê íå îñåäëàííûå êîíè?
Óõîäÿò, ìàòóøêà, âîéñêà (áîÿë) â Öîð.
Íåóæåëè, ìàòóøêà, è ìîé âîçëþáëåííûé óéäåò?
Ñåäëàþò, ìàòóøêà, êîíåé íà âîéíó.
Íåóæåëè, ìàòóøêà, è ìîé äðóæî÷åê îñåäëàåò [êîíÿ]?30
Òàê ïîåò äåâóøêà-íåâåñòà â íà÷àëå àâàðñêîé ïåñíè “Îïîë÷åíèÿ óøëè
â Ãðóçèþ” (àâàð. Áîÿë ÖIîðîðå àðàá).  çàïèñàííîé Óñëàðîì çíàìåíèòîé ïåñíå “Î õðîìîì Ðàäæáàäèíå”, âîåííîì ïðåäâîäèòåëå àâàðöåâ èç
êîéñóáóëèíñêîãî ñåëåíèÿ Êàðà÷è âîçëå Ãèäàòëÿ, Ðàäæáàäèí îáðàùàåòñÿ ê ìîëîäåæè îïîë÷åíèÿ ñî ñëåäóþùåé ðå÷üþ:
Ï. Ã. Áóòêîâ. Ìàòåðèàëû äëÿ íîâîé èñòîðèè Êàâêàçà ñ 1722 ïî 1803 ã. ÑÏá.,
1869. ×. II. Ñ. 437.
28
Õðèñàíô. Ñâåäåíèÿ îá Àâàðñêîì õàíñòâå. Ñ. 269.
29
Ä. Ã. Ìåãðåëàäçå. Èç èñòîðèè ãðóçèíî-äàãåñòàíñêèõ âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé /
Äèññåðòàöèÿ... êàíäèäàòà èñòîðè÷åñêèõ íàóê. Òáèëèñè, 1967. Ñ. 4.
30
Ðèè ùâàðàá, ýáåë, ùèá ëúàëåá äèäà –
Äîá ÖIîðàëäå áîÿë êúîêúè ãóðîãî?
Èõõ áà÷Iàðàá, ýáåë, ëúèë áèöóí ëúàëåá –
Ãúîðêü ðåêIàðàë ÷óÿë êüîëîé ãóðîãî?
Óíåë ðåãî, ýáåë, áîÿë ÖIîðàëäå –
Èíàäàéëà, ýáåë, äèðãè âîêüóëåâ?
×Iâàëåá ðóãî, ýáåë, ÷óÿçäà êüàëàë –
×Iâàëåáäàéëà, ýáåë, äèðãè ãüóäóëàñ?
(À. À. Àõëàêîâ. Ãåðîèêî-èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåñíè àâàðöåâ. Ñ. 49. Ïåð. ñ àâàð. ìîé. –
Â. Á.)
27
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Âûñòóïèì, þíîøè, ïîäíèìåìñÿ â Ãîëîäà,
Ñäåëàåì êðàñíîé [îò êðîâè] ñèíþþ Àëàçàíü!
Ñíàðÿæàéòåñü, äðóçüÿ [â ïîõîä] çà Äæàð,
×òîáû êðîâüþ ïîêðûòü íåâåðíûé Ãóðäæèñòàí,
Äæàðñêèõ êðàñàâèö ìåíÿòü íà ñåðåáðî!31
 äðóãîé ïåñíå, ïåðåñêàçàííîé Óñëàðîì, ïîäðîáíî îïèñûâàþòñÿ
ïðèãîòîâëåíèÿ ê íàáåãó, îðóæèå, êîòîðîå áåðåò ñ ñîáîé óäàëåö: “...åãèïåòñêèé ìå÷ ñ íàïèñàííûì ïðèâåòñòâèåì Ïðîðîêó, êðûìñêàÿ èëè ìàæàðñêàÿ âèíòîâêà ñ ãîëóáûì ïðèêëàäîì; êîíü, êàê íåâåñòà, óáðàííàÿ ê
ñâàäüáå; ãóðèè äåðæàò ñòðåìÿ ìîëîäöó; õëîïíóâ ëàäîíüþ ïî êîíþ,
ñàäèòñÿ íà íåãî ìîëîäåö è ïóñêàåòñÿ â ïóòü! ‘Äàé Áîã òåáå ñ÷àñòüÿ!’ –
Ðèñ. 2. Íàáåã. Êàðòèíà ðóññêîãî õóäîæíèêà ñåðåäèíû XIX â. (Óòâåðæäåíèå ðóññêîãî
âëàäû÷åñòâà íà Êàâêàçå. Òèôëèñ, 1904. Ò. 3. ×. 2. Ñ. 228).
Ðàõúà, ãIîëîõúàáè, äîðå Ãúîëîäå
ÕúàõIèëàá Àëàçà áàãIàð ãüàáèçå!
Êúà÷Iàé, ãüóäóëçàáè, íàõúà ÖIîðàëäå
Êàïóðàá Ãóðæèñòàí áèäà áåëúèíå,
ÖIîðàëóë ìóñóäóë ãIàðöóõú õèñèçå!
(Òàì æå. Ñ. 53. Ïåð. ñ àâàð. ìîé. – Â.Á.)
31
191
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
ïðèãîâàðèâàåò åìó âñëåä ïåâåö”. Òîðæåñòâî çâó÷èò â ñòðîêàõ î ðàçãðîìå íåâåðíûõ: “...êóäà êîñíóëàñü ðóêà íàøà, òàì ïëà÷ ïîäíÿëñÿ, êóäà
ñòóïèëà íîãà íàøà, òàì ïëàìÿ ðàçëèëîñü; çàõâà÷åíû äåâû ñ ïðåêðàñíûìè ðóêàìè è ãëàçàìè; ïîéìàíû ìàëü÷èêè, ïûøóùèå çäîðîâüåì...”
Íà îáðàòíîì ïóòè ìóñóëüìàíå, îòÿãîùåííûå äîáû÷åé, âûíóæäåíû
âíîâü áèòüñÿ – òåïåðü óæå ñ äîãíàâøèì èõ íåïðèÿòåëåì. Ïðè ýòîì îíè
ïðîÿâëÿþò ÷óäåñà õðàáðîñòè: “Îäèí ðèíóëñÿ, êàê îðåë, ñëîæèâøèé
êðûëüÿ; äðóãîé âîðâàëñÿ â ðÿäû âðàãîâ, êàê âîëê â îâ÷àðíþ. Íåïðèÿòåëü áåæèò ïîäîáíî ëèñòüÿì, ãîíèìûì îñåííèì âåòðîì. Íå òó÷à ëåãëà
íà ãîðû, ñòîëá äûìà ïîêðûë Øèðàê; íå âåñåííèé äîæäü, à êðîâàâûå
ðó÷üè ïîëèëèñü â Àëàçàíü. Ãîðöû âîçâðàùàþòñÿ ñ äîáû÷åé è ñëàâîé”.32
Îïîë÷åíöû çàíèìàëèñü íå òîëüêî ãðàáåæîì è íàñèëèÿìè. Ïî ñâèäåòåëüñòâó èñòî÷íèêîâ, îíè òàêæå çàùèùàëè ñâîå îáùåñòâî (áî) îò
âòîðæåíèé. Âî âðåìÿ ðÿäà îïóñòîøèòåëüíûõ ïîõîäîâ Íàäèð-øàõà â
Íàãîðíûé Äàãåñòàí â 1734–1743 ãã. èìåííî îíè ñóìåëè ðàçáèòü íåïðèÿòåëÿ è èçãíàòü åãî çà ïðåäåëû êðàÿ. Ìîëîäåæü èç ìóæñêèõ ñîþçîâ
è îïîë÷åíèé òàêæå âûïîëíÿëà íåêîòîðûå ñåëüñêîõîçÿéñòâåííûå ðàáîòû, òàêèå êàê î÷èñòêà ïîëåé îò êàìíåé, êîñüáà è ïðî÷. Ó ëàêöåâ åæåãîäíûå ñåìèäíåâíûå îñåííèå ñáîðû ÷ëåíîâ ìóæñêèõ ñîþçîâ íàçûâàëèñü ÷àðòòó áàòIèí (“ñîáèðàòü êàìíè”).33 Ó÷àñòíèêè îïîë÷åíèÿ íå
áûëè íè ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûìè âîèíàìè, íè òåì áîëåå ðàçáîéíèêàìè.
Êîñâåííî íà ýòî óêàçûâàåò îãðîìíàÿ ÷èñëåííîñòü áî, íèêàê íå ñîïîñòàâèìàÿ ñî ñêðîìíûìè ðàçìåðàìè ðàçáîéíè÷üèõ øàåê. Ìåñòíûå àðàáñêèå èñòî÷íèêè îïðåäåëÿþò ðàçìåðû ãîðñêèõ îïîë÷åíèé â äåñÿòêè è
äàæå ñîòíè òûñÿ÷ ÷åëîâåê.  ýòî ÷èñëî ÿâíî âõîäèëî âñå áîåñïîñîáíîå
ìóæñêîå íàñåëåíèå ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ.
 çíàìåíèòîì “Çàâåùàíèè Àíäóíèêà”, äàòèðîâàííîì 1485 ã., íî
äîøåäøåì äî íàñ â êîïèÿõ XVIII–XIX ââ., ïðàâèòåëü Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà Àíäóíèê ïåðå÷èñëÿåò ñâîåìó ïëåìÿííèêó è íàñëåäíèêó Áóëà÷íóöàëó çåìëè, âõîäèâøèå â õàíñòâî, êîíôåäåðàöèè, ñâÿçàííûå ñ íèì
âîåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèìè ñîþçàìè, è ÷èñëåííîñòü êðóïíåéøèõ â Íàãîðíîì Äàãåñòàíå îïîë÷åíèé (àðàá. ‘àñêàð, ðèäæàë, çäåñü êàê ñèíîíèì
àâàðñêîãî áî): “ îáëàñòè (âèëàéà) Äàãåñòàí äâåñòè äåñÿòü òûñÿ÷ ìóæåé, [â òîì ÷èñëå] øåñòüäåñÿò òûñÿ÷ â Òàôàñàïàíå (Òàáàñàðàí. – Â.Á.),
òðèäöàòü òûñÿ÷ – ó Õàéäàêà (Êàéòàã. – Â.Á.), ñòî òûñÿ÷ ìóæåé â âîéñêå
(‘àñêàð) ïàäèøàõà àë-Ãóìóêè (øàìõàëà Êàçèêóìóõñêîãî. – Â.Á.), äâàä32
33
Ï. Ê. Óñëàð. Êîå-÷òî î ñëîâåñíûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ ãîðöåâ. Ñ. 39–41.
Þ. Þ. Êàðïîâ. Äæèãèò è âîëê. Ñ. 34.
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öàòü òûñÿ÷ – â âîéñêå (‘àñêàð) íóöàëà Àâàðèè...”.34 Èíòåðåñíî, ÷òî îäèí
èç ñïèñêî⠓Çàâåùàíèÿ” àäðåñîâàí îäíîâðåìåííî “Áóëà÷-íóöàëó õàíó
(àìèð) îáëàñòè (âèëàéà) Àâàðèÿ è Õàäæè-Àëè-øàìõàëó, ïðàâèòåëþ
(àìèð) îáëàñòè Ãèäàòëü (àðàá. âèëàéàò Õèä)”.  íåì ÷èñëåííîñòü ñîâìåñòíîãî ãèäàòëèíñêî-õóíçàõñêîãî îïîë÷åíèÿ îïðåäåëåíà â 40 òûñÿ÷.
Òóò Ãèäàòëü âûñòóïàåò êàê ðàâíîïðàâíûé ó÷àñòíèê âîåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ñâåðõñîþçà îáùèí Àâàðèè, à ïðàâèâøèå èì âîåííûå ïðåäâîäèòåëè (àðàá. àìèð, àâàð. öåâåõúàí) èç òóõóìà Øàìõàëî⠖ êàê ñîïðàâèòåëè
íóöàëîâ.35
Íà êîíåö XVIII ñòîëåòèÿ ïðèøåëñÿ íå òîëüêî ïèê ìîãóùåñòâà Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà, íî è íà÷àëî åãî ðàñïàäà. Áåç ñèëüíîãî ïðàâèòåëÿ êîíôåäåðàöèè ïåðåñòàâàëè ïðèçíàâàòü âëàñòü Õóíçàõà. Ïîñëå ñìåðòè Óììàõàíà, îñòàâøåãîñÿ â ôîëüêëîðå â îáðàçå ìóäðîãî ïðàâèòåëÿ, ïîëèòè÷åñêîå âëèÿíèå Àâàðèè áûñòðî ïàäàëî. Åãî ïðååìíèê Ãåáåê áûë óáèò â 1801
ã. Ïîñëå íåãî õàíñêàÿ âëàñòü ïåðåøëà ê çÿòþ Óììà-õàíà Àõìåò-õàíó
(1801–1823), êîòîðûé ïðèñîåäèíèëñÿ ê ñîþçó ãîðñêèõ êíÿçåé ïîä ïðîòåêòîðàòîì Ðîññèè (Ãåîðãèåâñêèé òðàêòàò 1802 ã.) è ïðèíÿë â 1803 ã.
ðîññèéñêîå ïîääàíñòâî.  1803 ã. âëàñòü èìïåðèè ïðèçíàëà Äæàðî-Áåëîêàíñêàÿ êîíôåäåðàöèÿ, à â 1809–1812 ãã. – íåñêîëüêî ñîþçîâ îáùèí,
îòïàâøèõ îò Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà.36 Ðóññêèå âëàñòè ñòàëè âìåøèâàòüñÿ
âî âíóòðåííèå äåëà õàíñòâà, ñìåùàÿ íåóãîäíûõ èì ïðàâèòåëåé. Òàê, â
1819 ã. ãëàâíîêîìàíäóþùèé Êàâêàçñêèì êîðïóñîì ãåíåðàë À. Ï. Åðìîëîâ ïîïûòàëñÿ ïåðåäàòü âëàñòü íàä Àâàðèåé ñûíó Ãåáåêà Ñóðõàéõàíó. Ïðîåêò ýòîò ïðîâàëèëñÿ, íî â 1828 ã. âäîâå Àõìåò-õàíà Ïàõóáèêå ïðèøëîñü ïîä íàæèìîì ðóññêèõ âîåííûõ âëàñòåé ðàçäåëèòü õàíñòâî ìåæäó ñâîèì ñûíîì Àáó-Íóöàë-Ñóëòàíîì è Ñóðõàé-õàíîì.37
Ì. Ã. Ãàäæèåâ, Î. Ì. Äàâóäîâ, À. Ð. Øèõñàèäîâ. Èñòîðèÿ Äàãåñòàíà ñ äðåâíåéøèõ
âðåìåí äî êîíöà XV â. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1996. Ñ. 322. Åñòü íåñêîëüêî èçäàíèé ðóññêîãî
ïåðåâîäà ýòîãî ïàìÿòíèêà, ââåäåííîãî â íàó÷íûé îáîðîò äàãåñòàíñêèì èñòîðèêîì
è ëèíãâèñòîì Ì.-Ñ. Äæ. Ñàèäîâûì.
35
Ê òàêîìó òîëêîâàíèþ “Çàâåùàíèÿ Àíäóíèêà” ñêëîíÿåòñÿ â ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ áîëüøèíñòâî èññëåäîâàòåëåé. Ñì.: Ì. À. Àãëàðîâ. Ê ÷òåíèþ Çàâåùàíèÿ Àíäóíèêà //
Èñòî÷íèêîâåäåíèå èñòîðèè è êóëüòóðû íàðîäîâ Äàãåñòàíà è Ñåâåðíîãî Êàâêàçà:
ïðèíöèïû è ìåòîäû èçó÷åíèÿ, îöåíêè è èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1989. Ñ. 25;
Ì. Ã. Ãàäæèåâ, Î. Ì. Äàâóäîâ, À. Ð. Øèõñàèäîâ. Èñòîðèÿ Äàãåñòàíà. Ñ. 323–324.
36
Ñ. Ì. Áðîíåâñêèé. Èñòîðè÷åñêèå âûïèñêè î ñíîøåíèÿõ Ðîññèè ñ Ïåðñèåþ,
Ãðóçèåþ è âîîáùå ñ ãîðñêèìè íàðîäàìè, íà Êàâêàçå îáèòàþùèìè, ñî âðåìåí Èâàíà
Âàñèëüåâè÷à äîíûíå. ÑÏá., 1996. Ñ. 148–150; Èñòîðèÿ Äàãåñòàíà ñ äðåâíåéøèõ
âðåìåí äî íàøèõ äíåé. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1997. Ñ. 191–193.
37
Òàì æå. Ñ. 210–211.
34
193
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
Âî âòîðóþ ýïîõó îáîñòðèëèñü ïðîòèâîðå÷èÿ ìåæäó çíàòüþ è îáùèíàìè. Ìîùíûé òîë÷îê óñèëåíèþ îáùèí äàëî èñëàìñêîå ïîâñòàí÷åñòâî, íàïðàâëåííîå ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî ïðîòèâ øèèòñêîé ýêñïàíñèè Èðàíà, à çàòåì ïðîòèâ ðóññêîãî ïðîíèêíîâåíèÿ â Íàãîðíûé Äàãåñòàí. Â
Àâàðèè ïîÿâëÿåòñÿ âñå áîëüøå ñòîðîííèêîâ ñîïðîòèâëåíèÿ ðîññèéñêîìó ïðîíèêíîâåíèþ â ìóñóëüìàíñêîå ïîãðàíè÷üå â ôîðìå äæèõàäà
èëè ãàçàâàòà. Ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî èäåÿ äæèõàäà èñõîäèëà îò õàíîâ è áëèçêîé ê íèì ãîðñêîé çíàòè.38 Àíòèðîññèéñêèå íàñòðîåíèÿ ðàçäåëÿëè âñå
ïîñëåäíèå ïðàâèòåëè Àâàðñêîãî õàíñòâà, íå èñêëþ÷àÿ óïîìÿíóòîãî
âûøå Ñóðõàé-õàíà. Íî ê 30-ì ãîäàì áîëüøèíñòâî ãîðñêîé çíàòè îòîøëî îò ó÷àñòèÿ â äâèæåíèè çà äæèõàä. Áåêè, ÷àíêè (ïîòîìêè îò áðàêîâ áåêîâ ñ æåíùèíàìè èç íèæåñòîÿùåãî ñîñëîâèÿ óçäåíåé) è àâàðñêèå õàíû ïðèíÿëè ñòîðîíó èìïåðñêèõ ðóññêèõ âëàñòåé, âèäÿ â íèõ ãàðàíòèþ ñîõðàíåíèÿ ñâîèõ ïðèâèëåãèé â áîðüáå ñ îáùèíàìè ãîðöåâ. Â
ïåñíå î Õî÷áàðå îòãîëîñêè èñëàìñêîãî ïîâñòàí÷åñòâà ÷óâñòâóþòñÿ â
ýïèçîäå î øàøêå ïðîðîêà Ìóõàììåäà è Àëè, îáëàäàòåëåì êîòîðîé íàçâàí Õî÷áàð. Ìû åùå âåðíåìñÿ ê ýòîìó ýïèçîäó ïðè ðàçáîðå èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè îá ýòîì ïåðèîäå.
Áîðüáà ìåæäó îáùèíàìè è çíàòüþ âûëèëàñü â çàòÿæíóþ Êàâêàçñêóþ âîéíó (1817–1859 ãã.). Âî ãëàâå äâèæåíèÿ çà äæèõàä ñíà÷àëà âñòàë
êîéñóáóëèíåö Ãàçè-Ìóõàììåä èç ñ. Ãèìðû (1794/95–1832 ãã.). Åãî îòåö
áûë ðîäîì èç Ãèäàòëÿ. Èçáðàíèå Ãàçè-Ìóõàììåäà èìàìîì íà ñõîäå
îòäåëüíûõ ñåëåíèé è êîíôåäåðàöèé Àâàðèè ïîëîæèëî íà÷àëî èìàìàòó Äàãåñòàíà è ×å÷íè – âîåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîìó ñâåðõñîþçó ãîðñêèõ
êîíôåäåðàöèé.  öåëîì îíî îñíîâûâàëîñü íà ñòàðîé ñèñòåìå óïðàâëåíèÿ â Àâàðñêîì õàíñòâå. Àðìèÿ èìàìàòà ïðåäñòàâëÿëà ñîáîé îáúåäèíåíèå ñåëüñêèõ îïîë÷åíèé è ïî âðåìåíàì âêëþ÷àëà 8–10 òûñÿ÷ âîèíîâ. Ïðè Ãàìçàò-áåêå (1832–1834) è îñîáåííî ïðè òðåòüåì èìàìå ØàÈäåîëîãè èñëàìñêîãî ïîâñòàí÷åñòâà ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî ïûòàëèñü îïåðåòüñÿ íà õàíîâ
Àâàðèè.  1819 ã. àâàðñêèé ó÷åíûé Ñàèä Àðàêàíñêèé ïðèçâàë ãîðöåâ ê äæèõàäó
ïðîòèâ ðóññêèõ ïîä ðóêîâîäñòâîì Ñóðõàé-õàíà Àâàðñêîãî. Îí íàïðàâèë ïèñüìî ñ
ïðîñüáîé î ïîìîùè ê îñìàíñêîìó ñóëòàíó Ìàõìóäó II (Ðóêîïèñíûé ôîíä
Èíñòèòóòà èñòîðèè, àðõåîëîãèè, ýòíîãðàôèè ÄÍÖ ÐÀÍ, Ìàõà÷êàëà, äàëåå: ÐÔ
ÈÈÀÝ. Ô. 14 (ïèñüìà). Îï. 1. Ä 248). Îäíàêî èç ýòîãî ïëàíà íè÷åãî íå âûøëî, è
âñêîðå ñàì Ñàèä Àðàêàíñêèé ïðèñîåäèíèëñÿ ê ñòîðîííèêàì ïîä÷èíåíèÿ ìóñóëüìàí
Äàãåñòàíà âëàñòè Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè. Îá ýòîé ìàëîèçâåñòíîé ñòðàíèöå
ðåëèãèîçíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé èñòîðèè Àâàðèè ñì. èññëåäîâàíèå íåìåöêîãî ó÷åíîãî
Ìèõàýëÿ Êåìïåðà: Ì. Kemper. The Dagestani Legal Discourse on the Imamate // Central
Asian Survey. 2002. Vol. 21. No. 3. Pp. 265–278.
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ìèëå (1834–1859) áûëà ñîçäàíà åäèíàÿ ãîñóäàðñòâåííàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ
ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ â ðàéîíå Áîëüøîãî Êàâêàçñêîãî õðåáòà.
Îíà èìåëà åäèíóþ àäìèíèñòðàöèþ, êàçíó è àðìèþ è ïîäãîòîâèëà ïî÷âó äëÿ âêëþ÷åíèÿ âñåãî Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà â ðîññèéñêîå èìïåðñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî.  òî æå âðåìÿ â îñíîâå èìàìàòà ïî-ïðåæíåìó ëåæàë
ñîþç îáùèí è êîíôåäåðàöèé.39 Â âîåííîì äåëå âñå èìàìû ñëåäîâàëè
ïðèâû÷íîé òàêòèêå ñåçîííûõ íàáåãîâ ñåëüñêèõ îïîë÷åíèé, íî óæå íå
íà Ãðóçèþ, à íà ðàéîíû Äàãåñòàíà è ×å÷íè, ïðèçíàâøèå âëàñòü èìïåðèè.
Ïîðâàâ ñ áåêàìè è õàíàìè Àâàðèè, èìàìû ñäåëàëè ñòàâêó íà ôèçè÷åñêîå èñòðåáëåíèå êëàíîâ ãîðñêîé çíàòè. Íàñèëèå áûëî íàïðàâëåíî
íà áûâøèõ äåðæàòåëåé âëàñòè è ïîëó÷èëî â ýòîò ïåðèîä ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî âíóòðèïîëèòè÷åñêèé ñîöèàëüíûé õàðàêòåð. Óíè÷òîæåíèå ãîðñêîé çíàòè â ãîäû Êàâêàçñêîé âîéíû âåëîñü ñ áåñïðèìåðíîé æåñòîêîñòüþ. Íå ùàäèëè íè æåíùèí, íè äåòåé.  òå ãîäû çà íåäîëãîå ïðàâëåíèå Ãàçè-Ìóõàììåäà áûëî êàçíåíî 30 âëèÿòåëüíûõ áåêîâ. Ãàìçàò-áåê,
õîòÿ è ïðèíàäëåæàë ê ÷àíêàì ïî ðîæäåíèþ, âûðåçàë íåñêîëüêî êëàíîâ
ãîðñêîé çíàòè. Íàèáîëåå èçâåñòíûì åãî ïðåäïðèÿòèåì áûë çàõâàò â
1834 ã. Õóíçàõà è èñòðåáëåíèå âñåãî àâàðñêîãî õàíñêîãî äîìà, âêëþ÷àÿ
ïðåñòàðåëóþ õàíøó Ïàõó-áèêå.  òîì æå ãîäó èìàì êàçíèë Ñóðõàéõàíà Àâàðñêîãî.40 Øàìèëü ïðîäîëæàë åãî ïîëèòèêó. Ïðè íåì ïîñëåäíèé ïðåäñòàâèòåëü ðîäà àâàðñêèõ õàíîâ, ìàëü÷èê Áóëà÷-õàí, áûë ñáðîøåí â ïðîïàñòü (1834 ã.), à áîëüøèíñòâî êëàíîâ áåêîâ è ÷àíêîâ â ãîðàõ
è ïðåäãîðüÿõ ïîãîëîâíî âûðåçàíû. Èõ âëàäåíèÿ ñîñòàâèëè îñíîâó îáùåñòâåííîãî èìóùåñòâà èìàìàòà (áàéò àë-ìàë), à ïîñëå åãî ðàçãðîìà
ïåðåøëè â ðîññèéñêóþ êàçíó.  1843 ã. Àâàðñêîå õàíñòâî áûëî âêëþ÷åíî â ñîñòàâ èìàìàòà è ðàçäåëåíî íà íàèáñòâà (â ðàìêàõ áûâøèõ ñîþçîâ-îïîë÷åíèé).41
 ãîäû Êàâêàçñêîé âîéíû âîåííàÿ âåðõóøêà îïîë÷åíèé ãîðöåâ áûñòðî êðèìèíàëèçèðîâàëàñü. Ìíîãèå èç âîåííûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëåé áûëûõ
âðåìåí, êàê, íàïðèìåð, çíàìåíèòûé Áåé-Áóëàò Òàéìèåâ â ãîðíîé ×å÷íå, ïðåâðàòèëèñü â àáðåêîâ. Åñòü îäíî ëþáîïûòíîå àâàðñêîå ïðåäàÏîäðîáíåå î âîåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé îðãàíèçàöèè èìàìàòà ñì. â êíèãå: Ì. Gammer. Muslim Resistance to the Tsar. Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan. London, 1994. Pp. 225–256, à òàêæå ðóññêèå ïåðåâîäû ñòàòåé òîãî æå àâòîðà:
Ì. Ãåìåð. Ãîñóäàðñòâî Øàìèëÿ // Âîñòîê. 1993. ¹ 2; Îí æå. Øàìèëü – ïðàâèòåëü
ãîñóäàðñòâà è åãî äèïëîìàòèÿ. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1997.
40
Â. Î. Áîáðîâíèêîâ. Ìóñóëüìàíå Ñåâåðíîãî Êàâêàçà. Ñ. 46–47.
41
Èñòîðèÿ Äàãåñòàíà. Ñ. 211.
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Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
íèå, çàïèñàííîå ñî ñëîâ Êàçàíáèÿ, âíóêà çíàìåíèòîãî øàìèëåâñêîãî
íàèáà Õàäæè-Ìóðàòà. Â íåì ãîâîðèòñÿ, ÷òî ïîñëå óáèéñòâà èìàìà Ãàìçàò-áåêà (1834) âëàñòü íàä Õóíçàõîì, õàíû êîòîðîãî íåçàäîëãî ïåðåä
òåì áûëè ïåðåáèòû Ãàìçàòîì, ïåðåøëà â ðóêè “îðãàíèçîâàííîé èç
ìîëîäåæè ïàðòèè (øàéêè), èìåíîâàâøåéñÿ ‘àáóðèêçàáè’ (èñêàæ. àâàð.
àïàðàãçàáè, â çíà÷åíèè ðàçáîéíèêè-àáðåêè. – Â.Á.). Ïàðòèÿ ýòà íå ñîñòàâëÿëà ñîåäèíåíèÿ ÷ëåíîâ êàêîãî-ëèáî ðîäà. ‘Àáóðèêè’ ñâîåâîëüíè÷àëè, ïðîèçâîäèëè íàñèëèÿ, ó êîãî õîòåëè îòáèðàëè áûêîâ, ëîøàäåé è
ñêîò”. Ñàì Õàäæè-Ìóðàò íå ïðèíàäëåæàë ê “ïàðòèè”, íî â íåå âõîäèë
åãî äâîþðîäíûé áðàò Õåäàðàñ Ãàñàí-îãëû.42  ýòîì èñòîðè÷åñêîì ýïèçîäå, âîçìîæíî, îòðàçèëîñü íà÷àâøååñÿ â òî âðåìÿ ïðåâðàùåíèå âîåííûõ äðóæèí ìîëîäåæè â ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ áàíäèòîâ. Ýòîò ïðîöåññ
çàõâàòèë è Ãèäàòëü, è äðóãèå êîíôåäåðàöèè Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà.
Ðóññêèå âëàñòè, ñî ñâîåé ñòîðîíû, âûòåñíÿëè ìóñóëüìàíñêóþ çíàòü
ñ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé àðåíû, ïðèâëåêàÿ áûâøèõ âîåííûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëåé íà
ñëóæáó èìïåðèè. Çà âðåìÿ Êàâêàçñêîé âîéíû áûëè óíè÷òîæåíû ïîñëåäíèå íåçàâèñèìûå ìóñóëüìàíñêèå âëàäåíèÿ Äàãåñòàíà. Èõ áûâøèå ïðàâèòåëè ïîëó÷èëè ïîæèçíåííûå ïåíñèè. “Ìèðíûì ãîðöàì” çàïðåùàëîñü
ïðîèçâîäèòü íàáåãè. Ñ 1820-õ ãîäîâ íà îñíîâå îïîë÷åíèé ïîä ðóêîâîäñòâîì çíàòè ñîçäàâàëèñü êîííûå è ïåøèå îòðÿäû ãîðñêîé ìèëèöèè (ñ
ôóíêöèÿìè æàíäàðìåðèè). Ïîñëå ðàçãðîìà èìàìàòà áîëüøèíñòâî îòðÿäîâ ìèëèöèè áûëî ðàñïóùåíî.43 Â 1859 ã. Àâàðñêîå õàíñòâî áûëî âîññòàíîâëåíî ïîä âëàñòüþ ðîäñòâåííèêà íóöàëîâ Èáðàãèì-õàíà Ìåõòóëèíñêîãî. Íî óæå â 1861 ã. îí áûë ëèøåí âëàñòè, à â 1864 ã. õàíñòâî
âìåñòå ñ ÷àñòüþ êîíôåäåðàöèé áûëî ïðåîáðàçîâàíî â Àâàðñêèé îêðóã
Äàãåñòàíñêîé îáëàñòè.  1864–1869 ãã. â Õóíçàõå áûëà ïîñòðîåíà ðóññêàÿ êðåïîñòü ñ öåðêîâüþ, ëàçàðåòîì è øêîëîé. Çàâîåâàíèå ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ çàêîí÷èëîñü. Íà÷àëñÿ íîâûé ýòàï êîëîíèàëüíîé òðàíñôîðìàöèè ðåãèîíà, âûõîäÿùèé çà ðàìêè äàííîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ.
Èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ ïàìÿòü
Âñòàåò âîïðîñ, êàê ñîîòíåñòè ïðåäàíèå î Õî÷áàðå ñ îáðèñîâàííûì
âûøå èñòîðè÷åñêèì êîíòåêñòîì ïðèñîåäèíåíèÿ ê Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ Äàãåñòàíà. Çäåñü äëÿ èññëåäîâàòåëåé
Äàãåñòàíñêèé ñáîðíèê. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1927. Ñ. 15–16. ß áëàãîäàðåí ïåòåðáóðãñêîìó
ýòíîãðàôó Þ. Þ. Êàðïîâó, îáðàòèâøåìó ìîå âíèìàíèå íà ýòîò èñòî÷íèê.
43
Ðîññèéñêèé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé âîåííî-èñòîðè÷åñêèé àðõèâ (Ìîñêâà). Ô. Âîåííîó÷åòíîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ (ÂÓÀ). Ä. 6281, 6317, 6342; ÐÔ ÈÈÀÝ. Ô. 1. Îï. 1. Ä. 2308.
42
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èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ôîëüêëîðà êðîåòñÿ îäíà ëîâóøêà. Âåëèê ñîáëàçí íàéòè
ðåàëüíî ñóùåñòâîâàâøåãî ãèäàòëèíñêîãî àáðåêà Õî÷áàðà. Ãäå òîëüêî
åãî íå èñêàëè! È â Ãèäàòëå, è â Õóíçàõå, è äàæå ñðåäè àâàðñêèõ àìàíàòîâ â ðóññêîì Òåðñêîì ãîðîäêå XVII â., îäíèì èç êîòîðûõ áûë ðîäñòâåííèê íóöàëîâ ïî èìåíè Õî÷áàð.44  1920 ã. íà ñúåçäå ìóñóëüìàí
Äàãåñòàíà â Êàõèáå äðåâíèé ñòàðåö èç Òèäèáà ðàññêàçûâàë äàãåñòàíñêîìó èñòîðèêó Ì.-Ñ. Äæ. Ñàèäîâó î òîì, ÷òî âî âðåìåíà åãî äåòñòâà (â
íà÷àëå XIX â.) â Ãèäàòëå äåéñòâèòåëüíî æèë èçâåñòíûé àáðåê Õó÷óáàð.45 Íî íèêàêèõ íàäåæíûõ èçâåñòèé îá èñòîðè÷åñêîì ïðîòîòèïå ãåðîÿ ïåñíè îòûñêàòü òàê è íå óäàëîñü. Íå ñòîèò îò÷àèâàòüñÿ. Êîãäà-íèáóäü îí áóäåò îáíàðóæåí. Îäíàêî òàê ëè ýòî âàæíî, êàê êàæåòñÿ? Äàæå
åñëè áèîãðàôèè âñåõ äåéñòâóþùèõ ëèö áóäóò óñòàíîâëåíû, ýòî íå ïîìîæåò óçíàòü, êàê ãîðöû ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ ïîíèìàëè âëàñòü
è íàñèëèå è êàê ýòè âçãëÿäû ìåíÿëèñü ñî âðåìåíåì.
Äà, â ëþáîì èñòîðè÷åñêîì ôîëüêëîðå ïðèñóòñòâóåò ïðîøëîå, íî
ýòî íå ïðîñòî èñòîðèÿ, à óñòíàÿ èñòîðèÿ, ïðîøëîå, îòðàçèâøååñÿ â
êîëëåêòèâíîé ïàìÿòè íàðîäà. Èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåñíè ñî÷èíÿþò íå äëÿ
òîãî, ÷òîáû ëó÷øå çàïîìíèòü è ñîõðàíèòü â ïàìÿòè òå èëè èíûå ñîáûòèÿ, à äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû âûðàçèòü îïðåäåëåííûå ÷óâñòâà è íàñòðîåíèÿ.
Î çíà÷åíèè ãåðîè÷åñêèõ ïåñåí äëÿ àâàðöåâ ñåðåäèíû XIX â. íåïëîõî
ñêàçàë çíàòîê æèçíè è áûòà Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà êíÿçü Í. Ëüâîâ: “Ó
ãîðöåâ äëèííûì çèìíèì âå÷åðîì, ñ ÷åãî áû íè íà÷àëñÿ ðàçãîâîð, îí
íåïðåìåííî ïåðåõîäèò íà ëþáèìóþ òåìó – îá óäàëüñòâå öåâåêõàíîâ
(ïðåäâîäèòåëåé) äàâíî è íåäàâíî ïðîøåäøèõ âðåìåí. Ëåãåíäû, ñêàçêè, ïåñíè... ãîðöû î÷åíü óâàæàþò. È ÷åì ôàíòàñòè÷íåå è áàñíîñëîâíåå
ðàññêàçû, òåì ñ áîëüøåé îõîòîé èõ ñëóøàþò, ÷åì íåïðàâäîïîäîáíåå
ñîáûòèå, òåì îõîòíåå âåðÿò â äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòü åãî.”46
Íåëüçÿ ïðîñòî ïåðåíîñèòü äàííûå ôîëüêëîðà íà ðåêîíñòðóêöèþ
èñòîðèè.  èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè îáðàçû ïðîøëîãî íåèçáåæíî îñîâðåìåíèâàþòñÿ. Çäåñü ñïëîøü è ðÿäîì âñòðå÷àåòñÿ ïóòàíèöà ðàçíûõ ýïîõ,
íàïðèìåð, äâóõ îòìå÷åííûõ âûøå ïåðèîäîâ ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ – äî è ïîñëå ïðèõîäà ðóññêèõ â Íàãîðíûé Äàãåñòàí. Èçó÷åíèå èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè ñòàâèò ïåðåä èñòîðèêîì èíûå çàÁ. Ã. Àëèåâ, Ì.-Ñ. Ê. Óìàõàíîâ. Èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ ãåîãðàôèÿ Äàãåñòàíà XVII – íà÷.
XIX â. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1999. Êí. I. Ñ. 295; Ò. Ì. Àéòáåðîâ. Äðåâíèé Õóíçàõ è õóíçàõöû.
Ñ. 127.
45
Òàì æå. Ñ. 127–128.
46
Í. Ëüâîâ. Äîìàøíÿÿ è ñåìåéíàÿ æèçíü äàãåñòàíñêèõ ãîðöåâ àâàðñêîãî ïëåìåíè //
ÑÑÊÃ. 1870. Âûï. III. Ñ. 10–11.
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Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
äà÷è, ÷åì ðåêîíñòðóêöèÿ ïðîøëîãî. Èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ ïàìÿòü îáðàùåíà
íå ñòîëüêî â ïðîøëîå, ñêîëüêî â íàñòîÿùåå. Äëÿ íåå âàæíî íå òî, êàê
âñå ñëó÷èëîñü íà ñàìîì äåëå, à êàêîå çíà÷åíèå ïðîøëîå èìååò äëÿ îñîçíàíèÿ ëþäüìè ñâîåãî íàñòîÿùåãî. Çàñëóæèâàåò âíèìàíèÿ òîíêàÿ îöåíêà
îòðàæåíèÿ èñòîðèè è èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè â ôîëüêëîðå, ïðèíàäëåæàùàÿ ïåðó êëàññèêà ðîññèéñêîé ôîëüêëîðèñòèêè Â. ß. Ïðîïïà. Êðèòèêóÿ ñòîðîííèêîâ èñòîðè÷åñêîé øêîëû, âèäåâøèõ â ðóññêîì ýïîñå (áûëèíàõ) îäíî èñêàæåíèå äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè, îí ïèñàë:
“Áûëèíà îñíîâàíà íå íà ïåðåäà÷å â ñòèõàõ èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ôàêòà, à
íà õóäîæåñòâåííîì âûìûñëå, êîòîðûé èìåííî êàê âûìûñåë (âûäåëåíî Ïðîïïîì. – Â.Á.) îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ èñòîðèåé. Íåïîíèìàíèå ýòîãî ïðèâîäèò ê òîìó, ÷òî áûëèííûõ ãåðîåâ èùóò â ëåòîïèñÿõ è â ïîâåñòâîâàòåëüíîé ëèòåðàòóðå è ïîëàãàþò, ÷òî íàõîäÿò èõ, òàê êàê îòëè÷èå õóäîæåñòâåííûõ ôîðì è æàíðîâîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè ýïîñà è ëåòîïèñè ïîëíîñòüþ èãíîðèðóåòñÿ...”.47 Îòíîøåíèå êî âðåìåíè â ýïîñå Ïðîïï îïðåäåëÿåò ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: “Ïåâåö êîíå÷íî ïîíèìàåò, ÷òî ñîáûòèÿ
ïåñíè îòíîñÿòñÿ ê ïðîøëîìó. Îá ýòîì ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò íàçâàíèå ïåñåí
‘ñòàðèíàìè’... Òåì íå ìåíåå, âîïðîñ ýòîò íå òàê ïðîñò, êàê ìîæåò ïîêàçàòüñÿ íà ïåðâûé âçãëÿä. Èñêóññòâî ýïîñà äî íåêîòîðîé ñòåïåíè ðîäñòâåííî èñêóññòâó äðàìàòè÷åñêîìó. Êîãäà çðèòåëü ñìîòðèò íà ñöåíó,
îí, êîíå÷íî, çíàåò, ÷òî èçîáðàæàåìûå íà ñöåíå ñîáûòèÿ â ïðåîáëàäàþùåì áîëüøèíñòâå ñëó÷àåâ îòíîñÿòñÿ ê ïðîøëîìó. Âîñïðèíèìàþòñÿ
æå îíè, êàê ñîáûòèÿ, ïðîèñõîäÿùèå ïåðåä íàøèìè ãëàçàìè â íàñòîÿùåì. Íå÷òî ñõîäíîå èìååòñÿ è â ýïè÷åñêîé ïîýçèè. Îòíîñÿ âîñïåâàåìûå ñîáûòèÿ ê ïðîøëîìó, ïåâåö âìåñòå ñ òåì âèäèò èõ ïåðåä ãëàçàìè.
Îíè äëÿ íåãî ñîâåðøàþòñÿ â íàñòîÿùåì”.48
Ïðè àíàëèçå ïðåäñòàâëåíèé î âëàñòè è íàñèëèè ñëåäóåò òàêæå èìåòü
â âèäó, ÷òî èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ ïàìÿòü ëåïèò èç ïîðîé ñëó÷àéíîãî èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà îáðàçû, âàæíûå äëÿ èäåíòèôèêàöèè îáùåñòâåííûõ
ãðóïï. Ïàìÿòü èìååò êîëëåêòèâíóþ ïðèðîäó. Ãåðîè è ñîáûòèÿ ïðîøëîãî
â íàðîäíîé èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè òåðÿþò èíäèâèäóàëüíûå ÷åðòû. Ýòó
îñîáåííîñòü óæå îòìå÷àëè ñïåöèàëèñòû, çàíèìàþùèåñÿ èçó÷åíèåì
ñõîäíûõ ñþæåòîâ. Íàïðèìåð, åãèïòîëîã ßí Àññìàí îïðåäåëÿåò èñòîðè÷åñêóþ ïàìÿòü êàê “îñîçíàíèå ñâîåãî îáùåãî èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ïðîÂ. ß. Ïðîïï. Îñíîâíûå ýòàïû ðàçâèòèÿ ðóññêîãî ãåðîè÷åñêîãî ýïîñà // Â. ß.
Ïðîïï. Ñêàçêà. Ýïîñ. Ïåñíÿ. Ñîáðàíèå òðóäîâ. Ì., 2001. Ñ. 155.
48
Â. ß. Ïðîïï. ßçûê áûëèí êàê ñðåäñòâî õóäîæåñòâåííîé âûðàçèòåëüíîñòè // Òàì
æå. Ñ. 142.
47
198
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
øëîãî”, ïîìîãàþùåå îáùèíå ïî÷óâñòâîâàòü ñâîþ “ñàìîñòü” â êóëüòóðíîì îòíîøåíèè.  ýòîì êîíòåêñòå ðàññêàç î ïðîøëîì ïðèîáðåòàåò
ïðåæäå âñåãî ñîâðåìåííîå çíà÷åíèå, îòðàæàÿ íå ðåàëüíûå èñòîðè÷åñêèå ôàêòû, à èõ àêòóàëüíûé äëÿ íàñòîÿùåãî îáùåñòâåííûé ñìûñë.49
Òàêîé çíàêîâîé ôèãóðîé èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ ñòàë ê XIX â. ãèäàòëèíñêèé ðàçáîéíèê Õî÷áàð. Åãî îáðàç ïîìîãàåò ïîíÿòü õàðàêòåð ãîðñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè è åå èçìåíåíèå âìåñòå ñ
ðàñêîëîì îáùåñòâ-îïîë÷åíèé ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ è âêëþ÷åíèåì åãî â ðîññèéñêîå èìïåðñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî.
 ñâîåé îñíîâå ýòî îáðàç íå ïðåñòóïíèêà, à ãîðñêîãî ðûöàðÿ. Çíàòîê Êàâêàçà Â. À. Ïîòòî íåäàðîì îòìå÷àë, ÷òî “âñå ïîýòè÷åñêèå ïðåäàíèÿ, âñå ìå÷òû ãîðöà ñîñðåäîòî÷åíû íà åãî âîåííûõ ïîäâèãàõ”.50 Â
ïåñíå Õî÷áàð âåäåò ñåáÿ íå êàê ïîéìàííûé âîð, à êàê âîèí áåç ñòðàõà è
óïðåêà, î÷óòèâøèéñÿ â ñòàíå ñìåðòåëüíûõ âðàãîâ.  ïàìÿòè ñëóøàòåëÿ îñòàþòñÿ íå ñòîëüêî âîðîâñêèå “ïîäâèãè”, êîòîðûå ïåðå÷èñëÿåò
Õî÷áàð, ñêîëüêî åãî îòâàãà ïåðåä ëèöîì íåèçáåæíîé ñìåðòè, ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëåííàÿ êîâàðñòâó è òðóñîñòè õóíçàõöåâ. Ãðàáåæè è óáèéñòâà,
ñîâåðøåííûå â ñòàíå âðàãîâ, ïî ìûñëè àâòîðà, ïîçîðÿò íå Õî÷áàðà, à
îãðàáëåííûõ èì òðóñîâ. Ñòèëèñòè÷åñêè îïèñàíèå ÷óâñòâ è äåéñòâèé
ãåðîÿ óäèâèòåëüíî íàïîìèíàåò îáðàç âîåííîãî ïðåäâîäèòåëÿ (öåâåõúàí) â ïåñíÿõ î íàáåãàõ, íàïðèìåð, â ïåñíå î Ãàìçàòå, èñïîëüçîâàííîé
Òîëñòûì ⠓Õàäæè-Ìóðàòå”. Ñþæåòíàÿ ëèíèÿ ïåñíè òàêæå áëèçêà ê
ïåñíÿì î ïðåäâîäèòåëÿõ: â îáîèõ ñëó÷àÿõ ãåðîé ïîãèáàåò, îêðóæåííûé âðàãàìè, íî íå ñäàåòñÿ. ×òîáû ïîÿñíèòü îáðàç Õî÷áàðà ïðàâîñëàâíîìó ðóññêîÿçû÷íîìó ÷èòàòåëþ, Óñëàð íå ñëó÷àéíî óïîäîáëÿåò åãî
âåòõîçàâåòíîìó Ñàìñîíó,51 êñòàòè, òîæå è ðàçáîéíèêó, è ïðàâèòåëþ (ñóäüå-øîôåò), ïàâøåìó îò ðóê âðàãîâ-ôèëèñòèìëÿí.
Ïåâåö íå ñëó÷àéíî ñðàâíèâàåò áåññòðàøíîãî Õî÷áàðà ñ âîëêîì. Ïî
ñëîâàì Óñëàðà, âîëê ÿâëÿåòñÿ èçëþáëåííîé ìåòàôîðîé âñåãî ôîëüêëîðà ãîðöåâ. “Âîëê ñàìûé ïîýòè÷åñêèé çâåðü... Ëåâ, îðåë èçîáðàæàþò
ñèëó – îíè èäóò íà ñëàáîãî; âîëê èäåò íà áîëåå ñèëüíîãî, ÷åì îí; íåäîñòàòîê ñèëû çàìåíÿåò îòâàãîé, äåðçîñòüþ, ëîâêîñòüþ... Ïîïàâøèñü â
áåçûñõîäíóþ áåäó, âîëê óìèðàåò ìîë÷à, íå âûðàæàÿ íè ñòðàõà, íè áîëè.
49
J. Assmann. Das kulturelle Gedächtnis. Schrift, Erinnerung und politische Identität in
frühen Hochkulturen. München, 1992. S. 17, 48, 77.
50
Â. À. Ïîòòî. Êàâêàçñêàÿ âîéíà â îòäåëüíûõ î÷åðêàõ, ýïèçîäàõ, ëåãåíäàõ è
áèîãðàôèÿõ. ÑÏá., 1888. Ò. 2. Âûï. 2. Ñ. 188.
51
Ï. Ê. [Óñëàð]. Êîå-÷òî î ñëîâåñíûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ ãîðöåâ. Ñ. 41.
199
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
Ýòè ñâîéñòâà õàðàêòåðèçóþò ãåðîÿ ïî ãîðñêèì ïîíÿòèÿì...”52 Íå ìåíåå
ïîêàçàòåëüíî, ÷òî âîëê ñëóæèë âàæíåéøèì ñèìâîëîì ìóæñêèõ ñîþçîâ
àâàðöåâ è äðóãèõ ãîðñêèõ íàðîäîâ Äàãåñòàíà è Ãðóçèè (Ñâàíåòèÿ, Õåâñóðèÿ). Îí ñîõðàíèëñÿ äî íàñòîÿùåãî âðåìåíè â ñåìàíòèêå íàðîäíîãî
êàëåíäàðÿ. Ó öåçîâ è áåæòèí þíîøè äî íåäàâíåãî âðåìåíè óñòðàèâàëè âåñíîé èãðó ïîä íàçâàíèåì “âîë÷üå âîéñêî” (öåç. áîöIäà áî).  öåçñêîì ñåëåíèè Øàèòëè â äåíü ñåðåäèíû çèìû (5 ôåâðàëÿ) óñòðàèâàåòñÿ
ïðàçäíèê èãáè, ãëàâíûå äåéñòâóþùèå ëèöà êîòîðîãî – ðÿæåíûå âîëêàìè (öåç. áîöIèáè) þíîøè.53  ãåðîè÷åñêèõ ïåñíÿõ âîéñêî, îïîë÷åíèå,
êàê ïðàâèëî, óïîäîáëÿëîñü âîë÷üåé ñòàå. Õàðàêòåðíûé îáðàç âîëêà,
ðåæóùåãî îâåö, èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ïðè îïèñàíèè áîÿ îïîë÷åíèÿ ñ ãðóçèíàìè â ïåñíå î õðîìîì Ðàäæáàäèíå:
Ïîäîáíî âîëêàì, áðîñèâøèìñÿ íà [îòàðó] îâåö,
Âðåçàëèñü â ãóùó [âðàãîâ] ãîëîäèíöû.54
 äðóãîé àâàðñêîé ïåñíå íàïàäåíèå àðìèè Øàìèëÿ íà âîéñêî ðóññêèõ ãÿóðîâ îïèñûâàåòñÿ ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì:
...È íà÷àëî áîé âîéñêî (áî) Øàìèëÿ,
Ñòàëè ñòðåëÿòü ëó÷øèå õðàáðåöû,
Ê íàïàäåíèþ ãîòîâà ñòàÿ âîëêîâ.55
Ôèãóðà ðûöàðÿ ñëèâàåòñÿ â àâàðñêîì ôîëüêëîðå ñ îáðàçîì ãåðîÿ –
âîèòåëÿ çà âåðó (ãàçè). Êîðíè ýòîé òåìû óõîäÿò â ãëóáîêóþ äðåâíîñòü,
íî ãåðîÿìè äëÿ ïåñåí ñòàëè áîëåå ñîâðåìåííûå äåÿòåëè èñëàìñêîãî
ïîâñòàí÷åñòâà XVIII – ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíû XIX â., â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü
Ìóðòóçàëè Êàçèêóìóõñêèé è Õàäæè-Ìóðàò Àâàðñêèé. Îòãîëîñêè åå
÷óâñòâóþòñÿ è â ïåñíå î Õî÷áàðå, êîòîðûé ïðåäñòàåò íàñëåäíèêîì è
ïðîäîëæàòåëåì çàùèòíèêà äàãåñòàíñêèõ ìóñóëüìàí Ìóðòóçàëè Êàçèêóìóõñêîãî. Ïðè÷åì, åñëè åãî íàçâàíûé îòåö Ìóðòóçàëè áîðîëñÿ ñ “ïîäëûìè øèèòàìè” Èðàíà, òî Õî÷áàð ïîäíèìàåò ìå÷ ïðîòèâ íå÷åñòèâîãî
íóöàëà è åãî âîéñêà, â îáðàçå êîòîðûõ íåñëîæíî óçíàòü õàðàêòåðíûå
÷åðòû ãðóçèí-êÿôèðîâ èç ïåñåí î âîåííûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëÿõ.  ðóêå Õî÷áàðà – ÷óäåñíûé ìå÷ ïðîðîêà Ìóõàììåäà è õàëèôà Àëè ïî èìåíè ÇóëüÒàì æå. Ñ. 9.
Þ. Þ. Êàðïîâ. Äæèãèò è âîëê. Ñ. 149–150, 164.
54
ÃIèÿëúå êIàíöIóëåë áàöIàë êèíèãè
Ãúîðëúå æîðîí àíà ãúåë ãúîëîäèñåë
À. À. Àõëàêîâ. Ãåðîèêî-èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåñíè àâàðöåâ. Ñ. 203. Ïåð. ñ àâàð. ìîé. – Â. Á.
55
À. À. Àõëàêîâ. Ãåðîèêî-èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåñíè è áàëëàäû àâàðöåâ // ÐÔ ÈÈÀÝ. Ô.
3. Îï. 5. Ä. 112.
52
53
200
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ôóêàð. Íàçâàíèå ýòîãî ìå÷à ñòàëî â Íàãîðíîì Äàãåñòàíå ñèíîíèìîì äëÿ
îáîçíà÷åíèÿ õðàáðîñòè, óäàëüñòâà â ñâÿùåííîé âîéíå ñ íåâåðíûìè. Ýòî
èìÿ ëþáèëè äàâàòü ìàëü÷èêàì. Ó àâàðöåâ îíî âñòðå÷àåòñÿ â ôîðìå ÃIàëèÇóëüïóêàð èëè ïðîñòî Çóëüïóêàð.56 Íî â öåëîì òåìà ãàçàâàòà çâó÷èò òóò
åùå ñìóòíî. Îíà ïîëó÷èëà ðàçâèòèå â áîëåå ïîçäíåì æàíðå ïåñåí î áëàãîðîäíûõ ðàçáîéíèêàõ ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ èìïåðèè. Òàê, â ïåñíå î ÷å÷åíñêîì àáðåêå Çåëèìõàíå Õàðà÷îåâñêîì ïîåòñÿ:
...Èäåò ñëóõ, ÷òî â ÷å÷åíñêèõ ëåñàõ [ïîÿâèëñÿ] ëåâ,
Îáúÿâèâøèé ãàçàâàò çà ïåðåáèòûõ äåòåíûøåé,
Èäåò ñëóõ, ÷òî â ãëóáîêîì óùåëüå [æèâåò] çâåðü,
Çàñòàâëÿþùèé áëåäíåòü õðèñòèàí (áóêâ. êðåùåíûé ëþä. – Â.Á.)...57
Ðèñ. 3. Íàäãðîáèÿ øàõèäîâ (âîèíîâ, ïîãèáøèõ â õîäå ãàçàâàòà) XIX â. â äàãåñòàíñêîì ñåëåíèè Êâàíàäà. Ôîòî àâòîðà, 1996 ã.
Ë. È. Æèðêîâ. Ñòàðàÿ è íîâàÿ àâàðñêàÿ ïåñíÿ // Äàãåñòàíñêèé ñáîðíèê. Âûï. III.
Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1927. Ñ. 109–110.
57
À. À. Àõëàêîâ. Ãåðîèêî-èñòîðè÷åñêèå ïåñíè àâàðöåâ. Ñ. 171.
56
201
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
Ñ ïåñíÿìè îá àáðåêàõ îáðàç Õî÷áàðà ðîäíèò òåìà íàñèëèÿ, íàïðàâëåííîãî ïðîòèâ òèðàíîâ-ïðàâèòåëåé. Îíà âîøëà â ãîðñêèé ôîëüêëîð âî
âòîðîé èñòîðè÷åñêèé ïåðèîä åãî ðàçâèòèÿ è îêîí÷àòåëüíî ñëîæèëàñü
ïðè ðóññêîì ïðàâëåíèè. Èññëåäîâàòåëè ñîâåòñêîãî âðåìåíè ñîâåðøåííî âåðíî îòìåòèëè, ÷òî Õî÷áàð âûñòóïàåò ïðåæäå âñåãî â ðîëè áîðöà ñ
ñîöèàëüíîé íåñïðàâåäëèâîñòüþ. Îäíàêî ýòîò ìîòèâ, êàê ñëåäóåò èç ïðèâåäåííûõ âûøå ìàòåðèàëîâ, íå áûë ïðèñóù ïåñíå èçíà÷àëüíî. Òîëüêî ê
XIX â. Õî÷áàð èç âîåííîãî ïðåäâîäèòåëÿ (öåâåêõàíà) ïðåâðàòèëñÿ â áëàãîðîäíîãî ðàçáîéíèêà (àáðåêà).  îòëè÷èå îò ïåñåí î íàáåãàõ ïàôîñ ïåñíè î Õî÷áàðå çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ íå â ïðîñëàâëåíèè ïîäâèãîâ þíîøåé-äæèãèòîâ ñðåäè ãðóçèíñêèõ êÿôèðîâ, à â ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëåíèè ñâîáîäíûõ ãîðñêèõ îáùèí è õàíñêîé âëàñòè. Îäíàêî äî êîíöà ýòà òåìà òóò åùå íå ðàçðàáîòàíà. Ôèãóðà òðóñëèâîãî è êîâàðíîãî õàíà-òèðàíà íàìå÷åíà â ïåñíå êðàéíå ñõåìàòè÷åñêè. Èç òåêñòà ïåñíè íå ñîâñåì ÿñíî äàæå, â ÷åì
çàêëþ÷àëàñü ïðè÷èíà âðàæäû íóöàëà è Õî÷áàðà. Ýòîé òåìå ñóæäåíî áûëî
ðàçâèòèå â ðàññêàçàõ î áîðüáå ãîðöåâ ñ õàíàìè è áåêàìè, à îò÷àñòè è â
ãåðîè÷åñêèõ ïåñíÿõ îá àáðåêàõ XIX – íà÷àëà ÕÕ â.
 ýòèõ ôîëüêëîðíûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ, çàïèñàííûõ â îñíîâíîì óæå
ïðè Ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè, ðîëè äåéñòâóþùèõ ëèö ïîìåíÿëèñü. Õàíû è
áåêè ïðåâðàòèëèñü â îòúÿâëåííûõ ðàçáîéíèêîâ. Ãîðñêàÿ ìîëîäåæü è
ñòàðèêè Ãèäàòëÿ è Õóíçàõà îáúåäèíÿþòñÿ â áîðüáå ñ õàíîì, à â ðîëè
âåðõîâíûõ ïðåäâîäèòåëåé è çàùèòíèêîâ íàðîäà âûñòóïàþò àáðåêè.
×òîáû äîïîëíèòåëüíî î÷åðíèòü ãîðñêóþ çíàòü, åå ðîä âûâîäÿò îò ðàçáîéíèêî⠓áåç çàêîíà è ðåëèãèè”, óñòàíîâèâøèõ ñðåäè ãîðöåâ âàðâàðñêèå àäàòû, òàêèå êàê îáû÷àé óìåðùâëåíèÿ ñòàðèêîâ.58 Ñèìâîëîì çëîãî
è êîâàðíîãî òèðàíà ñòàë ëåãåíäàðíûé ðîäîíà÷àëüíèê àâàðñêèõ íóöàëîâ
ðîäîì èç “ïðîêëÿòûõ ðóññêèõ” Ñóðàêàò, ïîãèáøèé â áîðüáå ñ áëàãîðîäíûì àðàáîì Àáó Ìóñëèìîì, íå ìåíåå ëåãåíäàðíûì èñëàìèçàòîðîì Äàãåñòàíà è ×å÷íè.59 Ñìåøèâàÿ ñîáûòèÿ èç âðåìåí àðàáî-õàçàðñêèõ âîéí
è Êàâêàçñêîé âîéíû XIX â. ôîëüêëîð ðàññêàçûâàåò îá èñòðåáëåíèè òóõóìîâ ïðàâèòåëåé-òèðàíîâ óäàëüöàìè-àáðåêàìè, ïîääåðæàííûìè îñòàëüíûì íàðîäîì. Ïî îäíîé èç âåðñèé ýòîé èñòîðèè ñîâåò î òîì, êàê
ïîãóáèòü òèðàíà Ãèäàòëÿ ïî èìåíè Îë-î äàë ñûíó ìóäðûé ñòàðèê, êîòîðîãî òîò ïîùàäèë è íå ñáðîñèë ñî ñêàëû, êàê äðóãèõ.60 Ðèñóÿ õàíîâ è
Þ. Þ. Êàðïîâ. Äæèãèò è âîëê. Ñ. 137.
Ìóõàììàäðàôè. Òàðèõ Äàãåñòàí. Ñ. 98, 103; ïîëåâîé ìàòåðèàë àâòîðà 1995–
1996 ãã. (Öóìàäèíñêèé ðàéîí Ðåñïóáëèêè Äàãåñòàí).
60
Ã. Ô. ×óðñèí. Àâàðû. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1995. Ñ. 19–20.
58
59
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áåêî⠓ôåîäàëüíûìè õèùíèêàìè”, ñîçäàòåëè ïåñåí è ëåãåíä íåâîëüíî
ïîâòîðÿëè îðèåíòàëèñòñêèå êëèøå êîëîíèàëüíîé ýïîõè.61
Ñåìàíòèêà ãîðñêîãî ôîëüêëîðà ïîçäíåãî èìïåðñêîãî è ñîâåòñêîãî
âðåìåíè èñïûòàëà ñèëüíîå âëèÿíèå îôèöèàëüíîé èäåîëîãèè. Â ñâîþ
î÷åðåäü âñå æàíðû ìåñòíîé ëèòåðàòóðû, òåàòðà è äàæå êèíî, ñîçäàííûõ ïðè Ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè, øèðîêî ÷åðïàëè ìàòåðèàëû â èñòîðè÷åñêîì ôîëüêëîðå ãîðöåâ. Îá àáðåêàõ ïðîøëîãî, çà êîòîðûìè ê ýòîìó âðåìåíè óòâåðäèëàñü ñëàâà çàùèòíèêîâ ïðîñòîãî íàðîäà âðîäå Ðîáèí Ãóäà,
íå ðàç ïèñàëè Ýôôåíäè Êàïèåâ, êðóïíûé àâàðñêèé ïîýò Ðàñóë Ãàìçàòîâ è ìåíåå èçâåñòíûå àâòîðû. Ïîñëå èñ÷åçíîâåíèÿ â ïîñëåâîåííûå
äåñÿòèëåòèÿ ãîðñêîãî èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ôîëüêëîðà àáðåêèàíà çàíÿëà ïðî÷íîå ìåñòî â ïîï-êóëüòóðå Äàãåñòàíà. Íà ñöåíå Òåàòðà îïåðû è áàëåòà â
Ìàõà÷êàëå óæå ìíîãî ëåò ñ óñïåõîì èäåò áàëåò è ìóçûêàëüíûé ñïåêòàêëü “Õî÷áàð”, à íà ðóáåæå òðåòüåãî òûñÿ÷åëåòèÿ íà ýêðàíû Äàãåñòàíà âûøåë êèíîôèëüì “Ëåãåíäà î õðàáðîì Õî÷áàðå”. Ðàçâèòèå òåìàòèêè íàñèëèÿ è âëàñòè, îáðåòøåé íåáûâàëóþ àêòóàëüíîñòü íà íåñïîêîéíîì ïîñòñîâåòñêîì Ñåâåðíîì Êàâêàçå, ïðîäîëæàåòñÿ óæå â íîâûõ ôîðìàõ è èíûõ æàíðàõ.
Ìóñóëüìàíñêîå ïîãðàíè÷üå â çåðêàëå íàñèëèÿ
Ïåñíÿ î Õî÷áàðå, ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàííàÿ â ýòîé ñòàòüå, âûâîäèò íàñ
íà îáùóþ òåìó ðîëè è íàñèëèÿ â ìóñóëüìàíñêîì ïîãðàíè÷üå è èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè î íåì. Êîíå÷íî æå, ïðîáëåìà ýòà ñëèøêîì ñëîæíà è
îáøèðíà, ÷òîáû ðåøàòüñÿ íà ïðèìåðå îäíîé èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïåñíè. 62
Ðîññèéñêèå ýòíîãðàôû è ïóáëèöèñòû íà÷àëà ÕÕ â. øèðîêî èñïîëüçîâàëè íåãàòèâíûå îðèåíòàëèñòñêèå îöåíêè äëÿ èäåíòèôèêàöèè íàðîäîâ Êàâêàçà.  ýòîé ãàëåðåå ýòíè÷åñêèõ êàðèêàòóð àðìÿíå ðèñîâàëèñü “õèùíûìè äåëüöàìè” åâðåéñêîãî
òèïà, ãðóçèíû – íàïûùåííûìè áîëòóíàìè è ëåíòÿÿìè, àçåðáàéäæàíöû – ìåëêèìè
æóëèêàìè, ÷å÷åíöû – êîâàðíûìè ðàçáîéíèêàìè, àâàðöû – áåñïîêîéíûìè áðîäÿãàìè è ò.ï. Ñì., íàïðèìåð: Â. Ë. Âåëè÷êî. Êàâêàç. Ðóññêîå äåëî è ìåæäóïëåìåííûå âîïðîñû. ÑÏá., 1904; Ë.[ß.] Ø[òåðíáåðã]. ×å÷åíöû // Ýíöèêëîïåäè÷åñêèé ñëîâàðü. Èçä. Ô. À. Áðîêãàóç è È. À. Åôðîí. ÑÏá., 1903. Ò. XXXVIIIà. Ñ. 785–786.
Ïðè Ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè ýòè íåãàòèâíûå êëèøå áûëè ïåðåíåñåíû íà íàöèîíàëüíóþ
áóðæóàçèþ è ôåîäàëüíóþ çíàòü.
62
Ïîäðîáíåå ïðîáëåìàòèêà èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè ìóñóëüìàíñêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ íà
Êàâêàçå ðàçîáðàíà â ñòàòüå, íàïèñàííîé ìíîþ ñîâìåñòíî ñ äàãåñòàíñêèì ýòíîãðàôîì Ð. È. Ñåôåðáåêîâûì. Ñì.: Â. Î. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Ð. È. Ñåôåðáåêîâ. Àáó Ìóñëèì
ó ìóñóëüìàí Âîñòî÷íîãî Êàâêàçà (ê èñòîðèè è ýòíîãðàôèè êóëüòîâ ñâÿòûõ) // Ïîäâèæíèêè èñëàìà. Ñá. ñò. ïîä ðåä. Ñ. Í. Àáàøèíà è Â. Î. Áîáðîâíèêîâà. Ì.: Âîñòî÷íàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà (â ïå÷àòè).
61
203
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
Íî íåêîòîðûå âûâîäû ìîæíî ñäåëàòü óæå ñåé÷àñ. Ìåíÿâøååñÿ íà ïðîòÿæåíèè äåñÿòèëåòèé ïðî÷òåíèå Ïåñíè î Õî÷áàðå îñòàâëÿëî íåèçìåííûì ñòåðæíåâîé ìîòèâ, äåëàâøèé ýòó ïåñíþ ñòîëü ïîïóëÿðíîé â ðàçíûõ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâàõ è ýïîõàõ: îòêðûòîå íàñèëèå êàê ñîöèàëüíàÿ ïðàêòèêà è êóëüòóðíàÿ öåííîñòü. Èçáåãàÿ êðàéíîñòåé îðèåíòàëèñòñêîé äåìîíèçàöèè èëè ýòíîãðàôè÷åñêîé èäåàëèçàöèè ãîðöåâ, íóæíî ïðèçíàòü,
÷òî êóëüòóðíûé êîä “íàñèëèÿ”, îñòàâàÿñü áåçóñëîâíîé äîìèíàíòîé
(ýìîöèîíàëüíîé è ñîöèàëüíî-ñòðóêòóðèðóþùåé), íåñîìíåííî ÿâëÿëñÿ âàæíûì ôàêòîðîì ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè è èäåíòèôèêàöèè ãîðöåâ â XV–
XVIII ââ., à ÷åðåç ìåõàíèçìû àêòóàëèçàöè èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè – è
ìíîãî ïîçæå. “Ïîãðàíè÷íûé” (â ýêçèñòåíöèàëèñòñêîì ñìûñëå) ôåíîìåí íàñèëèÿ îêàçàëñÿ òàêèì âàæíûì ôàêòîðîì äëÿ ñòðóêòóðèðîâàíèÿ
áóêâàëüíî ïîãðàíè÷íîãî ãîðñêîãî îáùåñòâà, ïîñêîëüêó îíî íóæäàëîñü
â ïîñòîÿííîì óòâåðæäåíèè è âåðèôèêàöèè ñâîèõ ãðàíèö è îñíîâ ñîöèàëüíîé îðãàíèçàöèè, íàõîäÿñü ìåæäó êîíôëèêòóþùèìè “ñèëîâûìè
ïîëÿìè” ñîñåäíèõ áîëåå ñòàáèëüíûõ è âûñîêîèíòåãðèðîâàííûõ ñîöèóìîâ.  ìóñóëüìàíñêîì ïîãðàíè÷üè îáùåñòâî ïîíèìàëîñü êàê ïîñòîÿííî ãîòîâîå ê áîþ îïîë÷åíèå, àðìèÿ (áî). Íàñèëèå áûëî îñíîâîé
ëþáîé çàêîííîé âëàñòè è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé îðãàíèçàöèè ãîðöåâ. Íàáåãè
íà ñòîÿâøèõ âíå ìåñòíîãî çàêîíà âðàãîâ-èíîâåðöåâ ñëóæèëè òàêæå
ôîðìîé ñîöèàëèçàöèè ãîðñêîé ìîëîäåæè.
Ïîñëå âêëþ÷åíèÿ Íàãîðíîãî Äàãåñòàíà â ñîñòàâ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè âîëüíèöå âîåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ñîþçîâ ãîðöåâ, à âìåñòå ñ íåþ è
òðàäèöèîííûì ïðèíöèïàì îðãàíèçàöèè âëàñòè è ïåðåðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ
ðåñóðñîâ, ïðèøåë êîíåö.63 Ñëóæèâøèå èì îïîðîé ìóæñêèå ñîþçû è
îïîë÷åíèÿ, à òàêæå íàáåãè è êðîâíàÿ ìåñòü, îêàçàëèñü âíå çàêîíà èìïåðñêîãî îáùåñòâà, êóäà áîëåå êîìïëåêñíîãî è ðàöèîíàëèçèðîâàííîãî. Áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü òðàäèöèîííûõ ãîðñêèõ èíñòèòóòîâ îòîøëà â èñòîðèþ. Íåêîòîðûå ïîñëóæèëè îñíîâîé äëÿ ñêëàäûâàíèÿ íà Êàâêàçå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîãî áàíäèòèçìà â ôîðìå àáðå÷åñòâà, êîòîðîå â íîâîì ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîì êîíòåêñòå ñòàëî âîñïðèíèìàòüñÿ êàê óãîëîâíûé äåëèêò.64 Ñàìà ãðàíèöà îòîäâèíóëàñü â Çàêàâêàçüå, ñòèðàëèñü ïîëèòè÷åñêèå, ñîöèàëüíûå è äàæå êîíôåññèîíàëüíûå ðàìêè âíóòðè ðåÒà æå ñóäüáà ïîñòèãëà è ïðîòèâîñòîÿâøèå ãîðöàì, îäíàêî áëèçêèå ê íèì ïî òèïó
ñîöèàëüíîé îðãàíèçàöèè ñåëüñêèå îáùèíû êàçàêîâ íà Òåðåêå è Êóáàíè.
64
Èñòîðèÿ ñêëàäûâàíèÿ àáðå÷åñòâà íà äîðåâîëþöèîííîì Ñåâåðíîì Êàâêàçå
ïîäðîáíî ïðîàíàëèçîâàíà â ìîåé êíèãå. Ñì.: Â. Î. Áîáðîâíèêîâ. Ìóñóëüìàíå
Ñåâåðíîãî Êàâêàçà: îáû÷àé, ïðàâî, íàñèëèå. Ñ. 16-97.
63
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ãèîíà.  èñòîðè÷åñêîé äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè íàñèëèå îêàçàëîñü îáðàùåíî
óæå íå âîâíå, à âîâíóòðü ãîðñêîãî îáùåñòâà. Åãî æåðòâàìè âìåñòî ãÿóðîâ-ãðóçèí ñòàëè ëèøåííûå âëàñòè è ïåðåøåäøèå íà ðóññêóþ ñëóæáó
ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ìóñóëüìàíñêîé çíàòè. Ýòè èçìåíåíèÿ íàøëè îòðàæåíèå
â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè. Íåäàðîì òàê ðåçêî èçìåíèëîñü ïîíèìàíèå Ïåñíè î Õî÷áàðå, à ñàì Õî÷áàð èç ïðåäâîäèòåëÿ íàáåãà ïðåâðàòèëñÿ â áëàãîðîäíîãî ðàçáîéíèêà. Ýâîëþöèÿ èäåàëüíîãî “íàñèëüíèêà” îò ãåðîÿ
ìåæêëàíîâûõ èëè ðåëèãèîçíûõ âîéí – ÷åðåç àáðå÷åñòâî – â ó÷àñòíèêà
êëàññîâîãî êîíôëèêòà è äàæå “íàöèîíàëüíî-îñâîáîäèòåëüíûõ” âîéí
îòìå÷àëà ýâîëþöèþ ñàìîãî ãîðñêîãî îáùåñòâà â õîäå ìîäåðíèçàöèè.
Ïðèëîæåíèå
ÀÂÀÐÑÊÈÉ ÒÅÊÑÒ ÏÅÑÍÈ Î ÕÎ×ÁÀÐÅ
1. Ðà÷Ióí ðóãî êàãúòàë õóíäåðèë õàíàñ
Ãüèäåðèë Õî÷îáàð Õóíçàõúå ùâàÿí,
×IàõIèÿë ðà÷Iàíà, ÷IóõIáè ðà÷Iàíà,
Öî ðóêêåë ãüàáóíà ìàæãèòóë êIàëòIà.
5. – Óíãå, ëå Õî÷îáàð, òIàäå Õóíçàõúå,
Äóöà óìóìóë ÷Iâàí âàñàë ðàòèëà.
Äóöà ðîññàáè ÷Iâàí ëúóäáè ðàòèëà.
8. – Àáóãåõà, ëå ãüèä, ãüåäèíàá ðàãIè,
ÕIèíêúóíèëàí êêåëà äóí ãüåâ õàíàñäà.
10. ÒIàäòàðàâ õàíàñå õúâåçå îö áà÷óí,
Îöàëúóë ëúëúàðàäà ìóñðóãè áóõüóí,
Êúîêúàíà Õî÷îáàð òIàäå Õóíçàõúå.
13. ÕúàõIàë êúàíàáàõúå äóí ùâàðàá ìåõàëú,
ÀõIäîëåâ ðàãIàíà õóíäåðèë ìàãúóø:
– ÕIàìà áóãåëàöà õIàìèöà áîñå,
ÕIàìà ãüå÷Iåëàöà ìàãüèöà áîñå,
Õî÷îáàð âóõIèçå öIà áàãIàðåÿ!
18. – ÀññàëàìãIàëåéêóì, õóíäåðèë êúàäè!
– ÂàãIàëåéêóì ñàëàì, ãüèäåðèë Õî÷áàð,
ÌóðòàçàãIàëèãè ìóí âàòèëàðî,
ÃIàëèë çóëôóêúàðãè äóõú áàòèëàðî.
Âà÷Ièíå êèí êIâàðàá, ãüèäåðèë Õî÷áàð?
205
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
23. – ÌóðòàçàãIàëèãè äèð ýìåí âóãî,
ÃIàëèë çóëôóêúàðãè äèð õúàòèêü áóãî.
Ùàé äóí âà÷Ióíàðåâ, àõIóí âóãåëúóë?
26. – Âèëúëúà, ëå Õî÷îáàð, ÒIàäãüîöIàáàõúå,
Èõòèëàò-êåï áóãèí, ñóõIìàò-êå÷I áóãèí.
28. Ãüåíèñà ðèëúëúàíà ÒIàäãüîöIàáàõúå,
ÃüîöIó áàêüóëú áóãî êIóäàá öIóëàë öIà.
ÖIà ñâåðóí ëúëúóí ðóãî ãüàë ãIîëîõúàáè.
31. – ÀõIå, ëå Õî÷îáàð, æåðãúåí êüàáóí êå÷I!
Æåðãúåí êüàáóí êî÷Iîé öIàêúàâ ðàãIóëèí!
Êúèðå, ëå Õî÷îáàð, ãüàäèë ÷àãúàíà,
×àãúàíà õúâàçå ìóí öIàêúàâ ðàãIóëèí!
35. – Âà[ë]ëàãüè àõIèëåë äèöà æóãüàáè,65
Æåðãúàäà êüàáèçå êâåðàë ðè÷àíè!
Òàëëàãüè êúèðèëåá ãüàäèë ÷àãúàíà,
×àãúàíà òàäI ëúåçå áîõäóë ðè÷àíè!
39. Æåðãúàäà êüàáèçå êâåðàë ðè÷àíà,
×àãúàíà òàäI ëúåçå áîõäóë ðè÷àíà:
41. – Ãüàëúàë ýõåäåñåë ðîðõàòàë ìóãIðóë,
Ëúèöà ãIèÿë ðà÷óí ÷Iîðîãî ðóãåë?
Ãüàãúàë ýõåðåñåë îöàçóë ðó÷íàë,
Ëúèöà îöàë ðà÷óí ìè÷Ièé ðóññàðàë?
Íàõúà ìåãIåð öIóðàë áàãIàðàë ÷óÿë
Ëúèöà, ëå, ðà÷àðàë? – Õî÷îáàðèöà.
ÃIóìàõàí ðåêIóíåá áàãIàðãIàëàð÷à
Òóëôèñàëäå-íàõúå ðåêIàðàá äèöà.
ÃIóìàõàíèë ëúàäóë äàðàéäóë ãóðäå
Ãüàäàá ñèâóíèñà áîñàðàá äèöà.
Ãüèäåðèë áîÿëäà êúîòIóí áèêüàíà,
Êúåëäåðèë ãüàíæîå ãüàáãüèçå66 êüóíà.
53. Ãüåäèíàë ãüóíàðàë æèíöà ðèöèíäàë,
Íàêàëäà ðóêIàðàë õàíàñóë âàñàë,
65
66
Àâàð. óñòàð. “ñëîâà”, ñèíîíèì ñîâðåìåííîãî ðàãIè.
Àâàð. óñòàð. “ðàçäàâàòü â âèäå ñâàäåáíûõ ïîäàðêîâ”.
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Öî-öîÿá êúâàëàêüå öî-öîÿâãè êêóí,
Õî÷îáàð êIàíöIàíà öIàäóë áàêüóëúå.
57. – Äóå òàëèõI êüåãè, ãüèäåðèë Õî÷áàð,
Ãüàá ÒIàëî äóé òåëà, ìóí ãüàíèâ òåëà,
ÊIèãî ãüèíàëúóë âàñ âóõIèçå òîãå.
60. – Íóæ ùàéçå ãIîäóëåë, ãIèñèí íóöàáè,
Ãüèäåðèë Õî÷áàðèë ãüàí êüåðèëåëäå?
Ùàé íóæ çèãàðäóëåë, âàé áåñäàë êàãIè,
Ãüèäåðèë Õî÷áàðèë ìèõú ÷IóðõIèëàëäå?
64. ÃIîäóãåÿí àáå äèð ýáåëàëäà,
ÃIàäàäàíè õâå÷Ièí ãIóíäóë êúîêúàá áàöI!
Óãüäóãåÿí àáå ãIàãàðëúèÿëäà,
ÁàöIèöàíè ãIàìàë ãIîäîá ðåõè÷Ièí!
SUMMARY
In his article, Vladimir Bobrovnikov analyzes the motives of violence
and power in the historical memory of Dagestani mountaineers during the
transitional period (the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries), in which
region was incorporated into the Russian empire, but retained its frontier
characteristics in the context of Russian-Muslim encounter of the Caucasus. The author bases his analysis on the Tale of Khochbar. Having surveyed the existing translations of this text, Bobrovnikov concludes that they
are inadequate for scholarly work and proposes a new own translation based
on the earliest version of the historical document. The author then recites
the plot of the Tale providing commentary on the mentioned historical figures and socio-cultural and political realities at the time of composition.
Noting the palimpsest layers of this historical document, the author sheds
light on the period before the Caucasian war and incorporation of the mountainous region into the Russian empire. The Tale reports on the life in the
Muslim borderland, which was united at that time in a confederation of
mountain tribes. The military units of this confederation carried out assaults
on the Georgian Kingdom and defended the confederation in case of attack.
In a subsequent period at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries the unity of the mountainous confederation was undermined by rival
powers, the Iranian and the Russian empires. The imperial rivalry brought a
tension to the tribal elite and communes. First, Iranian (Shia) expansion
207
Â. Áîáðîâíèêîâ, Íàñèëèå è âëàñòü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè...
triggered the increasing identification with and politicization of Islam by
the tribal communes, then was directed against the Russian empire’s presence in the region and the empire mountainous elite allied with the empire.
Having reconstructed the historical context, Bobrovnikov returns to the motif
of Khochbar in which, he asserts, two different figures blurred as a result of
textual palimpsest. One figure represents the reality of mountainous confederation and its young armed formations that distinguished themselves in
raids on Georgia. The other figure stands for the Muslim movement against
the imperial domination, which was behind the Islamic theocratic state that
took shape during the war in the Caucasus. The textual coalescence of those
two figures in the text of the historical document leaves the question open
as to what extent the changing historical reality of Caucasus was underpinned by the continuity of socio-cultural patterns of a frontier society.
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Èëüÿ ÃÅÐÀÑÈÌÎÂ
“ÌÛ ÓÁÈÂÀÅÌ ÒÎËÜÊÎ ÑÂÎÈՔ:
ÏÐÅÑÒÓÏÍÎÑÒÜ ÊÀÊ ÌÀÐÊÅÐ
ÌÅÆÝÒÍÈ×ÅÑÊÈÕ ÃÐÀÍÈÖ Â ÎÄÅÑÑÅ
ÍÀ×ÀËÀ ÕÕ ÂÅÊÀ (1907-1917 ãã.)*
“Îäåññà, – â êîíöå êîíöîâ ñêàæåò ÷èòàòåëü, –
òàêîé æå ãîðîä, êàê è âñå ãîðîäà, è ïðîñòî âû
íåóìåðåííî ïðèñòðàñòíû.”
È. Áàáåëü, “Îäåññà”.
 òå÷åíèå äâóõ ñòîëåòèé Îäåññà çàíèìàëà îñîáîå ìåñòî íà “ìåíòàëüíîé êàðòå” Ðîññèè: ýòî áûëà åäâà ëè íå åäèíñòâåííàÿ äåéñòâèòåëüíî
ýêçîòè÷åñêàÿ ìåñòíîñòü â ïðåäåëàõ ñàìîé èìïåðèè, óòîïè÷åñêèé ãîðîä, âîçíèêøèé íà ðóèíàõ òóðåöêîãî ôîðòà, íà ãðàíèöå ñòåïè è ìîðÿ.
Ïðèòÿãàòåëüíîñòü îäåññêîãî ìèôà – â ýòîé “ïîãðàíè÷íîñòè” ãåîãðàôèè è áûòîâàíèÿ, èíàêîâîñòè çíàêîìûõ, êàçàëîñü áû, îáñòîÿòåëüñòâ.
Îäåññà – “äðóãàÿ” Ðîññèÿ, Íîâîðîññèÿ, íàèáîëåå îòêðûòàÿ è äèíàìè÷íàÿ, óñòðåìëåííàÿ â áóäóùåå åå ïðîâèíöèÿ. Áóäó÷è îäíèì èç êðóïíåéøèõ ãîðîäñêèõ öåíòðîâ èìïåðèè, Îäåññà âî ìíîãèõ ñìûñëàõ áûëà òàêÝòà ñòàòüÿ íàïèñàíà â ðàìêàõ èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî ïðîåêòà, ïîääåðæàííîãî ãðàíòîì
¹ 437/2000 Research Support Scheme of the Open Society Support Foundation.
ß áëàãîäàðåí Äæîíó Êëèåðó è Ìàðèíå Ìîãèëüíåð çà öåííûå ñîâåòû è êîììåíòàðèè.
*
209
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
æå ïîãðàíè÷íîé òåððèòîðèåé, ãäå âñòðå÷àëèñü ñîöèàëüíûå è ýòíè÷åñêèå ãðóïïû, îáû÷íî ëîêàëèçîâàííûå â ðàçíûõ çîíàõ ãåòåðîãåííîãî
ïðîñòðàíñòâà èìïåðèè, è ãäå òðàäèöèîííûå ñîöèàëüíûå ïåðåãîðîäêè
ïîäâåðãàëèñü îñîáî áûñòðîé ýðîçèè.1 Îäåññà îòëè÷àëàñü î÷åíü âûñîêîé ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíîé ïåñòðîòîé íàñåëåíèÿ: ñîãëàñíî äàííûì
ïåðåïèñè 1897 ã., åäâà ëè ïîëîâèíà ãîðîæàí ñ÷èòàëà ðóññêèé ÿçûê ðîäíûì, ïðè ýòîì ïðàêòè÷åñêè íåâîçìîæíî òî÷íî óñòàíîâèòü, êàêóþ ÷àñòü
ðóññêîÿçû÷íûõ îäåññèòîâ ñîñòàâëÿëè ñîáñòâåííî âåëèêîðîññû, à êàêàÿ äîëÿ ïðèõîäèëàñü íà óêðàèíöåâ è áåëîðóñîâ.2  ýòîé ñòàòüå ÿ ïîñòàðàþñü âûÿâèòü îñíîâíûå òåíäåíöèè òðàíñôîðìàöèè ñòàðûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ (ïðåæäå âñåãî, ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ) ãðàíèö è âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ íîâûõ â îäíîì èç íàèáîëåå äèíàìè÷íûõ ãîðîäîâ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè. Ðå÷ü ïîéäåò î íàèìåíåå óðåãóëèðîâàííîé â èìïåðèè ñôåðå ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ îòíîøåíèé è íàèìåíåå ðåãóëèðóåìîé îáëàñòè ñîöèàëüíîé ïðàêòèêè: ïðåñòóïíîñòè.
Ïî òó ñòîðîíó óãîëîâíîé ñòàòèñòèêè
Ñóäÿ ïî äîêóìåíòàì ïðàâîîõðàíèòåëüíûõ îðãàíîâ, çíàêîìîå âñåì
ïî ðàññêàçàì Èñààêà Áàáåëÿ îïèñàíèå òîãî, “êàê ýòî äåëàëîñü â Îäåññå”, äîâîëüíî ìàëî ñîîòâåòñòâóåò òèïè÷íîé êàðòèíå òÿæêîãî ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ â Îäåññå íà÷àëà ÕÕ âåêà. Áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü çàôèêñèðîâàííûõ ñëó÷àåâ âûãëÿäåëà ïðèìåðíî òàê:
10 èþíÿ 1913 ã.
Åãî ïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâó Ãîñïîäèíó Ïðîêóðîðó Îäåññêîé
ñóäåáíîé ïàëàòû
ïðîêóðîðà Îäåññêîãî îêðóæíîãî ñóäà
Ïðåäñòàâëåíèå
Èìåþ ÷åñòü äîíåñòè Âàøåìó Ïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâó, ÷òî 6 ñåãî
èþíÿ, îêîëî 3 ÷àñîâ äíÿ, áûë óáèò êèíæàëîì âëàäåëåö áàêàëåéíî-êîëîíèàëüíîé òîðãîâëè Áîÿäæèàí. Óáèéñòâî ñîâåðøåíî â åãî
êâàðòèðå, ïîìåùàþùåéñÿ â äîìå ¹ 29 ïî óëèöå Êîíäðàòåíêî. Â
Ýòîò àðãóìåíò ïîäðîáíî îáñóæäàåòñÿ â ñòàòüå: Frederick W. Skinner. Odessa and
the Problem of Urban Modernization // Michael F. Hamm (Ed.). The City in Late Imperial
Russia. Bloomington, 1986. Pp. 209-212.
2
Patricia Herlihy. Odessa: A History, 1794 – 1914. Cambridge, MA, 1986. P. 242.
1
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êîíòîðå â òî âðåìÿ êðîìå õîçÿèíà íàõîäèëñÿ îäèí ëèøü ñëóæàùèé Ìèõàèë Ìàêñèìîâ. Ïîñëåäíèé çàìåòèë, ÷òî â êàáèíåò õîçÿèíà, îòäåëÿþùèéñÿ îò òîãî ïîìåùåíèÿ, ãäå íàõîäèëñÿ îí ñàì,
çàñòåêëåííîé ñòåíêîé, âîøåë íåèçâåñòíûé åìó ÷åëîâåê. Êîãäà
âñêîðå ïîñëå åãî ïðèõîäà â êàáèíåò ïîñëûøàëñÿ øóì è ðàçäàëèñü ðåâîëüâåðíûå âûñòðåëû, òî Ìàêñèìîâ ïîäíÿëñÿ ñî ñâîåãî
ìåñòà è ÷åðåç ñòåêëî óâèäåë, ÷òî â êàáèíåòå ñòîÿëè äðóã ïðîòèâ
äðóãà íåèçâåñòíûé è åãî õîçÿèí ñ ðåâîëüâåðàìè â ðóêàõ è ñòðåëÿëè îäèí â äðóãîãî. Ìàêñèìîâ âûáåæàë èç êîíòîðû è ïîçâàë ïîñòîâîãî ãîðîäîâîãî. Âîçâðàòèâøèñü â êîíòîðó, îí âñêî÷èë â êàáèíåò è ïîìîã Áîÿäæèàíó âûáåæàòü íà óëèöó, ãäå òîò óïàë íà òðîòóàð; åãî ïîäíÿëè è îòíåñëè â ñîñåäíèé ìàãàçèí, ãäå îí òîò÷àñ æå
ñêîí÷àëñÿ. Íà ãðóäè ó íåãî îêîëî ïðàâîãî ñîñêà îêàçàëèñü äâå
ðàíû îò êèíæàëà; äðóãèõ ïîâðåæäåíèé èëè çíàêîâ íàñèëèÿ íà
òåëå íå íàéäåíî. Ïðè óáèòîì áûë ðåâîëüâåð (íåáîëüøîãî ðàçìåðà áðàóíèíã) ñ ïóñòîé îáîéìîé; ýòîò ðåâîëüâåð îí äåðæàë â ðóêàõ, êîãäà âûáåæàë èç êîíòîðû. Íåèçâåñòíûé îñòàâàëñÿ â ýòî âðåìÿ
â êîíòîðå. ßâèâøåìóñÿ òóäà ãîðîäîâîìó îí çàÿâèë, ÷òî áóäåò â
íåãî ñòðåëÿòü èç ðåâîëüâåðà, êîòîðûé äåðæàë â ðóêå, à ïîòîì çàñòðåëèòñÿ ñàì. Òî æå ñàìîå îí ïîâòîðèë è ïðèñòàâó Áóëüâàðíîãî
ó÷àñòêà... Ââèäó òàêîãî ïîëîæåíèÿ, ïî ðàñïîðÿæåíèþ ïðèñòàâà
áûëè âûçâàíû ïîæàðíûå è â çëîóìûøëåííèêà áûëà ïóùåíà ñòðóÿ
âîäû, ïîñëå ÷åãî àãåíòû ñûñêíîãî îòäåëåíèÿ îáåçîðóæèëè åãî è
çàäåðæàëè.3
Çàäåðæàííûé íàçâàëñÿ òóðåöêî-ïîääàííûì Ðóïåíîì Ôåòâàæàíîì
èç Òðàïåçóíäà, ïðè íåì îáíàðóæèëè êèíæàë, ïèñòîëåò è 18 ïàòðîíîâ.
Ñëåäñòâèå äëèëîñü áîëåå ãîäà, èç ñáèâ÷èâûõ ïîêàçàíèé àðåñòîâàííîãî âûðèñîâûâàëàñü çàïóòàííàÿ êàðòèíà, â êîòîðîé ïåðåïëåòàëèñü áèçíåñ, îñêîðáëåííàÿ ÷åñòü è ïîëèòèêà – àðìÿíñêèå ðåâîëþöèîíåðû-äàøíàêè, íåîòäàííûé êðåäèò â 2225 ðóáëåé, øàíòàæ, êîíòðàáàíäà îðóæèåì... 20 ìàÿ 1915 ã., òàê è íå ðàçîáðàâøèñü äî êîíöà âî âñåõ òîíêîñòÿõ
ðîäñòâåííî-ïàðòíåðñêèõ îòíîøåíèé Áîÿäæàíà è Ôåòâàäæàíà (âèäèìî, òàêîâûì äîëæíî áûòü ñîâðåìåííîå ðóññêîå íàïèñàíèå èõ èìåí),
ñóä ïðèãîâîðèë Ôåòâàäæàíà ê òðåì ñ ïîëîâèíîé ãîäàì àðåñòàíòñêèõ
îòäåëåíèé ñ ëèøåíèåì ïðàâ.4
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 419. Ïðîêóðîð îäåññêîé ñóäåáíîé ïàëàòû. Îï. 2. Ò. 2. Åä. õð. 106. Åä.
õð. 1905. Äåëî ïî îáâèíåíèþ òóðåöêîãî ïîääàííîãî Ôåòâàäæàíà Ð. Ñ. â óáèéñòâå
âëàäåëüöà Îäåññêîé êîíòîðû áàêàëåéíî-êîëîíèàëüíîé òîðãîâëè Áîÿäæèàíà Î. Ë. 1.
4
Òàì æå. Ë. 20.
3
211
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Ìàòåðèàëû ñëåäñòâèÿ íèêàê íå ïîä÷åðêèâàþò ýòíè÷åñêèé õàðàêòåð
ýòîãî ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ, íåñìîòðÿ íà ñïåöèôè÷åñêèé êîëîðèò, ñîõðàíèâøèéñÿ äàæå íà ñòðàíèöàõ îôèöèàëüíîãî îò÷åòà: áåçðåçóëüòàòíàÿ ñòðåëüáà â óïîð (Áîÿäæàí âïóñòóþ ðàññòðåëÿë îáîéìó, à Ôåòâàäæàí óñïåë
ñäåëàòü ïî ìåíüøåé ìåðå 4 âûñòðåëà), ðîêîâîé óäàð êèíæàëîì, ñòðàííàÿ ìîòèâàöèÿ ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ. Ìåæäó òåì, êàê ïîêàçûâàþò ìàòåðèàëû
ïðîêóðàòóðû, ñóäà è ïîëèöèè, çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ äîëÿ ïðåñòóïëåíèé â ãîðîäå ñîâåðøàëàñü èìåííî âíóòðè áîëåå èëè ìåíåå çàìêíóòûõ îáùèí
ýòíè÷åñêèõ ìåíüøèíñòâ: êàâêàçñêîé, ãðå÷åñêîé, åâðåéñêîé.  òî æå
âðåìÿ, ìíîãèå ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ ñîâåðøàëèñü ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿìè îäíîé ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíîé ãðóïïû â îòíîøåíèè ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé äðóãîé, à
íåðåäêî ñîñòàâ ñîó÷àñòíèêîâ áûë èíòåðíàöèîíàëåí. Ðàññìîòðåíèå ýòíè÷åñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè “âîîáùå” â òàêîì ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîì ãîðîäå, êàê Îäåññà, ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé ïðàêòè÷åñêè íåâîçìîæíóþ çàäà÷ó.
Ñóæåíèå ôîêóñà èññëåäîâàíèÿ è îáðàùåíèå ëèøü ê åâðåéñêîé ýòíè÷åñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè ïîçâîëÿåò âûÿâèòü ðîëü ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíîé
ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè êàê ñîöèàëüíîãî ìàðêåðà â îäåññêîì îáùåñòâå (âêëþ÷àÿ åãî äíî), ïîñêîëüêó åâðåè â Îäåññå ñîñòàâëÿëè ñàìóþ êðóïíóþ
îáùèíó èç âñåõ ìåíüøèíñòâ è “åâðåéñêèé âîïðîñ” â Ðîññèè îëèöåòâîðÿë âñþ ñëîæíîñòü íàöèîíàëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé â èìïåðèè.
 íà÷àëå ÕÕ âåêà åâðåè ñòàáèëüíî ñîñòàâëÿëè îäíó òðåòü áóðíî
ðàñòóùåãî íàñåëåíèÿ Îäåññû (çà ïÿòíàäöàòü ëåò ñ 1897 ã. ïî 1912 ã.
÷èñëî æèòåëåé ãîðîäà âûðîñëî íà 50%, äîëÿ æå åâðååâ ñðåäè îäåññèòîâ êîëåáàëàñü â ïðåäåëàõ 31-35%).  1912 ã. èç 620 òûñÿ÷ æèòåëåé
Îäåññû åâðåè ñîñòàâëÿëè 200 òûñÿ÷, ïðåäñòàâëÿÿ âòîðóþ ïî ÷èñëåííîñòè ãðóïïó íàñåëåíèÿ ïîñëå ðóññêèõ.5  òî æå âðåìÿ, â 1913 ã. â
Îäåññêîì ñóäåáíîì îêðóãå áûëî îñóæäåíî çà ðàçíûå ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ
âñåãî 122 ëèöà èóäåéñêîãî âåðîèñïîâåäàíèÿ (â Êèåâñêîì – 222, à â
Âàðøàâñêîì äàæå 659 åâðååâ).6 Çà ðåøåòêó îòïðàâèëè 21 ðåöèäèâèñòàåâðåÿ è 116 ðåöèäèâèñòîâ-“ðóññêèõ” (ïðàâîñëàâíûõ).7 Êàê âèäèì, ñîãëàñíî ñóäåáíîé ñòàòèñòèêå, ðîëü åâðåéñêîãî ýëåìåíòà â ãîðîäñêîé
ïðåñòóïíîñòè áûëà íåçíà÷èòåëüíîé, âî âñÿêîì ñëó÷àå, ìíîãî íèæå
ïðîïîðöèè åâðåéñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ ãîðîäà.
Patricia Herlihy. Odessa: A History, 1794 – 1914. P. 251.
Ñâîä ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèõ ñâåäåíèé î ïîäñóäèìûõ, îïðàâäàííûõ è îñóæäåííûõ ïî
ïðèãîâîðàì îáùèõ ñóäåáíûõ ìåñò, ñóäåáíî-ìèðîâûõ óñòàíîâëåíèé è ó÷ðåæäåíèé,
îáðàçîâàííûõ ïî çàêîíîïîëîæåíèÿì 12 èþëÿ 1889 ã. Çà 1913 ãîä. Ïã., 1916. ×àñòü
1. Î ïîäñóäèìûõ ïî îêðóæíûì ñóäàì è ñóäåáíûì ïàëàòàì. Ñ. 37.
7
Òàì æå. Ñ. 202-203.
5
6
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Âïðî÷åì, îôèöèàëüíàÿ ñòàòèñòèêà íèêàê íå ïîäòâåðæäàåò è ñëàâû
êðèìèíàëüíîé ñòîëèöû “Îäåññû-ìàìû”.  1913 ã. ïðîöåíò îñóæäåííûõ ê îáùåìó ÷èñëó ãîðîæàí áûë â Îäåññå ïî÷òè â äâà ðàçà íèæå, ÷åì
â Íèæíåì Íîâãîðîäå, óñòóïàëà Îäåññà ïî êðèìèíàëüíîñòè íàñåëåíèÿ
Êàçàíè è Áàêó.8 Íèêàê íå îòìå÷àåò ïîâûøåííóþ êðèìèíîãåííóþ îáñòàíîâêó â Îäåññå è òàêîå âåäîìñòâåííîå èçäàíèå, êàê “Âåñòíèê ïîëèöèè”. ×òî äåéñòâèòåëüíî âûäåëÿëî Îäåññó íà ôîíå äðóãèõ ìåñòíîñòåé
èìïåðèè, òàê ýòî áåñïðåöåäåíòíûé ïðèðîñò ñóäåáíûõ äåë â íà÷àëå ÕÕ
âåêà (âïîëíå ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèé, âïðî÷åì, íåîáûêíîâåííîé ñîöèàëüíîé
äèíàìèêå ãîðîäà): ñ 1901 ïî 1905 ãã. åæåãîäíîå êîëè÷åñòâî äåë, çàâåäåííûõ â Îäåññêîì ñóäåáíîì îêðóãå, âûðîñëî íà 49% (â òî æå âðåìÿ â
Ìîñêîâñêîì îêðóãå ïðèðîñò ñîñòàâèë 37%). ×èñëî äåë î òåëåñíûõ ïîâðåæäåíèÿõ âûðîñëî çà 20 ëåò (1885-1907) â 4-5 ðàç.9 Òî åñòü ìîæíî
ãîâîðèòü î òîì, ÷òî æèçíü â îäíîì èç íàèáîëåå äèíàìè÷íî ðàçâèâàâøèõñÿ ãîðîäîâ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè áûëà îòìå÷åíà êîìïëåêñíûì ñîöèàëüíûì ñòðåññîì, âûçûâàâøèìñÿ (íàðÿäó ñ îñòðûì æèëèùíûì êðèçèñîì è ïðîáëåìîé çàíÿòîñòè) òàêæå è ðîñòîì ïðåñòóïíîñòè, êîòîðàÿ,
îäíàêî, íå ïðåâûøàëà ñðåäíåðîññèéñêîãî óðîâíÿ.
Åâðåè âîîáùå íèêàê íå âûäåëÿëèñü â îáùåèìïåðñêîé êðèìèíàëüíîé ñòàòèñòèêå: ïðîöåíò åâðååâ ñðåäè îñóæäåííûõ êîëåáàëñÿ â ïðåäåëàõ 3.4-3.9%,10 ò.å. áûë ÷óòü ìåíüøå äîëè åâðååâ ñðåäè íàñåëåíèÿ èìïåðèè (4.15% â 1897 ãîäó). Â òî âðåìÿ êàê ñîìíèòåëüíîå ïåðâîå ìåñòî ïî
÷èñëó àðåñòàíòîâ íà êàæäûå ñòî òûñÿ÷ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé äàííîé ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû â 1909-1913 ãã. ïðèíàäëåæàëî ïîëÿêàì, à çà íèìè ñëåäîâàëè
ðóññêèå, ëàòûøè è ëèòîâöû; åâðåè, êàê ïðàâèëî, äåìîíñòðèðîâàëè ïîêàçàòåëè íèæå ñðåäíåãî ïî èìïåðèè. Òàê, åñëè â 1913 ã. â ñðåäíåì ïî
Ðîññèè íà êàæäûå 100.000 ÷åëîâåê ïðèõîäèëîñü 104 îñóæäåííûõ, òî èç
êàæäûõ 100.000 åâðååâ òîëüêî 97 áûëè îñóæäåíû, à èç êàæäûõ 100.000
ïîëÿêî⠖ 130.  òî æå âðåìÿ åâðåè íå áûëè è îáðàçöîì çàêîíîïîñëóøíîñòè, òàê êàê â òîì æå ãîäó ýòîò ïîêàçàòåëü äëÿ òþðêî-ìóñóëüìàíñêèõ
íàðîäîâ, ê ïðèìåðó, ñîñòàâèë òîëüêî 55 ÷åëîâåê.11
Íà 100.000 ãîðîæàí â Îäåññå ïðèõîäèëîñü 224 îñóæäåííûõ, â Áàêó – 353, â Êàçàíè – 384, à â Íèæíåì Íîâãîðîäå 400 îñóæäåííûõ. Ñì.: Òàì æå. Ñ. 50.
9
Å. Òàðíîâñêèé. Ñâåäåíèÿ î äâèæåíèè ïðåñòóïíîñòè è î ÷èñëå ðåöèäèâèñòîâ çà
1885-1907 ãã. // Òþðåìíûé âåñòíèê. 1909. ¹ 1. Ñ. 58, 59.
10
Äàííûå çà 1909-1913 ãã. Ñâîä ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèõ ñâåäåíèé î ïîäñóäèìûõ,
îïðàâäàííûõ è îñóæäåííûõ ïî ïðèãîâîðàì îáùèõ ñóäåáíûõ ìåñò, ñóäåáíîìèðîâûõ óñòàíîâëåíèé è ó÷ðåæäåíèé, îáðàçîâàííûõ ïî çàêîíîïîëîæåíèÿì 12
èþëÿ 1889 ã. Çà 1913 ãîä. Ñ. 41.
11
Òàì æå. Ñ. 42.
8
213
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, îôèöèàëüíàÿ ñóäåáíàÿ ñòàòèñòèêà ëèøàåò ïðîáëåìó åâðåéñêîé êðèìèíàëüíîñòè íå òîëüêî ñåíñàöèîííîñòè, íî è êàêîéëèáî èñêëþ÷èòåëüíîñòè: öèôðû ðèñóþò ñèòóàöèþ, ëèøü íåçíà÷èòåëüíî
îòêëîíÿþùóþñÿ îò íîðìû, ïðè÷åì â ñòîðîíó áîëüøåé çàêîíîïîñëóøíîñòè åâðååâ. Îäíàêî, êàê èçâåñòíî, êðèìèíàëüíàÿ ñòàòèñòèêà, à òåì
áîëåå ñóäåáíàÿ, ìîæåò ÿâëÿòüñÿ ëèøü êîñâåííûì èíäèêàòîðîì îáùåé
äèíàìèêè ïðåñòóïíîñòè. Äàëåêî íå âñå àðåñòàíòû ñòàíîâÿòñÿ îñóæäåííûìè, íå âñå ïðåñòóïíèêè àðåñòîâûâàþòñÿ, çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü
ïðåñòóïëåíèé âîîáùå íå ðåãèñòðèðóåòñÿ (îñîáåííî ýêîíîìè÷åñêèå èëè
ñåêñóàëüíûå).  ñëó÷àå ïîëèýòíè÷åñêîé èìïåðèè è òàêîãî ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîãî ãîðîäà, êàê Îäåññà, óãîëîâíàÿ ñòàòèñòèêà íå ìîæåò ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ äàæå â êà÷åñòâå íàäåæíîãî ñâèäåòåëüñòâà “îòíîñèòåëüíîé
êðèìèíîãåííîñòè” òîãî èëè èíîãî ýòíîñà. Îôèöèàëüíî ðåãèñòðèðóþòñÿ â îñíîâíîì äåëèêòû, ïîñëåäñòâèÿ êîòîðûõ âûõîäÿò çà ïðåäåëû
äàííîé îáùèíû, èëè òå êîíôëèêòû, êîòîðûå íå ìîãóò áûòü óðåãóëèðîâàíû â ðàìêàõ îôèöèàëüíûõ èëè íåîôèöèàëüíûõ ñòðóêòóð ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ. Ïîýòîìó ñòàòèñòèêà êîëè÷åñòâà ïðàâîíàðóøåíèé èëè ñóäåáíûõ ïðèãîâîðîâ íà ñòî òûñÿ÷ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé òîé èëè èíîé ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò ñêîðåå î ñòåïåíè èíòåãðèðîâàííîñòè äàííîé ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû â èíñòèòóöèîíàëüíóþ ñòðóêòóðó ãîñóäàðñòâà:
èìåííî ýòèì, î÷åâèäíî, îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ íåâåðîÿòíî íèçêèé óðîâåíü îñóæäåííûõ ñðåäè “ãîðÿ÷èõ” òþðêñêèõ íàðîäîâ Êàâêàçà ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ
íàðîäàìè çàïàäíûõ îêðàèí (ïîëÿêàìè è ïðèáàëòàìè) – â 2,5 ðàçà! Òàêæå è â ñëó÷àå Îäåññû öèôðû îñóæäåííûõ åâðååâ ìîãóò îêàçàòüñÿ çíà÷èòåëüíî çàíèæåííûìè ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ öèôðàìè îñóæäåííûõ ðóññêèõ.
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, îôèöèàëüíàÿ ñòàòèñòèêà ÿâëÿåòñÿ âòîðîñòåïåííûì
èñòî÷íèêîì äëÿ èçó÷åíèÿ ðîëè åâðåéñêîé êðèìèíàëüíîñòè âíóòðè åâðåéñêîé îáùèíû â Îäåññå.
Îñòàåòñÿ îïèðàòüñÿ íà èñòî÷íèêè, ñ òðóäîì ïîääàþùèåñÿ ðåòðîñïåêòèâíîé ñòàòèñòè÷åñêîé îáðàáîòêå: ãàçåòíûå ïóáëèêàöèè è ïîëèöåéñêèå îò÷åòû. Îñíîâûâàÿñü íà àíàëèçå ñîäåðæàíèÿ âñåãî äâóõ ïîïóëÿðíûõ îäåññêèõ ãàçåò (èç íåñêîëüêèõ äþæèí âûõîäèâøèõ â ãîðîäå), Ðîøàííà Ñèëüâåñòð óáåäèòåëüíî âîññîçäàåò àòìîñôåðó âèðòóàëüíîãî
ïðèñóòñòâèÿ åâðåéñêîé êðèìèíàëüíîñòè êàê ïîñòîÿííîãî ôàêòîðà ãîðîäñêîé æèçíè â Îäåññå.12 Ðåãóëÿðíûå (äâà ðàçà â íåäåëþ) äîíåñåíèÿ
12
Ñì. Roshanna Patricia Sylvester. Crime, Masquerade, and Anxiety: The Public Creation
of Middle-Class Identity in Pre-Revolutionary Odessa, 1912-1916 / Ph.D. dissertation;
Yale University, 1998, îñîáåííî Ãëàâà 5, “City of Thieves”.
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íà÷àëüíèêà îäåññêîé ñûñêíîé ïîëèöèè â Æàíäàðìñêîå Óïðàâëåíèå î
çíà÷èòåëüíûõ ïðîèñøåñòâèÿõ, çàôèêñèðîâàííûõ ïîëèöèåé, ÿâëÿþòñÿ
áîëåå ðåïðåçåíòàòèâíûì èñòî÷íèêîì, õîòÿ â íåì äàëåêî íå âñåãäà óêàçûâàåòñÿ ýòíè÷íîñòü èëè âåðîèñïîâåäàíèå óïîìèíàåìûõ ëèö (÷òî çàñòàâëÿåò îáðàùàòüñÿ ê òðàäèöèîííîìó “èìïåðñêîìó” ïðèåìó îïðåäåëåíèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîñòè ïî èìåíè è ôàìèëèè). Äàæå åñëè ðàññìàòðèâàòü äîíåñåíèÿ ïðåæäå âñåãî êàê íàððàòèâíûé èñòî÷íèê, îáðàùàåò íà
ñåáÿ âíèìàíèå çíà÷èòåëüíûé óäåëüíûé âåñ “åâðåéñêèõ” ñþæåòîâ. Ìîæíî ñ äîñòàòî÷íîé ñòåïåíüþ óâåðåííîñòè ãîâîðèòü î òîì, ÷òî, ïî èíôîðìàöèè ñûñêíîé ïîëèöèè (êîòîðàÿ, êñòàòè, íèêàê äèñêóðñèâíî èëè
ñèìâîëè÷åñêè íå âûäåëÿëà ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûé àñïåêò ðåãèñòðèðóåìûõ ïðîèñøåñòâèé), åâðåè èãðàëè çíà÷èòåëüíóþ ðîëü â îáùåé êðèìèíîãåííîé ñèòóàöèè, ÷àñòî äàâàÿ 25-50% çàôèêñèðîâàííûõ ñëó÷àåâ.
Ïðåñòóïëåíèå áåç íàêàçàíèÿ?
Âîçíèêàåò çàêîíîìåðíûé âîïðîñ: ÷òî æå ðàññìàòðèâàòü êàê ïðåñòóïëåíèå ñåãîäíÿ, ñïóñòÿ ñòî ëåò ïîñëå îïèñûâàåìûõ ñîáûòèé, ìîæåì ëè
ìû ïîëíîñòüþ îòîæäåñòâëÿòüñÿ ñ íàøèì íàèáîëåå öåííûì èñòî÷íèêîì
(äîêëàäû íà÷àëüíèêà ñûñêíîé ïîëèöèè), ïðèíàäëåæàùèì ïðåäñòàâèòåëþ ïðàâîîõðàíèòåëüíûõ îðãàíîâ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè? Ñ ýòèì âîïðîñîì ñâÿçàí è ñëåäóþùèé – ÷òî ìû ìîæåì óçíàòü â ðåçóëüòàòå àíàëèçà
ñòðóêòóðû åâðåéñêîé “ïðåñòóïíîñòè”: êðèìèíàëüíûå ñêëîííîñòè îäåññêèõ åâðååâ êàê ýòíè÷åñêîé ãðóïïû èëè ñïåöèôèêó “ðåïðåññèâíîé ïîëèòèêè” ðîññèéñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê åâðåÿì?
Ýìèëþ Äþðêãåéìó ïðèíàäëåæèò çàñëóãà “íîðìàëèçàöèè” ôåíîìåíà
ïðåñòóïíîñòè êàê íåïðåìåííîãî ýëåìåíòà ñîöèàëüíîé îðãàíèçàöèè ëþáîãî îáùåñòâà,13 íåñìîòðÿ íà êðàéíå äâóñìûñëåííûå ôîðìóëèðîâêè,14
“Íå ñóùåñòâóåò îáùåñòâà, êîòîðîå íå ñòàëêèâàåòñÿ ñ ïðîáëåìîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè... Âîïðåêè ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûì âçãëÿäàì, ïðåñòóïíèê áîëåå íå ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ
êàê ïîëíîñòüþ àñîöèàëüíîå ñóùåñòâî, ðàçíîâèäíîñòü ïàðàçèòè÷åñêîãî ýëåìåíòà,
÷óæäîå è íåàññèìèëèðóåìîå òåëî, âíåäðèâøååñÿ âíóòðü îáùåñòâà. Íàïðîòèâ, îí
èãðàåò îïðåäåëåííóþ ðîëü â ñîöèàëüíîé æèçíè.” Emile Durkheim. The Rules of the
Sociological Method // George Simpson. Selections From His Work. New York, 1963.
Pp. 62, 63.
14
“Ìû íå äîëæíû ãîâîðèòü, ÷òî äåÿíèå ïîòðÿñàåò êîëëåêòèâíîå ñîçíàíèå, ïîòîìó
÷òî ïðåñòóïíî, íî, ñêîðåå, ÷òî îíî ïðåñòóïíî ïîòîìó, ÷òî ïîòðÿñàåò êîëëåêòèâíîå
ñîçíàíèå. Ìû íå îñóæäàåì åãî ïîòîìó, ÷òî ýòî ïðåñòóïëåíèå, à îíî ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðåñòóïëåíèåì, òàê êàê ìû îñóæäàåì åãî.” Emile Durkheim. The Division of Labor in
Society // Anthony Giddens. Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings. London, 1972. Pp.
123-124.
13
215
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ïîä÷àñ òàâòîëîãè÷åñêè ñâîäÿùèå ñóòü ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ ê íàðóøåíèþ
þðèäè÷åñêèõ óñòàíîâëåíèé.15  ÕÕ âåêå, íà÷èíàÿ ñ êëàññè÷åñêîé ðàííåé ðàáîòû Ïèòèðèìà Ñîðîêèíà “Ïðåñòóïëåíèå è êàðà, ïîäâèã è íàãðàäà” (1913-1914 ãã.), ïðåñòóïëåíèå ðàññìàòðèâàëîñü ñîöèîëîãàìè – âíå
çàâèñèìîñòè îò îáùèõ ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêèõ ïðåäïî÷òåíèé òîãî èëè èíîãî àâòîðà – êàê íàðóøåíèå íîðì (ïðàâîâûõ, êóëüòóðíûõ è ïð.), ïðèíÿòûõ â äàííîì îáùåñòâå. Äëÿ ïðèìåðà ðàññìîòðèì òðåõ î÷åíü ðàçíûõ
èññëåäîâàòåëåé, ñìåíÿâøèõ äðóã äðóãà â ðîëè êóìèðîâ â îáùåñòâîâåäåíèè, ÷üè èäåè ñîõðàíÿëè ñâîå çíà÷åíèå è àêòóàëüíîñòü è ïîñëå òîãî,
êàê ïðîõîäèë ïèê ïîïóëÿðíîñòè.
“Èíà÷å ãîâîðÿ, ïðåñòóïíûå èëè çàïðåùåííûå àêòû ñóòü àêòû, ïðîòèâîðå÷àùèå ‘äîçâîëåííî-äîëæíîìó’ øàáëîíó ïîâåäåíèÿ,” – ïèñàë
Ñîðîêèí ïåðåä ïåðâîé ìèðîâîé âîéíîé.16  äàëüíåéøèõ ñâîèõ ðàáîòàõ Ñîðîêèí óòî÷íÿë, ÷òî ðå÷ü èäåò î êðèòèêå ïîçèòèâèçìà, à íå î ïîëíîì ðåëÿòèâèçìå, èáî ñóùåñòâóþò òèïû äåÿíèé (óáèéñòâî, ÷ëåíîâðåäèòåëüñòâî, ãðàáåæ è ò.ä.), êîòîðûå ïðèçíàâàëèñü ïðåñòóïëåíèåì âî
âñåõ ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàííûõ èì óãîëîâíûõ êîäåêñàõ âòîðîãî òûñÿ÷åëåòèÿ íàøåé ýðû.17
Ò. Ïàðñîíñ ïîäõîäèë ê îïðåäåëåíèþ ïîíÿòèÿ ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ ïî-äðóãîìó, ÷åðåç òåîðèþ äåâèàíòíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ, îñíîâàííóþ íà ìîäåëè ñîñòîÿíèÿ ðàâíîâåñèÿ îòêðûòûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ ñèñòåì è ïñèõîëîãèè èíäèâèäóàëüíîé ìîòèâàöèè (îí ïûòàåòñÿ ðàçäåëÿòü ëè÷íîñòü ñóáúåêòà íà
“ego” è “alter”, ïðèïèñûâàÿ êàæäîé ïîëîâèíêå ñîáñòâåííóþ ñòðàòåãèþ
ïîâåäåíèÿ, áóäòî èìååò äåëî ñ ðåàëüíûìè ôèãóðàìè).18 Íî è òàêîé êîìïëåêñíûé ïîäõîä îòëè÷àåòñÿ òåì, ÷òî äåâèàöèÿ (è ïðåñòóïëåíèå) îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ ÷åðåç îïðåäåëåíèå íîðìû èëè ñîñòîÿíèÿ “ðàâíîâåñèÿ”.
Íàêîíåö, Ìèøåëü Ôóêî â êíèãå, öåííîé ñêîðåå êàê ñîöèîëîãè÷åñêîå, íåæåëè èñòîðè÷åñêîå èññëåäîâàíèå, îïðåäåëÿåò ïðåñòóïëåíèå
“Òàêèì îáðàçîì, íå ñóùåñòâóåò ôåíîìåíà, êîòîðûé ïðåäñòàâëÿåò áîëåå áåññïîðíî
âñå ñèìïòîìû íîðìàëüíîñòè [÷åì óãîëîâíàÿ ðåïðåññèÿ], ïîñêîëüêó îí îêàçûâàåòñÿ
òåñíî ñâÿçàííûì ñ óñëîâèÿìè âñåé êîëëåêòèâíîé æèçíè”. Emile Durkheim. The
Rules of the Sociological Method // George Simpson. Selections From His Work. New
York, 1963. P. 62.
16
Öèòèðóåòñÿ ïî ñîâðåìåííîìó èçäàíèþ: Ï. À. Ñîðîêèí. ×åëîâåê. Öèâèëèçàöèÿ.
Îáùåñòâî. Ìîñêâà, 1992. Ñ. 76.
17
Ñì.: Pitirim A. Sorokin. Social and Cultural Dynamics. Vol. 2. Fluctuation of Systems
of Truth, Ethics, and Law. New York, 1962 (©1937). Pp. 576-577, et al.
18
Ñì. íàïð.: Talcott Parsons. The Social System. New York and London, 1964 (©1951).
Pp. 249-257, et al.
15
216
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
î÷åíü áëèçêî ê Ñîðîêèíó, êàê òî, ÷òî îáùåñòâî îáúåêòèâèçèðóåò è êîäèôèöèðóåò êàê äåëèêò, êàê âñå, ÷òî âûõîäèò çà ðàìêè íàâÿçûâàåìîãî
îáùåñòâîì èíäèâèäó íîðìàòèâíîãî äèñêóðñà ñîöèàëèçàöèè (“äîçâîëåííî-äîëæíîìó øàáëîíó ïîâåäåíèÿ”, íà ÿçûêå Ñîðîêèíà).19 Òàêèì
îáðàçîì, âíå çàâèñèìîñòè îò ïîäõîäà (êîíñòðóêòèâèñòñêîãî, ôóíêöèîíàëüíîãî, ÿðëûêîâîãî [labeling]), äîìèíèðóþùèå ñîöèîëîãè÷åñêèå
ñèñòåìû îïèñûâàþò ïðåñòóïëåíèå íåãàòèâíî, êàê äåâèàöèþ îò ïðèíÿòîé â îáùåñòâå íîðìû èëè äîñòèãíóòîãî ñîñòîÿíèÿ ðàâíîâåñèÿ ñîöèàëüíîé ñèñòåìû. Ïîëó÷àåòñÿ, ÷òî ïðåñòóïëåíèå – íå ïðåñòóïëåíèå, åñëè
çà íåãî íå ïðåäóñìîòðåíî íàêàçàíèå
Òåì ñàìûì èçáåãàåòñÿ îïàñíîñòü ïîïàäàíèÿ â äèñêóðñèâíóþ “÷åðíóþ äûðó” îïðåäåëåíèÿ “ñóùíîñòè” ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ, íî çàòî èñòîðèÿ
ïðåñòóïíîñòè ëèøàåòñÿ ÷åòêîé ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêîé îñíîâû.  êîíöå
1970-õ ãîäîâ êàçàëîñü, ÷òî ñ ïóáëèêàöèåé âàæíûõ èññëåäîâàíèé àíãëèéñêèõ èñòîðèêîâ (ïðåæäå âñåãî Ý. Ï. Òîìïñîíà) è “Ðîæäåíèÿ òþðüìû” Ôóêî ôîðìèðóåòñÿ íîâîå íàïðàâëåíèå èñòîðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé: èçó÷åíèå ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ è íàêàçàíèÿ â Íîâîå âðåìÿ.20  òî æå âðåìÿ, ïåðñïåêòèâû ýòîãî íàïðàâëåíèÿ áûëè îìðà÷åíû òåì îáñòîÿòåëüñòâîì, ÷òî êîíöåïòóàëüíî íîâûå èñòîðèè ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ âïèñûâàëèñü
â îáùèå ñõåìû ñîöèàëüíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ, êîòîðûå ad hoc ïðèñïîñàáëèâàëèñü ê âåñüìà ñïåöèôè÷åñêîìó ìàòåðèàëó.21 Èòîã ýòîé “ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêîé íåäîñòàòî÷íîñòè” áûë ïîäâåäåí äâàäöàòü ëåò ñïóñòÿ:
Çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì Áðèòàíèè è Ñîåäèíåííûõ Øòàòîâ, ñîâðåìåííûé ïåðèîä [íà÷èíàÿ ñ XIX âåêà] ïî÷òè íå âäîõíîâèë íàïèñàíèå
ñêîëüêî-íèáóäü çíà÷èòåëüíûõ ðàáîò, íåñìîòðÿ íà îáèëèå ñòàíäàðòèçèðîâàííîãî ìàòåðèàëà. Êîëè÷åñòâî îñíîâîïîëàãàþùèõ
èññëåäîâàíèé ïî èñòîðèè ïðåñòóïíîñòè â ñîâðåìåííîé Åâðîïå
ìîæíî ñîñ÷èòàòü ïî ïàëüöàì îäíîé ðóêè.22
Michel Foucault. Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison. Harmondsworth,
1977.
20
Ñì. Patricia O’Brien. Crime and Punishment as Historical Problem // Journal of Social
History. 1978. Vol. 11. Pp. 508-520.
21
Ñð.: “òåîðåòè÷åñêèé èíñòðóìåíòàðèé, èñïîëüçóåìûé è ñîçäàâàåìûé ìíîãèìè
èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè â ýòîé îáëàñòè, âñå åùå íàõîäèòñÿ íà ïðèìèòèâíîì óðîâíå
ðàçâèòèÿ.” Òàì æå. P. 508.
22
Xavier Rousseaux. From Medieval Cities to National States, 1350-1850: The Historiography of Crime and Criminal Justice in Europe // Clive Emsley and Louis A. Knafla
(Eds.). Crime Histories and Histories of Crime: Studies in the Historiography of Crime
and Criminal Justice in Modern History. Westport, CT, 1996. P. 4.
19
217
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Îäíèì èç ñëåäñòâèé îòñóòñòâèÿ óíèâåðñàëüíîé ìîäåëè ñòàíîâèòñÿ
çàòðóäíåííîñòü èëè äàæå íåâîçìîæíîñòü êîìïàðàòèâíûõ èññëåäîâàíèé ïðåñòóïíîñòè: ìåæäóíàðîäíûõ èëè ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ (â ðàìêàõ îäíîé ñòðàíû).23 Êîíå÷íî æå, íà ïóñòîì ìåñòå, “èç ñåáÿ” è ïî çàêàçó, òåîðèè òàêîãî ðîäà íå èçîáðåòàþòñÿ.24 Îäíàêî óæå ñåé÷àñ ïîíÿòíî, êàêîé
ïðèìåðíî äîëæíà áûòü íîâàÿ òåîðèÿ, ÷òîáû ïîìî÷ü â êîíöåïòóàëèçàöèè ýìïèðè÷åñêîãî ìàòåðèàëà, ñ êîòîðûì ñòàëêèâàþòñÿ ñåãîäíÿ èññëåäîâàòåëè êðèìèíàëüíîãî:
(1) Íå õâàòàåò òåîðèè, êîòîðàÿ ïîçâîëÿëà áû àíàëèçèðîâàòü ïðîäóêòèâíûå ðåçóëüòàòû ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ.
(2) Íå õâàòàåò òåîðèè, êîòîðàÿ ó÷èòûâàëà áû òàêæå íåèçáåæíîñòü
ïðåñòóïëåíèé.
(3) Íå õâàòàåò òåîðèè, êîòîðàÿ îòäåëÿëà áû ïðåñòóïëåíèå è íàðóøèòåëÿ îò íåãàòèâíîãî ñìûñëîâîãî êîíòåêñòà, íå âïàäàÿ ïðè ýòîì â
òðèâèàëèçàöèþ è ñàìîäîâîëüíûé êîíñòðóêòèâèçì.
(4) Áîëåå òîãî, íå õâàòàåò òåîðèè, êîòîðàÿ òàêæå ïîçâîëÿëà áû ó÷èòûâàòü ïîçèòèâíûå àñïåêòû ñîöèàëüíîãî êîíòðîëÿ ñî ñòîðîíû óãîëîâíîãî ïðàâà.
(5) Íàêîíåö, â îñîáåííîñòè íå õâàòàåò ñîãëàñîâàííîé òåîðèè, êîòîðàÿ áû ïûòàëàñü ïîäòâåðäèòü íåðàçäåëèìóþ ñâÿçü ìåæäó ïðåñòóïëåíèåì, ñîöèàëüíîé ñòðóêòóðîé è ñåìàíòèêîé îáùåñòâà.25
Ïî ñóòè, ðå÷ü èäåò î òîì, ÷òî íåîáõîäèìî êàêèì-òî îáðàçîì êîíöåïòóàëèçèðîâàòü êîíñòðóêòèâíóþ ðîëü êðèìèíàëüíîñòè è îáúÿñíèòü
åå èììàíåíòíûé ëþáîìó ñîöèóìó õàðàêòåð – íå âïàäàÿ ïðè ýòîì â
ïåññèìèñòè÷åñêèé íèãèëèçì èëè, íàïðîòèâ, àìîðàëüíóþ àïîëîãåòèêó.
( òîì, ÷òî ñàì ôàêò ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ ïðåñòóïíîñòè îáåñïå÷èâàåò ïðîöâåòàíèå ñòðàõîâîé èíäóñòðèè, ïðîèçâîäèòåëåé ñðåäñòâ çàùèòû è ñèñòåì áåçîïàñíîñòè, ÑÌÈ, êîíñåðâàòèâíûõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ïàðòèé è ò.ï.,
Ñì. Michael Tonry. Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration // Michael Tonry. Ethnicity,
Crime, and Immigration: Comparative and Cross-National Perspectives. Chicago, 1997.
Pp. 4-5, et al.
24
À åñëè èçîáðåòàþòñÿ, òî ñ ïëà÷åâíûìè ïîñëåäñòâèÿìè. Ñì. ñàìîíàäåÿííóþ
ïîïûòêó òàêîãî ðîäà (àâòîðû äàæå â ñíîñêàõ íå óïîìèíàþò Ì. Ôóêî è äðóãèå
ïðèçíàííûå àâòîðèòåòû êðèìèíàëüíîé ñîöèîëîãèè): Michael R. Gottfredson and
Travis Hirschi. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, CA., 1990.
25
Kai-D. Bussman. Variation, Selection and Stabilization: An Evolutionary Theory of
Crime and Control // Susanne Karstedt and Kai-D. Bussman (Eds.). Social Dynamics of
Crime and Control: New Theories for a World in Transition. Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2000. P. 244.
23
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ñîìíåâàòüñÿ íå ïðèõîäèòñÿ.)26 Â îæèäàíèè ïîÿâëåíèÿ íîâîé òåîðèè,
äåéñòâèòåëüíî óäîâëåòâîðÿþùåé ïåðå÷èñëåííûì òðåáîâàíèÿì, îáðàòèì âíèìàíèå íà åå ýëåìåíòû, ñîäåðæàùèåñÿ â ðàáîòàõ óïîìèíàâøèõñÿ âûøå êëàññèêîâ ñîâðåìåííîé ñîöèîëîãèè.
Âî-ïåðâûõ, ýòî èäåÿ ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ êàê âàæíîãî ôàêòîðà ñîöèàëüíîé èíòåãðàöèè è àäàïòàöèè. Ïî ñëîâàì ñîâðåìåííîãî èññëåäîâàòåëÿ,
ïûòàþùåãîñÿ íàìåòèòü êîíòóðû íîâîé òåîðèè ïðåñòóïíîñòè, “ïðåñòóïëåíèå ñëóæèò äëÿ êîîðäèíàöèè îòíîøåíèé ìåæäó ðàçíûìè äèñêóðñàìè è ñèñòåìàìè. Ýòî äåëàåò åãî êîíñòðóêòîì, êîòîðûé íàïðàâëÿåò áîëüøóþ ÷àñòü êîììóíèêàöèè âíóòðè îáùåñòâà ”27 Òàêîé ïîäõîä ê îïðåäåëåíèþ “íå-äåñòðóêòèâíûõ” (ñêàæåì îñòîðîæíî) ôóíêöèé ïðåñòóïíîñòè ìîæíî íàéòè ó Ïàðñîíñà: îí îïðåäåëÿåò “äåâèàíòíîñòü” ñîöèàëüíîé ñèñòåìû ÷åðåç òåíäåíöèþ ê èçìåíåíèþ ñîñòîÿíèÿ îòêðûòîé
ñèñòåìû èëè óñòàíîâëåíèþ íîâîãî ðàâíîâåñèÿ ìåæäó âçàèìîäåéñòâóþùèìè ñèëàìè.28 Òî åñòü ïðåñòóïíîñòü çàñòàâëÿåò îòäåëüíûå ñîöèàëüíûå ñèëû (àêòîðîâ) è îáùåñòâî â öåëîì “ïåðåíàñòðàèâàòüñÿ” ñ ó÷åòîì âûÿâëåííûõ äåôåêòîâ ñèñòåìû, ôîðìèðîâàòü íîðìàòèâíûå äèñêóðñû î òîì, ÷òî ñ÷èòàòü ïðèåìëåìûì, à ÷òî íåò, âñòóïàòü âî âçàèìîäåéñòâèå (ïóñòü è ÷åðåç êîíôëèêò) ñ ñîöèàëüíûìè ãðóïïàìè è ÿâëåíèÿìè, êîòîðûå èíà÷å èãíîðèðîâàëèñü.
Âî-âòîðûõ, óæå Ïèòèðèì Ñîðîêèí îïèñûâàë ôåíîìåí ñîöèàëüíîãî
âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ è âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ ñîöèàëüíûõ ñòðóêòóð êàê ïðîöåññ
ñïîíòàííîé ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè, ïðîèñõîäÿùèé ïîñòîÿííî è íåçàâèñèìî îò äîìèíèðóþùèõ â îáùåñòâå ïðåäñòàâëåíèé è öåííîñòåé.29 Óñòîé÷èâîñòü íîâîîáðàçîâàííûõ ñòðóêòóð çàâèñèò îò ìíîãèõ ôàêòîðîâ
(óñïåøíîñòü ñàìîîáó÷åíèÿ ìåòîäîì ïðîá è îøèáîê, âçàèìîäåéñòâèå ñ
îêðóæàþùèìè ñòðóêòóðàìè è ò.ä.), íî â ïðèíöèïå ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî ïîñòîÿííî âîçíèêàþò àññîöèàöèè èíäèâèäóóìîâ è ñòðóêòóðû ïîâåäåíèÿ è äåÿòåëüíîñòè, êîòîðûå ïðîòèâîðå÷àò äîìèíèðóþùèì
â îáùåñòâå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿì î íîðìå. Äàæå åñëè êàæäàÿ “îðãàíèçàöèÿ”
â îòäåëüíîñòè ñóùåñòâóåò íåïðîäîëæèòåëüíîå âðåìÿ, ñàì ôàêòîð ïðèñóòñòâèÿ “íàðîæäàþùåãîñÿ” àíòèñèñòåìíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ îêàçûâàåòñÿ
ïîñòîÿííûì.
Òàì æå. P. 251.
Òàì æå. P. 253.
28
Talcott Parsons. Op. Cit. P. 250 et al.
29
Ñì. íàïð.: Pitirim Sorokin. Society, Culture, and Personality: Their Structure and
Dynamics. A System of general Sociology. New York and London, 1947. Pp. 371-372,
et al.
26
27
219
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Ìíå õîòåëîñü áû îñòàíîâèòüñÿ ïîäðîáíåå íà ýòîì ïîñëåäíåì àðãóìåíòå. Òî÷íåå áûëî áû ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî, ïîäîáíî ñóùåñòâóþùåé â
ïðèðîäå ôîíîâîé ðàäèàöèè, íå ñâÿçàííîé íàïðÿìóþ ñ îòäåëüíûìè êàòàêëèçìàìè âñåëåíñêîãî ìàñøòàáà, ñóùåñòâóåò íåêèé ôîíîâûé óðîâåíü
“ñàìîäåÿòåëüíîé ñîöèàëüíîé àêòèâíîñòè”, êîòîðàÿ âîçíèêàåò ñïîíòàííî â ëþáîì ÷åëîâå÷åñêîì êîëëåêòèâå è ñóùåñòâóåò ïîñòîÿííî.  ïðèíöèïå, ýòà èäåÿ ïðèñóòñòâóåò èìïëèöèòíî è ó Ïàðñîíñà, îñîáåííî åñëè
åãî êîíöåïöèþ âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ îòêðûòûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ ñèñòåì ñêîððåêòèðîâàòü ñ ó÷åòîì ñîâðåìåííûõ ïðåäñòàâëåíèé îá ýòîì ïðîöåññå, ñôîðìóëèðîâàííûõ â ðàìêàõ ñèíåðãåòèêè.30 Ëþáîå âçàèìîäåéñòâèå èíäèâèäîâ è êîëëåêòèâîâ âûçûâàåò ê æèçíè ñòðàòåãèè ïîâåäåíèÿ, îò ýëåìåí30
 êîíöå 1970-õ ãîäîâ òàê íàçûâàåìàÿ “Áðþññåëüñêàÿ øêîëà” (èëè øêîëà
Ïðèãîæèíà) ñôîðìóëèðîâàëà îñíîâíîé ïîñòóëàò íîâîãî ïîíèìàíèÿ äèíàìè÷åñêèõ
ïðîöåññîâ â îòêðûòûõ ñèñòåìàõ: “ñîñòîÿíèå íåðàâíîâåñèÿ ìîæåò áûòü èñòî÷íèêîì
ïîðÿäêà”. Ñì. Gregoire Nicolis, Ilia Prigogine. Self-Organisation in Nonequilibrium
Systems: From Dissipative Structures to Order through Fluctuations. New York, London,
Sydney, Toronto, 1977. P. 3.
Îïèðàÿñü íà èññëåäîâàíèÿ ñëîæíûõ õèìè÷åñêèõ ïðîöåññîâ è òåîðèþ èíôîðìàöèè, êîëëåãè Ïðèãîæèíà êîíöåïòóàëèçèðîâàëè ñîñòîÿíèå õàîñà, íåðàâíîâåñèÿ êàê
íîðìó äëÿ îòêðûòûõ ñèñòåì (äëÿ Ïàðñîíñà ýòî êàê ðàç èñêëþ÷åíèå è äåâèàöèÿ),
êîòîðàÿ ïîðîæäàåò ñòðóêòóðèðîâàííûé ïîðÿäîê â ðåçóëüòàòå ýâîëþöèè è îòáîðà:
“Ìû îêàçûâàåìñÿ â ìèðå, â êîòîðîì îáðàòèìîñòü è äåòåðìèíèçì íàõîäÿò ïðèìåíåíèå ëèøü â îãðàíè÷åííûõ, ïðîñòûõ ñëó÷àÿõ, â òî âðåìÿ êàê íåîáðàòèìîñòü è
ñëó÷àéíîñòü ÿâëÿþòñÿ ïðàâèëîì.” “Ñóùåñòâîâàíèå íåóñòîé÷èâîñòè ìîæåò ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ êàê ðåçóëüòàò ôëóêòóàöèè, êîòîðàÿ ñíà÷àëà îáíàðóæèâàåòñÿ â íåáîëüøîé ÷àñòè ñèñòåìû, à çàòåì ðàñïðîñòðàíÿåòñÿ è âåäåò ê íîâîìó ìàêðîñêîïè÷åñêîìó ñîñòîÿíèþ.” Ilya Prigogine and Izabelle Stengers. Order out of Chaos: Man’s
New Dialogue with Nature. London, 1985. Pp. 8, 178.
 äàëüíåéøåì òåîðèÿ ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè, ïîñòîÿííîãî âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ “ïîðÿäêà èç
õàîñà” áûëà àäàïòèðîâàíà ê ñîöèàëüíûì ñèñòåìàì, äëÿ êîòîðûõ îíà îêàçàëàñü
åäâà ëè íå áîëåå ïîäõîäÿùåé, ÷åì äëÿ ïðèðîäíûõ ÿâëåíèé. Ñð.: “ åñòåñòâåííî
ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî äèíàìè÷åñêèå ìîäåëè, äîïóñêàþùèå ýâîëþöèþ è èçìåíåíèå,
äîëæíû áûòü íàèáîëåå àäåêâàòíû â ñëó÷àå ñîöèàëüíîé ñèñòåìû. Äèíàìè÷åñêàÿ
ìîäåëü ÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî îáùåñòâà èñõîäèò èç îñîçíàíèÿ, ÷òî, â äîïîëíåíèå ê åå âíóòðåííåé ñòðóêòóðå, ñèñòåìà ïðî÷íî óêîðåíåíà â îêðóæàþùåé ñðåäå, ñ êîòîðîé îíà
îáìåíèâàåòñÿ ìàòåðèåé, ýíåðãèåé è èíôîðìàöèåé.
Ýâîëþöèÿ òàêîé ñèñòåìû ÿâëÿåòñÿ âçàèìîäåéñòâèåì ìåæäó ïîâåäåíèåì åå àêòîðîâ è íàâÿçûâàåìûìè îêðóæàþùåé ñðåäîé îãðàíè÷åíèÿìè. Èìåííî çäåñü ÷åëîâå÷åñêàÿ ñèñòåìà îáíàðóæèâàåò ñâîþ óíèêàëüíóþ ñïåöèôèêó.  îòëè÷èå îò ìîëåêóë, äåéñòâóþùèõ ýëåìåíòîâ ôèçèêî-õèìè÷åñêèõ ñèñòåì è äàæå ìóðàâüåâ.., ÷åëîâå÷åñêèå ñóùåñòâà ôîðìèðóþò èíäèâèäóàëüíûå ïðîåêòû è æåëàíèÿ.” Gregoire
Nicolis, Ilia Prigogine. Exploring Complexity: An Introduction. New York, 1989. P.
238.
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òàðíûõ äî ñëîæíûõ, êîòîðûå íàïðàâëåíû íà ðàñïðåäåëåíèå ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ ðåñóðñîâ è îðãàíèçàöèþ èåðàðõèè ïîä÷èíåíèÿ.
Ïåðåôðàçèðóÿ Ôóêî, ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü î íåêîé “ïåðâîáûòíîé ýêîíîìèêå ïðàâà”, êîòîðóþ ìîæíî íàáëþäàòü è ó ìàëûøåé â äåòñêîì ñàäó,
ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî óñòàíàâëèâàþùèõ ïîðÿäîê ïîëüçîâàíèÿ èãðóøêàìè
èëè êà÷åëÿìè, èåðàðõèè “ñèëüíûõ”, “ëîâêèõ”, “íàðÿäíûõ” è ò.ï., è â
î÷åðåäè âçðîñëûõ çà äåôèöèòîì (áèëåòàìè èëè âîäêîé).  äàííîì ñëó÷àå ðå÷ü èäåò íå ïðîñòî î ñóùåñòâîâàíèè “ìîðàëüíîé ýêîíîìèêè” â
ïîíèìàíèè Ý. Ï. Òîìïñîíà (ò.ê. ðå÷ü èäåò íå î òîì, êòî óñòàíàâëèâàåò
ïðàâèëà – ïèñàíûé çàêîí èëè íàðîäíûé îáû÷àé), à î òîì, ÷òî ïîðÿäîê
âîçíèêàåò èç “íåïîðÿäêà”, “äî-ïîðÿäêà” ïîñòîÿííî è âñþäó, ñïîíòàííî. Çà÷àñòóþ ýòà ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèÿ íèêàê íå ïåðåñåêàåòñÿ ñ íîðìàìè,
óñòàíîâëåííûìè îáû÷íûì ïðàâîì èëè çàêîíîäàòåëüñòâîì.31 Âëàñòü æå
è óæå ñôîðìèðîâàâøååñÿ ñòðóêòóðèðîâàííîå îáùåñòâî, ñòàëêèâàÿñü
(â ðàçíîå âðåìÿ èëè îäíîâðåìåííî) ñ ïðîÿâëåíèÿìè ñïîíòàííîé ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè “íàñåëåíèÿ”, õàðàêòåðèçóåò ÷àñòü ïîñòóïêîâ è ñàìîäåÿòåëüíûõ èåðàðõèé êàê íåçàêîííûå è “ïðåñòóïíûå”.
 îòëè÷èå îò àíàðõè÷åñêîé èíòåðïðåòàöèè Ôóêî, ïðåñòóïíèê ñ ýòîé
òî÷êè çðåíèÿ íå ïðîñòî æåðòâà âëàñòè è “îáùåñòâà”, ìîíîïîëèçèðîâàâøèõ ïðàâî è îïðåäåëåíèå “íîðìàëüíîñòè”. Îí îêàçûâàåòñÿ ÷àñòüþ
ñòðóêòóð(û) è ó÷àñòíèêîì äåéñòâèé, êîòîðûå âîçíèêàþò áåç ñàíêöèè è
ïîìèìî îáùåñòâà è ãîñóäàðñòâà è ïîêóøàþòñÿ íà äîñòèãíóòûé status
quo â îáùåñòâå è ïðåðîãàòèâû èíñòèòóòîâ ïî ðàñïðåäåëåíèþ è çàùèòå
ìàòåðèàëüíûõ è âëàñòíûõ ðåñóðñîâ. Ïðèìåð àíîìè÷åñêîãî ðîññèéñêîãî îáùåñòâà 1990-õ ãîäîâ îñîáåííî êðàñíîðå÷èâ â äàííîì ñëó÷àå, èáî
ñîâðåìåííîå è íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîå çíà÷åíèå ñëîâà “àâòîðèòåò” (óæå äàæå áåç îáÿçàòåëüíîãî ýïèòåòà “êðèìèíàëüíûé”) îçíà÷àåò
íåîôèöèàëüíóþ, íî ýôôåêòèâíóþ ñèñòåìó óïðàâëåíèÿ, ïàðàëëåëüíóþ
è àëüòåðíàòèâíóþ èíñòèòóöèîíàëüíîé âëàñòè. (Â òî æå âðåìÿ â ñîâðåìåííîì êîíòåêñòå âûñîêîèíòåãðèðîâàííîãî àìåðèêàíñêîãî îáùåñòâà
authority îáîçíà÷àåò èìåííî ôîðìàëüíóþ âëàñòíóþ èíñòàíöèþ).
Èíòåðåñíîå ðàçâèòèå ýòîãî àðãóìåíòà ñîäåðæèòñÿ â ðàáîòå àìåðèêàíñêèõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé Ñòåðãèîñà Ñêàïåðäàñà è Êîíñòàíòèíîñà ÑèÁîëåå òîãî, â ñèòóàöèè ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî âàêóóìà ìàñøòàáû ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè îáùåñòâà íà ïðèíöèïàõ “ïðèìèòèâíîé ýêîíîìèêè ïðàâà” ïðèíèìàþò õàðàêòåð àëüòåðíàòèâíîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ñòðóêòóðû, êîãäà ñèñòåìà, îñíîâàííàÿ íà ïðèíöèïàõ äðóæáû è ðîäñòâà, ñòàðåéøèí è ïîëåâûõ êîìàíäèðîâ, íà÷èíàåò êîíòðîëèðîâàòü îãðîìíûå òåððèòîðèè.
31
221
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ðîïîóëîñà “Áàíäû êàê ïðèìèòèâíûå ãîñóäàðñòâà”. Àâòîðû âïîëíå îñîçíàííî èñïîëüçóþò ñèíåðãåòè÷åñêóþ ìîäåëü ñîöèàëüíîé äèíàìèêè:
“Íàøåé îòïðàâíîé òî÷êîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ àíàðõèÿ, ñîñòîÿíèå áåç ïðèìåíèìûõ ïðàâ ñîáñòâåííîñòè èëè ïîâåäåí÷åñêèõ íîðì, íåîáõîäèìûõ äëÿ
ïðåäîòâðàùåíèÿ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïðèíóæäåíèÿ.”32 Îíè ïîêàçûâàþò, êàê
ïðèìèòèâíûå “ãîñóäàðñòâà â ãîñóäàðñòâå” âîçíèêàþò â ñèòóàöèÿõ íåäîñòàòî÷íîãî èëè îñëàáåâøåãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî êîíòðîëÿ è ÷òî â íåêîòîðûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ (íàïðèìåð, â äîìîäåðíîâûé ïåðèîä) äåéñòâèÿ áàíäãîñóäàðñòâ (ïèðàòîâ èëè íàåìíèêîâ íà ñïîðíûõ òåððèòîðèÿõ) äàæå íå
ðàññìàòðèâàþòñÿ ãîñóäàðñòâîì êàê ïðåñòóïëåíèå.33 “Áîðüáà ñ ïðåñòóïíîñòüþ” âîçíèêàåò òîãäà, êîãäà èíòåðåñû ãîñóäàðñòâà ïåðåñåêàþòñÿ ñ
èíòåðåñàìè ñàìîçâàííûõ îáðàçîâàíèé, ïðåñòóïíèê ñòàíîâèòñÿ âðàãîì
âñåãî “îáùåñòâà” íå ïðîñòî ïîòîìó, ÷òî ýòó ðîëü åìó íàâÿçûâàåòñÿ
ðåïðåññèâíûì îáùåñòâîì (Ôóêî), íî è ïîòîìó, ÷òî îí ôàêòè÷åñêè ó÷àñòâóåò ⠓ïðîåêòå”, ïðåäïîëàãàþùåì (â èäåàëå) ïîä÷èíåíèå èëè ðàçðóøåíèå ýòîãî ñàìîãî “îôèöèàëüíîãî îáùåñòâà”. Èìåííî ñ ýòèìè ñóùåñòâåííûìè îãîâîðêàìè ìîæíî ñîãëàñèòüñÿ ñ èíòåðïðåòàöèåé äîìîäåðíîâûõ áàíäèòîâ Ýðèêà Õîáñáàóìà:
Ñóòü ñîöèàëüíûõ áàíäèòîâ â òîì, ÷òî îíè êðåñòüÿíñêèå èçãîè, êîòîðûõ çåìëåâëàäåëåö è ãîñóäàðñòâî ðàññìàòðèâàþò êàê
ïðåñòóïíèêîâ, íî êîòîðûå îñòàþòñÿ â ðàìêàõ êðåñòüÿíñêîãî îáùåñòâà è âîñïðèíèìàþòñÿ åãî ÷ëåíàìè êàê ãåðîè, êàê çàùèòíèêè, ìñòèòåëè, áîðöû çà ñïðàâåäëèâîñòü, âåðîÿòíî äàæå ëèäåðû
îñâîáîæäåíèÿ, è â ëþáîì ñëó÷àå êàê ëþäè, êîòîðûìè íàäî âîñõèùàòüñÿ, ïîìîãàòü è ïîääåðæèâàòü. Ñîöèàëüíûé áàíäèòèçì
ýòîãî âèäà ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå óíèâåðñàëüíûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ ôåíîìåíîâ, èçâåñòíûõ èñòîðèè, è îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå óäèâèòåëüíî îäíîðîäíûõ.34
Stergious Skaperdas and Constantinos Syropoulos. Gangs as Primitive States / Research
paper. University of California, Irvine, 1993. P. 4.
33
Îäíîâðåìåííî äåëàþòñÿ ïîïûòêè ïðèìåíèòü ìîäåëè ñèíåðãåòèêè è íåëèíåéíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ ê ïðîáëåìå èíòåðïðåòàöèè êðèìèíàëüíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ è ïñèõîëîãèè
ïðåñòóïíèêà. Î÷åâèäíî, ïðîäîëæàþùèå òðàäèöèþ Ïàðñîíñà òàêèå ïîïûòêè ïîêà
íå ïðèâåëè ê îñîáî èíòåðåñíûì ðåçóëüòàòàì è íîâîìó ïîíèìàíèþ ïðîáëåìû, ïîìèìî ïåðåâîäà òðàäèöèîííûõ ñõåì äåâèàíòíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ íà ÿçûê òåîðèè ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè è íåóñòîé÷èâîãî ðàâíîâåñèÿ îòêðûòûõ ñèñòåì. Ñì. íàïð.: Glenn D.
Walters. Crime and Chaos: Applying Nonlinear Dynamic Principles to Problems in
Criminology // International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.
1999. Vol. 43, No. 2. Pp. 134-153.
34
Eric J. Hobsbaum. Bandits. Revised Edition. New York, 1981. Pp. 17, 18.
32
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Õîáñáàóìà íå ðàç óïðåêàëè â èäåàëèçàöèè “ñîöèàëüíîé” êîìïîíåíòû àðõàè÷åñêîãî áàíäèòèçìà, ïîñêîëüêó, êàê ïîêàçûâàþò èññëåäîâàíèÿ,
èìåííî ìåñòíîå êðåñòüÿíñêîå íàñåëåíèå ÿâëÿëîñü îñíîâíîé æåðòâîé
áàíäèòîâ, êîòîðûå çà÷àñòóþ íàõîäèëèñü íà ñîäåðæàíèè êðóïíûõ çåìëåâëàäåëüöåâ è âûïîëíÿëè ôóíêöèè ïî îõðàíå èõ ñîáñòâåííîñòè è ðåãóëèðîâàíèþ îòíîøåíèé ñ ýêñïëóàòèðóåìûì êðåñòüÿíñòâîì.35 Îäíàêî
ñàìà èäåÿ “áàíäèòèçìà” êàê ïðîäóêòà ñàìîäåÿòåëüíîñòè íàñåëåíèÿ (íàðÿäó ñ ïðàêòèêàìè âíóòðèîáùèííîé êîîïåðàöèè, ïåðåäåëîâ çåìåëüíûõ
ó÷àñòêîâ â ðàìêàõ îáùèíû è ò.ï.) êàæåòñÿ î÷åíü ïðîäóêòèâíîé.
“Îò êðîâè ê ìîøåííè÷åñòâó” èëè “îò íàðîäíè÷åñòâà –
ê ìàðêñèçìó”?
Ê íà÷àëó ÕÕ âåêà â ñðåäå êðèìèíîëîãîâ ñôîðìèðîâàëîñü ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î òîì, ÷òî õàðàêòåð ïðåñòóïíîñòè èçìåíÿåòñÿ âìåñòå ñ ìîäåðíèçàöèåé îáùåñòâà â öåëîì è îòäåëüíûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ ãðóïï: íà ñìåíó
æåñòîêèì è íàñèëüñòâåííûì äåéñòâèÿì â îòíîøåíèè ëè÷íîñòè ïðèõîäÿò ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ ïðîòèâ ñîáñòâåííîñòè (èëè “white-collar crime”, â
ñîâðåìåííîé èíòåðïðåòàöèè ýòîé òåîðèè). Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ñðåäè áîëåå ïðèìèòèâíûõ íàðîäîâ äîìèíèðóåò ïåðâûé òèï ïðåñòóïíîñòè, à
ñðåäè öèâèëèçîâàííûõ – âòîðîé. Íàïðèìåð, ðîññèéñêèé îáùåñòâåííûé äèñêóðñ (âûðàæåííûé â ïðîèçâåäåíèÿõ ëèòåðàòîðîâ-“ðåàëèñòîâ”)
ïðåäñòàâëÿë äåëî ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: “Òàòàðû ñîâåðøàþò ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ ñàìûå òÿæêèå: óáèéñòâà, ãðàáåæè è ïðî÷., – åâðåè æå ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî ãðåøàò ïðîòèâ ñîáñòâåííîñòè.”36 (Ïîä òàòàðàìè ïîíèìàëèñü
íå òîëüêî ñðåäíåâîëæñêèå òàòàðû è áàøêèðû, íî è òþðêñêèå íàðîäû
Êàâêàçà.) Îôèöèàëüíàÿ ñòàòèñòèêà ïîäòâåðæäàëà ýòî íàáëþäåíèå: äåéñòâèòåëüíî, â 1907 ã. çà êðàæó îñóäèëè ïî÷òè â äâà ðàçà áîëüøå åâðååâ,
÷åì òàòàð, çàòî çà óáèéñòâà – áîëåå ÷åì â ïÿòåðî áîëüøå òàòàð, ÷åì åâðååâ.37 Ýòè öèôðû ñïåöèàëüíî êîììåíòèðîâàëèñü, ïðè÷åì ïîä÷åðêèâàëàñü ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ àêòèâíîñòü åâðååâ (îñîáåííî àêòóàëüíàÿ â 1907 ã.):
Ñì. íàïð.: Anton Blok, “Social Banditry Reconsidered” è “Bandits and Boundaries:
Robber Bands and Secret Societies on the Dutch frontier (1730-1778)” // Anton Blok.
Honor and Violence. Cambridge, UK and Malden, MA, 2001. Pp. 14-43.
36
Ï. È. Êîâàëåâñêèé. Ïñèõîëîãèÿ ïðåñòóïíèêà ïî ðóññêîé ëèòåðàòóðå î êàòîðãå.
ÑÏá., 1900. Ñ. 110.
37
Ñì.: Ñâîä ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèõ ñâåäåíèé ïî äåëàì óãîëîâíûì, ïðîèçâîäèâøèìñÿ â
1907 ãîäó â ñóäåáíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèÿõ, äåéñòâóþùèõ íà îñíîâàíèè óñòàâîâ
èìïåðàòîðà Àëåêñàíäðà II. ÑÏá., 1910. Ñ. 42.
35
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È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Ñóùåñòâåííûå îòëè÷èÿ îò âñåõ îñòàëüíûõ íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé
ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ïðåñòóïíîñòü åâðååâ. Íà ïåðâîì ìåñòå ó åâðååâ ñòîèò
êðàæà, íî íà âòîðîì íå ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ ïðîòèâ ïîðÿäêà óïðàâëåíèÿ èëè òåëåñíûå ïîâðåæäåíèÿ, à – ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ ãîñóäàðñòâåííûå, çà êîòîðûå îñóæäåíî îêîëî 22% îáùåãî ÷èñëà îñóæäåííûõ
åâðååâ. Ìåæäó òåì ðóññêèõ çà ãîñóäàðñòâåííûå ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ
îñóæäåíî òîëüêî 7% îáùåãî ÷èñëà, ëèòîâöåâ è ïîëÿêî⠖ ìåíåå
5%. Äàëåå, ñðåäè åâðååâ ñèëüíî ðàçâèòû: íàðóøåíèå óñòàâîâ êàçåííûõ óïðàâëåíèé, ìîøåííè÷åñòâî Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ñðàâíèòåëüíî ìàëî îñóæäåíî åâðååâ çà óáèéñòâî, íàíåñåíèå òåëåñíûõ
ïîâðåæäåíèé 38
Ìèøåëü Ôóêî âîçâîäèò ñòàðîå íàáëþäåíèå êðèìèíàëèñòîâ â îñíîâíîé çàêîí ìîäåðíèçàöèè, îïèñàííîé ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ áîðüáû îáùåñòâà ñî ñâîèìè âðàãàìè:
Ôàêòè÷åñêè, ïåðåõîä îò êðèìèíàëüíîñòè êðîâè ê êðèìèíàëüíîñòè ìîøåííè÷åñòâà ôîðìèðóåò ÷àñòü öåëîãî êîìïëåêñíîãî ìåõàíèçìà, âêëþ÷àþùåãî â ñåáÿ ðàçâèòèå ïðîèçâîäñòâà, ðîñò áëàãîñîñòîÿíèÿ, ïîâûøåíèå þðèäè÷åñêîé è ìîðàëüíîé çíà÷èìîñòè
îòíîøåíèé ñîáñòâåííîñòè, áîëåå ñòðîãèå ìåòîäû íàäçîðà, áîëåå
ïëîòíîå ðàçäåëåíèå íàñåëåíèÿ, áîëåå ýôôåêòèâíûå òåõíèêè îáíàðóæåíèÿ è ïîëó÷åíèÿ èíôîðìàöèè 39
 ýòîé ïåðñïåêòèâå åâðåéñêàÿ êðèìèíàëüíîñòü (â ÷àñòíîñòè, â Îäåññå) äîëæíà ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ êàê ñâèäåòåëüñòâî ìîäåðíèçèðîâàííîñòè
ðîññèéñêîãî åâðåéñòâà è â òî æå âðåìÿ åãî âèêòèìèçàöèè ñî ñòîðîíû
ðîññèéñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà è îáùåñòâà â öåëîì. Ïîìèìî íåâûñîêîé îáúÿñíÿþùåé öåííîñòè ýòîé ãèïîòåçû (÷òî íîâîãî ïðèâíîñèò îíà â íàøè
ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î ðîññèéñêîì åâðåéñòâå èëè î ñîöèàëüíûõ è ýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèöàõ â Îäåññå?), îíà íå íàõîäèò íèêàêîãî ôàêòè÷åñêîãî ïîäòâåðæäåíèÿ. Äåéñòâèòåëüíî, â èñòîðèîãðàôèè ðàñïðîñòðàíåíî ìíåíèå
î òîì, ÷òî äëÿ ÷åðòû îñåäëîñòè áûë õàðàêòåðåí î÷åíü íåâûñîêèé óðîâåíü åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè è íèçêèé ãðàäóñ âíóòðèîáùèííîãî íàñèëèÿ. Îòñóòñòâèå ñâåäåíèé, îñïàðèâàþùèõ ýòîò òåçèñ, è ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîñòü ìèôà (ñðåäè åâðååâ è àíòèñåìèòîâ â ðàâíîé ñòåïåíè) î òîì,
÷òî åâðåé íèêîãäà íå íàâðåäèò åâðåþ, ÿâëÿþòñÿ îñíîâíûì ôóíäàìåí-
38
39
Òàì æå. Ñ. 43.
Michel Foucault. Discipline and Punish. The Birth of the Prison. P. 77.
224
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òîì ýòîãî ìíåíèÿ.40 Îäíàêî ÷àñòè÷íî öèòèðîâàâøèåñÿ âûøå ñâåäåíèÿ
î åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè â Îäåññå ðèñóþò ñîâåðøåííî èíóþ êàðòèíó: î÷åíü ìíîãî åâðååâ ó÷àñòâóþò â ïðåñòóïíîì íàñèëèè ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê äðóãèì ëþäÿì, â òîì ÷èñëå è ê åâðåÿì. Ðå÷ü èäåò íå îá àáñòðàêòíûõ äèñêóðñèâíûõ ïðîåêöèÿõ îáùåñòâà íà ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé íåæåëàòåëüíîãî ñåãìåíòà íàñåëåíèÿ, à î ðåàëüíûõ ïîáîÿõ, èçíàñèëîâàíèÿõ è
óáèéñòâàõ.
Òðàäèöèîííàÿ ìîäåðíèçàòîðñêàÿ ñõåìà “îò êðèìèíàëüíîñòè êðîâè
ê êðèìèíàëüíîñòè ìîøåííè÷åñòâà” â äàííîì ñëó÷àå íå ðàáîòàåò, òàê
êàê ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ëþáûìè ýêñöåññàìè â ÷åðòå åâðåéñêîé îñåäëîñòè
Îäåññà âûñòóïàëà â ðîëè îäíîâðåìåííî Ñîäîìà è Ãîìîððû. Åñëè æå
ó÷èòûâàòü óðîâåíü íàñèëèÿ, â êîòîðîì áóäóò çàìåøàíû åâðåè â ïåðèîä ðåâîëþöèè, ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû è ïåðâûõ ñîâåòñêèõ äåñÿòèëåòèé
Îñíîâíûì “åâðåéñêèì ãðåõîì” â ÷åðòå îñåäëîñòè ñ÷èòàëàñü êîíòðàáàíäà. Åâðåéñêèå àâòîðû ïðèçíàâàëè îáîñíîâàííîñòü ýòîãî îáâèíåíèÿ, íî äîêàçûâàëè íà
îñíîâàíèè îôèöèàëüíîé ñòàòèñòèêè, ÷òî ïðîöåíò åâðååâ, óëè÷åííûõ â êîíòðàáàíäå,
ñîîòâåòñòâóåò èëè äàæå ìåíüøå ïðîïîðöèè åâðåéñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ â ïîãðàíè÷íûõ
îáëàñòÿõ. Ñð.: Á. Ãîëüäáåðã. Åâðåéñêàÿ êîíòðàáàíäà â öèôðîâîì îñâåùåíèè // Åâðåéñêàÿ æèçíü. 1904. ¹ 10. Ñ. 120-124; Ä. Áàéðàó. Áàõóñ â Ðîññèè // Ï. À. Çàéîí÷êîâñêèé (1904-1983 ãã.): Ñòàòüè, ïóáëèêàöèè è âîñïîìèíàíèÿ î íåì. Ìîñêâà, 1998.
Ñ. 359.
 òî æå âðåìÿ, ðàçðîçíåííûå ïóáëèêàöèè â ðîññèéñêîé èóäàèêå ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò
î òîì, ÷òî ïðè âñåé ñâîåé äèñêóðñèâíîé ýêñöåíòðè÷íîñòè è ìàðãèíàëüíîñòè ôåíîìåí åâðåéñêîãî íàñèëüíèêà âñå æå ñóùåñòâîâàë â ðåàëüíîé æèçíè ÷åðòû îñåäëîñòè è ÷òî, âîçìîæíî, ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêèé ïîèñê ñâèäåòåëüñòâ è àíàëèç èñòî÷íèêîâ
ñìîæåò ðåêîíñòðóèðîâàòü ýòó íåèçó÷åííóþ/çàìàë÷èâàþùóþñÿ ñòðàíèöó ðîññèéñêîé åâðåéñêîé èñòîðèè. Ñì. íàïð.: Ñ. Ì. Ãèíçáóðã. Åâðåé-ðàçáîéíèê // Åâðåéñêèé
Àëüìàíàõ. Õóäîæåñòâåííûé è ëèòåðàòóðíî-êðèòè÷åñêèé ñáîðíèê ïîä ðåä. Á. È. Êàóôìàíà è È. À. Êëåéíìàíà. Ïã.-Ì., 1923. Ñ. 125-133.
Ïîìèìî åâðåéñêîé ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè, î êîòîðîé êîå-÷òî èçâåñòíî, è
ñîâåðøåííî íåèçó÷åííûõ ïðåñòóïëåíèé ïðîòèâ ëè÷íîñòè ñðåäè åâðååâ ÷åðòû îñåäëîñòè, ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîé ôîðìîé äåâèàíòíîãî âíóòðèîáùèííîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ áûëî
íàñèëèå, âûçâàííîå ðåëèãèîçíûìè ðàçíîãëàñèÿìè, êîòîðîå, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå êëàññèôèöèðîâàëîñü êàê óãîëîâíûé äåëèêò. ß áëàãîäàðåí Äæîíó Êëèåðó, êîòîðûé îáðàòèë ìîå âíèìàíèå íà ýòîò âàæíûé ôåíîìåí: åâðåè ÷àñòî ïðèíèìàëè ó÷àñòèå â
íàñèëüñòâåííûõ äåéñòâèÿõ ïî îòíîøåíèþ äðóã ê äðóãó, íàïðèìåð, õàñèäû è îðòîäîêñû. Õàðàêòåðíî, ÷òî îäíèì èç ïåðâûõ âíóòðèîáùèííûõ ñêàíäàëîâ â íà÷àëå
èñòîðèè îäåññêèõ åâðååâ áûëî èçáèåíèå íå ïîíðàâèâøåãîñÿ ðàââèíà; ýòî ñîáûòèå
îáû÷íî íå ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ â ïëîñêîñòè óãîëîâíîãî äåëèêòà, îäíàêî îíî ïðåäâîñõèòèëî ïîçäíåéøèå ýïèçîäû âíóòðèîáùèííîãî íàñèëèÿ. Ñì.: Steve J. Zipperstein.
Jewish Enlightenment in Odessa: Cultural Characteristics, 1794-1871 // Jewish Social
Studies. 1982. Vol. XLIV, No. 1. Pp. 19-36.
40
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È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
(ó÷àñòèå â áàíäàõ è êàðàòåëüíûõ îòðÿäàõ, âîåííûõ ÷àñòÿõ è îðãàíàõ
Â×Ê-ÃÏÓ-ÍÊÂÄ), òî âåêòîð ïîëó÷àåòñÿ ïðîñòî äèàìåòðàëüíî ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîé íàïðàâëåííîñòè: îò “ìèðíîé” êîíòðàáàíäû, âîðîâñòâà è
ìîøåííè÷åñòâà – äî ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêîãî ôèçè÷åñêîãî íàñèëèÿ è óáèéñòâ.
Àëüòåðíàòèâíûé ïîäõîä ê ïðîáëåìå ïðåñòóïíîñòè, ðàññìîòðåííûé
â ïðåäûäóùåì ðàçäåëå, êàæåòñÿ áîëåå àäåêâàòíûì îäåññêîìó ñëó÷àþ.
Ðàññìîòðèì åãî ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ôåíîìåíà ñïîíòàííîé ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè íàñåëåíèÿ è ïðîáëåìû êîìïëåêñíîé ñîöèàëüíîé èíòåãðàöèè.
Êîëîíèñòû
 îòëè÷èå îò äðóãèõ ìåñòíîñòåé Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè, ãäå ýòíè÷åñêèå ãðóïïû ïðîæèâàëè íà îäíîé è òîé æå òåððèòîðèè ñòîëåòèÿìè, à
òðàäèöèè ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè íàñ÷èòûâàëè åäâà ëè íå òûñÿ÷ó ëåò, Îäåññà
â XIX âåêå ïðåäñòàâëÿëà ñîáîé íåäàâíî çàñåëåííóþ êîëîíèþ. Ãîðîä,
âîçíèêøèé ïðàêòè÷åñêè íà ïóñòîì ìåñòå â ïðè÷åðíîìîðñêîé ñòåïè,
íå ìîãëè íàçâàòü “èñêîííî ñâîèì” íè ïðèøåäøèå èç âíóòðåííèõ ãóáåðíèé âåëèêîðîññû, íè ìèãðèðîâàâøèå èç ñåë óêðàèíöû, íè áåæàâøèå èç ìåñòå÷åê â ÷åðòå îñåäëîñòè åâðåè, íè ïåðåáðàâøèåñÿ èç Áåññàðàáèè ìîëäàâàíå, íè òåì áîëåå ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå ãðå÷åñêî-, òóðåöêî- è
ïðî÷èå ïîääàííûå.41 Íèêàêèõ ïðåäóñòàíîâëåííûõ ñöåíàðèåâ ðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ ðîëåé è “ïîëíîìî÷èé” è îñâÿùåííûõ îáû÷àåì ãðàíèö ìåæäó
ýòíè÷åñêèìè ãðóïïàìè â Îäåññå íå ñóùåñòâîâàëî.42
Èìïåðñêàÿ âëàñòü áûëà ïðåäñòàâëåíà â ïîëíîé ìåðå â Îäåññå ñ ìîìåíòà çàðîæäåíèÿ ãîðîäà, îäíàêî äëÿ íåå áûëè õàðàêòåðíû òå æå äîìîäåðíûå ïðàêòèêè óïðàâëåíèÿ, ÷òî è â äðóãèõ îáëàñòÿõ èìïåðèè, ãäå
íåìíîãî÷èñëåííàÿ àäìèíèñòðàöèÿ îïèðàëàñü íà ôîðìàëüíûå è íåôîðìàëüíûå ñòðóêòóðû ñîñëîâíîãî è äóõîâíîãî ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ.  Îäåññå æå ýòíè÷åñêèå è êîíôåññèîíàëüíûå îáùèíû íå èìåëè òîé âûñîêîé
Ïî äàííûì ïåðåïèñè 1897 ã., ïîääàííûå èíîñòðàííûõ ãîñóäàðñòâ ñîñòàâëÿëè
ïî÷òè 5% (20,000 ÷åëîâåê) íàñåëåíèÿ Îäåññû. Ñì. Weinberg. P. 12.
42
Òàêîé âàæíûé ïîêàçàòåëü ñòàòóñà ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ ãðóïï â ïîëèýòíè÷åñêîì ãîðîäå, êàê êîëè÷åñòâî è ïðîñòðàíñòâåííîå ðàñïîëîæåíèå êóëüòîâûõ çäàíèé,
ñàìûì ðàäèêàëüíûì îáðàçîì âûäåëÿåò Îäåññó íà ôîíå äðóãèõ ãîðîäîâ èìïåðèè:
íàêàíóíå ïåðâîé ìèðîâîé âîéíû â Îäåññå äåéñòâîâàë 21 ïðàâîñëàâíûé õðàì è 16
ñèíàãîã è êðóïíûõ ìîëèòâåííûõ äîìîâ, ïðè÷åì ðàñïîëàãàëèñü îíè íå â îãðàíè÷åííîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå “ãåòòî”, à ïî âñåìó ãîðîäó, â òîì ÷èñëå è â ñàìîì åãî öåíòðå –
êîììåð÷åñêîì è îôèöèàëüíîì. Ñì.: Âñÿ òîðãîâî-ïðîìûøëåííàÿ Îäåññà íà 1914 ã.
Îäåññà, 1913. Ñ. 35.
41
226
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ñòåïåíè æåñòêîñòè è ëåãèòèìíîñòè, ÷òî íà “áîëüøîé çåìëå”. Èìåííî
ïîëèöåéñêèå äîêóìåíòû ñ èõ ôèêñàöèåé íà ôîðìàëüíîì (ñîñëîâíîì)
ñòàòóñå ãîðîæàí äåìîíñòðèðóþò âñþ àáñóðäíîñòü ñòàðûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ
ðàçãðàíè÷åíèé. Âîò ëèøü íåñêîëüêî âçÿòûõ íàóãàä ñëó÷àåâ: êðåñòüÿíèí Íèêîëàé ßñèíñêèé è äâîðÿíèí Âåíèàìèí Íèêîëàåâ ïîä âèäîì àãåíòîâ ñûñêíîé ïîëèöèè âûìîãàþò ïÿòü ðóáëåé ó ìåùàíêè Íåñè Íåõàíêèñ;43 ïðîñèâøàÿ ìèëîñòûíþ ìåùàíêà Åôðîñèíèÿ Ïîëÿíñêàÿ óêðàëà
ó êðåñòüÿíèíà Èîñèôà Êðó÷èíñêîãî çîëîòûå ÷àñû çà 85 ð.;44 ó ìåùàíèíà Âàñèëèÿ Çàõàð÷óêà íà Ïðèâîçå óêðàëè êîøåëåê àæ ñî 170 ðóáëÿìè,45
à ïîòîìñòâåííûé ïî÷åòíûé ãðàæäàíèí Àáðàì Áîðåöêèé ïðîìûøëÿë
êðàæåé äàìñêèõ ñóìî÷åê.46 Ñîñëîâèå, ðîä çàíÿòèé è ìàòåðèàëüíûé äîñòàòîê â ýòèõ è ìíîãèõ äðóãèõ ñëó÷àÿõ âîîáùå íèêàê íå êîððåëèðóþò.
Îñîáåííî õàðàêòåðåí â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ïðèìåð åâðååâ, êîòîðûå â
Îäåññå âåëè ñåáÿ ñîâåðøåííî èíà÷å, ÷åì â ìåñòå÷êàõ ÷åðòû îñåäëîñòè: ëþáîâü ê òåàòðó è äðóãèì ñâåòñêèì “êîñìîïîëèòè÷åñêèì” ðàçâëå÷åíèÿì ÿâíî ïåðåâåøèâàëà ðåëèãèîçíîñòü, òðàäèöèîííàÿ îáùèííàÿ
çàìêíóòîñòü óñòóïèëà ìåñòî îòêðûòîñòè ñîöèàëüíûõ âçàèìîäåéñòâèé.47
Ïåðåä îäåññêèìè åâðåÿìè, ñâîáîäíûìè îò óçêèõ ðàìîê òðàäèöèîííîé
ìåñòå÷êîâîé ñîöèàëüíîñòè, ñòîÿëà çàäà÷à âûðàáîòêè íîâîãî, ñâåòñêîãî è ñîâðåìåííîãî, ìîäóñà ñîöèàëüíîãî è ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ,
âûñòðàèâàíèÿ âíóòðèîáùèííûõ è ìåæîáùèííûõ ñâÿçåé. Èíñòèòóöèàëèçèðîâàííàÿ âëàñòü áûëà íå ãîòîâà ðåãóëèðîâàòü ñîöèàëüíûå ïðîöåññû íà ìèêðîóðîâíå, ÷òî îñòàâëÿëî øèðîêèé ïðîñòîð äëÿ ñàìîäåÿòåëüíîé èíèöèàòèâû íàñåëåíèÿ, â òîì ÷èñëå è êðèìèíàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà.
Äåëî äîêòîðà Ôóðìàíñêîãî, èëè “çîâ êðîâè”
Èíîãäà âñòðå÷àþòñÿ èñòîðè÷åñêèå ñþæåòû, îïèñàííûå ñîâðåìåííèêàìè ñëîâíî ñïåöèàëüíî äëÿ îäíîé èç áóäóùèõ íàó÷íûõ êîíöåïöèé. Äåëî çóáíîãî âðà÷à Íàóìà Ôóðìàíñêîãî â Îäåññêîì îêðóæíîì
ñóäå ìîãëî áû ïîñëóæèòü ïðåêðàñíîé èëëþñòðàöèåé ñðàçó ê íåñêîëüÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Åä. õð. 106. Äîíåñåíèÿ ïîìîùíèêà Îäåññêîãî ïîëèöìåéñòåðà – çàâåäóþùåãî ñûñêíîé ÷àñòüþ îá óáèéñòâàõ,
ãðàáåæàõ è äðóãèõ ïðîèñøåñòâèÿõ ïî ãîð. Îäåññå. 2 ÿíâàðÿ 1912 – 30 äåêàáðÿ
1914 ãã. ë. 89 îá.
44
Òàì æå. Ë. 68.
45
Òàì æå. Ë. 64 îá.
46
Òàì æå. Ë. 32 îá.
47
Ñì. Steve J. Zipperstein, Op. Cit.
43
227
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
êèì êíèãàì Ìèøåëÿ Ôóêî.  íåì åñòü âñå, “÷òî ïîëîæåíî”: êëàññîâàÿ
äèñòàíöèÿ è ñåêñóàëüíîñòü, âëàñòü íàó÷íîé è þðèäè÷åñêîé ýêñïåðòèçû è ñîëèäàðíîñòü ïðîôåññèîíàëîâ, íî åùå è íå÷òî ñâåðõ ýòîãî
18 îêòÿáðÿ 1912 ã.
Åãî ïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâó Ãîñïîäèíó Ïðîêóðîðó Îäåññêîé
ñóäåáíîé ïàëàòû
ïðîêóðîðà Îäåññêîãî îêðóæíîãî ñóäà
Ïðåäñòàâëåíèå
11 ñåãî îêòÿáðÿ ïîñåëÿíêà Åêàòåðèíà Áåëåíäèð, 19 ëåò, çàÿâèëà Îäåññêîé ñûñêíîé ïîëèöèè, ÷òî òîãî æå ÷èñëà îêîëî 9 ÷àñîâ
óòðà îíà îòïðàâèëàñü ê çóáíîìó âðà÷ó Íàóìó Ôóðìàíñêîìó, ïðîæèâàþùåìó íà óãëó Ïðåîáðàæåíñêîé è Äåðèáàñîâñêîé óëèö, êîòîðûé â òå÷åíèå íåñêîëüêèõ äíåé óæå ëå÷èë ó íåå çóáû. Âðà÷
Ôóðìàíñêèé çàïëîìáèðîâàë åé îäèí çóá, à çàòåì ñìàçàë äåñíó
êàêîé-òî æèäêîñòüþ, ïîñëå ÷åãî îíà âäðóã ïî÷óâñòâîâàëà ñèëüíóþ ñëàáîñòü. Òîãäà Ôóðìàíñêèé ñïðîñèë åå, íå ñòðàäàåò ëè îíà
ñåðäöåáèåíèåì, è, ðàññòåãíóâ åé êîôòî÷êó è ëèô, ñòàë âûñëóøèâàòü ñåðäöå, à çàòåì ðàçäåë åå è â îäíîé ñîðî÷êå ïåðåíåñ â ñîñåäíþþ êîìíàòó, ãäå ïîëîæèë íà äèâàí è ïðîòèâ âîëè è ñîãëàñèÿ
ñîâåðøèë ñ íåþ àêò ïîëîâîãî ñîâîêóïëåíèÿ.48
Ðàáîòàþùàÿ ó êñåíäçà Øåíôåëüäà äåâóøêà ðàññêàçàëà, ÷òî ÷óâñòâîâàëà ñåáÿ â ýòî âðåìÿ ñëàáîé è ïî÷åìó-òî íå ìîãëà êðè÷àòü. Îñìîòð
áåëüÿ ïîëèöèåé îáíàðóæèë êðîâü îò ìåíñòðóàöèè, êðîâü îáíàðóæèëè
è íà áåëüå âðà÷à. Åãî àðåñòîâàëè è äîïðîñèëè. Íàóì Ôóðìàíñêèé íå
ïðèçíàë ñåáÿ âèíîâíûì, çàÿâèâ, ÷òî èìåë ïîëîâîå ñíîøåíèå ñ Áåëåíäèð, íî ñ ñîãëàñèÿ ïîòåðïåâøåé. Ïðè åå îñìîòðå ãèíåêîëîã ñëåäîâ íàñèëèÿ íå îáíàðóæèë è ïðåäñòàâèë çàêëþ÷åíèå, ÷òî ëèøåíà îíà áûëà
äåâñòâåííîñòè äàâíî.49 Õèìèêàòû èç êàáèíåòà äàíòèñòà Ôóðìàíñêîãî
áûëè îòäàíû íà ýêñïåðòèçó òðåì ïðîôåññîðàì Íîâîðîññèéñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà ïî êàôåäðå ôàðìàöèè è ôàðìàêîãíîçèè, êîòîðûå äàëè îòðèÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 419. Ïðîêóðîð îäåññêîé ñóäåáíîé ïàëàòû. Îï. 2. Ò. 2. Åä. õð. 1628.
Ïðåäñòàâëåíèå ïðîêóðîðà Îäåññêîãî îêðóæíîãî ñóäà î ïðîèçâîäñòâå ñëåäñòâèÿ
ïî îáâèíåíèþ Îäåññêîãî çóáíîãî âðà÷à Ôóðìàíñêîãî Í. â èçíàñèëîâàíèè Áåëåíäèð
Å. Ë. 1-1îá.
49
Òàì æå. Ë. 2-2 îá.
48
228
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
öàòåëüíûé îòâåò íà âîïðîñ: ìîæíî ëè ýòèìè èëè äðóãèìè ñðåäñòâàìè
âûçâàòü îïèñàííîå ñîñòîÿíèå?50
Îäíàêî 16 ÿíâàðÿ 1915 ãîäà ðåøåíèåì Îäåññêîãî îêðóæíîãî ñóäà
Íàóì Ôóðìàíñêèé âñå æå áûë ïðèçíàí âèíîâíûì è ïðèãîâîðåí ê ëèøåíèþ âñåõ ïðàâ è çàêëþ÷åíèþ íà 2 ãîäà 8 ìåñÿöåâ â èñïðàâèòåëüíûå
àðåñòàíòñêèå îòäåëåíèÿ.51 Ðåøàþùèì àðãóìåíòîì ïîñëóæèëè íå çàêëþ÷åíèÿ ìåäèöèíñêèõ ýêñïåðòîâ èëè óñïåõè ñëåäñòâèÿ, à êîìïðîìåòèðóþùèé “ïîñëóæíîé ñïèñîê” ñàìîãî Ôóðìàíñêîãî. Îêàçàëîñü, ÷òî
ïðîòèâ íåãî óæå äâàæäû âîçáóæäàëèñü äåëà ïî ñõîæèì îáâèíåíèÿì è
îäèí ðàç îí äàæå áûë îñóæäåí: â èþíå 1905 ã. îí ïîêóøàëñÿ íà íåêóþ
Ðîçó Òåðíÿí. Áûë ïðèãîâîðåí ê ëèøåíèþ âñåõ ïðàâ è ãîäó àðåñòàíòñêèõ
îòäåëåíèé. Îäíàêî â ðåçóëüòàòå êàññàöèîííîé æàëîáû Ñåíàò îòìåíèë
ýòî ïðèãîâîð ïðèñÿæíûõ, ïîñêîëüêó â ïðåäñòàâëåííûõ ñóäó ñâåäåíèÿõ
íå óñìîòðåë ñîñòàâà ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ. Çà ñåíàòñêèì ðåøåíèåì ïîñëåäîâàëî ïðèìèðåíèå ñòîðîí è äàíòèñò îò íàêàçàíèÿ áûë îñâîáîæäåí.52 Â 1911
ãîäó áûëî âîçáóæäåíî äåëî ïî çàÿâëåíèþ ñëóæàíêè Ôóðìàíñêîãî, Ôåâðîíèè Ãàâðèëþê: â îòñóòñòâèå æåíû îí áóäòî áû ïûòàëñÿ èçíàñèëîâàòü
Ãàâðèëþê, îíà íå äàëàñü, Ôóðìàíñêèé óäàðèë åå Äåëî áûëî ïðåêðàùåíî çà íåäîñòàòêîì óëèê.53 Òàê ÷òî â ñëó÷àå ñ Áåëåíäèð îäåññêèå ñóäüè
ðåøèëè íàêîíåö îñòàíîâèòü ëþáâåîáèëüíîãî äîêòîðà.
Çà óäèâèòåëüíî ñîâðåìåííûì ñþæåòîì äåëà îá èçíàñèëîâàíèè Áåëåíäèð ñêðûâàþòñÿ î÷åíü íåîáû÷íûå îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà. Æåíàòûé åâðåé
Íàóì Ôóðìàíñêèé, âðà÷ ñ õîðîøåé ïðàêòèêîé â öåíòðå ãîðîäà, òðèæäû îêàçûâàåòñÿ ïîä ñëåäñòâèåì ïî îáâèíåíèþ â èçíàñèëîâàíèè (ðåàëüíûõ ïîïûòîê ìîãëî áûòü ìíîãî áîëüøå), ïðè÷åì â äâóõ ñëó÷àÿõ èç
òðåõ òî÷íî èçâåñòíî, ÷òî åãî æåðòâàìè áûëè íå-åâðåéêè (íàöèîíàëüíîñòü èëè âåðîèñïîâåäàíèå Ðîçû Òåðíÿí íåèçâåñòíû, ñêîðåå âñåãî, îíà
áûëà ìîëäàâàíêîé). Áîëåå òîãî, îí âñòóïèë â ïîëîâóþ ñâÿçü ñ Áåëåíäèð â íàðóøåíèå âñåõ ìûñëèìûõ ïðåäïèñàíèé åâðåéñêîé ãèãèåíû,
êîãäà îíà áûëà “íå÷èñòîé”. Íåèçâåñòíî, áûë ëè Ôóðìàíñêèé êðåùåíûì, íî è â ýòîì ñëó÷àå ðàçðûâ ñ òðàäèöèåé ïðåäêîâ âûãëÿäèò ðàäèêàëüíûì.
Ïðåñòóïëåíèå ïî îïðåäåëåíèþ íå ìîæåò ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàòü î òèïè÷íîñòè òîãî èëè èíîãî ÿâëåíèÿ, è äàæå íåñêîëüêî çàðåãèñòðèðîâàíÒàì æå. Ë. 6-6 îá.
Òàì æå. Ë. 14.
52
Òàì æå. Ë. 4 îá.
53
Òàì æå.
50
51
229
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
íûõ ïîëèöèåé ñëó÷àåâ òàêîãî ðîäà íå ðåïðåçåíòàòèâíû.54 Îäíàêî âàæíî òî, ÷òî äàæå åñëè ïðèçíàòü ýòèõ ëþäåé “èçâðàùåíöàìè”, èõ äåéñòâèÿ â îáñòàíîâêå “àíîìèè” æèçíè â ëèøåííîé òðàäèöèé êîëîíèè è
ñïîíòàííîé ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè íàñåëåíèÿ äëÿ ïðåîäîëåíèÿ ýòîé ñîöèàëüíîé äåçèíòåãðàöèè íå îãðàíè÷èâàëèñü ðàìêàìè îáùèíû åäèíîïëåìåííèêîâ. Êàê âðà÷ è êàê ïðåñòóïíèê Ôóðìàíñêèé äåéñòâîâàë ïîâåðõ
ïåðåãîðîäîê òðàäèöèîííîãî îáùåñòâà, â åäèíîì ñîöèàëüíîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå ãîðîäà Îäåññû Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè.
“Â áîðüáå îáðåòåøü òû ïðàâî ñâîå”, èëè ëèöåíçèÿ íà óáèéñòâî
9 àïðåëÿ 1907 ãîäà â îáóâíîé ìàãàçèí Ìîéñåÿ Øàè-Àéçèêîâà Âîëüñêîãî çàøåë íåçíàêîìûé åâðåé. Îí ñòîðãîâàë áîòèíêè çà 5 ðóáëåé, íî
êîãäà ïðèøëî âðåìÿ ðàñïëàòèòüñÿ çà ïîêóïêó, âìåñòî äåíåã âûòàùèë
ðåâîëüâåð. Õîçÿèí ìàãàçèíà ïîáåæàë â çàäíþþ êîìíàòó, åìó âîñëåä
ïðîãðåìåë âûñòðåë. Ìèìî. Íà øóì âûáåæàëà æåíà õîçÿèíà, Õàÿ Âîëüñêàÿ. Îíà ñõâàòèëà íàïàäàâøåãî çà ðóêó, îí âûñòðåëèë åùå ðàç è ðàíèë
æåíùèíó â æèâîò. Çàòåì âûáåæàë íà óëèöó, íî íà òðîòóàðå ðàíåíàÿ
Õàÿ ñõâàòèëà åãî çà ïîëó ïàëüòî. Òîãäà íåèçâåñòíûé íàïàäàâøèé âûñòðåëèë åé âòîðîé ðàç â æèâîò è ñêðûëñÿ.55
Îêàçàëîñü, ÷òî íàêàíóíå Âîëüñêèå ïîëó÷èëè äâà óãðîæàþùèõ ïèñüìà îò “Þæíî-ðóññêîé ãðóïïû àíàðõèñòîâ-êîììóíèñòî⠑×åðíîå çíàìÿ’”: îäíî ïî ïî÷òå, à âòîðîå ïðèíåñ ñòàðøèé ïîäìàñòåðüå ñàïîæíîé
ìàñòåðñêîé Ñòîòëàíäà Èîñåëü Êîí.  ïèñüìàõ ñîäåðæàëîñü òðåáîâàíèå îòêðûòü â 3 äíÿ ñàïîæíóþ ìàñòåðñêóþ íà 12 ÷åëîâåê, èíà÷å –
“ñìåðòü è ðàçðóøåíèå”. Ïî ñòðàííîìó ñòå÷åíèþ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâ, ðàáîòà
â ìàñòåðñêîé Ñòîòëàíäà êàê ðàç áûëà ïàðàëèçîâàíà â ýòî âðåìÿ îñòðûì
òðóäîâûì êîíôëèêòîì: 7 ïîäìàñòåðüåâ-åâðååâ çàïåðëèñü â ìàñòåðñêîé
Íàïðèìåð, 9 ôåâðàëÿ 1912 ã. â ïîëèöèþ ïîñòóïèëî çàÿâëåíèå, îáâèíÿâøåå íåêîåãî
Ãåëüìàíà â ïîêóøåíèè íà èçíàñèëîâàíèå ñîñåäñêèõ äåâî÷åê (åâðåéêè è óêðàèíêè),
à 1 ìàðòà áûë çàäåðæàí ñîæèòåëü Åâäîêèè Êðàâ÷åíêî, ïåðñèäñêèé ïîääàííûé
“àðìÿíèí” Àãàáàëà Õàäæè-Îãëû, êîòîðûé çàðàçèë åå 4-ëåòíþþ äî÷êó Åâäîêèþ
ãîíîðååé. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 2. Åä. õð. 106. Äîíåñåíèÿ
ïîìîùíèêà Îäåññêîãî ïîëèöìåéñòåðà – çàâåäóþùåãî ñûñêíîé ÷àñòüþ îá
óáèéñòâàõ, ãðàáåæàõ è äðóãèõ ïðîèñøåñòâèÿõ ïî ãîð. Îäåññå. 2 ÿíâàðÿ 1912 – 30
äåêàáðÿ 1914 ãã. Ëë. 21îá., 37.
55
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 1. Ò. 2. Åä. õð. 2110. Ë.
144. Ðàïîðò ïîìîùíèêà Îäåññêîãî ïîëèöìåéñòåðà - çàâåäóþùåãî ñûñêíîé ÷àñòüþ
íà÷àëüíèêó Æàíäàðìñêîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ îò 12.04.1907.
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è íå äîïóñêàëè â ïîìåùåíèå íèêîãî ïîñòîðîííåãî, äàæå ñòàðøåãî ïîäìàñòåðüÿ Êîíà. Ïðè îáûñêå â ìàñòåðñêîé áûëà íàéäåíà áîìáà 56
 ãîäû ïîñëå ïåðâîé ðóññêîé ðåâîëþöèè è îäåññêîãî ïîãðîìà íàñèëèå èëè óãðîçà ïðèìåíåíèÿ íàñèëèÿ ñòàëè â Îäåññå ñàìûì ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûì àðãóìåíòîì ïðè ðåøåíèè ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ êîíôëèêòîâ äàæå íà óðîâíå ïóáëè÷íîé ïîëèòèêè,57 íå ãîâîðÿ óæå ïðî ñóãóáî óãîëîâíûå äåëà. Îäíàêî èç òûñÿ÷ ïðîèñøåñòâèé êðèìèíàëüíîãî
õàðàêòåðà, èçó÷åííûõ ìíîþ â õîäå ðàáîòû íàä ýòèì èññëåäîâàíèåì, íå
áûëî íè îäíîãî, â êîòîðîì åâðåé óáèë áû ðóññêîãî (âîîáùå íå-åâðåÿ) ñ
öåëüþ îãðàáëåíèÿ èëè ëè÷íîé ìåñòè. Çàôèêñèðîâàíî ìíîæåñòâî ñëó÷àåâ óáèéñòâ åâðååâ ðóññêèìè è óêðàèíñêèìè áàíäèòàìè, íî íè îäíîãî îáðàòíîãî ñëó÷àÿ.
Îäíàêî áûëà îäíà êàòåãîðèÿ íàñèëüñòâåííûõ äåéñòâèé, êîãäà åâðåè ñ ãîòîâíîñòüþ ïåðåñòóïàëè ÷åðåç “îñíîâíîé èíñòèíêò” ñàìîîãðàíè÷åíèÿ è ëåãêî øëè íà óáèéñòâî èíîïëåìåííèêîâ: â ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà
îíè äåéñòâîâàëè âî èìÿ èëè ïîä ïðèêðûòèåì ðåâîëþöèîííûõ ëîçóíãîâ. Âîëíà ýêñïðîïðèàöèé îò èìåíè äåéñòâèòåëüíûõ è âûìûøëåííûõ
àíàðõèñòñêèõ ãðóïï çàõëåñòíóëà ïîñëåðåâîëþöèîííóþ Îäåññó. ×àùå
âñåãî ÷ëåíû øàåê, ãðàáèâøèõ âî èìÿ ñîöèàëüíîé ñïðàâåäëèâîñòè, íàçûâàëè ñåáÿ “àíàðõèñòàìè-êîììóíèñòàìè”, îäíàêî ñóùåñòâîâàëè è
âàðèàöèè: àíàðõèñòû-ñèíäèêàëèñòû, àíàðõèñòû “ñâîáîäíîé êîììóíû”,
“Îäåññêàÿ ãðóïïà áåçðàáîòíûõ êîììóíèñòî┠è ò.ä. Äîñüå îäåññêîé
ïîëèöèè íà ÷ëåíîâ áåñ÷èñëåííûõ àíàðõèñòñêèõ ãðóïïèðîâîê çàíèìàåò ïÿòü ïóõëûõ òîìîâ, â íèõ äàííûå íà íåñêîëüêî ñîòåí ÷åëîâåê, è
ñðåäè íèõ íåìàëî åâðååâ.58
Ìíîãèå “àíàðõèñòû” ñ ñàìîãî íà÷àëà áûëè çàóðÿäíûìè óãîëîâíèêàìè, ëèøü ïðèêðûâàâøèìèñÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ôðàçîé. Îäíàêî, êàê ÿâÒàì æå. Ñ. 144 îá.
Êîãäà ãëàñíûé Ãîðîäñêîé Äóìû Í. Ìèõàéëîâ âûñòóïèë â 1908 ã. ïðîòèâ ïðîåêòà
îãðàíè÷åíèÿ ïðîäîëæèòåëüíîñòè òðóäîâîãî äíÿ ïðèêàç÷èêîâ (óêàçûâàâ, ÷òî ýòà
ìåðà ïðèâåäåò ê ìàññîâûì óâîëüíåíèÿì), îí íåìåäëåííî ïîëó÷èë óãðîæàþùåå
ïèñüìî îò íåêîåãî “Êîìèòåòà òðóæåíèêî┠– âìåñòî îôèöèàëüíîãî ïðîòåñòà îò
îáùåñòâà ïðèêàç÷èêîâ èëè äðóãîé ëåãàëüíîé îðãàíèçàöèè. Ñì.: Ïèñüìî â ðåäàêöèþ // Íîâàÿ Îäåññêàÿ ãàçåòà, 1908 ã. ¹ 21. Ïîíåäåëüíèê, 7 èþëÿ. Ñ. 3.
58
Ýòíè÷åñêîå ïðîèñõîæäåíèå èëè êîíôåññèÿ óêàçûâàþòñÿ â äîñüå ëèøü
ýïèçîäè÷åñêè, ïîýòîìó î ñòàòèñòè÷åñêè çíà÷èìûõ öèôðàõ ãîâîðèòü íå ïðèõîäèòñÿ.
Ñì.: ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 1. Ò. 2. Åä. õð. 30853089. Ñâåäåíèÿ Îäåññêîãî îõðàííîãî îòäåëåíèÿ è Æàíäàðìñêîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ îá
“àíàðõèñòàõ-êîììóíèñòàõ”. À- – Ð-Ò.
56
57
231
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ëåíèå, ñêàòèâøèåñÿ ê ðàçáîþ ýêñïðîïðèàòîðû áûëè ïðîäîëæàòåëÿìè
òðàäèöèè ðåâîëþöèîíåðîâ-áîåâèêîâ, à â Îäåññå – åùå è îòðÿäîâ åâðåéñêîé ñàìîîáîðîíû, ñîçäàâàâøèõñÿ äëÿ îòïîðà ïîãðîìùèêàì. Äåëî
“Îäåññêîãî ìîëäàâàíñêîãî ëåòó÷åãî áîåâîãî îòðÿäà ñàìîîáîðîíû”
ïîçâîëÿåò ïîíÿòü, êàê è ïî÷åìó ìíîãèì îäåññêèì åâðåÿì ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ëîçóíãè ïîìîãàëè ïðåîäîëåâàòü ìíîãèå òðàäèöèîííûå îãðàíè÷åíèÿ, â òîì ÷èñëå íà ôèçè÷åñêîå íàñèëèå, â òîì ÷èñëå è ïî îòíîøåíèþ
ê íå-åâðåÿì.
 èþíå 1906 ãîäà, ïîä íåïîñðåäñòâåííûì âïå÷àòëåíèåì îò Áåëîñòîêñêîãî ïîãðîìà (14 èþíÿ), íåñêîëüêî åâðåéñêèõ àêòèâèñòîâ ñîçäàþò â Îäåññå âíåïàðòèéíûé êîìèòåò ñàìîîáîðîíû, êîòîðûé ïîçæå íàçâàëè Îäåññêèì ìîëäàâàíñêèì ëåòó÷èì îòðÿäîì ñàìîîáîðîíû. Áîëüøèíñòâî ÷ëåíîâ îòðÿäà áûëè î÷åíü ìîëîäû, â âîçðàñòå îò 17 äî 21
ãîäà, ëèøü ëèäåð ãðóïïû ßíêåëü Ýñòåðìàí ïî êëè÷êå “Ìàéîð” è Èîñîë
Öåãåëüíèöêèé áûëè ñòàðøå: îäíîìó áûëî 27 ëåò, à äðóãîìó 33 ãîäà.59
Äëÿ íà÷àëà ÷ëåíû ãðóïïû çàíÿëèñü ñáîðîì ïîæåðòâîâàíèé ñ ñîñòîÿòåëüíûõ ÷ëåíîâ åâðåéñêîé îáùèíû è ïðåäïðèÿòèé, âûäàâàÿ æåðòâîâàòåëÿì êâèòàíöèè. Ñóäÿ ïî âñåìó, ñðåäñòâà òåêëè ðåêîé: ïðè îáûñêå íà
“øòàáíîé” êâàðòèðå ãðóïïû ïîòîì íàøëè 3 êîðåøêà îò ÷åêîâûõ êíèæåê è îäíó êíèæêó, â êîòîðîé áûë îòîðâàí 51 ëèñò.60 Ýòî çíà÷èò, ÷òî â
êîðîòêèé ñðîê (ìåíåå äâóõ íåäåëü) áûëî ñîáðàíî íåñêîëüêî ñîò ïîæåðòâîâàíèé.
Íà ñîáðàííûå äåíüãè ÷ëåíû íîâîîáðàçîâàííîãî îòðÿäà çàêóïèëè
ïðîñòåéøèé òèïîãðàôñêèé ñòàíîê è íåñêîëüêî ðåâîëüâåðîâ. Íà ñòàíêå
áûëî îòïå÷àòàíî âîççâàíèå òèðàæîì äî òûñÿ÷è ýêçåìïëÿðîâ:
Áåçóìèå è óæàñ îõâàòûâàåò êàæäîãî èç íàñ ïðè ÷òåíèè âñå î
íîâûõ æåñòîêîñòÿõ ïîãðîìà, ñîâåðøåííûå êó÷êîé õóëèãàíàìè,
ïîä ïðåäâîäèòåëüñòâîì ïîëèöåéñêèõ è øïèîíîâ è çàùèùåííûå
âåðíûìè ñëóãàìè – âîéñêîì. Íîâûå ïîòîêè íåâèííîé êðîâè ïîêðûëè çåìëþ îäíîãî èç ãîðîäîâ íàøåé âåëèêîé ðîäèíû Áåëîñòîêà. Ñíîâà âñå åâðåéñêîå íàñåëåíèå íàõîäèòñÿ â òðåïåùóùåì îæèäàíèè ÷åãî-òî ãðîçíîãî. Ñíîâà ëó÷øèå áîðöû îñâîáîäèòåëüíîãî
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 1. Ò. 2. Åä. õð. 1936.
Äåëî î ïðîèçâîäñòâå äîçíàíèÿ “îá Îäåññêîì-ìîëäàâàíñêîì ëåòó÷åì áîåâîì îòðÿäå
ñàìîîáîðîíû”. 14 èþíÿ 1906 – 3 íîÿáðÿ 1910. Ë. 65-66.
60
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 386. Îäåññêîå îõðàííîå îòäåëåíèå. Îï. 1.Åä. õð. 1050. Ïåðåïèñêà ñ
Äåïàðòàìåíòîì Ïîëèöèè, Æàíäàðìñêèì Óïðàâëåíèåì ã. Îäåññû è äðóãèìè ó÷ðåæäåíèÿìè î äåÿòåëüíîñòè è àðåñòå ëèö, ïðèíàäëåæàùèõ ê Îäåññêîìó ìîëäàâàíñêîìó ëåòó÷åìó îòðÿäó ñàìîîáîðîíû. 28 èþíÿ – 16 îêòÿáðÿ 1906 ã. Ë. 25 îá.
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äâèæåíèÿ ëåæàò ïîä ìåðêîé çåìëè è íà ñìåðòíîì îäðå îæèäàþò
ìåñòè èõ ïàëà÷àì.
Òîâàðèùè! Áóäåì ëè åùå äàëüøå íàäåÿòüñÿ íà ïîìîùü íàøèõ
õóëèãàíñêèõ ãðàäîïðàâèòåëåé, íà ãëàçàõ êîòîðûõ îáåñ÷åñòèëè
äåâóøåê, óáèâàëè ñåìèäåñÿòèëåòíèõ ñòàðèêîâ, ðàñïàðûâàëè æèâîòû áåðåìåííûì æåíùèíàì è îòðóáàëè ðóêè è íîãè ìàëåíüêèì
äåòÿì? Íåò! Äîâîëüíî æäàòü è íàäåÿòüñÿ íà ïîìîùü äðóãèõ! Ïîðà,
íàêîíåö, îáðàçóìèòüñÿ è ïîíÿòü, ÷òî íàì íåò îò êîãî æäàòü ïîìîùè, êðîìå ñâîèõ ðóê!
Ìû îðãàíèçîâàëè “âíåïàðòèéíóþ è íåçàâèñèìóþ ïàðòèþ ñàìîîáîðîíöåâ”, êîòîðûå ñòàâèì ñâîèì äèâèçîì çàùèòó âñåõ ìèðíûõ ãðàæäàí îò õóëèãàíîâ, è ïðèçûâàåì âñåãî ñîçíàòåëüíîãî ïðîëåòàðèàòà, âñåõ áåç èñêëþ÷åíèÿ ãðàæäàí â êîòîðûõ åñòü îäíà õîòü
êàïëÿ ÷åëîâå÷åñêîé ñîâåñòè, ñîðãàíèçîâàòüñÿ â íàøè ðÿäû äëÿ
çàùèòû åâðåéñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ îò ïîãðîìà! Ïîìíèòå, òîâàðèùè,
÷òî ïîãðîì åñòü êîíòððåâîëþöèÿ, ýòî åñòü ïðåäñìåðòíàÿ êîíâóëüñèÿ óìèðàþùåãî ðåæèìà, êîòîðûé íàä öåëûì ìîðåì êðîâè è ïîâñþäó óñåÿííûìè òðóïàìè æåëàåò óäåðæàòü ñâîþ áþðîêðàòè÷åñêóþ “íåîãðàíè÷åííóþ” âëàñòü è óñòðàèâàåò ïîãðîìû, ðàññòðåëû
è ò.ä. Ïîìíèòå, åñëè ìû èäåì ïðîòèâ êîíòððåâîëþöèè, òî ýòèì
ñàìûì íàíîñèì ñìåðòåëüíûé óäàð óìèðàþùåìó äåñïîòèçìó! [ ]
Èòàê, òîâàðèùè! Ñêàæåì: Ïîðà! Äîâîëüíî! Ìû íå âåðèì áîëüøå â ïðàâèòåëüñòâåííûõ îïðè÷íèêîâ è ïîíÿëè, ÷òî ñàìèì íàì
íóæíî îðãàíèçîâûâàòüñÿ, ÷òîáû îòáèòü êîíòððåâîëþöèþ! Íàì
óæå äîâîëüíî ôàêòîâ! Ñïåøèòå æå, òîâàðèùè, âðåìÿ íå æäåò! Â
íàøó ïðîãðàììó íå âõîäÿò òåððîð èëè óáèéñòâà, à íàø äåâèç –
ñîçûâàòü âñåõ ñîçíàòåëüíûõ ãðàæäàí ê çàùèòå íàøèõ áðàòüåâ,
êîòîðûå âìåñòå ñ íàìè ñðàæàþòñÿ íà áàððèêàäàõ, òîìÿòñÿ â òåõ
æå êàçåìàòàõ è èäóò ðóêà îá ðóêó äëÿ îñâîáîæäåíèÿ íàøåé ðîäèíû!61
Íå òðåáóåòñÿ ãëóáèííîãî òåêñòîëîãè÷åñêîãî àíàëèçà äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû óâèäåòü, êàê íåäàâíèå âûõîäöû èç ìåñòå÷åê ÷åðòû îñåäëîñòè (âñå
÷ëåíû ãðóïïû ôîðìàëüíî ïðèïèñàíû ê ìåùàíñêèì îáùèíàì ðàçíûõ
ãóáåðíèé, ñðåäè íèõ íåò íè îäíîãî óðîæåíöà Îäåññû) ïðèõîäÿò ê îñîçíàíèþ ñåáÿ ñûíàìè “íàøåé âåëèêîé ðîäèíû”. Ê ìåñòè è íàñèëèþ èõ
òîëêàåò ñîëèäàðíîñòü ñ åâðåÿìè Áåëîñòîêà, íî îïðàâäàíèå ñåáå îíè
íàõîäÿò íå â áîðüáå ñ àíòèñåìèòèçìîì ïîãðîìùèêîâ, íî â îáùåðîññèéñêîé ðåâîëþöèîííîé áîðüáå ñ êîíòððåâîëþöèåé, äåñïîòèçìîì è
61
Òàì æå. Ë. 4.
233
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
îõðàíêîé. Îêîí÷àòåëüíî ñâîáîäíûìè îò âíåøíèõ è âíóòðåííèõ îêîâ
åâðåéñêîé èçîëèðîâàííîñòè îíè ñòàíîâÿòñÿ, ëèøü âëèâàÿñü – ïóñòü
ñèìâîëè÷åñêè, íà ñëîâàõ – â îáùåðîññèéñêîå ðåâîëþöèîííîå äâèæåíèå
Ìîëäàâàíñêèé ëåòó÷èé îòðÿä ñàìîîáîðîíû ïðîñóùåñòâîâàë ëèøü
íåñêîëüêî íåäåëü. Ýêçåìïëÿð ïðîöèòèðîâàííîãî âîççâàíèÿ ïîïàë â
îõðàíêó óæå â íà÷àëå èþëÿ, îäíàêî ïîèñêè çàãàäî÷íîãî îòðÿäà ïîíà÷àëó íè ê ÷åìó íå ïðèâåëè.62 Ñàìîîáîðîíöû ïåðåøëè ê àêòèâíûì äåéñòâèÿì 11 èþëÿ 1906 ã., îáñòðåëÿâ èç ðåâîëüâåðîâ êàçà÷üè êàçàðìû (ñâåäåíèé î æåðòâàõ â ñëåäñòâåííîì äåëå íåò). Ïîñëå ýòîãî íåïîñðåäñòâåííàÿ áîðüáà ñ ðåæèìîì áûëà ïðèîñòàíîâëåíà.  òîò æå äåíü ÷ëåíû îòðÿäà – êðåñòüÿíèí Îðëîâñêîé ãóáåðíèè Ôåäîð Ñûñîåâ è îäåññêàÿ ìåùàíêà Åâà Ìèòàöåð, – ÿâèëèñü â ôîòîãðàôè÷åñêèé ìàãàçèí Èîñèôà
Ïîêîðíîãî íà Äåðèáàñîâñêîé ñ òðåáîâàíèåì äåíå㠓â ïîëüçó áåçðàáîòíûõ”. Èõ çàäåðæàëè è ïîñàäèëè ïîä òðåõìåñÿ÷íûé àðåñò çà íåçàêîííûé ñáîð äåíåã. 13 èþëÿ â ó÷àñòîê äëÿ îñâîáîæäåíèÿ Ñûñîåâà è Ìèòàöåð ÿâèëñÿ ëèäåð ãðóïïû Ýñòåðìàí (“Ìàéîð”) è áûë àðåñòîâàí. À äíåì
ðàíüøå, 12 èþëÿ, àðåñòîâàëè òðåõ ÷ëåíîâ îðãàíèçàöèè, îäèí èç êîòîðûõ ïðîæèâàë íà “øòàáíîé” êâàðòèðå, ÷òî ïðèâåëî ê ëèêâèäàöèè âñåãî îòðÿäà ñàìîîáîðîíû. Âîò êàê îïèñàíû îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà àðåñòà â ïîëèöåéñêîì äåëå:
12-ãî èþëÿ Òàðíîïîëüñêèé, Ãîðøòåéí è Áåðêîâè÷ ÿâèëèñü â
äîì òåðïèìîñòè ¹ 62 ïî Áîëãàðñêîé óëèöå è, èìåÿ â ðóêàõ çàðÿæåííûå ðåâîëüâåðû, çàÿâèëè, ÷òî îíè ÷ëåíû ñàìîîáîðîíû è íèêîãî íå áîÿòñÿ. Îòòóäà îíè îòïðàâèëèñü â áóôåò çåëüòåðñêîé âîäû
â äîìå ¹ 53 ïî Áîëãàðñêîé óëèöå, ãäå è áûëè çàäåðæàíû, ïðè÷åì
ïî ëè÷íîìó îáûñêó ó íèõ áûëè îáíàðóæåíû îçíà÷åííûå ðåâîëüâåðû, 66 ïàòðîíîâ ê íèì è 11 ýêçåìïëÿðîâ óïîìÿíóòîãî âûøå
“Âîççâàíèÿ” Ìîëäàâàíñêîãî îòðÿäà (Ëèñòîê ¹ 1). Âñëåä çà ñèì
áûëè ïðîâåäåíû îáûñêè ó íèõ íà êâàðòèðàõ 63
Íè â êîåì ñëó÷àå íå ñîìíåâàÿñü â ÷èñòîòå ïîìûñëîâ îðãàíèçàòîðîâ
Ìîëäàâàíñêîãî ëåòó÷åãî îòðÿäà ñàìîîáîðîíû, âñå æå îáðàòèì âíèìàíèå íà òî, ÷òî â îòñóòñòâèå ðåàëüíîé ïîãðîìíîé óãðîçû â Îäåññå ÷ëåíû îòðÿäà óñïåëè îòëè÷èòüñÿ âîâñå íå â áîðüáå ñ ÷åðíîñîòåíöàìè è
ðåæèìîì. Íèêòî íå áûë çàäåðæàí ïîñëå îáñòðåëà êàçà÷üèõ êàçàðì, çàòî
ñ ïîëè÷íûì çàäåðæàëè íàèáîëåå àêòèâíûõ ó÷àñòíèêîâ ãðóïïû âî âðå62
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Òàì æå. Ë. 24.
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ìÿ “ìåðîïðèÿòèé”, òèïè÷íûõ êàê ðàç äëÿ îäåññêèõ “àíàðõèñòîâ-êîììóíèñòîâ”, è ýòî íå ñëó÷àéíî. Ôåäîð Ñûñîåâ è Åâà Ìèòàöåð, øàíòàæèðîâàâøèå ôîòîãðàôà íà Äåðèáàñîâñêîé, íå ïðèíàäëåæàëè ê ÷èñëó
îðãàíèçàòîðîâ îòðÿäà, à áûëè ïðèâëå÷åíû èìè, âèäèìî, ïîçæå, êàê
îïûòíûå áîåâèêè.
Íàçâàííûé Ñûñîåâ, ìåæäó ïðî÷èì, îáúÿñíèë, ÷òî â ñîñòàâ èçâåñòíîé åìó ãðóïïû “íàëåò÷èêî┠âõîäÿò, â ÷èñëå äðóãèõ ëèö,
Æåíÿ Áóðäåëèõ, íûíå íàáëþäàåìûé â èçâåñòíîé ãðóïïå àíàðõèñòî⠓Ñâîáîäíîé êîììóíû”, èçâåñòíûé Âàøåìó Âûñîêîáëàãîðîäèþ Ñèìõà Ñòîëÿðîâñêèé, íûíå ñêðûâøèéñÿ çà ãðàíèöó, íåêòî
“Àðîí” è “Ñàâóøêà”, ëè÷íîñòè êîèõ äî ñåãî âðåìåíè íå óñòàíîâëåíû 64
Î÷åâèäíî, ïðîáàâëÿâøèåñÿ ãðàáåæîì ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûå “ýêñïðîïðèàòîðû-àíàðõèñòû” ïåðèîäè÷åñêè ðåêðóòèðîâàëèñü ëåâûìè îðãàíèçàöèÿìè, íóæäàâøèìèñÿ â îïûòíûõ áîéöàõ. Ýòîò ñèìáèîç äàâàë áîåâèêàì äîïîëíèòåëüíîå ìîðàëüíîå îïðàâäàíèå, à ðåâîëþöèîíåðàì ïðèâèâàë âêóñ ê êðîâè.65 Íî, ïîìèìî “ëèöåíçèè íà óáèéñòâî”, áîëüøîå
îáùåíàðîäíîå ðåâîëþöèîííîå äåëî – è îðóæèå, çà êîòîðîå áðàëèñü
ðàäè íåãî – ïîìîãàëî ëþäÿì ïðåîäîëåòü è äðóãèå ñîöèàëüíûå è ìîðàëüíûå îãðàíè÷åíèÿ. Íå ñëó÷àåí ìàðøðóò, êîòîðûì îòïðàâèëèñü ïî
Áîëãàðñêîé óëèöå Ìîëäàâàíêè ê öåíòðó ãîðîäà, ðàçìàõèâàÿ “áóëüäîãàìè”, 19-ëåòíèé Âèêòîð Áåðêîâè÷, 20-ëåòíèé Ôðîèì Ãîðíøòåéí è 21ëåòíèé Èäåëü Òàðíîïîëüñêèé
Ðåâîëþöèÿ îáåùàëà åâðåÿì ïîëíîå è îêîí÷àòåëüíîå ðàâíîïðàâèå, à
ðåâîëþöèîííûå èäåàëû è äàæå ëîçóíãè êàçàëèñü äîñòàòî÷íûì îïðàâäàíèåì äëÿ íàðóøåíèÿ ëþáûõ îáùåñòâåííûõ íîðì. Îäíàêî ðåâîëþöèîííûé âûáîð îñòàâàëñÿ äîñòàòî÷íî ìàðãèíàëüíûì â äîðåâîëþöèîííîé
Ðîññèè, è äàæå ñî÷óâñòâåííî îòíîñÿùàÿñÿ ê åâðåéñêèì ðåâîëþöèîííûì îðãàíèçàöèÿì ÷àñòü ðîññèéñêîãî åâðåéñòâà îñóæäàëà åâðåéñêèõ
ýêñïðîïðèàòîðîâ, âïëîòü äî òðåáîâàíèÿ îòëó÷åíèÿ èõ îò îáùèíû – ïðåäàíèå “õåðåìó”.66 Îñíîâíàÿ ÷àñòü îäåññêèõ åâðååâ ñòðîèëà ñòðàòåãèþ
Òàì æå.
Ýòî îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî óïîìèíàåòñÿ â ñòàíäàðòíîé ðàáîòå î ðåâîëþöèîííîì íàñèëèè
(ïðè÷åì, èìåííî â îäåññêîì êîíòåêñòå): Anna Geifman. Thou Shalt Kill:
Revolutionary Terrorism in Russia, 1894 – 1917. Princeton, 1993. P. 135.
66
Ñð.: “Íå ñïëîòèòüñÿ ëè íàì, âñåì åâðåÿì, ÷òîáû âûðàçèòü êîëëåãèàëüíî è
âñåíàðîäíî ñâîå ïðåçðåíèå òåì “áîìáèñòàì” èç åâðååâ, êîòîðûå âûäàþò ñåáÿ çà
ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé òîé èëè äðóãîé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïàðòèè è êîòîðûå, â ñóùíîñòè,
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È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ñîöèàëüíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ â óñëîâèÿõ íåêîòîðûõ âíåøíèõ è âíóòðåííèõ
îãðàíè÷åíèé, â òîì ÷èñëå îãðàíè÷åííîãî ïðàâà íà íàñèëèå â îòíîøåíèè èíîïëåìåííèêîâ è èíîâåðöåâ.
Âðàãè: “õàéìîâöû” è “ñîþçíèêè”
Çà íåìíîãèìè èñêëþ÷åíèÿìè (î êîòîðûõ ãîâîðèëîñü âûøå), åâðåéñêàÿ ïðåñòóïíîñòü äåéñòâîâàëà ïîâåðõ íàöèîíàëüíûõ è êëàññîâûõ áàðüåðîâ. Åñëè â ýòîì ïðîÿâëÿëàñü, â ÷àñòíîñòè, íîâàÿ “ýìàíñèïàòîðñêàÿ” ïàðàäèãìà åâðåéñêîãî ñîöèàëüíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ, òî åñòåñòâåííî
âîçíèêàåò âîïðîñ î òîì, â êàêîé ìåðå åâðåéñêàÿ ïðåñòóïíîñòü â Îäåññå ñòèìóëèðîâàëà àíòèñåìèòñêèå íàñòðîåíèÿ. Ïðîáëåìà àíòèñåìèòèçìà íå ìåíåå êîìïëåêñíàÿ è çàïóòàííàÿ, ÷åì ïðîáëåìà ýòíè÷åñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè, îäíàêî ñîâåðøåííî ïðîèãíîðèðîâàòü åå â êîíòåêñòå íàñòîÿùåé ñòàòüè áûëî áû íåâîçìîæíî. Âåðîÿòíî, íóæíî îãîâîðèòüñÿ, ÷òî
ðå÷ü ïîéäåò î ñâÿçè àíòèñåìèòèçìà êàê ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî äèñêóðñà ñ åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòüþ, à íå ïðîñòî î ëè÷íûõ ñèìïàòèÿõ è àíòèïàòèÿõ îòäåëüíûõ îäåññèòîâ ê çíàêîìûì è íåçíàêîìûì åâðåÿì.
Ñôîðìóëèðîâàâ âîïðîñ òàêèì îáðàçîì, ïðèõîäèòñÿ ñðàçó äàòü íà
íåãî îòâåò: íà îñíîâàíèè èçó÷åíèÿ øèðîêîãî ñïåêòðà îäåññêîé ïðåññû
1907-1917 ãã. è àðõèâíûõ ôîíäîâ îðãàíîâ ïîëèöèè è ñóäà ãîâîðèòü î
âèêòèìèçàöèè åâðååâ êàê ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíîé ãðóïïû, àêòèâíî ó÷àñòâóþùåé â êðèìèíàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè, íåëüçÿ.  îäåññêèõ ãàçåòàõ
(è ñîëèäíûõ, è áóëüâàðíûõ) èíôîðìàöèÿ î ïðåñòóïëåíèÿõ íå âûõîäèëà çà ðàìêè æàíðà ñåíñàöèîííîãî ðåïîðòàæà èëè ñêàíäàëüíîé õðîíèêè. Ïî ñâîåé ôîðìå íàèáîëåå ãðîìêèå ïóáëèêàöèè ïðèáëèæàëèñü ê
ñöåíàðèþ êèíîáîåâèêîâ,67 ÷òî óêàçûâàëî íà ðàçâëåêàòåëüíîå íàçíà÷åïðåñëåäóþò ëèøü îäíè öåëè ãðàáåæà? Õðèñòèàíå-áîìáèñòû íàçûâàþò ñåáÿ
àíàðõèñòàìè, à åâðåè – Áóíäèñòàìè. È âîò “Áóíä” â ïðåäñòàâëåíèè âñåãî îáùåñòâà
ÿâëÿåòñÿ êàêîé-òî øàéêîé ãîëîâîðåçîâ.” Á. Ñ-í. Áóíä // Ðóññêèé åâðåé. 1906. ¹ 2.
Ñóááîòà, 1 àïðåëÿ. “Ðóññêèé åâðåé” òðàäèöèîííî ñî÷óâñòâåííî îòíîñèëñÿ ê
åâðåéñêèì ëåâûì ïàðòèÿì.
67
Òàê, ïðîêàäåòñêàÿ “Íîâàÿ îäåññêàÿ ãàçåòà” ïîäàëà â íà÷àëå ñåíòÿáðÿ 1908 ã.
îïèñàíèå âîîðóæåííîãî íàïàäåíèÿ íà õëåáíûõ òîðãîâöåâ Ñ. Ãëàçåðà è
Çèëüáåðáåðãà, êîòîðûå ðàíî óòðîì íà ïðîëåòêàõ ñ áîëüøîé ñóììîé íàëè÷íûìè
åõàëè íà Áàëòñêóþ äîðîãó çàêóïàòü çåðíî, êàê îñòðîñþæåòíîå êèíî èç 7 ÷àñòåé.
Êàæäàÿ ÷àñòü, ñîñòîÿùàÿ èç 1-4 àáçàöåâ, ñíàáæåíà çàãîëîâêîì:
“Æåðòâû ðàçáîÿ” – “Íàïàäåíèå” – “Ïðåñëåäîâàíèå” – “Îêàçàíèå ïîìîùè ðàíåíûì”
– “Ïðèáûòèå âëàñòåé” – “Óáîðêà òðóïî┠– “Âïå÷àòëåíèÿ”. Íåñìîòðÿ íà
ïðèñóòñòâèå â ïðîèñøåñòâèè ýòíè÷åñêîãî êîìïîíåíòà è ÿâíûé ýêîíîìè÷åñêèé
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íèå ýòîãî æàíðà, ïîëèòè÷åñêèå êîììåíòàðèè ëþáîé îêðàñêè ñ÷èòàëèñü
â òàêèõ ïóáëèêàöèÿõ íåóìåñòíûìè.
Ëèøü îäíà îäåññêàÿ ãàçåòà, áîéêèé ëåâîðàäèêàëüíûé ëèñòîê “Ñðî÷íàÿ âå÷åðíÿÿ ïî÷òà”, ñòàðàëàñü èçáåãàòü òåìû åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè, à åñëè è ïå÷àòàëà ñîîáùåíèå î íàïàäåíèè åâðåÿ íà õðèñòèàíèíà,
òóò æå ïðèâîäèëà íåñêîëüêî ñëó÷àåâ îáðàòíîãî õàðàêòåðà.68 Ïðè ýòîì
ñàìîöåíçóðà ýòà íîñèëà, ñêîðåå, ïîëóáåññîçíàòåëüíûé õàðàêòåð, ïîñêîëüêó â òî æå âðåìÿ ãàçåòà íå ñòåñíÿëàñü ðàçîáëà÷àòü “white collar
crime” ñðåäè åâðåéñêîé ýëèòû è êëåéìèòü ýêñïëóàòàöèþ åâðåéñêîé
áåäíîòû áîãàòûìè åâðåÿìè. Âèäèìî, ôàêòû íàïàäåíèÿ åâðååâ íà èíîâåðöåâ ïðîòèâîðå÷èëè ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïðîãðàììå ãàçåòû,
âïîëíå ñîãëàñóþùåéñÿ ñ êîíöåïöèåé ìîäåðíèçàöèè ïî íàïðàâëåíèþ
“îò êðîâè ê ìîøåííè÷åñòâó”.
Ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîé ðåàêöèè ìîæíî áûëî îæèäàòü îò ÷åðíîñîòåííîé
ïðåññû, êîòîðàÿ áûëà íà óäèâëåíèå íåìíîãî÷èñëåííîé äëÿ ãîðîäà ñ
ðåïóòàöèåé êðóïíåéøåãî ÷åðíîñîòåííîãî öåíòðà.69 Îäåññêèå ÷åðíîñîòåííûå ãàçåòû âëà÷èëè æàëêîå ñóùåñòâîâàíèå, ïîñòîÿííî ïðîãîðàëè, ñòðàäàÿ îò íåäîñòàòêà ñðåäñòâ, îòñóòñòâèÿ ðåêëàìû è ôàêòè÷åñêîãî
õàðàêòåð ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ, ðåïîðòàæ íàïèñàí â æàíðå action, êàê äåéñòâèå ðàäè
äåéñòâèÿ. Ñì.: Âîîðóæåííîå íàïàäåíèå // Íîâàÿ Îäåññêàÿ ãàçåòà, 1908 ã. ¹ 33. 4
ñåíòÿáðÿ. Ñ. 3.
Ýòîò “êèíîøíûé ïðèåì” âñòðå÷àåòñÿ â îäåññêèõ ãàçåòàõ íå ðàç. Íà äðóãîì êîíöå
ðàññìàòðèâàåìîãî â ýòîé ñòàòüå õðîíîëîãè÷åñêîãî îòðåçêà – ðåïîðòàæ 1915 ãîäà â
áóëüâàðíîì “Ìàëåíüêîì îäåññêîì ëèñòêå”. Ëåòî, âîéíà, ìåðòâûé ñåçîí äëÿ çàìåòíûõ ãîðîäñêèõ ñîáûòèé, ïîýòîìó çàóðÿäíîå ïðîèñøåñòâèå – ñîøåäøèé ñ ðåëüñîâ
òðàìâàé – ñìàêóåòñÿ íà äâóõ ñòðàíèöàõ, ñ ýëåìåíòàìè ìîíòàæà ïðîñòî ýéçåíøòåéíîâñêîãî äèíàìèçìà. Âîò çàãîëîâêè îòäåëüíûõ ÷àñòåé ðåïîðòàæà-“áîåâèêà”:
“Âåñòü î êàòàñòðîôå” – “Íà ìåñòå êàòàñòðîôû” – “Îêàçàíèå ïîìîùè” – “Ëèíèÿ ¹
31” – “Ïåðåä íåñ÷àñòüåì” – “Ïåðåïîëîõ” – “Êàòàñòðîôà” – “Ñïàñåíèå ïàññàæèðî┠– “Ïîñòðàäàâøèå” – “Ðàññêàç î÷åâèäöå┠– “ âàãîíå ¹ 49” – “Ïðèáûòèå
âëàñòåé” – “Ïðè÷èíà êàòàñòðîôû” – “Ïðîñüáà ñóäåáíîãî ñëåäîâàòåëÿ”. Ñì.: Òðàìâàéíàÿ êàòàñòðîôà // Ìàëåíüêèé îäåññêèé ëèñòîê, 1915 ã. ¹ 3. 6 èþëÿ. Ñ. 3-4.
68
Íàïðèìåð, ïîñëå ñîîáùåíèÿ î çàäåðæàíèè Èñààêà Ôëèêøòåéíà è Èîñèôà Ãàëüïåðèíà ïî ïîäîçðåíèþ ⠓îãðàáëåíèè 100 ðóá.” ó ñîäåðæàòåëÿ âèííîãî ïîãðåáà
Àëåêñåÿ Êóçüìèíà (â ä. ¹ 30 ïî Ó÷èëèùíîé óëèöå) ñëåäóþò òðè ñëó÷àÿ îãðàáëåíèÿ åâðååâ íå-åâðåÿìè. Ñì. Çàäåðæàíèå ãðàáèòåëåé // Ñðî÷íàÿ âå÷åðíÿÿ ïî÷òà. 31
äåê. 1911 ã. Ñ. 3.
69
Îòðàæåíèå ýòîãî ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ â èñòîðèîãðàôèè ñì. íàïð. â: Ñ. À. Ñòåïàíîâ.
×åðíàÿ ñîòíÿ â Ðîññèè, 1905-1914 ãã. Ìîñêâà, 1992. Ñ. 151 è äð. Ðîáåðò Âàéíáåðã
ïðåäñòàâëÿåò Îäåññó êàê ãîðîä ñ áîãàòûì “íàñëåäèåì àíòèñåìèòèçìà”: Robert
Weinberg. The Revolution of 1905 in Odessa. Bloomington, 1993. P. 180, et al.
237
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ñàáîòàæà ñî ñòîðîíû ðàñïðîñòðàíèòåëåé.70 Ñàìîå æå óäèâèòåëüíîå – â
íèõ ïî÷òè îòñóòñòâóåò ðàçâèòûé îäåññêèé àíòèñåìèòñêèé äèñêóðñ:
ïåðåïå÷àòûâàÿ ñòàòüè öåíòðàëüíîé ÷åðíîñîòåííîé ïðåññû èëè êîììåíòèðóÿ îáùåðîññèéñêèå ñîáûòèÿ, îäåññêèå ÷åðíîñîòåííûå èçäàíèÿ ïî÷òè íå ïóáëèêîâàëè ìàòåðèàëû íà ãîðîäñêèå òåìû, èãíîðèðóÿ âîçìîæíîñòü ðàçîáëà÷åíèÿ “ñîáñòâåííûõ” åâðååâ. Õàðàêòåðíûì èñêëþ÷åíèåì ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñàìàÿ ñîëèäíàÿ è óñïåøíàÿ “Ðóññêàÿ ðå÷ü”: â íåé ïåðèîäè÷åñêè ïîÿâëÿëèñü ìàòåðèàëû, ïîñâÿùåííûå îäåññêèì ïðîáëåìàì, â
òîì ÷èñëå è êðèìèíàëüíàÿ õðîíèêà. Îäíàêî ïðè ýòîì ïðàêòè÷åñêè íèêàê íå ýêñïëóàòèðîâàëñÿ ýòíè÷åñêèé àñïåêò ïðîèñøåñòâèé: çàìåíÿÿ
íåéòðàëüíîå “åâðåé” íà “æèä” è ñòàðàÿñü îïèñûâàòü åâðåéñêèõ ïåðñîíàæåé â óíè÷èæèòåëüíîì èëè ïðÿìî îñêîðáèòåëüíîì òîíå, àâòîðû
“Ðóññêîé ðå÷è” íå èäóò äàëüøå ôîðìàëüíîãî “ïåðåâîäà”.71 Ïðè ýòîì
Òàê, “Íàðîäíàÿ ãàçåòà Ðóññêàÿ êîïåéêà”, âûõîäèâøàÿ â 1911-1912 ãã., èç íîìåðà
â íîìåð íàñòîÿòåëüíî ïðèãëàøàëà íà ðàáîòó ðåêëàìíûõ àãåíòîâ. Â íîìåðå îò 24
àïðåëÿ 1911 ã. â ýòîé ãàçåòå íàïå÷àòàíû âñåãî 6 îáúÿâëåíèé, îäíî èç êîòîðûõ –
åâðåéñêîé ôèðìû. ×åðíîñîòåííûé åæåäíåâíûé ëèñòîê “Íàáàò”, ïðèøåäøèé â 1913
ã. íà ñìåíó “Ðóññêîé êîïåéêå”, åâðåéñêóþ ðåêëàìó íå ïå÷àòàë, íî ïîñòîÿííî æàëîâàëñÿ íà êèîñêè è ðàçíîñ÷èêîâ, êîòîðûå îòêàçûâàëèñü ðàñïðîñòðàíÿòü ýòó ãàçåòó: áîëüøèíñòâî îäåññêèõ ãàçåòíûõ èçäàòåëåé ãðîçèëè áîéêîòîì ðàñïðîñòðàíèòåëÿì ÷åðíîñîòåííîé ïðåññû.
Äîëãîæèòåëåì è íàèáîëåå ñîëèäíûì ÷åðíîñîòåííûì èçäàíèåì â Îäåññå áûëà “Ðóññêàÿ ðå÷ü”. Íî è ýòà ãàçåòà íå ìîãëà ñîáðàòü ñîëèäíóþ êîììåð÷åñêóþ ðåêëàìó,
ïå÷àòàÿ â îñíîâíîì òðàíñïîðòíûå ðàñïèñàíèÿ è àôèøè. Ïðèîáðåñòè ãàçåòó â 1912
ãîäó ìîæíî áûëî òîëüêî â ðåäàêöèè, â îäíîì-åäèíñòâåííîì êíèæíîì ìàãàçèíå è
â 18 êèîñêàõ – â ãîðîäå ñ ïî÷òè ïîëóìèëëèîííûì íå-åâðåéñêèì íàñåëåíèåì. (Êîíå÷íî æå, ìîæíî áûëî ïîëó÷àòü “Ðóññêóþ ðå÷ü” ïî ïîäïèñêå, íî çàòî åå íå ïðîäàâàëè áåñ÷èñëåííûå ðàçíîñ÷èêè.) Ñì.: Ðîçíè÷íàÿ ïðîäàæà ¹¹ ãàçåòû // Ðóññêàÿ
ðå÷ü. 1912. ¹ 1960. 1 èþëÿ. Ñ. 1.
ßâíàÿ íåïîïóëÿðíîñòü ÷åðíîñîòåííîé ïðåññû â Îäåññå ñóùåñòâåííî êîððåêòèðóåò ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîå ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î ïðî÷íûõ ïîçèöèÿõ ÷åðíîé ñîòíè â Îäåññå.
71
Òàê, ïîñòîÿííûé ôåëüåòîíèñò “Ðóññêîé ðå÷è” ñ õàðàêòåðíûì äëÿ îäåññêîé ÷åðíîñîòåííîé ãàçåòû ïñåâäîíèìîì “Ïåññèìèñò”, îïèñûâàÿ ãîðîäñêèå ïðîèñøåñòâèÿ,
ïðîñòî àäàïòèðóåò òîí ðåïîðòàæà ê ñïåöèôè÷åñêèì òðåáîâàíèÿì ïàðàíîèäàëüíîé ÷åðíîñîòåííîé ðå÷è: “Èç õðîíèêè ïðîèñøåñòâèé âû óæå çíàåòå, ÷òî òîëïà
åâðååâ èçáèëà âàãîíîâîæàòîãî òðàìâàÿ è êîíäóêòîðà çà òî, ÷òî ïîä âàãîí ýëåêòðè÷êè ïîïàë æèäåíîê. Äàâèòü äåòåé ïî óëèöàì – îòíþäü íå äîáðîäåòåëü..,” îäíàêî “âèíîâàòû ñàìè æèäû, êîòîðûå ïåðåä ñàìûì òðàìâàåì ” íàçëî ïåðåáåãàþò äîðîãó. Ñì.: Ïåññèìèñò. Ìàëåíüêèé ôåëüåòîí // Ðóññêàÿ ðå÷ü. 1912. ¹ 1962. 4 èþëÿ.
Ñ. 3. Êîëü ñêîðî àâòîð îïèñûâàåò ðåàëüíîå ïðîèñøåñòâèå, íî ïðè ýòîì âñå æå íå
ïðèçûâàåò äàâèòü åâðåéñêèõ äåòåé, òî åãî îñêîðáèòåëüíàÿ ðèòîðèêà îêàçûâàåòñÿ
èçáûòî÷íîé è ñàìîäîñòàòî÷íîé, íå ïåðåõîäÿ ïóñòü è òîíêóþ, íî ðåàëüíóþ ãðàíèöó
ìåæäó ÿçûêîì íåíàâèñòè (òî÷íåå, ðàçäðàæåíèÿ) è ïðèçûâîì ê ïðÿìîìó íàñèëèþ.
70
238
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ÿâíàÿ òåíäåíöèîçíîñòü ðåäêî ïåðåõîäèò â ïðåäíàìåðåííûé îòáîð ôàêòîâ èëè êîíöåïòóàëèçèöèþ ïðåñòóïíîñòè êàê ñëåäñòâèÿ åâðåéñêîãî
çàãîâîðà.72 Â ïîñëåïîãðîìíîå äåñÿòèëåòèå 1906-1916 ãã. íè îäíà èç
îäåññêèõ ÷åðíîñîòåííûõ ãàçåò íå áûëà ãîòîâà ïðåäñòàâèòü Îäåññó –
íå äàëåêèé Ïåòåðáóðã, èëè “âñþ Ðîññèþ”, èëè “âåñü ìèð”, à ðîäíîé
ãîðîä – êàê ñöåíó äðàìàòè÷åñêîãî ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèÿ ñèë äîáðà è çëà,
ïðàâîñëàâíûõ ïàòðèîòîâ è åâðååâ. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ãîâîðèòü îá èíñòèòóöèàëèçàöèè àíòèñåìèòñêîãî îáùåñòâåííîãî äèñêóðñà â Îäåññå â ñâÿçè ñ èíòåíñèâíîé ñîöèàëüíîé àêòèâíîñòüþ åâðååâ (â òîì ÷èñëå è êðèìèíàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà) íå ïðèõîäèòñÿ.
Âîïðîñ î ñòåïåíè ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîñòè àíòèñåìèòñêèõ íàñòðîåíèé
â îðãàíàõ ïîëèöèè è ñëåäñòâèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ áîëåå ñëîæíûì. Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ïî èòîãàì ðàññëåäîâàíèÿ ïîãðîìà 1905 ã. ñåíàòîðîì Êóçìèíñêèì áûëè óâîëåíû ñî ñëóæáû è îòäàíû ïîä ñëåäñòâèå çà ïðåñòóïíîå
ïîïóñòèòåëüñòâî èëè ïðÿìîå ó÷àñòèå â ïîãðîìå 49 ÷èíîâ îäåññêîé
ïîëèöèè, âêëþ÷àÿ ïðèñòàâîâ ó÷àñòêîâ.73 Àíòèñåìèòñêèå âûñòóïëåíèÿ
è êîíêðåòíûå ïîëèòè÷åñêèå æåñòû äåëàëèñü íà ñàìîì âûñîêîì ãîðîäñêîì óðîâíå, èñõîäèëè îò ãóáåðíàòîðà è êîìàíäóþùåãî âîåííûì îêðóãîì. Ïîñëå ðåôîðìû ãîðîäñêîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ 1892 ã. ïðåäñòàâèòåëüñòâî åâðååâ â îðãàíàõ àäìèíèñòðàöèè è Ãîðîäñêîé Äóìå áûëî èñêóññòâåííî îãðàíè÷åíî.74 Ïîêà íåâîçìîæíî äîêóìåíòàëüíî óñòàíîâèòü,
Òàê, ñ óäîâîëüñòâèåì ïåðå÷èñëÿÿ ïîéìàííûõ ïðåñòóïíèêîâ-“æèäîâ”, ãàçåòà îáû÷íî òóò æå è ñòîëü æå ïîäðîáíî ðàññêàçûâàåò îá àðåñòîâàííûõ ïðàâîñëàâíûõ ïðåñòóïíèêàõ. È åñëè â ìàòåðèàëå îá èñïîëüçîâàíèè äåøåâûõ ãîñòèíèö â êà÷åñòâå
äîìîâ ñâèäàíèé àâòîð íå óïóñêàåò âîçìîæíîñòè çàìåòèòü, ÷òî “âî âñåõ ýòèõ ïîäëûõ óõèùðåíèÿõ èçîùðÿþòñÿ èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî ïàðàçèòû îáùåñòâà – æèäû”, òî îá
óáèéñòâå åâðåéñêîãî âðà÷à-âåíåðîëîãà ðóññêèì ïàöèåíòîì, íåäîâîëüíûì ïðîãðåññîì ëå÷åíèÿ, ðàññêàçûâàåòñÿ ñ ÿâíûì ñî÷óâñòâèåì ê âðà÷ó. Ñì.: Áîðüáà ñ ðàçâðàòîì // Ðóññêàÿ ðå÷ü. 1912. ¹ 1965. 7 èþëÿ. Ñ. 3; Ïðîèñøåñòâèÿ // Ðóññêàÿ ðå÷ü.
1912. ¹ 1972. 15 èþëÿ. Ñ. 3-4. Ïðàâäà, óæå â ñëåäóþùåì íîìåðå “Ïåññèìèñò”
èñïðàâëÿåò äîïóùåííóþ ãàçåòîé îïëîøíîñòü è ãëóìèòñÿ íàä âðà÷îì-æåðòâîé è
âîîáùå ïðîôåññèåé îáìàíùèêîâ-âåíåðîëîãîâ. Îäíàêî õàðàêòåðíî, ÷òî äàæå â ðåäêîì ñëó÷àå íàèáîëåå ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîãî “êîíöåïòóàëüíîãî” þäîôîáñòâà Ïåññèìèñòà ìû íå ñòàëêèâàåìñÿ ñî ñêîëü-íèáóäü îò÷åòëèâîé è öåëîñòíîé êàðòèíîé îäåññêîãî åâðåéñêîãî çàãîâîðà, ïðîÿâëÿþùåãîñÿ èíâàðèàíòíî â ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ èíòðèãàõ, çàñèëèè åâðåéñêîãî êàïèòàëà èëè ïðåñòóïíîñòè.
73
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 419. Ïðîêóðîð îäåññêîé ñóäåáíîé ïàëàòû. Îï. 1. Åä. õð. 4196. Ïðåäâàðèòåëüíîå ñëåäñòâèå ïî îáâèíåíèþ ñëóæàùèõ Îäåññêîé ãîðîäñêîé ïîëèöèè (â
êîëè÷åñòâå 49 ÷åë.) â ó÷àñòèè â åâðåéñêèõ ïîãðîìàõ â ã. Îäåññå â îêòÿáðå 1905 ã.
Ë. 3-9 îá. Âûïèñü èç ïîñòàíîâëåíèÿ.
74
Ñì. Weinberg. Pp. 18-19.
72
239
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
êàê ïðîÿâëÿëèñü àíòèñåìèòñêèå ÷óâñòâà êîíêðåòíûõ ÷èíîâ ïîëèöèè
ïðè ïðîèçâîäñòâå äîçíàíèé è ðàññëåäîâàíèé, âïîëíå ìîæíî äîïóñòèòü,
÷òî ýòîò ôàêòîð â êàêîé-òî ìåðå ïðèñóòñòâîâàë. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, îñíîâíîé êîðïóñ ñîõðàíèâøèõñÿ äîêóìåíòîâ ïîëèöèè, ïðîêóðàòóðû è
ñóäà íå ñîäåðæèò ïðÿìûõ èëè êîñâåííûõ ïðîÿâëåíèé àíòèñåìèòèçìà
(÷åðåç èíòîíàöèþ, íàðî÷èòûé ïîäáîð èëè èíòåðïðåòàöèþ ôàêòîâ, óïîòðåáëåíèå îäíîãî èç õàðàêòåðíûõ ðàñõîæèõ øòàìïîâ èëè îáîðîòîâ è
ò.ï.). Èçðåäêà ìîæíî âñòðåòèòü îòêëîíåíèå îò íîðì ðå÷åâîãî ïðîòîêîëà îôèöèàëüíîãî äîêóìåíòà, êîòîðîå ìîæíî èíòåðïðåòèðîâàòü êàê
ïðîÿâëåíèå ñî÷óâñòâèÿ ê åâðåÿì,75 íî îáðàòíûé ñëó÷àé ìíå íè ðàçó íå
âñòðåòèëñÿ. Êîñâåííûì, íî î÷åíü âàæíûì ïîäòâåðæäåíèåì “íåéòðàëüíîãî” îòíîøåíèÿ ïîëèöèè è ñóäà â Îäåññå ê åâðåÿì ñëóæèò îãðîìíîå
êîëè÷åñòâî æàëîá è çàÿâëåíèé, ïîäàâàâøèõñÿ åâðåÿìè íà åâðååâ è íååâðååâ: ýòî áûëî áû íåâîçìîæíî áåç ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ äîâåðèÿ ê îðãàíàì çàêîíà.
Ïîçèöèÿ îäåññêîé ïîëèöèè âûãëÿäèò íåéòðàëüíîé è óðàâíîâåøåííîé ïî êîíòðàñòó ñ äèñêóðñîì è ïðàêòèêîé ïîëèöèè âíóòðåííèõ ãóáåðíèé èëè ïåòåðáóðãñêîãî ðóêîâîäñòâà. Íåñêîëüêî ñëó÷àåâ ïåðåïèñêè Îäåññêîãî Æàíäàðìñêîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ è îõðàííîãî îòäåëåíèÿ ñ Ïåòåðáóðãîì ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò î òîì, ÷òî â Îäåññå áûëè íå ñêëîííû äðàìàòèçèðîâàòü íàêàë ìåæýòíè÷åñêîãî ïðîòèâîñòîÿíèÿ. Òàê, 27 èþíÿ 1906
ã. íà÷àëüíèêó Îäåññêîãî îõðàííîãî îòäåëåíèÿ ÷åðåç êàíöåëÿðèþ Îäåññêîãî ãðàäîíà÷àëüíèêà ïîñòóïèë ñëåäóþùèé çàïðîñ:
 Äåïàðòàìåíòå Ïîëèöèè ïîëó÷åíû ñâåäåíèÿ, ÷òî â Îäåññå
åâðåéñêîå íàñåëåíèå îðãàíèçîâàëî ñàìîîáîðîíó, ÷èñëåííàÿ ñèëà
êîòîðîé óâåëè÷èëàñü â 5-6 ðàç ñðàâíèòåëüíî ñ áûâøåþ â îêòÿáðå
1905 ãîäà, ýòà ñàìîîáîðîíà ðàñïîëàãàåò áóäòî áû 350 áîìáàìè è
6 ò. ðåâîëüâåðîâ, ïðè÷åì â ñëó÷àå ïîãðîìà âñå åâðåéñêîå íàñåëåíèå ÿâèòñÿ âîîðóæåííîå Áðàóíèíãàìè, òîãäà êàê ðóññêèå âñëåäÑð. íàïð. ÿâíî èçáûòî÷íûé ñ ôîðìàëüíîé òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ïàññàæ â ðóòèííîì îò÷åòå
íà÷àëüíèêà ñûñêíîãî îòäåëåíèÿ: “ Äî ìîåãî ñâåäåíèÿ äîøëî, ÷òî â êâàðòèðå
ñàïîæíîãî ìàñòåðà ìåùàíèíà Ëüâà Ìèëüìàíà
õðàíèòñÿ ìíîãî áðþê, â
áëàãîâèäíîì ñïîñîáå áëàãîïðèîáðåòåíèÿ êîòîðûõ Ìèëüìàíîì âñòðå÷àåòñÿ
ñîìíåíèå. Ñâåäåíèÿ ýòè áûëè ïðîâåðåíû
óñòàíîâëåíî, ÷òî îíè ïîõèùåíû ó
î÷åíü áåäíîãî òîðãîâöà âðàçíîñ Õàèìà-Ãåðøà Ôðèäìàíà ” (Âûäåëåíî ìíîé, –
È.Ã.) Ñì.: ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 2. Åä. õð. 106.
Äîíåñåíèÿ ïîìîùíèêà Îäåññêîãî ïîëèöìåéñòåðà – çàâåäóþùåãî ñûñêíîé ÷àñòüþ
îá óáèéñòâàõ, ãðàáåæàõ è äðóãèõ ïðîèñøåñòâèÿõ ïî ãîð. Îäåññå. 2 ÿíâàðÿ 1912 –
30 äåêàáðÿ 1914 ãã. Ë. 104 îá.
75
240
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ñòâèå çàòðóäíèòåëüíîñòè ïðèîáðåòàòü îðóæèå ïðè äåéñòâèè âîåííîãî ïîëîæåíèÿ îêàæóòñÿ áåççàùèòíûìè.
Âñëåäñòâèå çàïðîñà îá ýòîì Äåïàðòàìåíòà Ïîëèöèè îò 17 ñåãî
èþíÿ çà ¹ 9361, Ïðîøó Âàøå Âûñîêîáëàãîðîäèå ñîîáùèòü ìíå,
êàêèå èìåþòñÿ â ðàñïîðÿæåíèè Âàøåì ñâåäåíèÿ î êîëè÷åñòâå
áîìá, à òàêæå î ÷èñëåííîñòè è âîîðóæåíèè åâðåéñêîé ñàìîîáîðîíû.76
Îòâå÷àÿ íà ïðîíèêíóòûé çàáîòîé î áåççàùèòíûõ ïîãðîìùèêàõ çàïðîñ ïåòåðáóðãñêîãî íà÷àëüñòâà, îäåññêàÿ îõðàíêà â äåëîâîì òîíå ïîäðîáíî îïèñûâàåò ñóùåñòâóþùèå â ãîðîäå åâðåéñêèå íåçàêîííûå âîîðóæåííûå ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ, ïîä÷åðêèâàÿ “ñðàâíèòåëüíî íåáîëüøîå êîëè÷åñòâî” îãíåñòðåëüíîãî îðóæèÿ, èìåþùåãîñÿ â èõ ðàñïîðÿæåíèè.
Íèêàêèõ ñïåêóëÿöèé, ìîðàëüíûõ îöåíîê èëè äèñêóðñèâíûõ êîíñòðóêöèé â äóõå çàïðîñà Äåïàðòàìåíòà Ïîëèöèè â äîíåñåíèè íå ñîäåðæèòñÿ, ëèøü ñóãóáî òåõíè÷åñêèé àíàëèç ñèòóàöèè.
Îäíàêî ïðèçðàêè åâðåéñêîãî âîññòàíèÿ â Îäåññå íå äàâàëè ïîêîÿ
Äåïàðòàìåíòó Ïîëèöèè. Ñïóñòÿ ìåñÿö â Îäåññêóþ îõðàíêó ïîñòóïàåò
åùå áîëåå ôàíòàñòè÷åñêèé çàïðîñ:
 Äåïàðòàìåíòå Ïîëèöèè ïîëó÷åíû ñâåäåíèÿ, ÷òî â Îäåññå
ïîÿâèëàñü íîâàÿ ãðóïïà òàê íàçûâàåìûõ “õàéìîâöåâ”, ñîñòîÿùàÿ
èç ïîñëåäîâàòåëåé íåêîåãî “Õàèìà”, àãèòèðóþùåãî èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî ñðåäè ðàáî÷èõ.
Ñîîáùàÿ îá èçëîæåííîì, Äåïàðòàìåíò ïîëèöèè ïðîñèò Âàøå
Âûñîêîáëàãîðîäèå âûÿñíèòü ñîñòàâ è çàäà÷è ýòîé ãðóïïû è ëè÷íîñòü Õàèìà è î ïîñëåäóþùåì äîíåñòè.77
Âîïðåêè îáùåé ïðàêòèêå, êîãäà îòâåò íà çàïðîñ Äåïàðòàìåíòà Ïîëèöèè äàâàëñÿ ïîñëå ïðîâåäåíèÿ ñïåöèàëüíîãî ðàññëåäîâàíèÿ è (çà÷àñòóþ âåñüìà îáøèðíîé) ïåðåïèñêè, â ýòîò ðàç Îäåññêîå îõðàííîå îòäåëåíèå íå ïðåäïðèíÿëî íèêàêèõ äîïîëíèòåëüíûõ øàãîâ. Âûäåðæàâ
ïîäîáàþùóþ ïàóçó, íà÷àëüíèê îäåññêîé îõðàíêè ÷åðåç íåäåëþ îòïðàâèë â Äåïàðòàìåíò îòâåò: “Äîíîøó Âàøåìó Ïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâó, ÷òî
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 386. Îäåññêîå îõðàííîå îòäåëåíèå. Îï. 1. Åä. õð. 1050. Ïåðåïèñêà ñ
Äåïàðòàìåíòîì Ïîëèöèè, Æàíäàðìñêèì Óïðàâëåíèåì ã. Îäåññû è äðóãèìè ó÷ðåæäåíèÿìè î äåÿòåëüíîñòè è àðåñòå ëèö, ïðèíàäëåæàùèõ ê Îäåññêîìó ìîëäàâàíñêîìó ëåòó÷åìó îòðÿäó ñàìîîáîðîíû. 28 èþíÿ – 16 îêòÿáðÿ 1906 ã. Ë. 1-1îá.
77
Òàì æå. Åä. õð. 1049. Äîíåñåíèå â Äåïàðòàìåíò Ïîëèöèè îá îòñóòñòâèè ñâåäåíèé
î ñóùåñòâîâàíèè â ãîð. Îäåññå ãðóïïû “Õàéìîâöåâ”. Ë. 1.
76
241
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
î ñóùåñòâîâàíèè â ã. Îäåññå íîâîé ðàáî÷åé ãðóïïû òàê íàçûâàåìûõ
“Õàéìîâöåâ”, à ðàâíî è ãëàâàðÿ åÿ “Õàèìà”, â îòäåëåíèè ñâåäåíèé íå
èìååòñÿ.”78 Îáúåêòèâíî àíòèñåìèòñêèé çàïðîñ Äåïàðòàìåíòà Ïîëèöèè
áûë ïðîèãíîðèðîâàí îäåññêîé ñëóæáîé áåçîïàñíîñòè, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå,
èç-çà åãî àáñóðäíîñòè: çíàíèÿ î åâðåÿõ â ÄÏ ÿâíî îãðàíè÷èâàëèñü 2-3
èìåíàìè èç åâðåéñêèõ àíåêäîòîâ, à ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î ñîâðåìåííîé åâðåéñêîé ïîëèòèêå îòñóòñòâîâàëè íàïðî÷ü, âìåñòî íèõ â óìàõ ïåòåðáóðãñêèõ ïîëèöåéñêèõ ðîèëèñü êàêèå-òî îáðûâêè èç áóëüâàðíûõ ïóáëèêàöèé î åâðåéñêèõ ëæå-ìåññèÿõ ïðîøëûõ âåêîâ è ðàçëàãàþùåé àãèòàöèè åâðåéñêèõ ñòóäåíòîâ ñðåäè ðàáî÷èõ. Òî, ÷òî îäåññêèå ïîëèöåéñêèå ÷èíû íå ðàçäåëÿëè çàáëóæäåíèé, à çíà÷èò, è ñòðàõîâ ñâîåãî íà÷àëüñòâà, ãîâîðèò î áîëåå àäåêâàòíîì âîñïðèÿòèè èìè ñèòóàöèè è îòñóòñòâèè ñêëîííîñòè âîåâàòü ñ âåòðÿíûìè ìåëüíèöàìè èëè òàéíûìè
çàãîâîðàìè.
Îäíàêî íåñêëîííîñòü îäåññêîé ïîëèöèè ê îõîòå íà âåäüì è ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêîé âèêòèìèçàöèè åâðååâ íå îçíà÷àëà è îñîáî ñî÷óâñòâåííîãî
îòíîøåíèÿ ê åâðåÿì, îñîáåííî â ïåðâûå ïîðåâîëþöèîííûå ãîäû, êîãäà ÷åðíîñîòåííûå îðãàíèçàöèè ïîëüçîâàëèñü îôèöèàëüíûì ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâîì ãîðîäñêèõ âëàñòåé è ïîëèöèè. 13 äåêàáðÿ 1906 ã. êàäåòñêàÿ
“Ðå÷ü” îïóáëèêîâàëà çàìåòêó î òîì, êàê ñëóæàùåãî îäåññêîé ôèðìû
Âàãàó Èçðàèëÿ Ïåðåëüìàíà ïîñëå ðàáîòû ïîõèòèëà áàíäà “ñîþçíèêîâ”,
çàòàùèëè â ÷àéíóþ ÑÐÍ, áèëè, èçäåâàëèñü, à ïîòîì îòâåçëè è âûêèíóëè íà îêðàèíå – “çà àãèòàöèþ”. Ïîñëå îïóáëèêîâàíèÿ çàìåòêè Æàíäàðìñêîå Óïðàâëåíèå íà÷àëî ðàññëåäîâàíèå: î÷åâèäíî, ñàì Ïåðåëüìàí
íå âèäåë ñìûñëà îáðàùàòüñÿ çà ïîìîùüþ ê ïîëèöèè.79 Ïðîâåäåííîå
ñïóñòÿ áîëåå íåäåëè ïîñëå èíöèäåíòà ìåäèöèíñêîå îñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàíèå ïîäòâåðäèëî ôàêò èñòÿçàíèÿ.80 Îäíàêî íåñìîòðÿ íà òî, ÷òî â õîäå
ðàññëåäîâàíèÿ áûëè âûÿñíåíû èìåíà ëþäåé, íàêàíóíå óãðîæàâøèõ
Ïåðåëüìàíó, ðàññëåäîâàíèå çàêîí÷èëîñü íè÷åì, âèíîâíûõ òàê è íå
íàøëè.
Îäåññêàÿ ïîëèöèÿ, êàê è âñÿ ðîññèéñêàÿ ïîëèöèÿ, íå áûëà ãîòîâà ê
äåÿòåëüíîñòè â ýïîõó ìàññîâîé ïîëèòèêè, ñòèõèéíûõ òîëï è ãîðîäñÒàì æå. Ë. 2.
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 1. Ò. 2. Åä. õð. 2110.
Äîíåñåíèÿ ïîìîùíèêà Îäåññêîãî ïîëèöìåéñòåðà è ïîëèöåéñêèõ ïðèñòàâîâ î
âçðûâàõ íà ïàðîõîäàõ “Ãåîðãèé Ìåðê”, “Àþ-Äà㔠è äð., ñòîëêíîâåíèè íàñåëåíèÿ ñ
îòðÿäàìè “Ñîþçà ðóññêîãî íàðîäà”, ýêñïðîïðèàöèÿõ àíàðõèñòîâ è äðóãèõ
ïðîèñøåñòâèÿõ â ã. Îäåññå. 12 ÿíâàðÿ 1907 – 19 îêòÿáðÿ 1911 ãã. Ë. 1.
80
Òàì æå. Ë. 5-5 îá.
78
79
242
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êèõ âîññòàíèé. Äàæå åñëè íåò îñíîâàíèé ïðèïèñûâàòü ïîëèöèè â öåëîì ðîëü îñíîâíîãî îðãàíèçàòîðà åâðåéñêèõ ïîãðîìîâ â Îäåññå,81 íåò
ñîìíåíèé, ÷òî â ïîäàâëåíèè ìàññîâûõ áåñïîðÿäêîâ ïîëèöèÿ äåéñòâîâàëà íåóìåëî è âÿëî. Íåïëîõî ñïðàâëÿÿñü ñ îáû÷íîé óëè÷íîé ïðåñòóïíîñòüþ, ïîëèöèÿ â Îäåññå èçáåãàëà âìåøàòåëüñòâà â ïîòåíöèàëüíûé
ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûé êîíôëèêò. Ïåðñïåêòèâû ìåæýòíè÷åñêîãî ìèðà
â ãîðîäå âñåöåëî çàâèñåëè îò ñàìèõ îäåññèòîâ.
Ñîñåäè: èñòîðèÿ êðîâíîé çàèíòåðåñîâàííîñòè
Êîíôèãóðàöèè ìåæýòíè÷åñêîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ â Îäåññå íèêàê íå
ñîâïàäàëè ñ îôèöèàëüíîé èëè èíñòèòóöèîíàëüíîé äåìàðêàöèåé, õàðàêòåðíîé äëÿ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè â öåëîì. Îñîáåííî íàãëÿäíî ýòîò
òåçèñ äåìîíñòðèðóþò êîíôëèêòíûå ñèòóàöèè, çàôèêñèðîâàííûå ïîëèöèåé êàê ïðàâîíàðóøåíèÿ. Òàê, áóéíûé ðîñò â 1907-1908 ãã. ðàáî÷èõ àðòåëåé (îñîáåííî â ïîðòó), íàõîäÿùèõñÿ ïîä ýãèäîé ÷åðíîñîòåííûõ îðãàíèçàöèé, áûë ñâÿçàí â áîëüøåé ñòåïåíè ñ ïðîáëåìàìè òðóäîâûõ îòíîøåíèé, ÷åì ñ àíòèñåìèòñêèìè íàñòðîåíèÿìè.82 Îñíîâíûå ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ ïîðòîâûõ ðàáî÷èõ – ÷ëåíî⠓Ñîþçà ðóññêîãî íàðîäà” áûëè
íå ñ åâðåÿìè, à ñ âðàæäåáíî íàñòðîåííûìè ðàáî÷èìè – íå-÷ëåíàìè
“ñîþçíûõ” àðòåëåé (íàèáîëåå èçâåñòíûé ýïèçîä – äðàêà íà Òàìîæåííîé ïëîùàäè 4 àïðåëÿ 1907 ã., êîãäà “ñîþçíèêî┠áèëè êàê øòðåéêáðåõåðîâ, ñðûâàþùèõ çàáàñòîâêó â ïîðòó).83 Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ïî ñîîáùåíèÿì ÿçâèòåëüíîé îäåññêîé ïðåññû, ïîëîâèíó ÷ëåíîâ ðàáî÷åé àðòåëè “Ñîþçà Ìèõàèëà Àðõàíãåëà” â 1912 ã. ñîñòàâëÿëè åâðåè, êîòîðûõ,
ðàçóìååòñÿ, ïðèâåëà â ñîþç îòíþäü íå þäîôîáèÿ:
Êàðòèíà ïðåíèé áûëà èíòåðåñíàÿ. Ìîøêè è Èâàíû âûñêàçûâàëè îòêðûòî äðóæáó äðóã ê äðóãó, è òîëüêî íåñêîëüêî ÷ëåíîâ
âîçâûñèëè ñâîé ãîëîñ î íåæåëàòåëüíîñòè ó÷àñòèÿ åâðååâ â àðòåëè Ñîþçà çà Àðõàíãåëà Ìèõàèëà. À ïðàâëåíèå? Îíî âûñêàçàëîñü
çà åäèíåíèå ïëåìåí è ïðèçíàëî åâðååâ æåëàòåëüíûìè ÷ëåíàìè
ñîþçà.
Ñì. Weinberg. Pp. 174-175; Shlomo Lambroza. The Pogroms of 1903-1906 // John
D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza (Eds.). Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern
Russian History. Cambridge, 1992. Pp. 233 et al.
82
Ñì. Ñòåïàíîâ. Ñ. 223, 231.
83
ÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 1. Ò. 2. Åä. õð. 2110. Ëë.
83-85.
81
243
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Âîâî÷êà! [Â. Ã. Îðëîâ, ëèäåð Îäåññêîãî îòäåëåíèÿ ÑÌÀ] Åìó
êàê ãëàâíîìó ïðåäñåäàòåëþ ñîþçà äîëæíî áûòü èçâåñòíî î òîì,
÷òî åâðåè ïðîíèêëè â åãî “ñîþç”. Îí çíàåò îá ýòîì, íî ìîë÷èò.
Òàì, ãäå çàìå÷àåòñÿ “ïîëüçà” îò åâðååâ, òàì ñòèõàåò àíòàãîíèçì è
åâðåéñòâî äîïóñêàåòñÿ ê ðàñöâåòó äàæå ïîä çíàìåíàìè Ìèõàèëà
Àðõàíãåëà.84
Ê ñëîâó ñêàçàòü, â íà÷àëå âåêà åâðåè ñîñòàâëÿëè ïîëîâèíó ãðóç÷èêîâ â îäåññêîì ïîðòó,85 ïîýòîìó ïðÿìàÿ êîíôðîíòàöèÿ íà ñóãóáî ýòíè÷åñêîé ïî÷âå áûëà ÷ðåâàòà êðóïíîìàñøòàáíûì ïîáîèùåì. Íèêàêèõ
ñåðüåçíûõ ñòîëêíîâåíèé íà íàöèîíàëüíîé ïî÷âå â ïîðòó íå áûëî çàôèêñèðîâàíî, à ê 1913 ãîäó, ñîãëàñíî äîêëàäó Îäåññêîãî ãðàäîíà÷àëüíèêà, â ïîðòó íå îñòàëîñü íè îäíîé ÷åðíîñîòåííîé àðòåëè.86
Áåçóñëîâíî, ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ, èíîãäà êðîâàâûå, ìåæäó ðóññêèìè è åâðåÿìè èìåëè ìåñòî â Îäåññå è â ïîñëåïîãðîìíûé ïåðèîä, îäíàêî ìåíüøå âñåãî ó÷àñòíèêîâ êîíôëèêòà âîëíîâàëî âåðîèñïîâåäàíèå ïðîòèâíèêà. Êàê ïðàâèëî, ïðè÷èíîé ìåæýòíè÷åñêîãî ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ ÿâëÿëàñü
êîíêóðåíöèÿ, íî áûâàëè è áîëåå ýêçîòè÷åñêèå ñëó÷àè. Òàê, â 1908 ã. â
ãàçåòàõ îáñóæäàëèñü îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà “çâåðñêîãî èçáèåíèÿ” Ë. Íóòîâè÷à ïðîæèâàþùèì ïî ñîñåäñòâó íà Áîëüøîì Ôîíòàíå Ñ. Ñòåöåíêî. Ñòåöåíêî âëàäåë ëàâêîé, à Íóòîâè÷ îòêàçûâàëñÿ ó íåãî ïîêóïàòü òîâàð. È
âîò, êàê-òî âñòðåòèâ Íóòîâè÷à, Ñòåöåíêî ñõâàòèë ñ çåìëè êàìåíü è ñòàë
áèòü Íóòîâè÷à ïî ãîëîâå è ïî ëèöó, Íóòîâè÷ áûë îáëèò êðîâüþ.87 Ýòà
ñöåíà ìîãëà ïðîèçîéòè â ëþáîì óãîëêå Ðîññèè, òàêæå êàê áûë òèïè÷åí
è êîíôëèêò ìåæäó “ðóññêèì” ëàâî÷íèêîì è åâðåéñêèì ñîñåäîì; ñïåöèôèêà Îäåññû çàêëþ÷àëàñü â òîì, ÷òî ïðàâîñëàâíûé ëàâî÷íèê èçáèë
åâðåÿ íå äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû îòâàäèòü îò ëàâêè, íî ÷òîáû ïðèâëå÷ü åãî.
Åñëè Ñòåöåíêî è áûë àíòèñåìèòîì, òî ëîãèêà ìåæýòíè÷åñêîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ â Îäåññå äåëàëà åãî “êðîâíî” çàèíòåðåñîâàííûì â åâðåéñêîì
ñîñåäå
Ñëó÷àé Ñòåöåíêî è Íóòîâè÷à ïðåäîñòåðåãàåò ïðîòèâ ÷åðåñ÷óð îïòèìèñòè÷åñêîãî âçãëÿäà íà îòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó åâðåÿìè è íå-åâðåÿìè â
Îäåññå. Îäíàêî ïëîòíîñòü è êîìïëåêñíîñòü ýòèõ êîíòàêòîâ â Îäåññå
áûëè áåñïðåöåäåíòíûìè äëÿ Ðîññèè. Áåçóñëîâíî òðåáóþùàÿ ñïåöèÎñà. Î ÷åì íå ãîâîðÿò // Ñðî÷íàÿ âå÷åðíÿÿ ïî÷òà. 19 ÿíâàðÿ 1912 ã. Ñ. 2.
Ñòåïàíîâ. Ñ. 220-221.
86
Òàì æå. Ñ. 235.
87
Ñì.: Çâåðñêîå èçáèåíèå // Íîâàÿ Îäåññêàÿ ãàçåòà, 1908 ã. ¹ 45. 21 ñåíòÿáðÿ. Ñ. 23.
84
85
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àëüíîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ, ýòà òåìà ìîæåò áûòü îáîçíà÷åíà â ðàìêàõ äàííîé ñòàòüè ëèøü ñàìûì ñõåìàòè÷íûì îáðàçîì è â âûáðàííîì âåñüìà
ñïåöèôè÷åñêîì àñïåêòå “äåâèàíòíîãî” ïîâåäåíèÿ.
Õîòÿ â îò÷åòàõ îá àðåñòàõ âîðîâñêèõ ìàëèí î÷åíü ðåäêî óïîìèíàþòñÿ îäíîâðåìåííî “ðóññêèå” è åâðåè (ò.å. ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî
ñìåøàííûå óãîëîâíûå áàíäû, â îòëè÷èå îò àíàðõèñòâóþùèõ ãðóïï,
áûëè ðåäêîñòüþ), âñòðå÷àåòñÿ äîâîëüíî ìíîãî ñëó÷àåâ ìåæýòíè÷åñêîé âîðîâñêîé êîîïåðàöèè. Îáû÷íî ðå÷ü èäåò î ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîì
ðàçäåëåíèè òðóäà ìåæäó âîðàìè, íàâîä÷èêàìè è ïåðåêóïùèêàìè. Òàê,
ëèøü çà îäíó ìàéñêóþ íåäåëþ â 1912 ãîäó çàôèêñèðîâàíî íåñêîëüêî
ïîäîáíûõ ñëó÷àåâ: â ïàðèêìàõåðñêîé Ëàçàðÿ Êàðàòàâèòîãëó ïîäåííûé
ðàáî÷èé Íèêèòà Ãîðÿåâ óêðàë ñåðåáðÿíûé êîøåëåê çà 10 ð. è ïåðåäàë
Àâðóìó ×å÷åëüíèöêîìó íà Ïåðåñûïè, Öåðêîâíàÿ, 3;88 íà Ïåðåñûïè æå
îãðàáèë ïèâíóþ ëàâêó Êóëàåâà “èçâåñòíûé âîð” Íèêîëàé Áûêîâ,89 ñáûë
êðàäåíîå ìåùàíêå Èòå Êîòåðáîðã (Òèðàñïîëüñêàÿ óëèöà) è âëàäåëüöó
òîêàðíîé ìàñòåðñêîé íà Ðèøåëüåâñêîé ßíêåëþ Çåëüöåðó;90 Áîðèñ Ãåðøìàí óêðàë ïðè ïîìîùè îòìû÷êè 150 ýëåêòðè÷åñêèõ ëàìïî÷åê è 6
ïàòðîíîâ ê íèì íà 30 ðóáëåé èç ìàøèííîãî îòäåëåíèÿ öèðêà Ìàëåâè÷à. Ñáûë ïåðåêóïùèêó Àëåêñàíäðó Àêëàäçå è ìåõàíèêó èëëþçèîíà
“Ïîáåäà” Íèêîëàþ Êëèìåíêî.91
Íå òàê óæ ðåäêî îòìå÷àåòñÿ è ñîâìåñòíîå ó÷àñòèå â ïðåñòóïëåíèè
åâðåÿ è íå-åâðåÿ.  èþíå òîãî æå 1912 ãîäà “èçâåñòíûå âîðû” Èîñèô
Êóïåðøëÿê è áðàòüÿ Ïåòð è Èâàí Ñòåïåíè÷åâû ïîõèòèëè â òðàìâàå íà
óãëó Ãàâàííîé è Ìàëîãî ïåðåóëêà ó Íèêîëàÿ Ãðå÷óõèíà çîëîòûå ÷àñû
ñ öåïüþ çà 90 ðóáëåé.92 6 îêòÿáðÿ 1912 ã. íà Íîâîáàçàðíîé ïëîùàäè
÷åòûðå ãðàáèòåëÿ íàïàëè íà Ïåòðà Ëóæåöêîãî, “ó êîòîðîãî ïîñëå íàñèëèÿ è íàíåñåííûõ ïîáîåâ îãðàáèëè êîøåëåê ñ 4 ð. 50 êîï. è ñêðûëèñü”. Ãëàâíûìè ó÷àñòíèêàìè ýòîãî ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ áûëè íàçâàíû çàðåãèñòðèðîâàííûå îïàñíûå ãðàáèòåëè Ñðóëü Ãåðøêîâè÷, ñêðûâàþùèéÖÃÈÀÓ. Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 2. Åä. õð. 106. Äîíåñåíèÿ
ïîìîùíèêà Îäåññêîãî ïîëèöìåéñòåðà – çàâåäóþùåãî ñûñêíîé ÷àñòüþ îá
óáèéñòâàõ, ãðàáåæàõ è äðóãèõ ïðîèñøåñòâèÿõ ïî ãîð. Îäåññå. 2 ÿíâàðÿ 1912 – 30
äåêàáðÿ 1914 ãã. Ë. 66 îá.
89
Òàì æå. Ë. 68.
90
Òàì æå. Ë. 70.
91
Òàì æå. Ë. 70 îá.
92
Òàì æå. Ë. 93 îá. Ñïóñòÿ íåäåëþ ó íåñ÷àñòíîãî Ãðå÷óõèíà êàðìàííèê, òóðåöêîïîääàííûé Àïàñòîëè Äèìèòðè, âûòàùèë â òðàìâàå êîøåëåê ñ 57 ðóáëÿìè. Òàì
æå. Ë. 100.
88
245
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ñÿ â Îäåññå áåç ïðîïèñêè, è ëèøåííûé ïðàâ Èîàêèì Õîðóæåíêî (ñêîðåå âñåãî, óêðàèíåö).93
Îòäåëüíàÿ ãðóïïà ïðîèñøåñòâèé, îòðàæàþùèõ õàðàêòåð ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ êîíòàêòîâ â Îäåññå, îòíîñèòñÿ ê ñôåðå ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëüñêîé
äåÿòåëüíîñòè. Îñòàâëÿÿ â ñòîðîíå ïðîáëåìó ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîñòè ïðîòèâîçàêîííûõ ïðèåìîâ ñðåäè îäåññêèõ ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëåé (ÿâëÿþùóþñÿ òåìîé îòäåëüíîé ñòàòüè), ïîä÷åðêíåì ãëóáîêóþ èíòåãðèðîâàííîñòü
òîðãîâöåâ è ïðåäïðèíèìàòåëåé ðàçíîé íàöèîíàëüíîñòè.  íà÷àëå àïðåëÿ 1912 ã. íåêòî Èâàí Ðóäåíêî óêðàë 4 áî÷êè ïîäñîëíå÷íîãî ìàñëà ó
îäíîãî òîðãîâöà-åâðåÿ è ïðîäàë äðóãîìó, êîòîðûé òóò æå ïåðåëèë âîðîâàííîå ìàñëî â ñâîè áî÷êè.94 Ñïóñòÿ ïîëòîðà ìåñÿöà îïòîâûé ìÿñíîé òîðãîâåö Ãåðø Øòåéíáåðã (Áîëãàðñêàÿ, 1) îòïðàâèë ñ òà÷å÷íèêîì
Àíäðååì 26 ïóäîâ ìÿñà (íà 200 ð.) â ìÿñíóþ ëàâêó Ñåðãåÿ Ïðóòêîâà íà
Íîâîì áàçàðå, à òîò ïðèâåç íà Ìàñòåðñêóþ óë. 17 (ïðèìåðíî íà ïîëîâèíå íåáëèçêîãî ïóòè), â ìÿñíóþ ëàâêó Ïåòðà Øåâåðäèíà.95 Èíòåðåñ â
äàííîì ñëó÷àå ïðåäñòàâëÿåò íå òà÷å÷íèê Àíäðåé, âåðîÿòíî íåäàâíèé
ìèãðàíò, ïëîõî çíàþùèé ãîðîä, à ôèãóðû õîçÿåâ ìÿñíûõ ëàâîê, ñ óäîâîëüñòâèåì çàêóïàâøèå “åâðåéñêîå” ìÿñî, íåâçèðàÿ íà àíòèñåìèòñêèå
ïðåäðàññóäêè, êîòîðûå â íà÷àëå 1914 ã. ñòàëè îñíîâîé çàêîíîïðîåêòà
ïðàâûõ äåïóòàòîâ Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé Äóìû î çàïðåùåíèè “åâðåéñêîãî
ðèòóàëüíîãî” ñïîñîáà óáîÿ ñêîòà êàê æåñòîêîãî/àíòèñàíèòàðíîãî/ýêñïëóàòàòîðñêîãî.96
Óæå ãîâîðèëîñü î òîì, ÷òî îäíîé èç ïðè÷èí ìàðãèíàëüíîãî ñòàòóñà
÷åðíîñîòåííîé ïðåññû â Îäåññå áûë áîéêîò ñî ñòîðîíû ðàñïðîñòðàíèòåëåé: ðàçíîñ÷èêîâ, êèîñêîâ è êíèæíûõ ìàãàçèíîâ, êîòîðûå íå õîòåëè ïîðòèòü äåëîâóþ ðåïóòàöèþ è òåðÿòü êëèåíòîâ ñðåäè åâðåéñêîé
÷àñòè ãàçåò÷èêîâ è ÷èòàòåëåé. Âîîáùå, ñóäÿ ïî ñîõðàíèâøèìñÿ èñòî÷íèêàì, îòêðîâåííî àíòèñåìèòñêàÿ ïîëèòèêà â îòíîøåíèè ðàáîòíèêîâ
è ïîêóïàòåëåé ñî ñòîðîíû òîðãîâûõ ïðåäïðèÿòèé áûëà ðåäêîñòüþ â
Îäåññå, âûçûâàëà ñêîðåå óäèâëåíèå è – ñóäÿ ïî âñåìó – ñóëèëà ðåàëüíûå óáûòêè. Òàê, êîãäà â 1913 ãîäó îäåññêèé ñêëàä àïòåêàðñêèõ òîâàðîâ È. Á. Ñåãàëÿ ïåðåøåë â ñîáñòâåííîñòü Þæíî-Ðóññêîãî îáùåñòâà
òîðãîâëè àïòåêàðñêèìè òîâàðàìè (ÞÐÎÒÀÒ), èçâåñòíîãî îòêðîâåííûì
Òàì æå. Ë. 195.
Òàì æå. Ë. 48.
95
Òàì æå. Ë. 76 îá.
96
Ñì. Âûðæèêîâñêèé. Çàêîíîïðîåêò ïðàâûõ îá óáîå ñêîòà // Âåñòíèê îáùåñòâåííîé
âåòåðèíàðèè. 1914. ¹ 1. Êîë. 49-51.
93
94
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þäîôîáñòâîì, ñðàçó áûëè óâîëåíû 14 ñîòðóäíèêîâ-åâðååâ, à îñòàâøèåñÿ ãîòîâèëèñü óéòè ñàìè èç-çà àíòèñåìèòñêîé àòìîñôåðû, íåòèïè÷íîé, ïî èõ ñëîâàì, äëÿ Îäåññû. Äèðåêòîð Îäåññêîãî îòäåëåíèÿ ÞÐÎÒÀÒ çàÿâèë, ÷òî “ïðàâëåíèå ðåøèëî ñåìèòîâ íà ñëóæáó íå áðàòü”. Â
èòîãå ÞÐÎÒÀÒ ïîòåðÿë è ìíîãèõ êëèåíòîâ-åâðååâ. Îáîðîò ÞÐÎÒÀÒ
çà èþíü 1913 ã. îêàçàëñÿ íà 35 òûñ. ðóá. ìåíüøå îáîðîòà ñêëàäà È. Á.
Ñåãàëÿ çà òîò æå ìåñÿö ïðîøëîãî ãîäà.97
Âàæíûì è áîëåå ðåïðåçåíòàòèâíûì èíäèêàòîðîì îáùåãî êëèìàòà
ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ êîíòàêòîâ ÿâëÿþòñÿ áðà÷íûå îáúÿâëåíèÿ. Íåñìîòðÿ íà
íè÷òîæíîå êîëè÷åñòâî çàêëþ÷àâøèõñÿ ðåàëüíî ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ/ìåæêîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ áðàêîâ, âàæíî òî, êàê ëþäè îáðàùàëèñü â îáúÿâëåíèè ê ïîòåíöèàëüíûì ïàðòíåðàì, êàê îïðåäåëÿëè çíà÷èìûå àñïåêòû
ñîáñòâåííîé ñîöèàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè è ÷òî õîòåëè óñëûøàòü âçàìåí.
“Îäåññêàÿ è þãà Ðîññèè áðà÷íàÿ ãàçåòà” âûõîäèëà ñ 1910 ã. åæåíåäåëüíî ïî âîñêðåñåíüÿì, ïîä ðåäàêöèåé èçäàòåëÿ Ôðàíêåâè÷à. Åñëè
ñîâðåìåííûå îáúÿâëåíèÿ î çíàêîìñòâàõ – â Ðîññèè èëè ÑØÀ – àêöåíòèðóþò, êàê ïðàâèëî, ýòíè÷åñêèé èëè “ðàñîâûé” àñïåêò, â îäåññêèõ
îáúÿâëåíèÿõ íà÷àëà 1910-õ ãîäîâ ëèøü 25-30% âñåõ îáúÿâëåíèé óïîìèíàëè î íàöèîíàëüíîñòè èëè âåðîèñïîâåäàíèè: èíîãäà â êà÷åñòâå
îäíîãî èç âàæíåéøèõ ôàêòîðîâ, èíîãäà íà ïîñëåäíåì ìåñòå, â ñêîáêàõ, ïî÷òè ñòûäëèâî. Çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü îáúÿâëåíèé óêàçûâàåò ëèøü
íàöèîíàëüíîñòü àâòîðà, òåîðåòè÷åñêè îñòàâëÿÿ âîïðîñ î âåðîèñïîâåäàíèè èëè ýòíè÷íîñòè ïàðòíåðà îòêðûòûì. Ñàìîå æå óäèâèòåëüíîå,
÷òî íà 25-40 îáúÿâëåíèé â ãàçåòå ïî÷òè âñåãäà íàõîäèëîñü õîòÿ áû îäíî,
àâòîð êîòîðîãî îòêðûòî îáúÿâëÿë î ðàâíîäóøíîì îòíîøåíèè ê íàöèîíàëüíîñòè ïàðòíåðà:
Ñèëüíî ñòðåìÿù. ê ïîëó÷. âûñø. îáðàçîâàíèÿ, èíòåë. ñèìï.
ìîëîä. ÷åë. êðàñ., øàòåí, ïðàâîñë. ñðåäí. ðîñòà èùåò æåíó äðóãà æèçíè èç õîð. ñåìüè, îò çðåëîãî âîçð. äî ñð. ëåò, áàðûøíþ,
âäîâó èëè ðàçâåä. ñ öåëüþ áðàêà ñâîá. îò ïðåäðàñ., æåëàò.
îáðàçîâ., íî íå îáÿç., îáÿç. ñ ìàò. ïîëîæ., òðåá. ê ïîë. âûñø. (ïî
ïðèçâ. èíæ.) îáðàç. èëè æå õîòü ñ íåáîë. ñðåäí. Ðîñò, ïðîø. íàöèîí.
è èñïîâ. (ïî ïð. ïð.) íå èìååò çíà÷.98
Ñì.: “ÞÐÎÒÀÒ – þäîôîᔠ// Ìàëåíüêèå îäåññêèå íîâîñòè. 1913. ¹ 1 ÷åòâåðã,
15 (28) àâãóñòà. Ñ. 7. “Ìàëåíüêèå îäåññêèå íîâîñòè” íå ïðèíàäëåæàëè ê “åâðåéñêîé”
ãîðîäñêîé ïðåññå: ðåäàêòîðîì ãàçåòû ÿâëÿëñÿ Ì. Â. Ñàìîêàòîâ, êîòîðûé òàêæå
ðåäàêòèðîâàë ïîïóëÿðíûå “Îäåññêèå íîâîñòè”, äîëÿ îòêðîâåííî “åâðåéñêîé”
ðåêëàìû íå ïðåâûøàëà â ãàçåòå 30%.
98
Îäåññêàÿ è þãà Ðîññèè áðà÷íàÿ ãàçåòà. 1910. ¹ 1. 11 ÿíâàðÿ. Ñ. 4.
97
247
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Ñåðüåçíî è îòêðûòî èùó æåíó-äðóãà çóá. âðà÷à ÷òîáû ðàáîòàëè
ïî îäíîé ñïåöèàëüíîñòè è êîòîðàÿ ïîíÿëà áû ìåíÿ, ïî÷åì çíàòü,
âñå ìîæåò áûòü, íàöèîíàëüí. è âåðîèñïîâ. áåçðàçëè÷íî, ïðèäàíîå
íå îáÿç. Íèêîëîâ.99
Èíòåëëèãåíòíûé ìîëîäîé ÷åëîâåê ñî ñðåäñòâàìè, èìåþ
ñîáñòâ. òîðãîâëþ. Çàðàáàòûâ. 1500 ð. â ãîä. Èùó æåíó-äðóãà.
Æåëàòåëüíî ïðàâîñëàâíóþ.100
Îäèíîêèé èíòåëëèãåíòíûé ìîëîäîé ÷åëîâåê, æàæäóùèé
ëþáâè, èùåò çíàêîìñòâà ñ èíòåëëèãåíòíîé îñîáîé. Ëåòà,
îáùåñòâåííîå è ìàòåðèàëüíîå ïîëîæåíèå, ïðîøëîå è
âåðîèñïîâåäàíèå áåçðàçëè÷íû 101
Èíòåëëèãåíòíûé ìîëîäîé ÷åëîâåê, ñ ñðåäíèì îáðàçîâàíèåì,
îáëàäàþ íåáîëüøèì êàïèòàëîì, çàíèìàþ ñîëèäíóþ äîëæíîñòü.
Æåëàòåëüíî æåíèòüñÿ íà èíòåëëèãåíòíîé äåâóøêå îò 16 äî 22 ëåò.
Íàöèîíàë. áåçðàçë.102
Èùó æåíó íå ìîëîæå 25 ë. è íå ñòàðøå 30 ë., âäîâó èëè äåâèöó
ñ íåáîëüøèì ïðèäàíûì, âåðîèñïîâåäàíèå áåçðàçëè÷íî. Äëÿ
Âàíè.103
Êàêèå áû ïðàêòè÷åñêèå ñîîáðàæåíèÿ íå ïðî÷èòûâàëèñü çà îòêðûòîñòüþ àâòîðîâ (ïîèñê ïðèäàíîãî èëè ïîëîâîãî ïàðòíåðà), ýòè è ïîäîáíûå îáúÿâëåíèÿ óíèêàëüíû óæå õîòÿ áû ïîòîìó, ÷òî ðå÷ü â íèõ èäåò íå
î “çíàêîìñòâå”, à î áðàêå, êîòîðûé â îáùåñòâå, íå çíàþùåì îòäåëåíèÿ
öåðêâè îò ãîñóäàðñòâà, ìîã ñ÷èòàòüñÿ çàêîííûì ëèøü â ðåçóëüòàòå ïåðåõîäà îäíîãî ñóïðóãà â êîíôåññèþ äðóãîãî. ×òî æå äî òåõ 70-75% àâòîðîâ îáúÿâëåíèé, íèêàê íå îòìå÷àþùèõ íàöèîíàëüíîñòü ñâîþ èëè ïîòåíöèàëüíîãî ïàðòíåðà, òî ìàëî êòî èç íèõ äåéñòâèòåëüíî áûë ãîòîâ íà
ñìåëûå ìåæýòíè÷åñêèå è ìåæêîíôåññèîíàëüíûå ìàòðèìîíèàëüíûå ýêñïåðèìåíòû. Îäíàêî âàæíî, ÷òî îñòàâëÿÿ âîçìîæíîñòü äëÿ íåïðàâèëüíîé èíòåðïðåòàöèè “ïîñëàíèÿ” îáúÿâëåíèÿ è îáðàùåíèÿ ïî íåìó ëþäåé “íå òîé” âåðû èëè íàöèîíàëüíîñòè, àâòîðû íå âèäåëè â ýòîì îñîáîé
îïàñíîñòè, ñêàíäàëà èëè “íåóäîáñòâà” (ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ îáû÷íûì ñòðåññîì, ñâÿçàííûì ñ çàî÷íûìè çíàêîìñòâàìè). Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî îäåññèòû –
íåñìîòðÿ íà ëè÷íûå ñèìïàòèè è àíòèïàòèè – âîñïðèíèìàëè ÷óæóþ “èíàÒàì æå. ¹ 6. 7 ôåâðàëÿ. Ñ. 4.
Òàì æå. ¹ 10. 7 ìàðòà. Ñ. 1.
101
Òàì æå.
102
¹ 12. 21 ìàðòà. Ñ. 1.
103
Òàì æå. ¹ 13. 4 àïðåëÿ. Ñ. 1.
99
100
248
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êîâîñòü” äîñòàòî÷íî ëîÿëüíî, âèäÿ ⠓äðóãîì” ñîñåäà, à íå ÷óæàêà-ïðèøåëüöà èëè íåóñòóï÷èâîãî õîçÿèíà ïîëîæåíèÿ.
 òåíè ïîãðîìà
Åñëè íå çíàòü, ÷òî â îêòÿáðå 1905 ãîäà â Îäåññå ïðîèçîøåë îäèí èç
ñàìûõ ñòðàøíûõ åâðåéñêèõ ïîãðîìîâ, òî ìåæðåâîëþöèîííàÿ èñòîðèÿ
îòíîøåíèé ìåæäó îäåññèòàìè ðàçíûõ êîíôåññèé è íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé
âûðèñîâûâàåòñÿ êàê åäâà ëè íå èäèëëè÷åñêàÿ äëÿ òîé ñòðàíû è ýïîõè.
Ñêëàäûâàåòñÿ âïå÷àòëåíèå, ÷òî ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêèé àíòèñåìèòñêèé (â
íàøåì ñëó÷àå) äèñêóðñ “ýêñïîðòèðîâàëñÿ” â Îäåññó èçâíå – ÷åðåç ïóáëèêàöèè íà îáùåðîññèéñêèå òåìû â ÷åðíîñîòåííîé ïðåññå, îáðàùåíèÿ Äåïàðòàìåíòà Ïîëèöèè èëè íàçíà÷åíèå â ãîðîä ãðàæäàíñêèõ è
âîåííûõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ èç äðóãèõ ìåñòíîñòåé, à ñàìè îäåññèòû ñòðåìèëèñü âîññòàíàâëèâàòü íåêîå “íåóñòîé÷èâîå ðàâíîâåñèå” è status quo,
êàê âèäíî èç ñëåäóþùåé áûòîâîé ñöåíêè 1913 ãîäà. Â âàãîíå òðàìâàÿ,
îòîøåäøåì ñ Ëîíæåðîíà â ãîðîä, äâå “èíòåëëèãåíòíûå äàìû” è èõ
ñïóòíèê äîâîëüíî ãðîìêî ãîâîðèëè íà èäèø. Ýòî âîçìóòèëî íåêîåãî
ïîëêîâíèêà, êîòîðûé êðèêíóë: “Ãîñïîäà! Ýòî èçäåâàòåëüñòâî! Æèäû
çàâëàäåëè ãîðîäîì è ãàëäÿò íà æèäîâñêîì ÿçûêå âîâñþ.” Ê íåìó ïðèñîåäèíèëñÿ îòñòàâíîé ïîëêîâíèê, è îíè îñòàíîâèëè âàãîí è îòïðàâèëè êîíäóêòîðà çà ãîðîäîâûì. Íà óãëó Ïóøêèíñêîé óë. â âàãîí âîøåë
ãîðîäîâîé. Ïîëêîâíèêè âåëåëè åìó ñîñòàâèòü ïðîòîêîë. Â ýòî âðåìÿ
âñòàë íåêèé “ðóññêèé ãîñïîäèí”, ïðîòÿíóë ñâîþ âèçèòíóþ êàðòî÷êó è
âûçâàëñÿ áûòü ñâèäåòåëåì â ïîëüçó åâðåéñêèõ äàì. “Ïîñòåïåííî ðàçãîðÿ÷åííûå ñòðàñòè, îäíàêî, óëåãëèñü, è ïî ïðèáûòèè âàãîíà èíöèäåíò áûë ëèêâèäèðîâàí äàæå áåç ñîñòàâëåíèÿ ïðîòîêîëà.”104
 îïèñàííîé ìîäåëè îáúÿñíèòü ïîãðîì 1905 ãîäà íåëüçÿ.  íåì ïðèíÿëè ó÷àñòèå î÷åíü ìíîãèå îäåññèòû, è ïðè÷èíû ïîãðîìà, à ãëàâíîå –
åãî ðàçìàõ, íèêàê íåëüçÿ ñïèñàòü íà âëèÿíèå “èíîðîäíûõ” ñèë: ãóáåðíàòîðà, àãåíòîâ Îõðàíêè è ò.ï. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ñàì ýòîò ïîãðîì âûçâàë
ìîùíóþ òåíäåíöèþ â èñòîðèîãðàôèè, êîãäà âåñü ìåæðåâîëþöèîííûé
ïåðèîä 1906-1917 ãã. â Îäåññå îïèñûâàëñÿ ïîä çíàêîì ïîñòîÿííûõ àíòèñåìèòñêèõ ïðåñëåäîâàíèé, à â èñòîðèè XIX âåêà èñêàëèñü ïðåöåäåíòû è ïðåäâåñòèÿ ïîãðîìà 1905 ãîäà. Ïîñëåäíÿÿ òåíäåíöèÿ íàøëà ñâîå
íàèáîëåå çàêîí÷åííîå âîïëîùåíèå â êîíöåïöèè “ïîãðîìíîé ïàðàäèãìû” Äæ. Êëèåðà, ñîãëàñíî êîòîðîé ÷åðåäà àíòèåâðåéñêèõ âûñòóïëåíèé
104
Ñïîð î ÿçûêå // Ìàëåíüêèå îäåññêèå íîâîñòè. 1913. ¹ 26, 9 (22) ñåíò. Ñ. 7.
249
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
íà ïðîòÿæåíèè XIX âåêà ñôîðìèðîâàëà íåêóþ îáúÿñíÿþùóþ è èíòåïðåòèðóþùóþ ïàðàäèãìó, êîòîðàÿ, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, ê íà÷àëó ÕÕ âåêà ñòàëà
ñòàíäàðòíûì ñöåíàðèåì äëÿ îðãàíèçàöèè ïîãðîìîâ.105
Îäíàêî àíàëèç äåéñòâèòåëüíî øèðîêîé èñòî÷íèêîâîé áàçû, ñ îñîáûì âíèìàíèåì ê ñëó÷àÿì ìåæíàöèîíàëüíîãî íàñèëèÿ, íèêàê íå ïîäòâåðæäàåò ãèïîòåçó î òîðæåñòâå àíòèñåìèòèçìà â Îäåññå ïîñëå 1905
ãîäà. Áîëåå òîãî, â îòëè÷èå îò äðóãèõ ìåñòíîñòåé Ðîññèè, Îäåññà íå
çíàëà åâðåéñêèõ ïîãðîìîâ è â ãîäû ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû, íåñìîòðÿ íà
òî, ÷òî ãîðîä íåñêîëüêî ðàç ïåðåõîäèë îò îäíîé âîþþùåé ñòîðîíû ê
äðóãîé.106 Ýòî ãîâîðèò î òîì, ÷òî ïî êàêîé-òî ïðè÷èíå îêòÿáðüñêèé
ïîãðîì 1905 ã. ñòàë çàâåðøàþùèì ýïèçîäîì “ïîãðîìíîé ïàðàäèãìû”
â Îäåññå, îòêðûâàÿ íåêóþ íîâóþ ýïîõó.
Ïîãðîì, êàê è ëþáîå ïðåñòóïëåíèå, ÿâëÿåòñÿ äèñêóðñèâíîé “÷åðíîé äûðîé”. Ìîæíî ïûòàòüñÿ óëîâèòü îïðåäåëåííûå òåíäåíöèè, õàðàêòåðíûå äëÿ ýòîãî ôåíîìåíà (íàïðèìåð, óïîìèíàâøóþñÿ “ïîãðîìíóþ ïàðàäèãìó”), íî íåëüçÿ íà èõ îñíîâàíèè äåëàòü îáîáùàþùèå âûâîäû î “ñóòè” ýòîãî ÿâëåíèÿ è ñòðîèòü íàó÷íûå ïðåäñêàçàíèÿ. Íàðîäíûé è îôèöèàëüíûé àíòèñåìèòèçì â Îäåññå íå ìîã èñïàðèòüñÿ çà íåñêîëüêî ëåò ïîñëå 1905 ãîäà, à ñêëàäûâàþùàÿñÿ äåñÿòèëåòèÿìè “ïîãðîìíàÿ ïàðàäèãìà” ïîñòîÿííî ïðåäëàãàëà ãîòîâûé ñöåíàðèé ïîãðîìà: íà Ïàñõó èëè íà Ðîæäåñòâî, â ñâÿçè ñî ñëóõàìè î ðèòóàëüíîì óáèéñòâå èëè îñêâåðíåíèè ïðàâîñëàâíîé ñâÿòûíè, ïî “óêàçó” öàðÿ èëè ãóáåðíàòîðà, íî íåïðåìåííî, ÷òîáû íà òðè äíÿ Îäíàêî îêòÿáðüñêèé
ïîãðîì 1905 ã. â Îäåññå áîëüøå íå ïîâòîðèëñÿ, è íåêîòîðûå åâðåè î÷åíü
ñêîðî ñòàëè îòíîñèòüñÿ ê óãðîçå ïîãðîìà äîñòàòî÷íî ëåãêîìûñëåííî.107
Ñì.: John Klier. The Pogrom Paradigm in Russian History. Pp. 13-38.
Êðóïíåéøèé (è åäâà ëè íå åäèíñòâåííûé) ñîâåòñêèé èñòîðèê ðîññèéñêîãî/
óêðàèíñêîãî åâðåéñòâà Ñàóë Áîðîâîé ñêëîíåí áûë ïðèïèñûâàòü çàñëóãó
ïðåäîòâðàùåíèÿ ïîãðîìîâ â Îäåññå â ãîäû ãðàæäàíñêîé âîéíû áàíäèòàì Ìèøêè
ßïîí÷èêà, êîòîðûå ïàòðóëèðîâàëè åâðåéñêèå êâàðòàëû â êðèçèñíûå ìîìåíòû. Ñàóë
Áîðîâîé. Âîñïîìèíàíèÿ. Ìîñêâà, 1993. Ñ. 76.
107
È áåç òîãî íåâûñîêàÿ âíóòðèîáùèííàÿ ñîëèäàðíîñòü îäåññêèõ åâðååâ â
êîíôëèêòíîé ñèòóàöèè ìîãëà óñòóïàòü ìåñòî ïîïûòêàì ïðîâåñòè äåìàðêàöèþ ïî
ýòíè÷åñêîìó ïðèíöèïó – ïåðâîìó è íàèáîëåå åñòåñòâåííîìó ìàðêåðó “èíàêîâîñòè”
â ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîé ñðåäå. Â ýòîì ñìûñëå õàðàêòåðåí ñëåäóþùèé ýïèçîä. Â
íà÷àëå ñåíòÿáðÿ 1913 ã. âëàäåëèöà øëÿïíîãî ìàãàçèíà Ô. Ãîëüäåíáåðã ñäåëàëà
øëÿïó äëÿ Äèíû Ñàõåðçîí. Òà îòêàçàëàñü îò çàêàçà è ïîïðîñèëà âåðíóòü çàäàòîê,
íî Ãîëüäåíáåðã åãî óäåðæàëà. Òîãäà Äèíà ñ ñåñòðîé Ôðèäîé è ñ áðàòîì Ñåðãååì
(ñòóäåíòîì) ðàçãðîìèëè ìàãàçèí è îáðóãàëè õîçÿéêó “æèäîâêîé”. Òî æå
ïîâòîðèëîñü åùå ðàç. Èõ òðåòüÿ ñåñòðà, Ñàðà Ñàõåðçîí, çàÿâèëà Ãîëüäåíáåðã, ÷òî,
“åñëè áóäåò ïîãðîì, îíà ïåðâàÿ ñòàíåò ãðîìèòü æèäîâ!” Âûâîä æóðíàëèñòà,
105
106
250
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Ýòî ãîâîðèò î òîì, ÷òî ïî êàêîé-òî ïðè÷èíå îäåññêîå îáùåñòâî â ìåæðåâîëþöèîííûé ïåðèîä ïîòåðÿëî îñîáóþ âîñïðèèì÷èâîñòü ê ãîòîâûì
ìåíòàëüíûì è ïðàêòè÷åñêèì ñöåíàðèÿì ïîãðîìà, âûðàáîòàëî íåêèé
“èììóíèòåò”.
Íå ïûòàÿñü îïðåäåëèòü ñóùíîñòü ïîãðîìà, ÿâèâøåãîñÿ, êàê êàæåòñÿ, â 1905 ãîäó âîäîðàçäåëîì â èñòîðèè îäåññêîãî ïîëèýòíè÷åñêîãî
îáùåñòâà, îáðàòèì âíèìàíèå íà íåêîòîðûå ñîöèàëüíûå ôóíêöèè åâðåéñêîãî ïîãðîìà â äîðåâîëþöèîííîé Ðîññèè. Âåðîÿòíî, äàæå áîëåå,
÷åì óäàâøååñÿ ïîêóøåíèå íà æèçíü èìïåðàòîðà, ïîãðîìû ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëè î íåñîñòîÿòåëüíîñòè ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ðåæèìà è ñîöèàëüíîé
îðãàíèçàöèè îáùåñòâà è, ÷òî îñîáåííî âàæíî â êîíòåêñòå íàñòîÿùåé
ñòàòüè, î êðèçèñå ìîäåðíèçàöèîííîãî ïðîöåññà è òîðæåñòâå ðåàêöèîííûõ ïîïûòîê ñàìîäåÿòåëüíîãî âîññòàíîâëåíèÿ ðàçìûâàþùèõñÿ ñîöèàëüíûõ ãðàíèö. Ïîñòîÿííî âîçíèêàþùàÿ íîâàÿ ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ è ýêîíîìè÷åñêàÿ ðåàëüíîñòü ñîçäàâàëà ñèòóàöèþ ñîöèàëüíîé
ýíòðîïèè (è ýòè÷åñêîé àíîìèè), êîòîðóþ äîëæíû áûëè ïðåîäîëåâàòü
ìåõàíèçìû ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè îáùåñòâà. Åâðåéñêèé ïîãðîì, ñâîèì àðõàè÷åñêèì ñïëàâîì ñèìâîëè÷åñêîãî íàñèëèÿ è êîíêðåòíîé “body
politics”, îêàçûâàëñÿ ðèòóàëüíûì âîññòàíîâëåíèåì status quo, ïðåæíåãî ðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ ñîöèàëüíûõ ðîëåé è âëàñòíûõ îòíîøåíèé.108 Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ äèíàìèêè ìîäåðíèçàöèè, îòäåëüíàÿ ïîãðîìíàÿ âñïûøêà ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëà î ñëèøêîì áûñòðîì òåìïå èçìåíåíèÿ îáùåñòâà. Åñëè
æå íå ïðîèñõîäèëî àäàïòàöèè ê èçìåíåíèÿì, òî ïîãðîìû ïðåâðàùàëèñü â çëîâåùóþ ðóòèíó, îòìå÷àþùóþ åäâà ëè íå ñìåíó âðåìåí ãîäà.109
ðàññêàçàâøåãî îá ýòîì êîíôëèêòå: “Íå÷åãî ñêàçàòü, âîèíñòâåííàÿ åâðåéñêàÿ
ñåìåéêà. È êóëüòóðíûé ñòóäåíòèê.” Ñì. Âîèíñòâåííàÿ ñåìåéêà // Ìàëåíüêèå
îäåññêèå íîâîñòè. 1913. ¹ 25, 8 ñåíò. Ñ. 6.
108
Ðÿäîâûå ïîãðîìùèêè äàâàëè âûõîä íàêîïèâøåéñÿ ôðóñòðàöèè â íàñèëèè ïî
îòíîøåíèþ ê íàèáîëåå äèñêðèìèíèðîâàííîé ãðóïïå íàñåëåíèÿ, íå ðàññ÷èòûâàÿ
íà áîëåå êîíñòðóêòèâíûå ôîðìû ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ïðîòåñòà. Ñòàëêèâàÿñü
ñ ìàññîâûìè áåñïîðÿäêàìè, öåíòðàëüíàÿ âëàñòü (âïëîòü äî ãóáåðíàòîðîâ), íå èìåÿ
ñðåäñòâ è íàâûêîâ äåéñòâèÿ â óñëîâèÿõ ìàññîâîé ïîëèòèêè, ïðèáåãàëà ê òàêòèêå,
íàïîìèíàþùåé òðàäèöèîííóþ áîðüáó ñî ñòåïíûì ïîæàðîì, êîãäà ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå
îãíÿ îñòàíàâëèâàþò âñòðå÷íîé îãíåííîé ñòåíîé. Ïîãðîìíîå äâèæåíèå òåðïåëè
èëè äàæå ïîîùðÿëè ïîñòîëüêó, ïîñêîëüêó îíî îáåùàëî ñáèòü íàêàë ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî
àíòèïðàâèòåëüñòâåííîãî ïðîòåñòà.
109
 òå÷åíèå ãîäà ïîñëå ïîäïèñàíèÿ ìàíèôåñòà 17 îêòÿáðÿ 1905 ãîäà ïî Ðîññèè
ïðîêàòèëîñü ïî ìåíüøåé ìåðå 650 ïîãðîìîâ. Áîëåå 80% âñåõ ïîãðîìîâ ïðîèçîøëè
â ïåðâûå äâà ìåñÿöà ïîñëå ìàíèôåñòà, îáîçíà÷èâøåãî ñóùåñòâåííûé ðàçðûâ ñ
ìíîãîâåêîâîé òðàäèöèåé “ñòàðîãî ðåæèìà”. Ñì.: Shlomo Lambroza. The Pogroms
of 1903-1906. Pp. 226-228.
251
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñàìî ïî ñåáå íàëè÷èå àíòèñåìèòñêèõ íàñòðîåíèé
ñðåäè íàñåëåíèÿ è àäìèíèñòðàöèè, ãîòîâîé ìåíòàëüíîé ñòðóêòóðû
“ïîãðîìíîé ïàðàäèãìû” è äàæå ïðåäûäóùåé èñòîðèè åâðåéñêèõ ïîãðîìîâ íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáÿçàòåëüíûì óñëîâèåì ïîääåðæàíèÿ ïîñòîÿííîé
ìåæýòíè÷åñêîé êîíôðîíòàöèè. Îäåññêèé ïîãðîì 1905 ãîäà îêàçàëñÿ
øîêîì äëÿ âñåõ îäåññèòîâ,110 ÿâíî îáîçíà÷èâ ïðåäåëû äîïóñòèìîé “ïðåñòóïíîé” – ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ çàêîíà è ìîðàëüíîé ýêîíîìèêè íàñåëåíèÿ –
äåÿòåëüíîñòè.  îòëè÷èå îò äðóãèõ óãîëêîâ Ðîññèè, Îäåññà, ñóäÿ ïî
âñåìó, îáëàäàëà ýôôåêòèâíûìè ìåõàíèçìàìè ñîöèàëüíîé àäàïòàöèè.
Íåñìîòðÿ íà ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå àíòèñåìèòèçì è àíòèèóäàèçì, îñíîâíîé âåêòîð ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè îäåññêîãî îáùåñòâà â óñëîâèÿõ äèíàìè÷íîé ìîäåðíèçàöèè áûë íàïðàâëåí íà ïîèñêè êîìïðîìèññà è ñòðàòåãèé
ñîñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ.  ñîñòîÿíèè îòíîñèòåëüíîé ñòàáèëüíîñòè îêðóæàþùåãî ìèðà îäåññêîå îáùåñòâî îáëàäàëî óäèâèòåëüíî óñòîé÷èâûì
ìåõàíèçìîì èíòåãðàöèè è ñîöèàëèçàöèè – ïî îáå ñòîðîíû îôèöèàëüíîé çàêîííîñòè. Äèíàìè÷íî ðàçâèâàþùååñÿ è ïîñòîÿííî “âòÿãèâàþùåå” â ñåáÿ ïîñòîðîííèõ ÷ëåíîâ, íàõîäÿùèõñÿ åùå â ñîñòîÿíèè îòíîñèòåëüíîé àíîìèè, îíî îñâàèâàëî íîâóþ ðåàëüíîñòü è íîâûõ ëþäåé,
ñîõðàíÿÿ ïðè ýòîì íåèçìåííûìè î÷åíü âàæíûå ýëåìåíòû ñâîåé èäåíòè÷íîñòè: îòêðûòîñòü, òåðïèìîñòü è êðåàòèâíîñòü, íåðåäêî âûñòóïàâøèå â ðîëè óãîëîâíîãî äåëèêòà. Âåðîÿòíî, â ýòó óñòîé÷èâîñòü â êàêîéòî ñòåïåíè âíåñ âêëàä è ñòðàøíûé îêòÿáðüñêèé ïîãðîì 1905 ãîäà, õîòÿ
áû òåì, ÷òî îáîçíà÷èë òå ïðåäåëû, çà êîòîðûìè äèíàìè÷íî ðàçâèâàþùàÿñÿ îòêðûòàÿ ñèñòåìà ââåðãàëàñü â ïó÷èíó äåéñòâèòåëüíî äåñòðóêòèâíîãî õàîñà. Ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, ïîñëå 1905 ãîäà â Îäåññå áûëî âûãîäíåå òîðãîâàòü è âîðîâàòü âìåñòå, ÷åì âîåâàòü.
Êàê ïîêàçàë Ðîáåðò Âàéíáåðã, ëèêâèäàöèåé ïîñëåäñòâèé ïîãðîìà çàíèìàëèñü
ñàìûå ðàçíîîáðàçíûå îáùåñòâåííûå îðãàíèçàöèè, è íå òîëüêî åâðåéñêèå. Ãîðîäñêàÿ Äóìà íàçíà÷èëà êîìèññèþ ïî ðàññëåäîâàíèþ ïðè÷èí ïîãðîìà è ïîèñêà âèíîâíûõ, à òàêæå ñôîðìèðîâàëà ôîíä ïîìîùè ïîñòðàäàâøèì, íåçàâèñèìî îò íàöèîíàëüíîñòè. Þðèäè÷åñêèé ôàêóëüòåò óíèâåðñèòåòà ïðåäëàãàë êîíñóëüòàöèè
æåðòâàì ïîãðîìà, ãîðîäñêàÿ ðåìåñëåííàÿ óïðàâà âûäåëèëà 12,000 ðóáëåé äëÿ ïîääåðæêè ïîñòðàäàâøèõ ðåìåñëåííèêîâ, ñðåäñòâà ðàñïðåäåëÿë êîìèòåò, â êîòîðûé
âõîäèëè ïÿòü ðóññêèõ è ïÿòü åâðååâ. Îòìå÷àëèñü ñëó÷àè ðàññëåäîâàíèé è ñàìîñóäîâ íàä ïîãðîìùèêàìè ñî ñòîðîíû “ñîçíàòåëüíûõ ðàáî÷èõ”. Ñì. Weinberg. Pp.
184-187.
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Ýïèëîã. Áåíÿ Ñèãåëü: çà ÷åðòîé äîáðà è çëà
 ðàññìîòðåííûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ åâðååâ ñ âíåøíèì
ìèðîì îñíîâíîé âåêòîð ñîöèàëüíîé ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè (â òîì ÷èñëå
ïðîòèâîçàêîííîé) áûë íàïðàâëåí íà èíòåãðàöèþ òðàäèöèîííûõ ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ è ñîñëîâíûõ ãðóïï, ïîâåðõ îñâÿùåííûõ çàêîíîì è
îáû÷àåì ñîöèàëüíûõ ãðàíèö.  òî æå âðåìÿ, ýòîò ïðîöåññ íå ÿâëÿëñÿ
ëèíåéíûì è áûë, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, îáóñëîâëåí ìíîãèìè îáñòîÿòåëüñòâàìè. Åñòåñòâåííûì âíåøíèì îãðàíè÷èòåëåì ÿâëÿëñÿ àíòèñåìèòèçì íàñåëåíèÿ è àäìèíèñòðàöèè: êàê ìû âèäåëè, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå â Îäåññå
ýòîò ôàêòîð ñàì ÿâëÿëñÿ ïåðåìåííîé, îïðåäåëÿâøåéñÿ ýôôåêòèâíîñòüþ ïðîöåññîâ àäàïòàöèè ëþäåé ê íîâûì ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèì
ðåàëèÿì. Îòñóòñòâèå ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêîãî àíòèñåìèòñêîãî äèñêóðñà â ãîðîäå óêàçûâàåò íà òî, ÷òî ïåðåãîðîäêè ìåæäó ýòíè÷åñêèìè ãðóïïàìè
áûëè ïîðèñòûìè è îñòàâëÿëè âîçìîæíîñòü äëÿ ìîáèëèçàöèè è ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèè íàñåëåíèÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè ïîâåðõ ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö, â òîì ÷èñëå â ñôåðå ïðåñòóïíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè.
 òî æå âðåìÿ, ìåæýòíè÷åñêàÿ èíòåãðàöèÿ ñäåðæèâàëàñü âíóòðåííèìè îãðàíè÷èòåëÿìè, êîòîðûå ãîðàçäî òðóäíåå âûÿâëÿòü è àíàëèçèðîâàòü, ÷åì âíåøíèå. Êëþ÷îì ê ðåøåíèþ ýòîé ïðîáëåìû ìîæåò ñòàòü
ñðàâíåíèå ñïåöèôèêè êðèìèíàëüíîãî íàñèëèÿ, íàïðàâëåííîãî âíóòðü
è âíå îáùèíû.
Êàê óæå ãîâîðèëîñü, â ãàçåòíîé óãîëîâíîé õðîíèêå, ïîëèöåéñêèõ îò÷åòàõ è ìàòåðèàëàõ ñëåäñòâèÿ åâðåè óïîìèíàþòñÿ â ñâÿçè ñî
âñåìè ìûñëèìûìè ïðåñòóïëåíèÿìè, æåðòâàìè êîòîðûõ áûëè êàê
åâðåè, òàê è íå-åâðåè. Âîïðåêè ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîìó ñòåðåîòèïó î ïðèðîäíîì ìèðîëþáèè åâðååâ, ÷àñòî ðå÷ü èäåò î íàñèëüñòâåííûõ äåéñòâèÿõ: ïîáîÿõ, íàëåòàõ è óáèéñòâàõ. Èìåííî ýòà êàòåãîðèÿ ïðåñòóïëåíèé äåìîíñòðèðóåò õàðàêòåðíóþ àñèììåòðèþ ðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ
æåðòâ è íàñèëüíèêîâ îòíîñèòåëüíî ìåæýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö – â îòëè÷èå îò âïîëíå ðàâíîìåðíîãî “íàöèîíàëüíîãî” ïðåäñòàâèòåëüñòâà
â ñëó÷àÿõ êâàðòèðíûõ è êàðìàííûõ êðàæ, ôàáðèêàöèè ïîääåëîê,
ñáûòà êðàäåíîãî è ò. ï. Çà îäíó íåäåëþ â îêòÿáðå 1907 ãîäà çàôèêñèðîâàíî ïî ìåíüøåé ìåðå ÷åòûðå ñëó÷àÿ ïðåñòóïëåíèé ïðîòèâ ëè÷íîñòè ñ ó÷àñòèåì åâðåéñêèõ áàíäèòîâ: âîîðóæåííîå íàïàäåíèå íà
êâàðòèðó Ì. Ðàéõ è Ì. Áðîíç, íàëåò íà áàêàëåéíî-òàáà÷íûé ìàãàçèí Õ. Øòåéíà, ïîïûòêà âîîðóæåííîãî âûìîãàòåëüñòâà ó õîçÿèíà
øêîëû ïðîèçâîäñòâà ñâå÷åé è ìûëà Ìèõàèëà Öóêåðìàíà (Á. Àðíàóòñêàÿ, 24) è óáèéñòâî õîçÿèíà ìàãàçèíà êðàñîê Ëåîíèäà Ìóñìàíà
253
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
(Ì. Àðíàóòñêàÿ, 82).111 Êàê ïðåñòóïíèêè, òàê è èõ æåðòâû áûëè åâðåÿìè.
Âåñíîé òîãî æå ãîäà çàðåãèñòðèðîâàíî íåñêîëüêî îñîáåííî æåñòîêèõ íàïàäåíèé íà åâðåéñêèå ëàâî÷êè. Óæå îïèñûâàëîñü âîîðóæåííîå
íàïàäåíèå íà îáóâíîé ìàãàçèí Ìîéñåÿ è Õàè Âîëüñêèõ 9 àïðåëÿ 1907
ãîäà. Ñïóñòÿ ìåñÿö, â 9 ÷àñîâ âå÷åðà 10 ìàÿ 1907 ã., â áàêàëåéíóþ ëàâêó Èîñèôà Ãàôàíîâè÷à íà Ìàëîé Àðíàóòñêîé âîøëè 3 ìîëîäûõ åâðåÿ.
Äâîå ïðîèçâåëè ÷åòûðå âûñòðåëà â íàõîäèâøèõñÿ â ëàâêå òðåõ ïðèêàç÷èêîâ è Ãàôàíîâè÷à, êîòîðîìó ïóëÿ ïîïàëà â âèñîê.112
 îïèñàííûõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êàê è â òûñÿ÷àõ ïðîèñøåñòâèé êðèìèíàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà, èçó÷åííûõ ìíîþ â õîäå ðàáîòû íàä ýòèì èññëåäîâàíèåì, íå áûëî íè îäíîãî, â êîòîðîì åâðåé óáèë áû ðóññêîãî (âîîáùå íååâðåÿ) ñ öåëüþ îãðàáëåíèÿ èëè ëè÷íîé ìåñòè. Åâðåè ìîãëè îáîêðàñòü
êâàðòèðó íå-åâðåÿ, çàëåçòü åìó â êàðìàí, ñáûòü êðàäåíîå èëè ôàëüøèâûå äåíüãè, íî ïî÷òè íèêîãäà – óáèòü. Ñîçäàåòñÿ âïå÷àòëåíèå, ÷òî ìû
ñòàëêèâàåìñÿ ñ íåâèäèìîé ñòåíîé, îãðàíè÷èâàþùåé óñïåøíóþ èíòåãðàöèþ îäåññêèõ åâðååâ ⠓áîëüøîå” îáùåñòâî, ïóñòü è â ñôåðå ïðîòèâîçàêîííîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè. Ñêàçûâàëñÿ ëè â ýòîì ñàìîîãðàíè÷åíèè ñòðàõ
ïîãðîìà â îòìåñòêó çà óáèéñòâî õðèñòèàíèíà èëè âíóòðåííÿÿ íåãîòîâíîñòü “ïðåñòóïèòü ÷åðòó” â îòíîøåíèè ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿ èíîé ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíîé ãðóïïû – î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî ñ ëåãêîñòüþ îäåññêèå åâðåè
äåéñòâèòåëüíî óáèâàëè “òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
Âàæíî ðàçîáðàòüñÿ â ïðèðîäå ýòîé íåâèäèìîé, íî ïî÷òè íåïðåîäîëèìîé ãðàíèöû è âûÿñíèòü, íàñêîëüêî óíèêàëüíîé áûëà îäåññêàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ. Ïðîöèòèðîâàííîå â çàãëàâèè ñòàòüè ìèôè÷åñêîå êðåäî àìåðèêàíñêîé ìàôèè (èìååòñÿ â âèäó, ÷òî ìàôèîçè ïðèìåíÿþò íàñèëèå òîëüêî ïî
îòíîøåíèþ äðóã ê äðóãó) ïðèïèñûâàåòñÿ çíàìåíèòîìó åâðåéñêîìó ãàíãñòåðó Áåíäæàìèíó Ñèãåëþ (Benjamin “Bugsy” Siegel).113 Îí ïðèíàäëåÍîâîñòè Îäåññû. 1907. ¹¹ 1, 2, 6.
Ô. 385. Îäåññêîå æàíäàðìñêîå óïðàâëåíèå. Îï. 1. Ò. 2. 1904-1908 ãã. Åä. õð.
2110. Äîíåñåíèÿ ïîìîùíèêà Îäåññêîãî ïîëèöìåéñòåðà è ïîëèöåéñêèõ ïðèñòàâîâ
î âçðûâàõ íà ïàðîõîäàõ “Ãåîðãèé Ìåðê”, “Àþ-Äà㔠è äð., ñòîëêíîâåíèè íàñåëåíèÿ
ñ îòðÿäàìè “Ñîþçà ðóññêîãî íàðîäà”, ýêñïðîïðèàöèÿõ àíàðõèñòîâ è äðóãèõ
ïðîèñøåñòâèÿõ â ã. Îäåññå. 12 ÿíâàðÿ 1907 – 19 îêòÿáðÿ 1911 ãã. 219 ëë.
113
Jay Robert Nash (Ed.). World Encyclopedia of Organized Crime. New York, 1992. P.
366. Ñì. òàêæå: Dean Jennings. We Only Kill Each Other: the Life and Bad Times of
Bugsy Siegel. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967. Èìåííî åìó ïðèíàäëåæàëà èäåÿ
ïðåâðàùåíèÿ Ëàñ-Âåãàñà â ñòîëèöó èãîðíîãî áèçíåñà â ñåðåäèíå 1940-õ ãîäîâ, êàê
îêàçàëîñü, íåñêîëüêî ïðåæäåâðåìåííàÿ (è ïîòîìó ñòîèâøàÿ åìó æèçíè).
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112
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æàë ê ïîêîëåíèþ åâðåéñêèõ ãàíãñòåðîâ, êîòîðûå â 1920-õ è 1930-õ ãã.,
íà âîëíå “ñóõîãî çàêîíà” è Âåëèêîé äåïðåññèè, âûøëè èç óçêèõ ðàìîê
ìåëêèõ ýòíè÷åñêèõ áàíä Áðóêëèíà è Èñò-Ñàéäà â Íüþ-Éîðêå è âîçãëàâèëè îðãàíèçîâàííóþ ïðåñòóïíîñòü â Àìåðèêå íà íàöèîíàëüíîì óðîâíå, íàðÿäó ñ äîíàìè ñèöèëèéñêîé ìàôèè (òàêèìè, êàê Àëü Êàïîíå è
Ëàêè Ëó÷àíî).  òå÷åíèå äåñÿòèëåòèé òåìà åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè â
Àìåðèêå îñòàâàëàñü ôèãóðîé óìîë÷àíèÿ, âî ìíîãîì áëàãîäàðÿ óñèëèÿì ëèäåðîâ åâðåéñêîé îáùèíû è åå âëèÿòåëüíûõ îðãàíèçàöèé. Ëèøü â
ïîñëåäíèå äâàäöàòü ëåò íà÷àëè ïîÿâëÿòüñÿ èññëåäîâàíèÿ (à åùå áîëüøå – õóäîæåñòâåííûå ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ è êèíîôèëüìû, âðîäå “Îäíàæäû
â Àìåðèêå”), ïîñâÿùåííûå ýòîé òåìå.114 Ðàçðóøàÿ ýòíîêóëüòóðíûå ñòåðåîòèïû, øèðîêóþ èçâåñòíîñòü ïîëó÷èëè èñòîðèè ñèñòåìàòè÷åñêîãî
óãîëîâíîãî íàñèëèÿ, îñóùåñòâëÿâøåãîñÿ åâðåéñêèìè ãðóïïèðîâêàìè,
ïðåæäå âñåãî – áðèãàäîé êèëëåðî⠓Murder, Inc.”, ñîçäàííîé ãàíãñòåðîì Ëåïêî Áóõàëòåðîì è ñîñòîÿâøåé, â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè, èç áîåâèêîâ-åâðååâ. “Murder, Inc.” îáñëóæèâàëà ïðåñòóïíûé ñèíäèêàò è, âåðîÿòíî, ñîâåðøèëà ñîòíè óáèéñòâ íà ïðîòÿæåíèè 1930-õ ãã.115
Òåì íå ìåíåå, ñîãëàñíî ñîâðåìåííûì èññëåäîâàòåëÿì, åâðåéñêàÿ
ïðåñòóïíîñòü â Àìåðèêå òàê è íå ïðåâðàòèëàñü â ýòíè÷åñêè ãîìîãåííóþ “ìàôèþ”, ïîäîáíóþ ñèöèëèéñêèì “ñåìüÿì” èëè êèòàéñêèì ñîîáùåñòâàì. Íàîáîðîò, ïî ìåðå óêðóïíåíèÿ ìàñøòàáà îïåðàöèé, ïåðâîíà÷àëüíûå êîìïàêòíûå åâðåéñêèå áàíäû âñòóïàëè â àëüÿíñû ñ èòàëüÿíñêèìè è èðëàíäñêèìè ãðóïïèðîâêàìè, âêëþ÷àëè â ñâîé ñîñòàâ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé äðóãèõ ìåíüøèíñòâ è íå ïðîâîäèëè íèêàêîé äèñêðèìèíàöèè ïî ýòíè÷åñêîìó ïðèíöèïó â îòíîøåíèè ñâîèõ æåðòâ.  öåëîì,
äèíàìèêà “ýòíè÷åñêîé” åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè â ÑØÀ ñîîòâåòñòâîâàëà îáùåé òåíäåíöèè ïî èíòåãðàöèè åâðååâ â îáùåñòâî, è ïî ìåðå
òîãî, êàê åâðåè ïåðåñòàâàëè áûòü “ìåíüøèíñòâîì”, èñ÷åçàëà çíà÷èìîñòü ýòíè÷åñêîãî ìàðêåðà ⠓åâðåéñêîé” ïðåñòóïíîñòè. Êàê ïèøåò
ñîâðåìåííûé èññëåäîâàòåëü,
Íà ïðîòÿæåíèè àìåðèêàíñêîé èñòîðèè ïðåñòóïíàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü ÷àñòî ïðåäîñòàâëÿëà ñðåäñòâà, ïðè ïîìîùè êîòîðûõ áåäíÿê, íåîáðàçîâàííûé è ÷óæàê ìîãëè äîñòè÷ü ìàòåðèàëüíîãî áëàãîïîëó÷èÿ è âëàñòè. Ïåðåä Âòîðîé ìèðîâîé âîéíîé íåêîòîðûå
åâðåè, êàê ÷ëåíû äðóãèõ èììèãðàíòñêèõ è ýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðóïï äî è
114
Ñì. Robert Rockaway. American Jews and Crime: an Annotated Bibliography //
American Studies International. 2000. Vol. 38, No. 1. Pp. 26-40.
115
Burton B. Turkus and Sid Feder. Murder, Inc. New York, 1992.
255
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ïîñëå íèõ, èñïîëüçîâàëè ïðåñòóïíîñòü êàê ëåñòíèöó äëÿ áûñòðîãî ñîöèàëüíîãî ðîñòà è ïðèîáðåòåíèÿ âëèÿíèÿ.116
Ïîýòîìó, êîãäà Áåíäæàìèí Ñèãåëü ãîâîðèë “ìû”, îí èìåë â âèäó
÷ëåíîâ îðãàíèçîâàííîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè, áåç ðàçëè÷èÿ ïî ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûì ïðèçíàêàì.117 Óáèéñòâî â åãî ôîðìóëå îáîçíà÷àëî ãðàíèöó
(ñèìâîëè÷åñêóþ è âïîëíå ðåàëüíóþ) ìåæäó îêðóæàþùèì îáùåñòâîì
è êîàëèöèåé ñîþçîâ ãàíãñòåðîâ, æèâóùèõ ïî îñîáûì çàêîíàì. Áåçóñëîâíî, óáèéñòâî äðóã äðóãà ïîä÷åðêèâàëî âíóòðåííèå ðàçëè÷èÿ ñðåäè
áàíäèòîâ, îäíàêî ýòè ðàçëè÷èÿ áûëè íåñóùåñòâåííû ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ
ãëàâíîé âíåøíåé ãðàíèöåé. Êîíå÷íî æå, íèêàêèå “ïðàâèëà” íå ìåøàëè àìåðèêàíñêèì ãàíãñòåðàì óáèâàòü ìèðíûõ “÷óæàêîâ”, îäíàêî âàæíî, ÷òî îíè ñàìè îñîçíàâàëè äåìàðêàöèîííóþ ðîëü óáèéñòâà.
Ïðè ðàññìîòðåíèè ïðîáëåìû êðèìèíàëüíîãî íàñèëèÿ ñ ýòîé òî÷êè
çðåíèÿ, äëÿ íàñ âàæíû äâà àñïåêòà ïðîÿâëåíèÿ æåñòîêîñòè. Íà èíäèâèäóàëüíîì óðîâíå íàñèëèå âûñòóïàåò êàê ñðåäñòâî êîììóíèêàöèè â
ñèòóàöèè, êîãäà îòñóòñòâóþò äðóãèå ñðåäñòâà âûðàæåíèÿ èëè ïîòåðÿíî äîâåðèå ê íèì. Ïî ñëîâàì êðóïíåéøåãî ñïåöèàëèñòà ïî àíòðîïîëîãèè íàñèëèÿ Àíòîíà Áëîêà, “âìåñòî òîãî, ÷òîáû íàçûâàòü íàñèëèå a
priori áåññìûñëåííûì è æåñòîêèì, ìû äîëæíû ðàññìàòðèâàòü åãî êàê
ôîðìó èíòåðàêöèè è êîììóíèêàöèè, êàê èñòîðè÷åñêè ðàçâèâàâøóþñÿ
êóëüòóðíóþ ôîðìó çíà÷àùåãî äåéñòâèÿ.”118  ýòîì ñëó÷àå íàñèëèå ÿâëÿåòñÿ âîïëîùåíèåì “body politics”, ñïîñîáîì óñòàíîâëåíèÿ è ïîääåðæàíèÿ ñîöèàëüíîé èåðàðõèè â óñëîâèÿõ, êîãäà îòñóòñòâóþò äðóãèå
ðåñóðñû: îáùåïðèçíàííûé ñîöèàëüíûé ñòàòóñ, êàïèòàë, ýôôåêòèâíàÿ
þðèäè÷åñêàÿ ñèñòåìà.
Íà óðîâíå ìåæãðóïïîâîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ îäíîé èç ôóíêöèé íàñèëèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñîöèàëüíàÿ äåìàðêàöèÿ, ïîääåðæàíèå ñîöèàëüíîé äèñòàíöèè, îñîáåííî â óñëîâèÿõ åå ðàçìûâàíèÿ â ãîìîãåíèçèðóþùåìñÿ
ìîäåðíèçèðóåìîì îáùåñòâå. Êëþ÷åâóþ ðîëü òàêîé äèñòàíöèè äëÿ ïîääåðæàíèÿ ñîöèàëüíîãî ïîðÿäêà ïîä÷åðêèâàåò Ïüåð Áóðäüå: “Ñîöèàëüíàÿ èäåíòè÷íîñòü çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â îòëè÷èè, à îòëè÷èå óòâåðæäàåòñÿ
ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê òîìó, ÷òî íàõîäèòñÿ áëèæå âñåãî, ÷òî ïðåäñòàâëÿåò
Robert Rockaway. P. 26.
Ñàì Ñèãåëü áûë óáèò ïî ïðèêàçó ñâîåãî äðóãà, êðóïíîãî åâðåéñêîãî ãàíãñòåðà
Ìååðà Ëàíñêîãî, êîãäà íàðóøèë ïðàâèëà ïðåñòóïíîãî ñèíäèêàòà è ñêîìïðîìåòèðîâàë åâðåéñêóþ ãðóïïèðîâêó â ãëàçàõ ñèöèëèéñêèõ êëàíîâ.
118
Anton Blok. The Narcissism of Minor Differences // Idem. Honor and Violence.
Cambridge, UK and Malden, MA, 2001. P. 104.
116
117
256
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ñîáîé íàèáîëüøóþ óãðîçó.”119 Ïàíè÷åñêîé ðåàêöèåé íà èñ÷åçíîâåíèå
èìåííî ñóùåñòâóþùèõ ìåëêèõ ðàçëè÷èé îáúÿñíÿþò àíòðîïîëîãè îñîáóþ æåñòîêîñòü ñåðáî-õîðâàòñêîãî êîíôëèêòà èëè òîò ôàêò, ÷òî îáúåêòîì äèñêóðñèâíîãî íàñèëèÿ àíòèñåìèòñêîé ïðåññû (èëè ïðÿìîãî íàñèëèÿ ïîãðîìíîé òîëïû) ñòàíîâÿòñÿ, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, íàèáîëåå èíòåãðèðîâàííûå ïðåäñòàâèòåëè åâðåéñêîé îáùèíû, à íå èçîëèðîâàííûå
îò âíåøíåãî ìèðà îðòîäîêñû. Ãîâîðÿ î êîìïëåêñå ñîöèàëüíî-ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèõ óñëîâèé, ïîðîæäàþùèõ íàñèëèå â ïîäîáíîé ñèòóàöèè èñ÷åçíîâåíèÿ ñîöèàëüíîé äèñòàíöèè, ÷àñòî âñïîìèíàþò äàâíþþ ôîðìóëó “íàðöèññèçì ìåëêèõ ðàçëè÷èé” Çèãìóíäà Ôðåéäà, êîòîðûé ïèñàë: “Âñåãäà ìîæíî îáúåäèíèòü âìåñòå çíà÷èòåëüíîå êîëè÷åñòâî ëþäåé â ëþáâè, êîëü ñêîðî îñòàþòñÿ äðóãèå ëþäè äëÿ ïðîÿâëåíèÿ àãðåññèâíîñòè.”120
Àëüòåðíàòèâíûé àìåðèêàíñêîìó ñöåíàðèé åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè ðåàëèçîâûâàëñÿ â Öåíòðàëüíîé Åâðîïå, â Àâñòðî-Âåíãðèè, – âòîðîì ãîñóäàðñòâå Åâðîïû (ïîñëå Ðîññèè) ïî ÷èñëåííîñòè åâðåéñêîãî
íàñåëåíèÿ. Áóäàïåøò ïî ìíîãèì ïîêàçàòåëÿì î÷åíü íàïîìèíàë Îäåññó: â 1910 ã. åâðåéñêàÿ îáùèíà Áóäàïåøòà íàñ÷èòûâàëà îêîëî 204.000
÷åëîâåê (ïî÷òè ñòîëüêî æå, ñêîëüêî â Îäåññå), áóäàïåøòñêèå åâðåè ñîñòàâëÿëè ïî÷òè ÷åòâåðòü îò îáùåãî ÷èñëà ãîðîæàí (â Îäåññå, êàê ìû
óæå âèäåëè, îêîëî òðåòè), â èçâåñòíûõ êðóãàõ ãîðîä äàæå íàçûâàëè
“Þäîïåøò”.121 Ñîöèàëüíàÿ ñòðóêòóðà è ðàñïðåäåëåíèå ïî çàíÿòèÿì
ñðåäè îäåññêèõ è áóäàïåøòñêèõ åâðååâ òàêæå áûëè î÷åíü ïîõîæè.122 Â
òî æå âðåìÿ, âåíãåðñêèå è ðîññèéñêèå åâðåè ñóùåñòâîâàëè â ïðèíöèïèàëüíî ðàçíûõ èíñòèòóöèîíàëüíûõ êîíòåêñòàõ. Ïîñëå 1895 ã. åâðåè â
Âåíãðèè ïîëüçîâàëèñü âñåìè ãðàæäàíñêèìè ïðàâàìè íàðàâíå ñ òèòóëüíîé íàöèåé (ìàäüÿðàìè),123 ÷òî ñáëèæàëî èõ, ñêîðåå, ñ àìåðèêàíñêèìè
åâðåÿìè, ôîðìàëüíî ïîëíîïðàâíûìè ãðàæäàíàìè ÑØÀ. Îäíàêî, íåPierre Bourdieu. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge,
Mass., 1984. P. 479.
120
Sigmund Freud. Civilization and its Discontents / Trans. and ed., James Strachey.
New York, 1961. P. 61.
121
William O. McCagg. Jewish Nobles and Geniuses in Modern Hungary. Boulder,
1972. P. 30.
122
Ñì. T. D. Kramer. From Emancipation to Catastrophe: The Rise and Holocaust of
Hungarian Jewry. Lanham, New York, Oxford, 2000. Pp. 24-25, et al.; M. Ïîëèùóê.
Åâðåè Îäåññû è Íîâîðîññèè: Ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ èñòîðèÿ åâðååâ Îäåññû è
äðóãèõ ãîðîäîâ Íîâîðîññèè, 1881-1904. Èåðóñàëèì è Ìîñêâà, 2001. Ñ. 85-86.
123
T. D. Kramer. From Emancipation to Catastrophe: The Rise and Holocaust of
Hungarian Jewry. P. 21.
119
257
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
ñìîòðÿ íà ñâîé èçìåíèâøèéñÿ þðèäè÷åñêèé ñòàòóñ è áåñïðåöåäåíòíûå óñèëèÿ ïî àêêóëüòóðàöèè è äàæå àññèìèëÿöèè, åâðåè Áóäàïåøòà
(è, â îïðåäåëåííîé ñòåïåíè, ÑØÀ) â òå÷åíèå ïîñëåäóþùèõ äåñÿòèëåòèé ïûòàëèñü ïðåîäîëåòü ðàçðûâ ìåæäó ïðèçíàíèåì èõ ïðàâ ëèáåðàëüíûì ãîñóäàðñòâîì è ôàêòè÷åñêèì áîéêîòîì ñî ñòîðîíû ìíîãèõ ñîöèàëüíûõ ãðóïï è èíñòèòóòîâ âåíãåðñêîãî è àìåðèêàíñêîãî îáùåñòâà.
Êàê ïîêàçûâàåò èñòîðèÿ Âåíãðèè ìåæâîåííîãî ïåðèîäà, þðèäè÷åñêîå
ðàâíîïðàâèå íå ãàðàíòèðîâàëî åâðåÿì òîëåðàíòíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ñî ñòîðîíû õðèñòèàíñêèõ ñîñåäåé, ÑØÀ òàêæå èçâåñòíû ñâîåé äàâíåé è ìîùíîé òðàäèöèåé àíòèñåìèòèçìà. Íàïðîòèâ, åâðåè Îäåññû â 1910-õ ãã.
ôîðìàëüíî ÿâëÿëèñü þðèäè÷åñêè äèñêðèìèíèðóåìûì ìåíüøèíñòâîì,
áóäó÷è, â òî æå âðåìÿ, ãëóáîêî èíòåãðèðîâàíû â íåîôèöèàëüíûå ñòðóêòóðû îäåññêîãî îáùåñòâà, âêëþ÷àÿ òåíåâûå è äàæå îòêðîâåííî êðèìèíàëüíûå ñôåðû ñîöèàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè.
Îñíîâíîé õàðàêòåð êðèìèíàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè âåíãåðñêèõ åâðååâ
äàæå â 1930-õ ãã. îñòàâàëñÿ â öåëîì íåèçìåííûì ñ XVI-XVIII ââ. (íàïîìèíàÿ åâðåéñêóþ ïðåñòóïíîñòü â ðîññèéñêîé ÷åðòå îñåäëîñòè): ñîâåðøåííî íåçíà÷èòåëüíîå êîëè÷åñòâî åâðååâ îñóæäàëîñü çà óáèéñòâî,
òÿæêèå òåëåñíûå ïîâðåæäåíèÿ è ðàçáîé, â òî æå âðåìÿ åâðåè ïðèíèìàëè øèðîêîå ó÷àñòèå â ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ ïðåñòóïëåíèÿõ, ìîøåííè÷åñòâå
è “ñèìâîëè÷åñêèõ ïðåñòóïëåíèÿõ” (êëåâåòà, øàíòàæ, âûìîãàòåëüñòâî
è ò.ï.).124  íà÷àëå ÕÕ âåêà â ÑØÀ ýòíè÷åñêè ãîìîãåííûå åâðåéñêèå
áàíäû íè÷åì íå îòëè÷àëèñü îò äðóãèõ ýìèãðàíòñêèõ ýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðóïïèðîâîê.125 Îäåññêèé ñëó÷àé äåìîíñòðèðóåò ñîâåðøåííî èíîé õàðàêòåð åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè, îòëè÷íûé êàê îò “òðàäèöèîííîãî åâðåéñêîãî” íåëåãàëüíîãî áèçíåñà, òàê è îò “òèïè÷íî ýìèãðàíòñêîé” ãîðîäñêîé áàíäèòñêîé ãðóïïèðîâêè, áîðþùåéñÿ çà êîíòðîëü íàä îïðåäåëåííîé òåððèòîðèåé. Ñîãëàñíî ïîëèöåéñêèì äîêóìåíòàì è ãàçåòíûì îò÷åòàì, îäåññêèå åâðåè ó÷àñòâîâàëè âî âñåõ òèïàõ ïðåñòóïíûõ äåÿíèé,
â òîì ÷èñëå íàñèëüñòâåííûõ äåéñòâèÿõ, âêëþ÷àÿ óáèéñòâà. Îäíàêî,
“óáèâàÿ òîëüêî ñâîèõ” èç êîðûñòè, à “÷óæèõ” – ïîä ïðèêðûòèåì ëåâûõ
ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ëîçóíãîâ, åâðåè ïðîÿâëÿëè è î÷åíü âàæíûå àâòîìàòèçìû ìûøëåíèÿ è ñîöèàëüíîé ïðàêòèêè, îãðàíè÷èâàþùèå ìàñøòàáû èõ
èíòåãðàöèè â èìïåðñêîå îáùåñòâî.  îòëè÷èå îò âíåøíèõ ãðàíèö,
Raphael Patai. The Jews of Hungary: History, Culture, Psychology. Detroit, 1996.
Pp. 125-140, and 514-515.
125
Ñì. íàïð.: Arthur Cohen. New York Jews and the Quest for Community: The Kehilla
Experiment, 1908-1922. New York, 1970; Jenna Weissman Joselit. Our Gang: Jewish
Crime and the New York Jewish Community, 1900-1940. Bloomington, 1983.
124
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çàòðóäíÿâøèõ ýòó èíòåãðàöèþ, – ïðåæäå âñåãî, îôèöèàëüíîãî è áûòîâîãî àíòèñåìèòèçìà, – âíóòðåííèå ãðàíèöû, ïîääåðæèâàâøèåñÿ îùóùåíèåì ñîáñòâåííîé “èíàêîâîñòè”, íå ðåôëåêòèðîâàëèñü è íå ìîãëè
êîððåêòèðîâàòüñÿ íà óðîâíå ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî âîñïèòàíèÿ è îáùåñòâåííîãî êîíòðîëÿ. Âåðîÿòíî, äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû ñîêðàòèòü äèñòàíöèþ ìåæäó
åâðååì è íå-åâðååì äî ðàçäðàæàþùå íåóëîâèìûõ íþàíñî⠓íàðöèññèçìà ìåëêèõ ðàçëè÷èé”, íóæíî áûëî èçìåíèòü îñíîâû ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè ëþäåé. Ðåâîëþöèîííûé ïðîåêò ïðåäëàãàë àëüòåðíàòèâó ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ðàâåíñòâà ïîâåðõ òðàäèöèîííûõ ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ
è êëàññîâûõ ãðàíèö. Èìïåðñêàÿ Ðîññèÿ íå ìîãëà ïðåäëîæèòü åâðåÿì è
äðóãèì ýòíîêîíôåññèîíàëüíûì ìåíüøèíñòâàì ñîïîñòàâèìîãî ïî ýôôåêòèâíîñòè ðåøåíèÿ, îäíàêî ñïîíòàííûå ñîöèàëüíûå ïðîöåññû â
Îäåññå ïîäñïóäíî ôîðìèðîâàëè ñðåäó, íàèáîëåå áëàãîïðèÿòíóþ äëÿ
ìåæãðóïïîâîãî ïàðòíåðñòâà.
 ñèòóàöèè ñëàáîé èëè íåýôôåêòèâíîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé âëàñòè,
àíîìèè “êîëîíèàëüíîé” íåóêîðåíåííîé æèçíè, ñïîíòàííîãî âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ è ðàçâèòèÿ ñîöèàëüíûõ èåðàðõèé è íåôîðìàëüíûõ âëàñòíûõ
îòíîøåíèé, íåçàêîííàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü îäåññêèõ åâðååâ (êàê è îñòàëüíûõ îäåññèòîâ) ÿâëÿëàñü áîëåå êîìïëåêñíûì ôåíîìåíîì, ÷åì áàíàëüíàÿ “ïðåñòóïíîñòü”.  íà÷àëå ÕÕ âåêà îêîëî 50 òûñÿ÷ îäåññêèõ åâðååâ
ñóùåñòâîâàëî íà ãðàíè ôèçè÷åñêîãî âûæèâàíèÿ è ïðèìåðíî òàêîå æå
êîëè÷åñòâî èõ áîëåå óäà÷ëèâûõ ñîïëåìåííèêîâ âûæèâàëî çà ñ÷åò ïîèñêà ëàçååê â äèñêðèìèíèðóþùåì àíòèåâðåéñêîì çàêîíîäàòåëüñòâå.
Âñå ýòî ñîçäàâàëî ïèòàòåëüíóþ ñðåäó äëÿ ñâîåîáðàçíîé ôîðìû ñîöèàëüíîé îðãàíèçàöèè è äàæå ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ (íà óðîâíå áàíä).
Ïîâûøåííàÿ çàìåòíîñòü åâðåéñêîé ïðåñòóïíîñòè â îáùåñòâåííîì
äèñêóðñå (ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ îôèöèàëüíîé ñòàòèñòèêîé) è îïðåäåëåííûå
åå õàðàêòåðèñòèêè, çàôèêñèðîâàííûå â òûñÿ÷àõ èçó÷åííûõ ñëó÷àÿõ,
äàþò îñíîâàíèÿ âèäåòü â íåé òàêæå ïðîÿâëåíèå êîíôëèêòà ìåæäó èíñòèòóòàìè àðõàè÷åñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà è áûñòðî ìîäåðíèçèðóþùåãîñÿ
“êîëîíèàëüíîãî” àíêëàâà âíóòðè èìïåðèè (“ôðîíòèðà”). Îäåññêèå åâðåè ÷óâñòâîâàëè è âåëè ñåáÿ èíà÷å, ÷åì åâðåè â äðóãèõ ÷àñòÿõ Ðîññèè
(è ìèðà), íàõîäÿ ñîáñòâåííûé ïóòü èíòåãðàöèè ⠓áîëüøîå” îáùåñòâî,
êîòîðûé áûë íå âñåãäà ëåãàëüíûì.
SUMMARY
This paper approaches the phenomenon of Jewish criminality in Odessa from the vantage point of the anthropology of violence, looking into
how new perceptions of Jewish identity can be determined from the demarcation between “us” and “them,” the strategies of crossing boundaries
259
È. Ãåðàñèìîâ, “Ìû óáèâàåì òîëüêî ñâîèõ”...
between ethno-confessional groups, and the specificity of Jewish criminality.
The largely archaic Russian state could not regulate social processes on
the micro-level of people’s every-day lives and affairs. Therefore Jews, as
well as other ethnic groups in Odessa, engaged in processes of permanent
self-organization. In the situation of anomic, rootless, “colonial” life in
Odessa’s rapidly developing society, new strategies of social behavior and
new patterns of socialization emerged daily, some of which violated the
law. While official criminal statistics cannot be taken as an accurate representation of the actual involvement of an ethnic minority in criminal activities, it does suggest a degree of integration into “official” society by a minority group. Judging by this criterion, Odessa Jews had fairly intensive
contacts with the official institutions of society (particularly given the open
anti-Semitism of city officials). However, the main thrust of the Jewish interaction with larger society laid outside the institutional framework. Jews
participated en mass in various activities that crossed all traditional lines
and boundaries – legal as well as ethnic – in their quest for adaptation to the
challenges of the day, and for greater security and prosperity. No traditional
scenarios and certainly no legal regulations taught Jews and Russians in
Odessa how to build personal and economic relationships across ethno-confessional boundaries. On the contrary, religion, traditions, and law reinforced segregation and separatism as well as mutual mistrust and hostility.
People violating traditions and occasionally breaking the law entered uncharted waters, and their innovative sociability and frontier mentality challenged institutionalized social norms. In this respect, Odessa demonstrated
a completely different pattern of Jewish criminality: neither a “traditional
Jewish” way of illegal operations nor a “typical immigrant” urban model of
uncompromising fight for control over certain territories. According to police files and newspaper accounts, Odessa Jews were engaged in all types of
criminal activities and were quite prone to violence, including murder. In
the situation of weak or inefficient state institutions and given the rootless
nature of “colonial” life, social hierarchies and unofficial systems of authority were spontaneously constructed. Thus, Jewish criminality in Odessa
was more than a manifestation of “social malady.” Its overrepresentation in
public discourse (compared with official statistics) and certain patterns represented in thousands studied cases suggest that it was also a product of the
conflict between the established institutions of the archaic state and the rapidly modernizing “colonial” (or “frontier”) enclave within the empire. Odessa
Jews behaved and felt themselves to be different from Jews in other parts of
Russia, finding their own roads to modernity, which were not always legal.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Äàðèóñ ÑÒÀËÞÍÀÑ
ÃÐÀÍÈÖÛ Â ÏÎÃÐÀÍÈ×ÜÅ:
ÁÅËÎÐÓÑÛ È ÝÒÍÎËÈÍÃÂÈÑÒÈ×ÅÑÊÀß
ÏÎËÈÒÈÊÀ ÐÎÑÑÈÉÑÊÎÉ ÈÌÏÅÐÈÈ
ÍÀ ÇÀÏÀÄÍÛÕ ÎÊÐÀÈÍÀÕ
 ÏÅÐÈÎÄ ÂÅËÈÊÈÕ ÐÅÔÎÐÌ
Âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XIX âåêà íà çàïàäíûõ îêðàèíàõ Ðîññèéñêîé
èìïåðèè ñëîæèëàñü îñîáàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ, êîãäà èìïåðñêàÿ ïîëèòèêà êîëåáàëàñü ìåæäó ðóñèôèêàòîðñêèì ñòðåìëåíèåì ê îáúÿâëåíèþ áåëîðóñîâ è óêðàèíöåâ ÷àñòüþ òðèåäèíîé ðóññêîé íàöèè è íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ
îáåñïå÷èòü ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå ìèíèìàëüíûå âîçìîæíîñòè äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ
ìåñòíûõ ÿçûêîâ, ñ òåì ÷òîáû âûñòðîèòü äåéñòâåííûé ìåõàíèçì ïðîòèâîäåéñòâèÿ ñîðåâíóþùåìóñÿ ñ ðóññêèì ïîëüñêîìó íàöèîíàëüíîìó
ïðîåêòó. Ó÷èòûâàÿ ñòåïåíü íàöèîíàëüíîé èíäèôôåðåíòíîñòè êðåñòüÿíñòâà, ìîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî â çàïàäíîì ïîãðàíè÷üå èìïåðèè ïðîõîäèëà
ñëîæíàÿ áîðüáà çà âûñòðàèâàíèå ýòíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö, êîòîðûå, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, äîëæíû áûëè îïðåäåëèòü ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü òåððèòîðèé è íàñåëåíèÿ ê òîìó èëè èíîìó íàöèîíàëüíîìó ïðîåêòó.
Áåëîðóñû ïðèíàäëåæàò ê òàê íàçûâàåìûì “îïàçäûâàþùèì íàöèÿì”. Èññëåäîâàòåëè óêàçûâàþò íà öåëûé êëóáîê ïðè÷èí, ïîâëèÿâøèõ
261
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
íà áåëîðóññêîå íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâî.1 Îäíîé èç ñàìûõ âàæíûõ, íî íè
â êîåì ñëó÷àå íå åäèíñòâåííîé ïðè÷èíîé ýòîãî “îïîçäàíèÿ” ñ÷èòàåòñÿ íàöèîíàëüíàÿ ïîëèòèêà Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè.2 Èìïåðñêèå âëàñòè â
XIX â. ñ÷èòàëè áåëîðóñîâ (ýòîò ýòíîíèì, êàê è “ðóññêèå”, ïèñàëñÿ ñ
äâóìÿ “ñ”) ÷àñòüþ òðèåäèíîé ðóññêîé íàöèè è, êàê ïðàâèëüíî îòìåòèë
À. Ìèëëåð, ñòðåìëåíèå óêðàèíöåâ (çäåñü ìîæíî äîáàâèòü – è áåëîðóñîâ) ê íàöèîíàëüíîìó ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèþ èìïåðñêàÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ è èíòåëëåêòóàëüíàÿ ýëèòà ÷àùå âñåãî òðàêòîâàëà êàê “äèâåðñèþ èçíóòðè
‘íàöèîíàëüíîãî òåëà’”3. Ïðàâäà, ñóùåñòâóåò è äðóãàÿ èíòåðïðåòàöèÿ,
ñîãëàñíî êîòîðîé, “ñîçäàâàÿ ïðîòèâîâåñ ïîëüñêîé ãåãåìîíèè, èìïåðñêèå âëàñòè, èíîãäà ñîçíàòåëüíî, ÷àùå íåâîëüíî, îòêðûâàëè ïðîñòîð
äëÿ íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ òðåòüèõ ñèë”, èíà÷å ãîâîðÿ, ñîçäàâàëàñü ñâîåîáðàçíàÿ “íèøà” äëÿ îïïîçèöèîííûõ íàöèîíàëèçìîâ (â
ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü çäåñü èìååòñÿ â âèäó íàöèîíàëèçì áåëîðóññêèé è óêðàèíñêèé).4
 ýòîé ñòàòüå ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ îòíîøåíèå èìïåðñêîãî öåíòðà (òî÷íåå, ðàçëè÷íûõ äåéñòâóþùèõ ëèö è ó÷ðåæäåíèé öåíòðà), ìåñòíûõ âëàÎ ðàçíûõ èíòåðïðåòàöèÿõ áåëîðóññêîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà ñì.: Àíòîí Íîâèíà [À.
Ëóöêåâè÷]. Áåëîðóññû // Ôîðìû íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ â ñîâðåìåííûõ ãîñóäàðñòâàõ. Àâñòðî-Âåíãðèÿ. Ðîññèÿ. Ãåðìàíèÿ / Ïîä ðåä. À. È. Êàñòåëÿíñêîãî. ÑÏá.,
1913. Ñ. 385-395; N. P. Vakar. Belorussia. The Making of a Nation. Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1956. Pp. 75-92; J. T. Stanley. The Birth of a Nation: The January
Insurrection and the Belorussian National Movement // War and Society in East Central
Europe, Vol. XIV. The Crucial Decade: East Central European Society and National
Defense, 1859-1870 / Edited by B. Kiraly. Brooklyn, 1984. Pp. 185-202; Ì. Ái÷. Áåëàðóñêàå àäðàæýííå ¢ XIX – ïà÷àòêó XX ñò. Ìiíñê, 1993; A. Sahm. Politische
Konstruktionsversuche weißrussischer Identität. Zur Bedeutung des Rückgriffs auf
Geschichte für die unabgeschlossene Nationsbildung // Jahrbücher für Geschichte
Osteuropas. 1994. Bd. 42. H.4. S. 541-561; R. A. Mark. Die nationale Bewegung der
Weissrussen im 19. und zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts // Jahrbücher für Geschichte
Osteuropas. 1994. Bd. 42. H.4. S. 493-509; R. Lindner. Historiker und Herrschaft.
Nationsbildung und Geschichtspolitik in Weißrußland im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert.
München, 1999 (=Ordnungsysteme. Studien zur Ideengeschichte der Neuzeit / Hrsg.
von D. Beyrau, A. Doering-Manteuffel und L. Raphael. Band 5).
2
Ð. Ðàäçiê. Ïðû÷ûíû ñëàáàñöi íàöûÿòâîð÷åãî ïðàöýñó áåëàðóñࢠó XIX-XX.
Áåëàðóñêi ãiñòàðû÷íû àãëÿä. 1995. Òîì 2. Cøûòàê 2. Ñ. 195-227.
3
À. È. Ìèëëåð. “Óêðàèíñêèé âîïðîñ” â ïîëèòèêå âëàñòåé è ðóññêîì îáùåñòâåííîì
ìíåíèè (âòîðàÿ ïîëîâèíà XIX âåêà), ÑÏá., 2000. Ñ. 39.
4
Ë. Å. Ãîðèçîíòîâ. “Áîëüøàÿ ðóññêàÿ íàöèÿ” â èìïåðñêîé è ðåãèîíàëüíîé ñòðàòåãèè
ñàìîäåðæàâèÿ // Ïðîñòðàíñòâî âëàñòè: èñòîðè÷åñêèé îïûò Ðîññèè è âûçîâû
ñîâðåìåííîñòè. Ìîñêâà, 2001. Ñ. 139, 148.
1
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ñòåé Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ è ìåñòíîãî äâîðÿíñòâà ê ïðîÿâëåíèÿì “áåëîðóññêîñòè”, îñîáåííî ê òîìó, â êàêèõ ìàñøòàáàõ äîïóñêàëîñü óïîòðåáëåíèå áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà.5 Ïîñêîëüêó ýòó òåìó íåâîçìîæíî ðàñêðûòü
áåç îïèñàíèÿ îáùåé ýòíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé ïîëèòèêè â Çàïàäíîì êðàå,
ìû áóäåì ÷àñòî îáðàùàòüñÿ ê ñîöèàëüíûì è ïîëèòè÷åñêèì àñïåêòàì
èñòîðèè ðåãèîíà âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XIX âåêà, à òàêæå ê ýòíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîé ñèòóàöèè ëèòîâöåâ è óêðàèíöåâ.
Êàê èçâåñòíî, â àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîì îòíîøåíèè èìïåðèÿ Ðîìàíîâûõ
íå äåëèëàñü íà íàöèîíàëüíûå åäèíèöû, ïîýòîìó è òåðìèí “áåëîðóññêèå ãóáåðíèè” â íà÷àëå XIX â., êàê ïðàâèëî, îòíîñèëñÿ òîëüêî ê Âèòåáñêîé è Ìîãèëåâñêîé ãóáåðíèÿì, ò. å. ê òîé òåððèòîðèè, êîòîðóþ
Ðîññèÿ ïîëó÷èëà ïîñëå I ðàçäåëà Ðå÷è Ïîñïîëèòîé. Õîòÿ â 1840 ã. ïîñëåäîâàë óêàç èìïåðàòîðà, çàïðåùàâøèé óïîòðåáëÿòü äàííûé òåðìèí
ïðè èìåíîâàíèè ýòèõ ãóáåðíèé (òî æå ñàìîå ñëó÷èëîñü è ñ “ëèòîâñêèìè” ãóáåðíèÿìè Âèëåíñêîé è Ãðîäíåíñêîé), â äàëüíåéøåì äàæå â îôèöèàëüíîé ïåðåïèñêå ñîõðàíèëàñü òðàäèöèÿ íàçûâàòü Âèòåáñêóþ è
Ìîãèëåâñêóþ ãóáåðíèþ áåëîðóññêèìè. Â òî æå ñàìîå âðåìÿ Ìèíñêàÿ
ãóáåðíèÿ, îòîøåäøàÿ ê Ðîññèè ïîñëå II ðàçäåëà, ïî ýòîé òðàäèöèè íå
âõîäèëà â ñîñòà⠓áåëîðóññêèõ” ãóáåðíèé. Îäíàêî, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, â
ñåðåäèíå XIX â., êîãäà â îáùåñòâåííîì è îôèöèàëüíîì äèñêóðñàõ âñå
ñèëüíåå óòâåðæäàëèñü ýòíîëèíãâèñòè÷åñêèå êàòåãîðèè, ñèòóàöèÿ ìåíÿëàñü, è íåðåäêî Ìèíñêàÿ ãóáåðíèÿ òàêæå ïðè÷èñëÿëàñü ê îçíà÷åííîé ãðóïïå.6 Íàïðèìåð, â 1870 âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð À. Ïîòàïîâ, óêàçûâàÿ íà íåîáõîäèìîñòü èçúÿòü Ìèíñêóþ ãóáåðíèþ èç âåäåíèÿ âèëåíñêîãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðñòâà, ïîä÷åðêíóë, ÷òî ïî ïëåìåííîìó è êîíôåññèîíàëüíîìó ñîñòàâó îíà áëèæå ê ãóáåðíèÿì áåëîðóññêèì,7 à ïðîôåññîð Ïåòåðáóðãñêîé äóõîâíîé àêàäåìèè Ì. Êîÿëîâè÷
óòâåðæäàë, ÷òî Áåëîðóññèÿ – ýòî ñòðàíà, “ãäå íàðîä ãîâîðèò ïî Áåëîðóñêè”.8
Íàöèîíàëüíàÿ ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü ðàçíûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ ãðóïï â ëèòîâñêèõ è áåëîðóññêèõ ãóáåðíèÿõ â ýòî âðåìÿ îïðåäåëÿëàñü íåîäíîçíà÷Êîíå÷íî, â ñåðåäèíå XIX â. òî÷íåå áûëî áû ãîâîðèòü î êîíòèíóóìå áåëîðóññêèõ
äèàëåêòîâ, íî äëÿ óäîáñòâà áóäåì óïîòðåáëÿòü òåðìèí “áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê”.
6
Àòëàñ íàðîäîíàñåëåíèÿ Çàïàäíî-ðóññêàãî êðàÿ ïî èñïîâåäàíèÿì ñîñòàâëåí ïðè
Ìèíèñòåðñòâå âíóòðåííèõ äåë â êàíöåëÿðèè çàâåäóþùåãî óñòðîéñòâîì ïðàâîñëàâíûõ öåðêâåé â Çàïàäíûõ ãóáåðíèÿõ. Èçäàíèå âòîðîå, èñïðàâëåííîå è äîïîëíåííîå. ÑÏá., 1864 (áåç íóìåðàöèè).
7
Lietuvos valstybës istorijos archyvas (äàëåå – LVIA). F. 378. Bs. 1871 m. B. 1. Ll. 1-2.
8
Ì. Êîÿëîâè÷. Î ðàññåëåíèè ïëåìåí Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ Ðîññèè. Ìîñêâà, 1863. Ñ. 23.
5
263
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
íî. Èíà÷å ãîâîðÿ, “ðóññêîñòü” èëè “ïîëüñêîñòü” â êðåñòüÿíñêîì ñîñëîâèè è, íàïðèìåð, â äâîðÿíñêîì, èçìåðÿëèñü ðàçíûìè êðèòåðèÿìè.
Ïîíÿòèå “ïîëÿê” ïîäðàçóìåâàëî, ÷òî äàííîå ëèöî èñïîâåäóåò êàòîëè÷åñòâî, íå ïðèíàäëåæèò ê êðåñòüÿíñêîìó ñîñëîâèþ è ïðîèñõîäèò èç
Çàïàäíûõ ãóáåðíèé (ðàçíûå íþàíñû ýòîé äåôèíèöèè â ýòîì ñëó÷àå
ìû îñòàâëÿåì â ñòîðîíå).  äåôèíèöèè “ðóññêîãî” ãëàâíûì êðèòåðèåì ñëóæèëà êîíôåññèÿ (ïðàâîñëàâèå), à ñîñëîâíàÿ ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü èëè
ìåñòî ïðîèñõîæäåíèÿ (ýòîò òåðìèí óæå ïîíèìàëñÿ çäåñü íå â òåððèòîðèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîì, íî â ýòíè÷åñêîì ñìûñëå) íå èãðàëè ñóùåñòâåííîé ðîëè.
Ðàçíîå ñîäåðæàíèå ïîíÿòèÿ “ïðîèñõîæäåíèå” â äåôèíèöèÿõ
ïîëüñêîñòè è ðóññêîñòè îáóñëàâëèâàëîñü òåì, ÷òî âëàñòè (è íå òîëüêî
îíè, íî è áîëüøèíñòâî âëèÿòåëüíûõ ïóáëèöèñòîâ) ïðèäåðæèâàëèñü
ìíåíèÿ, ÷òî ìíîãèå èç ïîìåùèêîâ Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ (íåêîòîðûå óòâåðæäàëè, ÷òî áîëüøèíñòâî) ïî ïëåìåííîìó ïðîèñõîæäåíèþ – ðóññêèå èëè
ëèòîâöû.9 Êàê ñèíîíèì “ðóññêîìó” óïîòðåáëÿëñÿ è ýòíîíèì “áåëîðóñû”: “Áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü çåìëåâëàäåëüöåâ ñîñòàâëÿåò ïîëüñêîå íàñåëåíèå,
õîòÿ, â ñóùíîñòè, ýòîò âûñøèé êëàññ Ìèíñêîé ãóáåðíèè ïî áîëüøèíñòâó âûäåëèëñÿ èç òîãî æå áåëîðóññêîãî ïëåìåíè. Ïðåäêè íåêîòîðûõ
èç ïàíîâ, ñ÷èòàþùèõ ñåáÿ çà Ïîëÿêîâ, íåêîãäà èñïîâåäûâàëè ïðàâîñëàâíóþ âåðó – è ïî ïðîèñõîæäåíèþ ñâîåìó ïðèíàäëåæàëè ê ÷èñëó
ðóññêèõ áîÿð è äâîðÿí”.10 Íà îáðóñåíèå ýòèõ “ðåíåãàòî┠íàäåÿëèñü
íåìíîãèå. Ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü ðîññèéñêèõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ
íàäåÿëàñü íà èõ îáðóñåíèå òîëüêî â òîì ñëó÷àå, åñëè îíè “âîçâðàòÿòñÿ” â ïðàâîñëàâèå, è òî ðóññêèìè ìîæíî áóäåò ñ÷èòàòü òîëüêî èõ ïîòîìñòâî. Ïîýòîìó, êàê ïðàâèëî, áåëîðóñîâ èìïåðñêèå âëàñòè “íàõîäèëè” òîëüêî â êðåñòüÿíñêîé ñðåäå.
Áåëîðóñû (ïðàâäà, èíîãäà âñå âîñòî÷íûå ñëàâÿíå íàçûâàëèñü ðóññêèìè), ïî îöåíêàì ðàçíûõ ýêñïåðòîâ òîãî âðåìåíè, æèëè íå òîëüêî â
Âèòåáñêîé, Ìîãèëåâñêîé, Ìèíñêîé, íî è â âîñòî÷íîé ÷àñòè Âèëåíñêîé
è áîëüøåé ÷àñòè Ãðîäíåíñêîé ãóáåðíèè. Êðîìå òîãî, åùå óïîìèíàëèñü Êîâåíñêàÿ, Àâãóñòîâñêàÿ, Ñìîëåíñêàÿ è Ïñêîâñêàÿ ãóáåðíèè.11 Â
Ïèñüìà â ðåäàêöèþ î ñîâðåìåííûõ âîïðîñàõ (Ïèñüìî âòîðîå) // Âèëåíñêèé
âåñòíèê. 1865. ¹ 142.
10
Ô. Âîëêîâ. Î÷åðê Ìèíñêîé ãóáåðíèè // Âèëåíñêèé âåñòíèê. 1868. ¹ 69.
11
Ëîêàëèçàöèÿ áåëîðóñîâ çàâèñåëà îò êîíöåïöèè íàðîäíîñòè, èíòåíöèé ýêñïåðòîâ, ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñèòóàöèè è ò.ä. Î ïðîñòðàíñòâå, çàíèìàåìîì áåëîðóññêèì ïëåìåíåì ñì.: Ì. Ëåáåäêèí. Î ïëåìåííîì ñîñòàâå íàðîäîíàñåëåíèÿ Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ
Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè // Çàïèñêè Èìïåðàòîðñêîãî Ðóññêîãî Ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîãî
9
264
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Çàïàäíîì êðàå, ïî ðàçíûì îöåíêàì, íàñ÷èòûâàëîñü îò 2.026.89312 äî
2.880.313,13 à åñëè ó÷èòûâàòü è äðóãèå ãóáåðíèè – äàæå áîëåå 4 ìëí.
áåëîðóñîâ.14
* * *
Íà÷àëî “Îòòåïåëè” ôàêòè÷åñêè ñîâïàëî ñ íàçíà÷åíèåì Â. È. Íàçèìîâà Âèëåíñêèì ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðîì â êîíöå 1855 ã. Î ìåòàìîðôîçàõ íàçèìîâñêîé ýòíîïîëèòèêè (èëè, òî÷íåå ñêàçàòü, åãî ýòíîïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïðîãðàììû) óæå ïèñàëîñü.15 Âíà÷àëå Â. È. Íàçèìîâ â ðóñëå
îáùåèìïåðñêîé ñòðàòåãèè ïîïûòàëñÿ íàëàäèòü ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî ñ “ïîëÿêàìè”, äëÿ òîãî ÷òîáû áûëà ãàðàíòèðîâàíà ñîöèàëüíàÿ ñòàáèëüíîñòü,
òàê íåîáõîäèìàÿ äëÿ ðåôîðì. Ïîýòîìó “ïîëÿêè” âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå
50-õ ãã. ïîëó÷èëè íåêîòîðûå “ïðèâèëåãèè” (áûâøèì ýìèãðàíòàì ðàçðåøàëîñü âåðíóòüñÿ íà ðîäèíó, ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê êàê ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíûé
ïðåäìåò áûë âîçâðàùåí â ó÷åáíûå çàâåäåíèÿ è ò.ï.). Íåêîòîðûå èñòî÷íèêè äàæå óïîìèíàþò î òîì, ÷òî ñåìüÿ ñàìîãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà
íà÷àëà ó÷èòü ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê.16 Íî ñ íà÷àëîì ìàíèôåñòàöèîííîãî äâèæåíèÿ, íå òîëüêî â Öàðñòâå Ïîëüñêîì, íî è â Çàïàäíîì êðàå â ïåðâîé
ïîëîâèíå 1861 ã., à ìîæåò áûòü, äàæå ðàíüøå,17 âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàëîáùåñòâà. 1861. Êí. 3. ÑÏá, 1861. Ñ. 139; Ì. Êîÿëîâè÷. Äàâàéòå êíèã äëÿ ÇàïàäíîÐóññêîãî íàðîäà èëè áðîñüòå âñå çàáîòû îá îòêðûòèè äëÿ íåãî øêîë (Ïèñüìî ê
ðåäàêòîðó) // Äåíü. 1863. ¹ 6; –åë-ñêèé. Ïèñüìà î Áåëîðóññèè // Òàì æå. ¹ 46;
Ì. Êîÿëîâè÷. Ëåêöèè ïî èñòîðèè Çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè // Òàì æå. 1864. ¹ 15; LVIA. F.
378. Bs. 1864. B. 1360. L. 96 è äð.
12
Ì. Ëåáåäêèí. Î ïëåìåííîì ñîñòàâå. Ñ. 139.
13
Àòëàñ íàðîäîíàñåëåíèÿ Çàïàäíî-ðóññêîãî êðàÿ.
14
–åë-ñêèé. Ïèñüìà î Áåëîðóññèè.
15
Ñáîðíèê äîêóìåíòîâ ìóçåÿ ãðàôà Ì. Í. Ìóðàâüåâà. Ò. 1 / Ñîñòàâèë À. Áåëåöêèé.
Âèëüíà, 1906. Ñ. LVIII; Z. Medišauskienë. Rusijos cenzûra Lietuvoje XIX a. Viduryje.
Kaunas, 1998. Pp. 225-226; D. Fainhauz. 1863. Litwa i Bia³oruœ. Warszawa, 1999. S. 21,
36, 51; A. Kulakauskas. Kova uþ valstieèiø sielas. Caro valdþia, Lietuvos visuomenë ir
pradinis švietimas XIX a. viduryje. Kaunas, 2000. Pp. 86-89, 95; M. Ä. Äîëáèëîâ.
Ïîëîíîôîáèÿ è ðóñèôèêàöèÿ Ñåâåðî-çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ (1860-å ãã.): ìåòàìîðôîçû
ýòíîñòåðåîòèïîâ // http://www.empires.ru/docs/dolbilov-rusifikacija.doc.
16
Èç çàïèñîê Èâàíà Àêèìîâè÷à Íèêîòèíà // Ðóññêàÿ ñòàðèíà. 1902. Ò. 109. Ñ. 511.
17
Óæå âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå 1850-õ ãã. áûëî ÿñíî, ÷òî ìåñòíîå äâîðÿíñòâî ñîãëàñèòñÿ ôèíàíñèðîâàòü òîëüêî âîññòàíîâëåíèå óíèâåðñèòåòà â Âèëüíå, íà ÷òî âëàñòè
íå ñîãëàøàëèñü. Ïî íåêîòîðûì äàííûì, óæå â 1860 ã. Âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð ïðåäëàãàë ìåðû äëÿ ïîîùðåíèÿ ðóññêîãî çåìëåâëàäåíèÿ â ëèòîâñêèõ ãóáåðíèÿõ. Î íàçðåâàþùåì êîíôëèêòå ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëî è ïðèáûòèå Àëåêñàíäðà II îñåíüþ 1860 ã., êîãäà âëàñòè è ìåñòíîå äâîðÿíñòâî òàê è íå íàøëè îáùåãî ÿçûêà ïðè
ïîäãîòîâêå ïðîãðàììû. Ñì.: D. Staliûnas. Visuomenë be universiteto? (Aukðtosios
265
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ãóáåðíàòîð ïîíÿë, ÷òî òå óñòóïêè, íà êîòîðûå ãîòîâà ïîéòè âëàñòü, íå
óäîâëåòâîðÿò ìåñòíîå äâîðÿíñòâî.
Õîòÿ è â äàëüíåéøåì âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð ïðîáîâàë äîêàçàòü öåíòðàëüíûì âëàñòÿì, ÷òî áåç ïîñòîðîííåãî âìåøàòåëüñòâà óäàñòñÿ ñîõðàíèòü ñïîêîéñòâèå,18 ñèòóàöèþ îí âñå-òàêè îöåíèâàë ïåññèìèñòè÷íî. Ãëàâíàÿ îïàñíîñòü èñõîäèëà ñî ñòîðîíû “ïîëÿêîâ”, êîòîðûå
ñòàëè îáó÷àòü íàðîä ïîëüñêîìó ÿçûêó,19 à èõ öåëüþ ÿâëÿëîñü îòòîðæåíèå Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ îò Ðîññèè. Õîòÿ ÷àùå âñåãî Â. È. Íàçèìîâ âñå äâîðÿíñòâî êðàÿ ïðè÷èñëÿë ê “ïîëÿêàì”, èíîãäà îí “îáíàðóæèâàë” è ðóññêèõ â ýòîì ñîöèàëüíîì ñëîå (õîòÿ è îíè, ïî ñëîâàì ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà, ïðèìûêàëè ê ïîëüñêîé ïàðòèè). Ïðàâèòåëüñòâî â îäèíî÷êó íå
ìîãëî ñïðàâèòüñÿ ñ ýòîé ïðîáëåìîé. Íî è íàäåÿòüñÿ íà ïîääåðæêó ìåñòíûõ ñèë Â. È. Íàçèìîâ íå ìîã: çäåñü, ïî åãî ìíåíèþ, ìîæíî áûëî
îïåðåòüñÿ òîëüêî íà ñåëüñêèõ ó÷èòåëåé è ïðàâîñëàâíîå äóõîâåíñòâî.20
 òàêîé ñèòóàöèè åñòåñòâåííî íàïðàøèâàëàñü ìûñëü î ïðèìåíåíèè
ïîëèòèêè ðàçäåëÿé è âëàñòâóé, ò. å. îá îïîðå íà ñåëüñêîå íàñåëåíèå,
äëÿ òîãî ÷òîáû íåéòðàëèçîâàòü àíòèïðàâèòåëüñòâåííóþ äåÿòåëüíîñòü
“ïîëÿêîâ”. Êàê ðàç òàêóþ ñòðàòåãèþ íàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè íà çàïàäíûõ îêðàèíàõ èìïåðèè ïðåäëîæèë àâòîð îäíîé çàïèñêè, âðó÷åííîé â
íà÷àëå 1862 ã. öàðþ. Òî îáñòîÿòåëüñòâî, ÷òî Àëåêñàíäð II ïåðåäàë åå
ìèíèñòðó âíóòðåííèõ äåë Ï. Âàëóåâó (25 ôåâðàëÿ 1862 ã.), à òîò, â ñâîþ
î÷åðåäü, ïîïðîñèë ìåñòíûå âëàñòè Çàïàäíûõ ãóáåðíèé îòðåàãèðîâàòü
íà ñôîðìóëèðîâàííûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î òîì, ÷òî è öåímokyklos atkûrimo problema Lietuvoje: XIX a. vidurys-XX a. pradþia), (Lietuviø
Atgimimo istorijos studijos. T. 16). Vilnius, 2000. Pp. 32-36; ÃÈÀ. Ô. 1282. Îï. 2. Ä.
334. Ë. 10; À. Ñ. Ï[àâëîâ]. Âëàäèìèð Èâàíîâè÷ Íàçèìîâ. Î÷åðêè èç íîâåéøåé
ëåòîïèñè ñåâåðî-çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè // Ðóññêàÿ ñòàðèíà. 1885. Ìàðò. Ñ. 326;
Królewstwo Polskie // Czas. 1860. Nr. 287; D. Fainhauz. 1863. Litwa i Bia³oruœ. S. 20.
18
ÃÀÐÔ. Ô. 109. 1861 ã. Ä. 303, ÷. 3. Ë. 7; ýòîò äîêóìåíò îïóáëèêîâàí:
Ðåâîëþöèîííûé ïîäúåì â Ëèòâå è Áåëîðóññèè â 1861-1862 ãã. Ìîñêâà, 1964. Ñ.
333.
19
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 733. Îï. 140. Ä. 17. Ëë. 49, 52; ýòîò äîêóìåíò îïóáëèêîâàí: Àðõèâíûå ìàòåðèàëû Ìóðàâüåâñêîãî ìóçåÿ, îòíîñÿùèåñÿ ê ïîëüñêîìó âîçñòàíèþ 18631864 ãã. â ïðåäåëàõ Ñåâåðî-Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ. ×àñòü I. Ïåðåïèñêà ïî ïîëèòè÷åñêèì
äåëàì ãðàæäàíñêîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ ñ 1 ÿíâàðÿ 1862 ïî ìàé 1863 ã. / Ñîñòàâèë
À. È. Ìèëîâèäîâ. Âèëüíà, 1913. Ñ. 107-112.
20
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1282. Îï. 2. Ä. 334. Ëë. 121-122, 124; òîò ñàìûé äîêóìåíò: ÐÃÈÀ. Ô.
1267. Îï. 1. Ä. 11. Ëë. 105-111; Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà: Ñâîä ïðåäëîæåíèé è
âûâîäîâ // Ðîññèéñêàÿ íàöèîíàëüíàÿ áèáëèîòåêà. Ñàíêò-Ïåòåðáóðã. Ðóññêèé ôîíä.
18.241.1.8/1-29 (áåç íóìåðàöèè).
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òðàëüíûå âëàñòè íå îòâåðãàëè òàêîé âîçìîæíîñòè.  óïîìÿíóòîé çàïèñêå ïðåäëàãàëîñü îïåðåòüñÿ íà “íàøó åñòåñòâåííóþ òî÷êó îïîðû” –
ò. å. “ýëåìåíòû ìåñòíûå – Ìàëîðóññêèé, Áåëîðóññêèé è Ëèòîâñêèé”.
Àâòîð ïðåäëîæèë öåëóþ ïðîãðàììó ïîääåðæêè ýòèõ, ìû áû ñêàçàëè,
íåäîìèíèðóþùèõ ýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðóïï. Îñîáåííîå âíèìàíèå óäåëÿëîñü
ñôåðå îáðàçîâàíèÿ: ó÷ðåæäåíèþ ïî âîçìîæíîñòè áîëüøåãî ÷èñëà íà÷àëüíûõ øêîë ñ ïðåïîäàâàíèåì íà ýòèõ ÿçûêàõ, èçäàíèþ è ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèþ ó÷åáíèêîâ, à òàêæå Íîâîãî Çàâåòà, äîïóùåíèþ ýòèõ íàðå÷èé
â êà÷åñòâå îòäåëüíîãî ïðåäìåòà â ñðåäíèå è âûñøèå ó÷åáíûå çàâåäåíèÿ Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ, ïîîùðåíèþ ïðîïîâåäåé íà ýòèõ ÿçûêàõ, èçäàíèþ
ïðàâèòåëüñòâåííûõ ðàñïîðÿæåíèé íà “ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêå” è, åñëè áóäåò
ïîòðåáíîñòü, íà “íàðå÷èÿõ ìàëîðóññêîì è áåëîðóññêîì”, äîïóùåíèþ
â ìåñòíóþ ïðåññó ñòàòåé íà ýòèõ ÿçûêàõ. Ïðåäëàãàëîñü èçäàâàòü “ëèñòîê” ïî-ëèòîâñêè ïðè “Âèëåíñêîé îôèöèàëüíîé ãàçåòå” (èìååòñÿ â âèäó
“Âèëåíñêèé âåñòíèê”), íå ïðåñëåäîâàòü ëèòåðàòóðû íà ìåñòíûõ ÿçûêàõ, à îòíîñèòüñÿ ê ïðîèçâåäåíèÿì íà íèõ òàê æå, êàê è ê òåì èçäàíèÿì,
êîòîðûå âûõîäÿò “ïî-âåëèêîðóññêè”. Íåñîìíåííî, ïðè ðåàëèçàöèè òàêîé ýòíîêóëüòóðíîé ïðîãðàììû ïðîöåññû íàöèåñòðîèòåëüñòâà ó âîñòî÷íûõ ñëàâÿí ïîëó÷èëè áû èíîå ðàçâèòèå ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ òåì, ÷òî
ïðîèñõîäèëî â äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè. È â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü ýòî êàñàëîñü áû
áåëîðóñîâ, êîòîðûå íå èìåëè “ñâîåãî Ïüåìîíòà”, êàê ìàëîðîññû. Âîçìîæíîñòü ó÷èòüñÿ íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå, ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå áåëîðóññêîé ëèòåðàòóðû ñîçäàëè áû óæå â íåäàëåêîì áóäóùåì ïðåäïîñûëêè
äëÿ ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ öåëîé ïðîñëîéêè áåëîðóññêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè, à
çíà÷èò – è áîëåå óñïåøíîãî ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ áåëîðóññêîé íàöèè, ÷òî
äîêàçûâàëî áû íåñîñòîÿòåëüíîñòü îôèöèàëüíîé òåîðèè òðèåäèíîé
ðóññêîé íàöèè. Íî àâòîð ýòîé çàïèñêè áîëåå âñåãî áûë îçàáî÷åí âëèÿíèåì “ïîëüñêîé” ñòèõèè. “Ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ ðàññóäèòåëüíîñòü” ëèòîâöåâ, ìàëîðîññîâ è áåëîðóñîâ äîëæíà áûëà ïîäñêàçàòü èì, ÷òî èõ åäèíñòâåííûì ñîþçíèêîì ÿâëÿåòñÿ Ðîññèÿ: “Îòòîðæåíèå Çàïàäíî-Ðóññêîãî êðàÿ ïðåäïîëàãàåò òàêæå íåïðåìåííîå îòïàäåíèå îò íàñ Öàðñòâà
Ïîëüñêîãî: â ñëó÷àå æå îòäåëüíîãî ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ Ïîëüøè âîçìîæíà
ëè ìûñëü î íåçàâèñèìîé Ëèòâå èëè Ìàëîðîññèè, ïîñòàâëåííîé ìåæäó
Ïîëüøåþ è Ðîññèåé? Çàïàäíî-Ðóññêèé íàðîä î÷åíü õîðîøî ÷óâñòâóåò,
÷òî åñëè áû îí ïåðåñòàë ïðèíàäëåæàòü Ðóññêîìó Ãîñóäàðñòâó, òî ñäåëàëñÿ áû ñíîâà ïîäâëàñòíûì Ïîëüøå”.21
21
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1282. Îï. 2. Ä. 334. Ëë. 20-60; òî æå ñàìîå: Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà.
267
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
Íî òàêàÿ ýòíîêóëüòóðíàÿ ïðîãðàììà íå ïîëó÷èëà ïîääåðæêè îò êèåâñêîãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà È. È. Âàñèëü÷èêîâà. Êèåâñêèé ãåíåðàëãóáåðíàòîð íå îäîáðÿë íå òîëüêî ââåäåíèÿ ìàëîðîññèéñêîãî ÿçûêà â
ñðåäíèõ è âûñøèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèÿõ, íî äàæå îáó÷åíèÿ íà ýòîì ÿçûêå
â íà÷àëüíûõ øêîëàõ (èñêëþ÷åíèå äåëàëîñü òîëüêî äëÿ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ
çàêîíà Áîæèÿ). Öåëü òàêèõ ïðåäëîæåíèé Âàñèëü÷èêî⠓ðàñêóñèë” áûñòðî: “íåëüçÿ ïðèíèìàòü ìåð, êîòîðûå ìîãóò âåñòè ê ðàçúåäèíåíèþ äâóõ
îäíîðîäíûõ ïëåìåí, è âñåëÿòü íàðîäó ìûñëü î åãî ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîé,
îòäåëüíîé íàðîäíîñòè – ìûñëü, äîñåëå â íåì íå ïðîÿâëÿâøóþñÿ”. Â
ýòîì åãî ïîääåðæàë è ìèíèñòð âíóòðåííèõ äåë: “Ëó÷øèì äîêàçàòåëüñòâîì ñïðàâåäëèâîñòè ìíåíèÿ Êíÿçÿ Âàñèëü÷èêîâà ñëóæèò óñèëèå ðàçíûõ ëèö ê ïîääåðæàíèþ è ðàçâèòèþ îòäåëüíîãî ÷óâñòâà Ìàëîðîññèéñêîé íàðîäíîñòè.  îñíîâàíèè ýòèõ óñèëèé ëåæèò ñòðåìëåíèå ê ôåäåðàòèâíîìó íà÷àëó, êîòîðîå ïðîòèâîñòàâëÿåòñÿ íà÷àëó Åäèíî- è Ñàìîäåðæàâíîìó”.22
Âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð Â. Íàçèìîâ â ñâîåì êîììåíòàðèè
íå ðàçúÿñíèë ñâîåãî âçãëÿäà íà ýòè ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, íî õàðàêòåðèñòèêà
ïðîñòîãî íàðîäà, ïðåäñòàâëåííàÿ â ýòîì äîêóìåíòå, à òàêæå è äðóãèå
âûñêàçûâàíèÿ âèëåíñêîãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà ïîçâîëÿþò ðåêîíñòðóèðîâàòü åãî îòíîøåíèå ê òàêîé ýòíîêóëüòóðíîé ïðîãðàììå. Â ïåðâóþ
î÷åðåäü, íàäî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî Â. Íàçèìîâ ñ÷èòàë î÷åíü ñëàáûì íàöèîíàëüíîå ñàìîñîçíàíèå ïðîñòîãî íàðîäà: “Íàðîä, ýòà æèâàÿ ñèëà ãîñóäàðñòâà, ïîãðóçèëñÿ è â íðàâñòâåííóþ è â ôèçè÷åñêóþ àïàòèþ, è åñëè
Ðóññêîå íàñåëåíèå â Çàïàäíûõ ãóáåðíèÿõ íåëüçÿ åùå íàçâàòü îòæèâøèì ñâîé âåê, òî íå îøèáåìñÿ, êîãäà ñêàæåì, ÷òî â íåì æèçíåííàÿ
ñèëà åùå íå ïðîáóäèëàñü, ñêàæåì áîëåå – ÷óâñòâà íàðîäíîé ñàìîáûòíîñòè íàõîäÿòñÿ íà òàêîì áåçîòðàäíîì ëåòàðãè÷åñêîì óñûïëåíèè, ÷òî
âñëåä çà íàñòóïàþùèì ïðîáóæäåíèåì îí ñ ðàâíîþ ãîòîâíîñòüþ ïîñëåäóåò êàê çà Ðóññêî-Ïðàâîñëàâíîþ, òàê è çà Ïîëüñêî-Êàòîëè÷åñêîþ
ïðîïàãàíäîþ”.23 È òàêèå îöåíêè áûëè õàðàêòåðíû äëÿ Â. Íàçèìîâà
âïëîòü äî îñòàâëåíèÿ èì äîëæíîñòè âèëåíñêîãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà
âåñíîé 1863 ã. Ñîñòîÿíèå êðåñòüÿíñêîãî ñîñëîâèÿ â çàïèñêàõ Â. Íàçèìîâà õàðàêòåðèçèðîâàëîñü êàê “ëåòàðãè÷åñêîå”,24 îíî àññîöèèðîâàëîñü
ñ ðåáåíêîì òîëüêî ÷òî âûøåäøèì èç ïåëåíîê,25 ïîýòîìó íåëüçÿ ïîðóÈç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà.
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1282. Îï. 2. Ä. 334. Ëë. 121-131.
24
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1267. Îï. 1. Ä. 11. Ë. 34; Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà.
25
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 733. Îï. 62. Ä. 1483. Ë. 51.
22
23
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
÷èòüñÿ, êàê ïîëàãàë Â. Íàçèìîâ, çà åãî áóäóùåå: “íàðîä ýòîò ñ îäèíàêîâîþ ïîêîðíîñòüþ è áåñïå÷íîñòüþ ãîòîâ ñëåäîâàòü çà Ðóññêîþ ïðîïàãàíäîþ, êàê è çà Ïîëüñêîþ”.26 È ïîñëå íà÷àëà “ìÿòåæà” 18 ôåâðàëÿ
1863 ã., Â. Íàçèìîâ, õîòÿ è íàçûâàë íàðîä “ïðèðîäíûì è íàäåæíåéøèì íàøèì ñîþçíèêîì â çàïàäíûõ ãóáåðíèÿõ”, íî â òî æå âðåìÿ îïàñàëñÿ, ÷òî ïðè íåïðàâèëüíûõ äåéñòâèÿõ âëàñòåé èõ ìîæíî âîîðóæèòü
ïðîòèâ ñåáÿ.27
Âñå-òàêè ñàì ïðèíöèï ðàçäåëÿé è âëàñòâóé íå áûë ñîâñåì ÷óæä Â.
Íàçèìîâó.  àâãóñòå 1862 ã. îí ïðåäëîæèë ïðîåêò çàÿâëåíèÿ ïðàâèòåëüñòâà, íàçâàííûé Ï. Âàëóåâûì “ìàíèôåñòîì a là Garibaldi â ÷åñòü íàðîäíîñòåé”,28 â êîòîðîì ãîâîðèëîñü: “Óâàæàÿ ïðàâà íàðîäîâ è ïðèçíàâàÿ ãîñóäàðñòâåííûì ïðåñòóïëåíèåì âñÿêîå ÷èíèìîå â óùåðá íàðîäíîñòÿì íàñèëèå, õîòÿ áû îíî áûëî íðàâñòâåííîå, â âèäàõ ïðåäîñòàâëåíèÿ êàæäîé íàðîäíîñòè ñðåäñòâ ñâîáîäíî è áåñïðåïÿòñòâåííî ðàçâèâàòüñÿ â ñâîéñòâåííûõ åé ôîðìàõ, õàðàêòåðå è ïðåäåëàõ ïîâåëåâàåòñÿ:
â îáëàñòÿõ è ìåñòíîñòÿõ, ãäå ãîñïîäñòâóåò ðóññêîå íàñåëåíèå – ó÷ðåæäàòü ðóññêèå ó÷èëèùà, ãäå ïðåîáëàäàåò ëèòîâñêîå èëè æìóäñêîå íàñåëåíèå – ïðåäîñòàâèòü îáó÷åíèå ïî-ëèòîâñêè è æìóäñêè, ãäå æå îêàæåòñÿ áîëüøèíñòâî ïîëüñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ îáó÷àòü ïî-ïîëüñêè, è ïðî÷.”
×òîáû íå âîçíèêëî íèêàêèõ íåäîðàçóìåíèé, Â. Íàçèìîâ åùå óòî÷íèë,
÷òî â Áåëîðóññèè è Ìàëîðîññèè çàïðåùàåòñÿ îáó÷åíèå ïîëüñêîìó ÿçûêó.29 Êîíå÷íî, òàêîå çàÿâëåíèå èìåëî, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, ïðîïàãàíäèñòñêèé õàðàêòåð,30 íî î÷åâèäíî è òî, ÷òî ïðè îñóùåñòâëåíèè òàêîé
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1282. Îï. 2. Ä. 334. Ë. 122; Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà. Â àâãóñòå 1862 ã.
âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð îïèñûâàë ñèòóàöèþ åùå ìðà÷íåå: “íàðîä íå ìîã
åùå äî ñèõ ïîð çàÿâèòü ñâîåãî ìíåíèÿ è åäâà ëè áû â íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ, íàõîäÿñü
ïîä âëèÿíèåì Ïîëüñêîé ïðîïàãàíäû, çàÿâèë îíîå â íàøó ïîëüçó”. ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1267.
Îï. 1. Ä. 11. Ë. 35.
27
Âîññòàíèå â Ëèòâå è Áåëîðóññèè 1863-1864 ãã. Ìîñêâà, 1965. Ñ. 5.
28
Äíåâíèê Ï. À. Âàëóåâà, ìèíèñòðà âíóòðåííèõ äåë, â äâóõ òîìàõ. Ò. 1. 1861-1864.
Ìîñêâà, 1961. Ñ. 190.
29
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1267. Îï. 1. Ä. 11. Ë. 37; Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà.
30
“Èçäàâàÿ òàêîãî ðîäà ïîñòàíîâëåíèå, Ðîññèÿ íå èçìåíèëà áû õàðàêòåðà ñâîåé
ïîëèòèêè, ïîáóäèâøåãî åå ïðèçíàòü òîðæåñòâåííî ãîñóäàðñòâî, âîçäâèãíóòîå íà
íà÷àëàõ íàðîäíîãî åäèíñòâà è ñîïëåìåííîñòè; ïåðåä ãëàçàìè Åâðîïû è öåëîãî
ñâåòà îíà ðàçðóøèëà áû çäàíèå ëæè ïîëüñêèõ ïóáëèöèñòîâ, óñòðàíèëà áû íàâñåãäà
ïîâîä ê äåëàåìûì åé óïðåêàì çà êàêèå-òî ñòðåìëåíèÿ ê èñòðåáëåíèþ Ïîëüñêîé
íàðîäíîñòè è âìåñòå ñ òåì îãðàäèëî áû ñâîå ðîäíîå, åäèíîêðîâíîå ïëåìÿ îò
çàòðàòû, ÷òî â ñîâîêóïíîñòè íàíåñëî áû âåñüìà îùóòèòåëüíûé óäàð âðàæäåáíîé
íàì ïàðòèè”. ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1267. Îï. 1. Ä. 11. Ëë. 37-38.
26
269
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ïðîãðàììû ïîëüñêîå âëèÿíèå â Çàïàäíîì êðàå áûëî áû îñëàáëåíî çà
ñ÷åò çàìåíû â ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèÿõ31 ïîëüñêîãî ÿçûêà ðóññêèì (íå áåëîðóññêèì èëè ìàëîðóññêèì) è ëèòîâñêèì.
Õîòÿ ñòðàòåãèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè â îáñóæäàåìîé çàïèñêå íå
áûëà ïðåäñòàâëåíà, íî âîïðîñ îá óïîòðåáëåíèè áåëîðóññêîãî (êàê è
ìàëîðóññêîãî) ÿçûêîâ êàê ðàç â òåõ ñôåðàõ, êîòîðûå áûëè â íåé óêàçàíû (íà÷àëüíîå îáó÷åíèå, ïå÷àòàíèå õóäîæåñòâåííûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèé,
áîãîñëóæåíèå), âîçíèêàë î÷åíü ÷àñòî âî âðåìÿ “Âåëèêèõ ðåôîðì”.
* * *
Îäíîé èç ãëàâíûõ àðåí áîðüáû çà “äóøè” íàðîäà ÿâëÿëîñü íà÷àëüíîå îáó÷åíèå. Õîòÿ äî ýïîõè “Âåëèêèõ ðåôîðì” ïðåïîäàâàíèå â ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèÿõ ëèòîâñêèõ è áåëîðóññêèõ ãóáåðíèé äîëæíî áûëî ïðîèñõîäèòü íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå (êðîìå çàêîíà Áîæèÿ “èíîñòðàííûõ èñïîâåäàíèé”), íåêîòîðûå èñòî÷íèêè ÿñíî óêàçûâàþò íà òî, ÷òî áåç “áåëîðóññêîãî íàðå÷èÿ” íåëüçÿ áûëî îáîéòèñü íå òîëüêî â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ,32 íî äàæå è ïðè äàëüíåéøåì îáó÷åíèè: â 1854 ã. áûëî îáíàðóæåíî, ÷òî â ïîëîöêîì êàäåòñêîì êîðïóñå “ïîñòóïàþùèå íà ñëóæáó ìîëîäûå ëþäè èç áåëîðóññêèõ óðîæåíöåâ ïî îêîí÷àíèè êóðñà íàóê... ïî÷òè
âñå ãîâîðÿò è ïèøóò íà ìåñòíîì íàðå÷èè”. Ïðàâäà, ñåíàòîðñêàÿ ðåâèçèÿ ïðåäñòàâèëà áîëåå óòåøèòåëüíûå âûâîäû.33 Ïîýòîìó íå äîëæíî
óäèâëÿòü è òî, ÷òî â êîíöå 1850-õ ãã. áåëîðóññêèå àêòèâèñòû ïðåäïðèíÿëè ïîïûòêè ó÷ðåæäåíèÿ íàðîäíûõ øêîë ñ áåëîðóññêèì ÿçûêîì îáó÷åíèÿ.34
Çäåñü, ñêîðåå âñåãî, èìåëîñü â âèäó íà÷àëüíîå îáó÷åíèå. Âðÿä ëè Â. Íàçèìîâ
ìîã âûñêàçûâàòüñÿ çà îáó÷åíèå íà ëèòîâñêîì (èëè æìóäñêîì) ÿçûêàõ â ãèìíàçèÿõ,
ïðîãèìíàçèÿõ è óåçäíûõ ó÷èëèùàõ õîòÿ áû è â òåõ ìåñòíîñòÿõ, ãäå ëèòîâöû
ñîñòàâëÿëè áîëüøèíñòâî. 26 èþíÿ 1862 ã. â ñâîåì îòíîøåíèè ê ìèíèñòðó íàðîäíîãî
ïðîñâåùåíèÿ âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð, îáñóæäàÿ âîïðîñ, íà êàêîì ÿçûêå
äîëæíû áóäóò îáó÷àòüñÿ ñòóäåíòû â ïðåäïîëàãàåìîì ê îòêðûòèþ óíèâåðñèòåòå,
çàìåòèë, ÷òî “íàðîäíûå ëèòîâñêèé è æìóäñêèé ÿçûêè åùå íå çàÿâèëè ñâîåãî
ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ...” ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 733. Îï. 140. Ä. 17. Ë. 50.
32
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 733. Îï. 62. Ä. 1483. Ë. 77.
33
“...îòâåòû ó÷åíèêîâ áûëè áîëåå èëè ìåíåå óäîâëåòâîðèòåëüíû, êðîìå ñàìîãî
âûãîâîðà, êîòîðûé íåèçáåæíî ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîþ îòòåíîê ìåñòíîãî áåëîðóññêîãî
íàðå÷èÿ.” Ñ. Ñÿëüâåñòðàâà. Ïàìiæ Ïîëüø÷àé i Ðàñiÿé: Ìî¢íàÿ ñiòóàöûÿ ¢ Áåëàðóñi
¢ êàíöû XVIII-XIX ñò. // Áåëàðóñü ïàìiæ Óñõîäàì i Çàõàäàì. ×àñòêà I (=ÁåëàðóñiêàAlbaruthenica. 6). Ìiíñê, 1997. Ñ. 138.
34
È. À. Ìàëüäèñ. Ñòàíîâëåíèå íîâîé áåëîðóññêîé ëèòåðàòóðû // Èñòîðèÿ
áåëîðóññêîé äîîêòÿáðüñêîé ëèòåðàòóðû. Ìèíñê, 1977. Ñ. 320.
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ßçûê ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ ñòàë îáúåêòîì îáùåñòâåííîé äèñêóññèè ïîñëå òîãî, êàê â íà÷àëå 1862 ã. áûëè îáíàðîäîâàíû
ïðîåêòû íîâûõ óñòàâîâ íàðîäíûõ è îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ ó÷èëèù.
Ïðîåêò ïðåäóñìàòðèâàë îáó÷åíèå â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ “îòå÷åñòâåííîìó ÿçûêó” (ò. å. ðóññêîìó). Êàê ðàç ýòîò ïóíêò è îáñóæäàëñÿ ïîäðîáíåå
âñåãî â îòçûâàõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé è íåêîòîðûõ îáùåñòâåííûõ äåÿòåëåé ëèòîâñêèõ è áåëîðóññêèõ ãóáåðíèé.35 Ìíîãèå ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå ñîâåòû âûñêàçàëèñü çà íà÷àëüíîå îáó÷åíèå íå íà ðóññêîì, íî íà “ìåñòíûõ ÿçûêàõ”. ×àùå âñåãî â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ èìåëñÿ â âèäó ëèòîâñêèé
(èëè æìóäñêèé), èíîãäà – ïîëüñêèé, â îäíîì ñëó÷àå – äàæå íåìåöêèé
(ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé ñîâåò Ðîññèåíñêîãî äâîðÿíñêîãî ó÷èëèùà ïðåäëîæèë
ïðåïîäàâàòü íà ýòîì ÿçûêå â ïîãðàíè÷íûõ ñ Ïðóññèåé è Ïðèáàëòèéñêèì êðàåì ìåñòíîñòÿõ).36 Òàêàÿ òîëåðàíòíîñòü ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê “íàðîäíîìó ÿçûêó” áûëà îáóñëîâëåíà, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, ïðàêòè÷åñêèìè
ìîòèâàìè. Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå ñîâåòû, êàê íèêòî äðóãîé, çíàëè, ÷òî êðåñòüÿíñêèå äåòè, îñîáåííî â Êîâåíñêîé ãóáåðíèè, ïðèõîäÿ â øêîëó, íå
çíàëè íèêàêîãî äðóãîãî ÿçûêà, êðîìå ëèòîâñêîãî (èëè æìóäñêîãî). Ïîýòîìó íåêîòîðûå ÷èíîâíèêè ó÷åáíîãî âåäîìñòâà áûëè ãîòîâû äîïóñòèòü îáó÷åíèå íà ëèòîâñêîì è äðóãèõ “íàðîäíûõ ÿçûêàõ” â íà÷àëå îáó÷åíèÿ, ïîêà äåòè íå âûó÷àò ðóññêèé ÿçûê.
Êîíå÷íî, åäèíîäóøèÿ â ýòîì âîïðîñå íå áûëî. Îäíèì èç ñàìûõ ÿðîñòíûõ ïðîòèâíèêîâ äîïóùåíèÿ ìåñòíûõ ÿçûêîâ, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü –
ëèòîâñêîãî, â íàðîäíóþ øêîëó áûë äèðåêòîð Ñâåíöÿíñêîé ãèìíàçèè
À. Êàíäèäîâ è åùå äâà ó÷èòåëÿ ýòîãî ó÷åáíîãî çàâåäåíèÿ, êîòîðûå óêàçàëè íà ñëåäóþùèå îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà: ïîâñåìåñòíîå çíàíèå â Çàïàäíîì
êðàå ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà (“ïðè ïîñòîÿííûõ ñíîøåíèÿõ ñ áåëîðóññêèì ïëåìåíåì è â ñåëåíèÿõ è â ãîðîäàõ, ëèòîâöû ëåãêî óïîòðåáëÿþò áåëîðóññêîå íàðå÷èå”), áåäíîñòü ëèòîâñêîãî ÿçûêà è ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ íåöåëåñîîáðàçíîñòü (“ïåðâîíà÷àëüíîå îáó÷åíèå íà ìåñòíûõ ÿçûêàõ ñîâåðøåííî ðàçîáùàåò èíîïëåìåííûå íàöèîíàëüíîñòè ñ îñòàëüíûì íàðîäîíàñåëåíèåì, ðàâíî êàê ëèøàåò ñïîñîáîâ è ñðåäñòâ ê äàëüíåéøåìó îáðàÕîòÿ íàäî ñðàçó çàìåòèòü, ÷òî íå âñå îáñóæäàëè ýòó ïðîáëåìó, à çíà÷èò, íåêîòîðûõ
÷èíîâíèêîâ ó÷åáíîãî âåäîìñòâà ïðåïîäàâàíèå íà “îòå÷åñòâåííîì ÿçûêå”
óñòðàèâàëî. Ýòîãî ïóíêòà â ñâîèõ îòçûâàõ íå êàñàëèñü: ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå ñîâåòû
âèëåíñêàãî äâîðÿíñêîãî èíñòèòóòà, íåêîòîðûõ ãèìíàçèé (Ãðîäíåíñêîé, Êîâåíñêîé,
Ìîçûðñêîé è Ïèíñêîé) è ïðîãèìíàçèé (Ñâèñëî÷ñêîé è Ìîëîäå÷åíñêîé).
36
Çàìå÷àíèÿ íà ïðîåêò óñòàâà îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé è íà ïðîåêò îáùåãî ïëàíà óñòðîéñòâà íàðîäíûõ ó÷èëèù. Ñàíêò-Ïåòåðáóðã, 1862. ×àñòü II.
Ñ. 11-12, 61, 85, 117-118, 151, 339-340 è äð.
35
271
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
çîâàíèþ è âëå÷åò çà ñîáîþ ìíîãî äðóãèõ íåóäîáñòâ”).37  ýòîì ñëó÷àå
ÿñíî, ÷òî äëÿ òàêèõ, êàê Êàíäèäîâ, äîïóùåíèå áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â
íàðîäíûå øêîëû áûëî áû åùå àáñóðäíåå.
 ñâîèõ îòçûâàõ, êàê âèäèì, çà äîïóùåíèå ìåñòíîãî ÿçûêà â íàðîäíûå øêîëû âûñêàçûâàëèñü òîëüêî ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèå ñîâåòû òåõ ó÷åáíûõ
çàâåäåíèé Âèëåíñêîãî ó÷åáíîãî îêðóãà, êîòîðûå íàõîäèëèñü â ìåñòíîñòÿõ ñ ëèòîâñêèì (èëè æìóäñêèì) íàñåëåíèåì.
 çàìå÷àíèÿõ âëèÿòåëüíûõ äåÿòåëåé ëèòîâñêîãî äâîðÿíñòâà ïî ïîâîäó óïîìÿíóòûõ ïðîåêòîâ, êàê è â ñëó÷àå ñ ìíåíèåì À. Êàíäèäîâà,
òîæå âèäíà òåíäåíöèÿ èãíîðèðîâàòü ýòíîêóëüòóðíóþ ñàìîáûòíîñòü
ìåñòíîãî êðåñòüÿíñòâà: ÿçûêîì îáó÷åíèÿ âî âñåõ øêîëàõ ïðèçíàåòñÿ
òîëüêî ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê.38 Àðãóìåíòàöèÿ â ýòèõ ñëó÷àÿõ áûëà î÷åíü ïðîñòà: çäåñü âñå çíàþò ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê, ÷åãî íåëüçÿ ñêàçàòü î ðóññêîì, êðîìå òîãî, “íèêàêàÿ âûñøàÿ ìûñëü íå ìîæåò áûòü îáëå÷åíà â ôîðìû ÿçûêà, êîòîðûì ãîâîðÿò çäåøíèå êðåñòüÿíå, òàê êàê îí íå èìååò ëèòåðàòóðû”.39 Íî âñå-òàêè ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî îòíîøåíèå, ïî êðàéíåé
ìåðå, ÷àñòè ìåñòíîãî äâîðÿíñòâà ê îáó÷åíèþ â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ íà
áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå áûëî áîëåå ïîçèòèâíûì. È íå òîëüêî ïîòîìó, ÷òî íåêîòîðûå èç íèõ – íàïðèìåð, ïðåäâîäèòåëü äâîðÿíñòâà À. Äîìåéêà, íàâåðíîå, ñàìûé ëîÿëüíûé ê âëàñòÿì, – ïðÿìî âûñêàçûâàëèñü çà ïðåïîäàâàíèå â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ “íà ãîñïîäñòâóþùåì â êàæäîé ìåñòíîñòè ïðîñòîíàðîäíîì äèàëåêòå”.40 Ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî íåêîòîðûå èç íèõ
âèäåëè â ýòîì ñëó÷àå î÷åíü ïðîñòóþ àëüòåðíàòèâó: ðóññêèé èëè ïîëüñêèé.
Íà òàêóþ ìûñëü íàòàëêèâàåò àíàëèç çàìå÷àíèÿ, ïðåäñòàâëåííîãî ðåäàêòîðîì îôèöèàëüíîé ãàçåòû “Âèëåíñêèé âåñòíèê” À. Êèðêîðîì,41 êîòîÒàì æå. Ñ. 45-46.
Òàì æå. ×àñòü II. Ñ. 449-450, 452, 460.
39
Òàì æå. Ñ. 450.
40
Òàì æå. ×àñòü V. Ñ. 509.
41
Î ðàçíûõ èíòåðïðåòàöèÿõ åãî âçãëÿäîâ è äåÿòåëüíîñòè ñì.: M. Stolzman.
Czasopisma Wileñskie Adama Honorego Kirkora. Kraków, 1973; M. Stolzman.
Wydawnictwo drukarni obywatelskiej w Wilnie (1859-1867) // Roczniki biblioteczne.
1973. R. XVII. Z. 1-2. S. 109-119; S. Kirkor. Przesz³oœæ umiera dwa razy // Powieœæ
prawdziwa. Kraków, 1978; A. Kulakauskas. “Šaka, atskilusi nuo tautos ” Lietuvos
bajorijos ir LDK bajoriškosios kultûros vaidmuo lietuviø tautiniame atgimime // Sietynas.
Vilnius, 1998. III. Pp. 75-98; Z. Mediðauskienë. Adomas Honorijus Kirkoras: tarp
Lietuvos, Lenkijos ir Baltarusijos // Lietuviø Atgimimo istorijos studijos. T. 8. Asmuo:
tarp tautos ir valstybës. Vilnius, 1996. Pp. 168-193; D. Staliûnas. Lietuviðkojo patriotizmo
pëdsakai XIX a. Viduryje // Lietuvos istorijos metraðtis 2000. Vilnius, 2001. Pp. 310325.
37
38
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ðûé òîæå âûñêàçàëñÿ çà ïðåïîäàâàíèå íà ïîëüñêîì ÿçûêå.42 Ãëàâíîé
åãî çàáîòîé áûëà çàìåíà ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà ïîëüñêèì â ñðåäíèõ ó÷åáíûõ
çàâåäåíèÿõ. Âî-âòîðûõ, õîòÿ îí âûñêàçàëñÿ çà îáó÷åíèå âî âñåõ øêîëàõ íà ïîëüñêîì ÿçûêå, íî âñå æå ïðåäëàãàë èçäàâàòü “ó÷åáíèêè èëè
õðåñòîìàòèè, íà ðóññêîì, ïîëüñêîì, ëèòîâñêîì è æìóäñêîì ÿçûêàõ,
ïðèñïîñîáëåííûõ èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî ê íóæäàì çäåøíåãî êðàÿ.” Êîíå÷íî,
ìåñòíûå ÿçûêè ìîãëè ââîäèòüñÿ êàê îòäåëüíûé ïðåäìåò â íàðîäíûå
øêîëû, íî, ó÷èòûâàÿ, ÷òî â òàêèõ øêîëàõ ÷èñëî ïðåäìåòîâ áûëî ìèíèìàëüíûì, à òàêæå è âñþ äåÿòåëüíîñòü À. Êèðêîðà â òî âðåìÿ, ìîæíî
ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî îí áûë ñòîðîííèêîì îáó÷åíèÿ â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ
íà ìåñòíûõ ÿçûêàõ. Ïðàâäà, çäåñü íå óïîìÿíóòû ó÷åáíèêè íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå, à õîðîøî èçâåñòíî, ÷òî êàê ðàç À. Êèðêîð íåñêîëüêî ðàíåå
ïëàíèðîâàë èçäàíèå êíèæåê äëÿ íàðîäà íà ýòîì ÿçûêå.43 Ñêîðåå âñåãî
ãëàâíîé ïðè÷èíîé, íå ïîçâîëèâøåé îñóùåñòâèòü ýòè ïëàíû, áûëî çàïðåùåíèå 1859 ã. “ïðèìåíÿòü ïîëüñêèé øðèôò ê ìàëîðîññèéñêîìó ÿçûêó è íà íàðå÷èå áåëîðóññêîå” (îá ýòîì ðå÷ü ïîéäåò äàëüøå).  òàêîì
ñëó÷àå íåòðóäíî ïîíÿòü ëîãèêó À. Êèêðîðà: áåëîðóññêàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà â
åãî ïðåäñòàâëåíèè ìîãëà ñóùåñòâîâàòü òîëüêî íà ëàòèíèöå, à ýòî êàê
ðàç áûëî çàïðåùåíî. Ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî â òåõ îáñòîÿòåëüñòâàõ
ìåñòíûå äåÿòåëè ìîãëè èíòåðïðåòèðîâàòü ïðåäëîæåíèå ââåñòè ïðåïîäàâàíèå íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ ïðîñòî êàê ââåäåíèå ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà. Êðîìå òîãî, è ðîññèéñêèå ÷èíîâíèêè óêàçûâàëè
íà ãîòîâíîñòü, íàïðèìåð, ìîãèëåâñêîãî äâîðÿíñòâà îêàçàòü ñîäåéñòâèå
ðàçâèòèþ íàðîäíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ òîëüêî â òîì ñëó÷àå, åñëè îíî áóäåò
îñóùåñòâëÿòüñÿ íà “áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷èè”.44
Âñå ýòè çàìå÷àíèÿ ïîïàëè â Ïåòåðáóðã, ãäå îáñóæäåíèå ïðîäîëæèëîñü â Ó÷åíîì êîìèòåòå Ìèíèñòåðñòâà íàðîäíîãî ïðîñâåùåíèÿ, à òàêæå â Çàïàäíîì êîìèòåòå.  ñòîëèöå â êîíöå 1862 ã. ðóñèôèêàòîðñêèå
òåíäåíöèè åùå íå èìåëè ïåðåâåñà. Ýòîìó ñïîñîáñòâîâàëà ïîçèöèÿ íå
òîëüêî ìèíèñòðà íàðîäíîãî ïðîñâåùåíèÿ À. Â. Ãîëîâíèíà, íî è íåêîòîðûõ äðóãèõ âûñøèõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ. Ï. Ï. Ãàãàðèí, íàïðèìåð, óêàçàë,
Çàìå÷àíèÿ íà ïðîåêò. ×àñòü II. Ñ. 452-458.
Ç. ß. Òàëüâèðñêàÿ. Íåêîòîðûå âîïðîñû îáùåñòâåííîãî äâèæåíèÿ â Ëèòâå è
Áåëîðóññèè â êîíöå 50-õ – íà÷àëå 60-õ ãîäîâ è ïîäïîëüíàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà //
Ðåâîëþöèîííàÿ Ðîññèÿ è ðåâîëþöèîííàÿ Ïîëüøà (âòîðàÿ ïîëîâèíà XIX â.).
Ìîñêâà, 1967. Ñ. 27; Z. Medišauskien ë. A. H. Kirkoro spaustuv ë ir “Liaudies
bibliotekëlës” leidimas // Lietuviø Atgimimo istorijos studijos. T. 1. Tautinës savimonës
þadintojai: nuo asmens iki partijos. Vilnius, 1990. P. 43.
44
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 23. B. 67. L. 136.
42
43
273
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
÷òî âîïðîñ î ÿçûêå îáó÷åíèÿ íàäî ðåøàòü íà ìåñòàõ.45 Åùå ìåíåå â
ðóñèôèêàòîðñêèõ òåíäåíöèÿõ ìîæíî ïîäîçðåâàòü ÷ëåíîâ Ó÷åíîãî êîìèòåòà ÌÍÏ. Îäèí èç íèõ, îñíîâûâàÿñü íà ñâîåì çíàíèè ÿçûêîâîé
ñèòóàöèè â Çàïàäíîì êðàå,46 ïðåäëàãàë òàêèå ìåðû, êîòîðûå áû åùå
áîëåå óïðî÷èëè ïîçèöèè ïîëüñêîãî ÿçûêà, íî âìåñòå ñ òåì ñîçäàëè áû
âåñüìà áëàãîïðèÿòíûå óñëîâèÿ äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà: äëÿ
êàòîëèêîâ ÿçûêîì îáó÷åíèÿ äîëæåí áûòü ïîëüñêèé “è â ïîñîáèå ê íåìó
ìåñòíîå íàðå÷èå”; äëÿ ïðàâîñëàâíûõ – öåðêîâíîñëàâÿíñêèé, “óïîòðåáëÿÿ áóêâû ðóññêèå è îáúÿñíÿÿñü ñ ó÷åíèêàìè íà ìåñòíîì íàðå÷èè”, à
ïîçæå ìîæíî ïåðåéòè è íà ðóññêèé; äëÿ ëèòîâöå⠖ ëèòîâñêèé è
ïîëüñêèé, íî íà÷èíàòü ñ ïåðâîãî.47 Çàñåäàâøèé â íà÷àëå äåêàáðÿ 1862
Ó÷åíûé êîìèòåò ÌÍÏ áûë íàñòðîåí åùå áîëåå áëàãîñêëîííî ê “ìåñòíûì íàðå÷èÿì”. Ýòîò êîìèòåò ïðåäëîæèë: òàì, ãäå “íàðîäîíàñåëåíèå
ãîâîðèò ñîâåðøåííî äðóãèì ÿçûêîì” (èìåëèñü â âèäó Îñòçåéñêèé êðàé
è Ëèòâà), ïðåïîäàâàíèå äîëæíî èäòè íà “ìåñòíûõ íàðå÷èÿõ”. Ïîäîáíûé ïðèíöèï ïðåäëàãàëñÿ è äëÿ Áåëîðóññèè è Ìàëîðîññèè, ãäå êàê
äëÿ êàòîëèêîâ, òàê è äëÿ ïðàâîñëàâíûõ ñ÷èòàëîñü öåëåñîîáðàçíûì
íà÷èíàòü ó÷åíèå íà ìåñòíîì íàðå÷èè è òîëüêî ïîñòåïåííî ïåðåõîäèòü
ê ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó.48
Íî âñå æå ðåøåíèÿ ïðèíèìàëèñü íå â Ó÷åíîì êîìèòåòå ÌÍÏ. Ïðîáëåìû íàðîäíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ â êîíöå 1862 – íà÷àëå 1863 ãã. íå ðàç
îáñóæäàëèñü è â Çàïàäíîì êîìèòåòå. Íàçðåâàâøèé “ìÿòåæ” çàñòàâèë
âëàñòè òîðîïèòüñÿ. Â Çàïàäíîì êîìèòåòå ïî èíèöèàòèâå ìèíèñòðà âíóòðåííèõ äåë Ï. Âàëóåâà è ñ îäîáðåíèÿ Àëåêñàíäðà II 17 ÿíâàðÿ 1863 ã.
áûëî ïðèíÿòî ðåøåíèå î ïîäãîòîâêå îòäåëüíûõ âðåìåííûõ ïðàâèë äëÿ
Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ.49
Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà.
Âîò êàê îïèñûâàëàñü ñèòóàöèÿ â Âèëåíñêîé è Ãðîäíåíñêîé ãóáåðíèè, êîòîðàÿ
áûëà 15 ëåò òîìó íàçàä: “â òî âðåìÿ òàìîøíèå êðåñòüÿíå âîîáùå âåñüìà ïëîõî
ïîíèìàëè ïî-ðóññêè, íî ïî-ïîëüñêè íå òîëüêî ïîíèìàëè, íî è ïîðÿäî÷íî ãîâîðèëè äàæå æåíùèíû è äåòè. Ïðè÷èíîþ òîìó ñòîëüêî æå áëèçêèå åæåäíåâíûå ñíîøåíèÿ êðåñòüÿí ñ ïîìåùèêàìè, ñêîëüêî è âåêîâîå ïðåîáëàäàþùåå âëèÿíèå ïîëüñêîãî ýëåìåíòà, âñëåäñòâèå êîòîðîãî ïðîñòîíàðîäíîå íàðå÷èå óñâîèëî ñåáå ìíîæåñòâî ïîëüñêèõ ñëîâ, à îò÷àñòè è ïîëüñêèå ôîðìû”. Æóðíàë çàñåäàíèé Ó÷åíîãî
êîìèòåòà ãëàâíîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ ó÷èëèù. Ñàíêò-Ïåòåðáóðã, 1863. Ñ. 180.
47
Òàì æå. Ñ. 182.
48
Òàì æå. Ñ. 341-343.
49
[À. Â. Áåëåöêèé]. Ñîðîêàëåòèå ðóññêîé íà÷àëüíîé øêîëû â Ñåâåðî-Çàïàäíîì
êðàå Ðîññèè (Ïàìÿòè êíÿçÿ À. Ï. Øèðèíñêàãî-Øèõìàòîâà). Âèëüíà, 1901. Ñ. 44;
A. Kulakauskas. Kova už valstieèiø sielas. Pp. 92-93.
45
46
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 ïåðâîì âàðèàíòå ýòèõ ïðàâèë áûëî óêàçàíî, ÷òî ïðåïîäàâàíèå â
íà÷àëüíûõ øêîëàõ äîëæíî ïðîèñõîäèòü íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, íî è “îñîáûå íàðå÷èÿ” äîïóñêàëèñü â íà÷àëå îáó÷åíèÿ, “äîêîëå ó÷åíèêè íå îçíàêîìÿòñÿ äîñòàòî÷íî ñ îáùèì ïèñüìåííûì ÿçûêîì”. Ëþáîïûòíî òî,
÷òî âíà÷àëå ýòè ïðàâèëà, êàæåòñÿ, èìåëè â âèäó òîëüêî ïðàâîñëàâíûõ
ó÷åíèêîâ, ïîòîìó ÷òî §17, ïîñâÿùåííûé ïðåïîäàâàíèþ çàêîíà Áîæèÿ,
íè÷åãî íå ãîâîðèë î ÿçûêå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ. È òîëüêî ïîçæå äðóãîé ðóêîé
áûëî ñäåëàíî òàêîå ïðèìå÷àíèå: “Ó÷åíèêàì êàòîëè÷åñêîãî èñïîâåäàíèÿ â Áåëîðóññêèõ äèðåêöèÿõ çàêîí Áîæèé äîëæåí áûòü ïðåïîäàâàåì
íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, à â Ëèòîâñêîé è Æìóäñêîé íà îäíîì èç ýòèõ ÿçûêîâ”.50
Ïîêà â Ïåòåðáóðãå øëè äèñêóññèè, â ëèòîâñêèõ è áåëîðóññêèõ ãóáåðíèÿõ óæå íàäî áûëî ïðèíèìàòü ðåøåíèÿ. Åùå 18 ÿíâàðÿ 1862 ã. â
Êîìèòåòå ìèíèñòðîâ ïîñòàíîâèëè ó÷ðåæäàòü øêîëû â Çàïàäíîì êðàå
íå äîæèäàÿñü ïðèíÿòèÿ øêîëüíûõ óñòàâîâ.51 È ýòè øêîëû íà÷àëè ó÷ðåæäàòüñÿ ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî â òåõ ìåñòíîñòÿõ, ãäå ïðåîáëàäàëî ëèòîâñêîå (èëè æìóäñêîå) íàñåëåíèå. Âîïðîñ î ÿçûêå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ óæå
ïåðåñòàë áûòü îòâëå÷åííî-òåîðåòè÷åñêèì. Ïîýòîìó ìåñòíûå âëàñòè
åùå äî ïðèíÿòèÿ êàêèõ-ëèáî ïðàâèë äëÿ Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ â Ïåòåðáóðãå
áûëè âûíóæäåíû îïðåäåëèòü ñâîå îòíîøåíèå ê ýòîé ïðîáëåìå.
Îñîáåííî èíòåðåñíû â ýòîì îòíîøåíèè ìåòàìîðôîçû âî âçãëÿäàõ
ìåñòíîãî íà÷àëüñòâà. Íå îáñóæäàÿ çäåñü ëèòîâñêîé ïðîáëåìàòèêè, çàìåòèì, ÷òî ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê áåëîðóññêîìó íàñåëåíèþ áîëüøå âñåãî
âîçíèêàëî ïðîáëåì ñ ÿçûêîì ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ çàêîíà Áîæèÿ äëÿ ëèö êàòîëè÷åñêîãî èñïîâåäàíèÿ. Åñëè âñå äðóãèå ïðåäìåòû, ïî óáåæäåíèþ ìåñòíîé âëàñòè, äîëæíû áûëè ïðåïîäàâàòüñÿ íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, òî â ýòîì
ñëó÷àå ñèòóàöèÿ áûëà íåïðîñòîé. Ïîïå÷èòåëü âèëåíñêàãî ó÷åáíîãî
îêðóãà À. Ï. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ â îò÷åòå çà 1861 ã. ïðåäëàãàë ïðåïîäàâàòü çàêîí Áîæèé íà áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷èè,52 òàêîãî æå ìíåíèÿ îí
ïðèäåðæèâàëñÿ è â àïðåëå 1862 ã.,53 à â êîíöå òîãî æå ãîäà óæå îòäàâàë
ïðåäïî÷òåíèå ðóññêîìó. Ïðàâäà, çà ýòîé ýâîëþöèåé âçãëÿäîâ ñòîÿëè íå
èäåîëîãè÷åñêèå ìîòèâû: ïî ìíåíèþ ïîïå÷èòåëÿ, ìîæíî áûëî áû ââåñòè ïðåïîäàâàíèå è íà “áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå”, íî ýòî âûçâàëî áû çàòÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 733. Îï. 62. Ä. 1483. Ëë.112, 117; A. Kulakauskas. Kova už valstieèiø
sielas. P. 97.
51
A. Kulakauskas. Kova už valstieèiø sielas. P. 85.
52
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 1. B. 111. L. 6. Õîòÿ åùå â ñåíòÿáðå 1861 ã. îí, ïðè òîé æå ñàìîé
àðãóìåíòàöèè, âûñêàçûâàëñÿ çà çàìåíó ïîëüñêîãî ÿçûêà ðóññêèì. Òàì æå. L. 48.
53
È. Ï. Êîðíèëîâ. Ðóññêîå äåëî. Ñ. 20.
50
275
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ðóäíåíèå ïîòîìó, ÷òî íåò “îäíîãî îáùåãî äëÿ âñåõ áåëîðóññîâ ÿçûêà”.54 Âñå æå â ïåðâîì öèðêóëÿðå ïî óïðàâëåíèþ ÂÓÎ îò 12 ÿíâàðÿ
1863 ã. À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ ïðåäâèäåë òàêæå è âîçìîæíîñòü
óïîòðåáëåíèÿ, êðîìå ðóññêîãî, è “ìåñòíîãî íàðå÷èÿ” â áåñåäàõ ñ ó÷åíèêàìè.55 Âî âðåìÿ “ìÿòåæà” îí óæå òâåðäî âûñêàçûâàåòñÿ çà ðóññêèé
ÿçûê.56
Êàê áóäòî â äðóãîì íàïðàâëåíèè èçìåíÿëèñü âçãëÿäû âèëåíñêàãî
ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà Â. Íàçèìîâà. Åñëè äî íà÷àëà âîññòàíèÿ îí, êàê
óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, âûñêàçûâàëñÿ çà ïðåïîäàâàíèå âñåõ ïðåäìåòîâ íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, òî â íà÷àëå ôåâðàëÿ 1863 ã. ïðåäëîæèë â Ãðîäíåíñêîé ãóáåðíèè è âîñòî÷íîé ÷àñòè Âèëåíñêîé, ãäå æèâåò “ñìåøàííîå íàñåëåíèå” (ò.å. ãäå “çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì æèòåëåé ãîðîäîâ è ìåñòå÷åê, îñòàëüíîå
íàñåëåíèå ãîâîðèò ÿçûêîì áåëîðóññêèì è ïî÷òè íàïîëîâèíó ïðèíàäëåæèò Ïðàâîñëàâíîé öåðêâè”), ïðåïîäàâàíèå çàêîíà Áîæèÿ óñòàíîâèòü
“íà ìåñòíîì áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå”.57 Íî âðÿä ëè ìîæíî òðàêòîâàòü ýòî
êàê èçìåíåíèå âçãëÿäîâ. Ñêîðåå âñåãî, Íàçèìîâ íå âèäåë áîëüøîé ðàçíèöû â ïðåïîäàâàíèè ýòîãî ïðåäìåòà íà áåëîðóññêîì èëè ðóññêîì.
Òàêóþ ãèïîòåçó ïîäòâåðæäàþò íåêîòîðûå ôàêòû. Âî-ïåðâûõ, â öèòèðîâàííîì äîêóìåíòå ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð óêàçàë, ÷òî â ýòîì îòíîøåíèè îí ðàçäåëÿåò âçãëÿäû ïîïå÷èòåëÿ îêðóãà, à òîò, êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, â êîíöå 1862 – íà÷àëå 1863 ã. ïðåäëàãàë ââîäèòü ðóññêèé ÿçûê.
Âî-âòîðûõ, â òîì æå îòíîøåíèè Â. Íàçèìîâ ïðåäëàãàë “ðàñïðîñòðàíèòü ìåæäó ñåëüñêèì áåëîðóññêèì íàñåëåíèåì ñêîëü âîçìîæíî â áîëüøåì êîëè÷åñòâå ðóññêèå áóêâàðè, ìîëèòâåííèêè è èçäàâàåìîå íûíå
Áèáëåéñêèì îáùåñòâîì Åâàíãåëèå...”. Çíà÷èò, áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê êàçàëñÿ
ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðó íåîáõîäèìûì, ñêîðåå âñåãî, òîëüêî ïðè ïåðâîíà÷àëüíîì îáó÷åíèè, à ñòðàòåãèÿ îñòàâàëàñü òîé æå ñàìîé – çàìåíèòü
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 629. L. 40.
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 4. B. 886. L. 52.
56
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 629. L. 181; LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 21. B. 15. Ll. 21-22.
57
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 629. L. 84, 92-93. Ýòî îòíîøåíèå âèëåíñêàãî ãåíåðàëãóáåðíàòîðà ìèíèñòðó íàðîäíîãî ïðîñâåùåíèÿ, äàòèðîâàííîå 1 ôåâðàëÿ 1863 ã.,
ÿñíî îòðàæàåò èçìåíåíèÿ â ýòíîïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïðîãðàììå Â. È. Íàçèìîâà. Äî íà÷àëà
âîññòàíèÿ âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð íå âèäåë ïðåïÿòñòâèé ê òîìó, ÷òîáû
ïîëÿêè ó÷èëèñü íà ïîëüñêîì ÿçûêå.  ýòîì äîêóìåíòå îí òîæå ñíà÷àëà âûñêàçàë
òàêóþ ìûñëü: “è õîòÿ ñîâåðøåííîå çàïðåùåíèå îáó÷àòü ïîëüñêîìó ÿçûêó áûëî áû
â íåêîòîðûõ ìåñòíîñòÿõ íåóäîáíûì, íî â ñåì ïîñëåäíåì ñëó÷àå îáó÷åíèå ýòî
äîëæíî èäòè íàðàâíå ñ ÿçûêîì ðóññêèì, ñ òåì òîëüêî ðàçëè÷èåì, ÷òî ðóññêèé ÿçûê
äîëæåí áûòü îáÿçàòåëüíûì äëÿ âñåõ áåç èñêëþ÷åíèÿ”, íî ïîòîì ýòî ìåñòî çà÷åðêíóë
è âïèñàë ñòðîêè î ïðåïîäàâàíèè Çàêîíà Áîæèÿ íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå.
54
55
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ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê ðóññêèì ïðè ïðåïîäàâàíèè Çàêîíà Áîæèÿ äëÿ êàòîëèêîâ. Âåðîÿòíî, è ïîïå÷èòåëü ïðèäåðæèâàëñÿ ïîäîáíûõ âçãëÿäîâ.
Ïîñëå äèñêóññèé áûë ïîäãîòîâëåí íîâûé âàðèàíò âðåìåííûõ ïðàâèë, â êîòîðîì ñíîâà äëÿ áåëîðóññêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ êàòîëè÷åñêîãî èñïîâåäàíèÿ ïðåïîäàâàíèå çàêîíà Áîæèÿ ïðåäóñìàòðèâàëîñü íà “ìåñòíîì
íàðå÷èè”, à äëÿ ëèòîâöå⠖ íà ëèòîâñêîì (èëè æìóäñêîì).58 Ñèòóàöèÿ ñ
ïðåïîäàâàíèåì çàêîíà Áîæèÿ êàòîëèêàì íå èçìåíèëàñü ïîñëå îáñóæäåíèÿ ýòîãî âàðèàíòà â Çàïàäíîì êîìèòåòå, è âî âðåìåííûõ ïðàâèëàõ,
óòâåðæäåííûõ öàðåì 23 ìàðòà 1863 ã., îñòàëîñü ïîëîæåíèå î ïðåïîäàâàíèè ýòîãî ïðåäìåòà “íà ìåñòíîì íàðå÷èè”.59
Ìíîãîå â ýòîì ñëó÷àå çàâèñåëî îò òîãî, êàê ýòè ïðàâèëà áóäóò ïðèìåíÿòüñÿ íà ïðàêòèêå. Îñîáåííî âàæíûì àñïåêòîì ìîãëà ñòàòü èíòåðïðåòàöèÿ ïîíÿòèÿ “ìåñòíîå íàðå÷èå”. Ïî÷òè ñðàçó æå ïîñëå ïðèíÿòèÿ
“Âðåìåííûõ ïðàâèë”, â ìàå 1863 ã., Â. Íàçèìîâà íà ïîñòó âèëåíñêîãî
ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà çàìåíèë Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ, ñ èìåíåì êîòîðîãî â ëèòîâñêîé, áåëîðóññêîé è ïîëüñêîé èñòîðèîãðàôèÿõ èíîãäà ñâÿçûâàåòñÿ
ïîëèòèêà “òîòàëüíîé àññèìèëÿöèè”.60 Íàñêîëüêî îïðàâäàíà òàêàÿ õàðàêòåðèñòèêà Ìóðàâüåâà â êîíòåêñòå ðàññìàòðèâàåìîãî ñþæåòà?
Ïîêà íå õâàòàåò äàííûõ î ñòåïåíè ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ áåëîðóññêîãî
ÿçûêà â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ â ýòî âðåìÿ. Âñå-òàêè ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü,
÷òî áåç íåãî ó÷èòåëÿ íå ìîãëè îáîéòèñü íå òîëüêî â ïðåïîäàâàíèè çàêîíà Áîæèÿ êàòîëèêàì61 (à ñêîðåå âñåãî, è ïðàâîñëàâíûì), íî è â äðóãèõ ñëó÷àÿõ. Õîòÿ â èíñòðóêöèè, äàííîé â îêòÿáðå 1863 ã., ïîïå÷èòåëü
Âèëåíñêàãî ó÷åáíîãî îêðóãà À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ ïðèêàçàë ñëåäèòü çà òåì, ÷òîáû ïðåïîäàâàíèå çàêîíà Áîæèÿ äëÿ äåòåé-êàòîëèêîâ
“ïðîèçâîäèëîñü íà èõ ðîäíîì ÿçûêå, ò. å. íà ðóññêîì”, âîçìîæíî â åãî
èíòåðïðåòàöèè ýòî íå ïðîòèâîðå÷èëî “Âðåìåííûì ïðàâèëàì”: âûøå
óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, ÷òî Â. Íàçèìîâ è À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ, ñêîðåå
âñåãî, óïîòðåáëÿëè ïîíÿòèÿ “ðóññêèé ÿçûê” è “áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê” êàê
58
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 733. Îï. 62. Ä. 1483. Ë.163; A. Kulakauskas. Kova už valstieèiø sielas. P.
99. Â ýòîì âàðèàíòå òàêæå äîïóñêàëîñü ïðåïîäàâàíèå ëèòîâñêîãî (èëè æìóäñêîãî)
ÿçûêîâ êàê îòäåëüíûõ ïðåäìåòîâ.
59
 îêîí÷àòåëüíîì âàðèàíòå èñ÷åçëî ïîëîæåíèå î äîïóùåíèè ëèòîâñêîãî (èëè
æìóäñêîãî) ÿçûêà êàê îòäåëüíîãî ïðåäìåòà.
60
Âçãëÿä àâòîðà ïðåäñòàâëåí â ñòàòüå “Did the Government seek to Russify Lithuanians
and Poles in the Northwest Territory after the Uprising of 1863-64?”, êîòîðàÿ âûéäåò
â æóðíàëå Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History.
61
Îá ýòîì, íàïðèìåð, óïîìèíàåòñÿ â îò÷åòå ïî óïðàâëåíèþ Ìîãèëåâñêîþ
äèðåêöèåþ ó÷èëèù çà 1864 ãîä: LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 1. B. 1295. L. 502.
277
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ñèíîíèìû. Íà òàêîå ïðåäïîëîæåíèå íàâîäèò äðóãîé ïóíêò ýòîé èíñòðóêöèè, â êîòîðîì óêàçûâàëîñü “îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà óïîòðåáëåíèå
â ó÷èëèùàõ ìåñòíîãî áåëîðóññêîãî íàðå÷èÿ: â êàêîé ìåðå ïîëåçíî è
íåîáõîäèìî åãî äîïóùåíèå”.62 È ïîçäíåå ðîññèéñêèå ÷èíîâíèêè ïðèçíàâàëè, ÷òî ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå â íåêîòîðûõ ìåñòàõ, íàïðèìåð, Âèòåáñêîé ãóáåðíèè “çíàíèå áåëîðóññêîãî íàðå÷èÿ íåîáõîäèìî ó÷èòåëÿì ïðè
ïåðâîì çíàêîìñòâå èõ ñ äåòüìè”, õîòÿ “â ïðåïîäàâàíèè íà áåëîðóññêîì
íàðå÷èè èëè â èçäàíèè íàðîäíûõ êíèæåê íà íåì íå ÷óâñòâóåòñÿ íè
ìàëåéøåé ïîòðåáíîñòè”.63
Äèñêóññèÿ â ïå÷àòè ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî “Âðåìåííûå ïðàâèëà” äåéñòâèòåëüíî ñ÷èòàëèñü âðåìåííûìè. Àêñàêîâñêèé “Äåíü” ëåòîì 1863 ã. àãèòèðîâàë çà “ïðàâî ãðàæäàíñòâà ìåñòíîìó Áåëîðóññêîìó íàðå÷èþ”, ò. å.
çà òî, ÷òîáû áåëîðóñû ñíà÷àëà íàó÷èëèñü ÷èòàòü è ïèñàòü ïî-áåëîðóññêè è òîëüêî ïîòîì – ïî-ðóññêè.64 Âçãëÿä íà ýòè ïðàâèëà êàê íà âðåìåííûé äîêóìåíò ïîäòâåðæäàåò è öèðêóëÿð Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà îò 1ÿíâàðÿ
1864 ã. Îí âíîâü äîïóñêàë “îáó÷åíèå ÿçûêó æìóäñêîìó, êàê ìåñòíîìó
íàðå÷èþ” (êàê è, êîíå÷íî, îáó÷åíèå çàêîíó Áîæèþ íà ýòîì ÿçûêå), õîòÿ
ýòî, êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, è íå ïðåäóñìàòðèâàëîñü “Âðåìåííûìè ïðàâèëàìè”. Íå ìåíåå ëþáîïûòíî Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ ïîñòóïèë è ñ ïðåïîäàâàíèåì çàêîíà Áîæèÿ äëÿ áåëîðóñîâ.  öèðêóëÿðå ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð
ññûëàåòñÿ íà “Âðåìåííûå ïðàâèëà”, è ãëàâíîé åãî çàáîòîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ
çàïðåùåíèå îáó÷àòü êðåñòüÿí ïîëüñêîìó ÿçûêó, íî ïðÿìîãî óêàçàíèÿ
ïðåïîäàâàòü çàêîí Áîæèé êàòîëèêàì ïî-ðóññêè èëè “íà ìåñòíîì íàðåLVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 629. L. 200.
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 23. B. 67. L. 41.  îò÷åòå ïî óïðàâëåíèþ ÂÓÎ çà 1864 ã.
È. Êîðíèëîâ òîæå ïðèçíàë ïîäîáíóþ íåîáõîäèìîñòü: “Â øêîëàõ, óñòðîåííûõ â
ìåñòíîñòÿõ ñ áåëîðóññêèì íàñåëåíèåì, íàñòàâíèêè óïîòðåáëÿþò ïðè îáúÿñíåíèÿõ â êëàññå è â ðàçãîâîðå ñ ó÷àùèìèñÿ ðóññêèé ÿçûê, ïðèáåãàÿ âåñüìà ðåäêî, è òî
òîëüêî ñ íîâîïîñòóïèâøèìè ó÷åíèêàìè, ê ìåñòíîìó íàðå÷èþ”. È. Ï. Êîðíèëîâ.
Ïàìÿòè ãðàôà Ìèõàèëà Íèêîëàåâè÷à Ìóðàâüåâà. Ê èñòîðèè Âèëåíñêîãî ó÷åáíîãî
îêðóãà çà 1863-1868 ãã. ÑÏá, 1898. Ñ. 61.
64
Ìîñêâà 22 èþíÿ // Äåíü. 1863. ¹ 25; Áåëîðóññ. Èç Ãðîäíåíñêîé ãóáåðíèè // Òàì
æå. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, íàïðèìåð, “Âåñòíèê Þãî-çàïàäíîé è çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè”
áûë ÿðîñòíûì ïðîòèâíèêîì äîïóùåíèÿ áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â íà÷àëüíîì îáðàçîâàíèè. Ýòîò æóðíàë áûë ãîòîâ òåðïåòü áåëîðóññêèé “æàðãîí” òîëüêî ïðè îáúÿñíåíèè íåïîíÿòíûõ ðóññêèõ ñëîâ, êàê è óêàçûâàëîñü â èíñòðóêöèè ïîïå÷èòåëÿ ÂÓÎ,
íî íå áîëåå: “ó÷èòü íà áåëîðóññêîì æàðãîíå – íåëåïîñòü, êîòîðàÿ, ñëàâà Áîãó, äî
ñèõ ïîð åùå íå âçáðåëà íà óì íè îäíîìó èç áåëîðóññèíîâ”. Èíñòðóêöèÿ íàðîäíûì
ó÷èòåëÿì // Âåñòíèê Þãî-çàïàäíîé è çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé
æóðíàë. 1863. Ãîä ïåðâûé. Òîì III, ôåâðàëü. Êèåâ, 1863. îòä. IV. Ñ. 239.
62
63
278
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
÷èè” â ýòîì äîêóìåíòå ìû íå íàéäåì. Áîëåå òîãî, Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ óêàçàë,
÷òîáû “â òåõ ìåñòíîñòÿõ, ãäå íàõîäÿòñÿ ïðàâîñëàâíûå êðåñòüÿíå, îòíþäü íå áûëè îíè îáó÷àåìû çàêîíó Áîæèþ ïî ïîëüñêèì êàòåõèçèñàì”.65 Ïîñêîëüêó â öèðêóëÿðå ýòî çàïðåùåíèå êàñàëîñü òîëüêî ïðàâîñëàâíûõ ó÷åíèêîâ, à ñèòóàöèÿ ñ ëèòîâöàìè (èëè æìóäèíàìè) îãîâàðèâàëàñü îòäåëüíî, èç ýòîãî ñëåäóåò, ÷òî êàòîëèêè-áåëîðóñû è â äàëüíåéøåì äîëæíû áûëè ó÷èòüñÿ çàêîíó Áîæèþ ïî ïîëüñêèì êàòåõèçèñàì. Òàêîé ëîãè÷åñêèé âûâîä (õîòÿ ðóêîâîäñòâîâàòüñÿ ëîãèêîé ïðè
àíàëèçå ðîññèéñêîé áþðîêðàòè÷åñêîé ïåðåïèñêè íå âñåãäà ìîæíî)
ïîäòâåðæäàåò è äàëüíåéøèé õîä ñîáûòèé. Âî-ïåðâûõ, Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ
íå ïðåäïðèíÿë íèêàêèõ øàãîâ äëÿ îáåñïå÷åíèÿ íàðîäíûõ øêîë êðàòêèìè êàòåõèçèñàìè êàòîëè÷åñêîãî èñïîâåäàíèÿ íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå. Âîâòîðûõ, ïî óêàçàíèþ Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà ñ 1864/65 ó÷åáíîãî ãîäà â ãèìíàçèÿõ è ïðîãèìíàçèÿõ ââîäèëîñü ïðåïîäàâàíèå Çàêîíà Áîæèÿ íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå.66 Âî âñåõ äîêóìåíòàõ î÷åíü ÿñíî è íåäâóñìûñëåííî óêàçûâàëîñü, ÷òî ýòà ìåðà êàñàåòñÿ èìåííî ñðåäíèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé.
Îáó÷åíèå çàêîíó Áîæèþ êàòîëè÷åñêîãî èñïîâåäàíèÿ íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå âî âñåõ øêîëàõ Ñåâåðî-çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ (êðîìå Æìóäè) ââîäèëîñü
òîëüêî ïðè ïðååìíèêå Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà Ê. Ï. Êàóôìàíå ñ 1865-1866 ó÷åáíîãî ãîäà.67
Ïðåãðàäîé, íå ïîçâîëèâøåé ââåñòè ðóññêèé ÿçûê â ïðåïîäàâàíèè
êàòîëè÷åñêîãî çàêîíà Áîæèÿ äëÿ áåëîðóñîâ, áûëî ïîíÿòèå “ðóññêîñòè”
è “ïîëüñêîñòè”. Î÷åíü ÷àñòî ïðè îïðåäåëåíèè íàöèîíàëüíîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè êðåñòüÿí ãëàâíûì êðèòåðèåì ñëóæèëà êîíôåññèÿ: êàòîëèêè
ñ÷èòàëèñü ïîëÿêàìè (èëè, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå, “ïîòåíöèàëüíûìè ïîëÿêàìè”68), à ïðàâîñëàâíûå – ðóññêèìè (“ïîòåíöèàëüíûìè ðóññêèìè”). Â
íà÷àëå 60-õ ãã. ÷èíîâíèêè Ìèíèñòåðñòâà âíóòðåííèõ äåë ïðè îáðàáîòêå äàííûõ íàöèîíàëüíîé ñòàòèñòèêè îáíàðóæèëè, ÷òî “ïëåìåííîå ïðîèñõîæäåíèå... â íèçøèõ ñîñëîâèÿõ çàòåìíÿëîñü ðåëèãèîçíûì ðàçëè÷èåì”.69 Áûòîâàëî ìíåíèå, ÷òî è ñàìè êðåñòüÿíå òàê îïðåäåëÿëè ñâîþ
65
Êîïèÿ ñ öèðêóëÿðà áûâøåãî âèëåíñêîãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà, ãåíåðàëà îò
èíôàíòåðèè Ìóðàâüåâà, îò 1 ßíâàðÿ 1864 ãîäà: Lietuvi ø spaudos draudimo
panaikinimo byla / Spaudai parengë A. Tyla. Vilnius, 1973. Pp. 65-67.
66
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 1. B. 199. L. 52-52a. Âñêîðå ýòà ìåðà áûëà ðàñïðîñòðàíåíà è íà
óåçäíûå äâîðÿíñêèå ó÷èëèùà: Òàì æå. L. 57.
67
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 1. B. 239. L. 20.
68
T. R. Weeks. Official Russia and Lithuanians, 1863-1905 // Lithuanian Historical
Studies. 2001. Vol. 5. P. 71.
69
Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà.
279
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
íàöèîíàëüíóþ ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü.70 Ïîýòîìó ðóññêèé ÿçûê ìîã ñ÷èòàòüñÿ òîëüêî “äîñòîÿíèåì” ïðàâîñëàâíîé, íî íè â êîåì ñëó÷àå íå êàòîëè÷åñêîé öåðêâè.
Äðóãîé ïðè÷èíîé, ñêîðåå âñåãî, áûëà íåóâåðåííîñòü â ðóññêîñòè
ïðàâîñëàâíûõ êðåñòüÿí. Õîòÿ Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ è óòâåðæäàë äåêëàðàòèâíî, ÷òî êðåñòüÿíñòâî, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü – ïðàâîñëàâíîå, ñîñòàâëÿåò
îïîðó Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè â ýòîì êðàå, îí â òî æå ñàìîå âðåìÿ ïðèçíàâàë, ÷òî êàòîëè÷åñòâî è ïîëüñêîñòü îñòàâèëè ãëóáîêèå ñëåäû äàæå
ñðåäè ïðàâîñëàâíîãî íàñåëåíèÿ: “Íàñåëåíèå ýòî, ïî áîëüøèíñòâó èñïîâåäóþùåå Ïðàâîñëàâíóþ âåðó, ïðè çíà÷èòåëüíîì âëèÿíèè íà íåå
ðèìñêî-êàòîëè÷åñêîãî äóõîâåíñòâà è ïîìåùèêîâ, ïî÷òè èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî Ïîëÿêîâ, èñïîâåäóåò Ïðàâîñëàâíóþ âåðó òîëüêî íîìèíàëüíî, óñâîèâ ìåæäó òåì â îáùåæèòèè îáðÿäû öåðêâè êàòîëè÷åñêîé, è ÷òî âñëåäñòâèå ñåãî íåîáõîäèìî ïðåäâàðèòåëüíî óïðî÷èòü â íåì îñëàáåâøåå
Ïðàâîñëàâèå”.71 Âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð áûë íå îäèíîê â òàêèõ
îöåíêàõ.72 Äàæå ÷èíîâíèêè áåëîðóññêîãî ïðîèñõîæäåíèÿ, ñ÷èòàâøèå
ñåáÿ ïîòîìêàìè øëÿõòû, áûëè íåäîñòîéíû äîâåðèÿ: “Îíè ñ íîã äî ãîëîâû çàðàæåíû ïîëüñêèì äóõîì, è òîëüêî ïðàâîñëàâíàÿ âåðà ìåøàåò
èì îêîí÷àòåëüíî ñëèòüñÿ ñ ïîëÿêàìè; áðåäÿò óíèåé, ïîñåùàþò èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî êîñòåëû, óïîòðåáëÿþò ïîñòîÿííî ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê äîìà, â îáùåñòâå, íà ãóëÿíèÿõ; ÷èòàþò òîëüêî ïîëüñêèõ àâòîðîâ, çíàþò íàèçóñòü
Ìèöêåâè÷à, Ñûðîêîìëÿ, íå èìåþò íè ìàëåéøåãî ïîíÿòèÿ î Ïóøêèíå,
Ãîãîëå, Ëåðìîíòîâå è äðóãèõ íàøèõ ëèòåðàòóðíûõ äåÿòåëÿõ; â âîñòîðãå îò Ïóñòîâîéòîâîé è åé ïîäîáíûõ ðåíåãàòîâ. Íåñêîëüêî èç ýòèõ ìîëîä÷èêîâ óøëî äàæå äî ëÿñó, è íàì îñòàåòñÿ òîëüêî ïîæàëåòü, ÷òî è
îñòàëüíàÿ ýòîãî ðîäà ñâîëî÷ü íå óáðàëàñü òóäà æå: ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå,
“Ïðàâîñëàâèå ñ÷èòàåòñÿ çäåñü ñèíîíèìîì ðóññêîãî, ïðàâîñëàâíûé òî æå ÷òî
ðóññêèé, ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ð.-êàòîëèê òî æå, ÷òî ïîëÿê, ðåëèãèîçíûå âåðîâàíèÿ
ñëóæàò çíàìåíåì íàöèîíàëüíîñòè, – ýòî ôàêò äåéñòâèòåëüíûé è âåñüìà ÷àñòî
ïîâòîðÿþùèéñÿ çäåñü.” Ïóòåøåñòâèÿ “íà Êàëâàðèþ” â Âèëüíå // Âåñòíèê Çàïàäíîé
Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé æóðíàë. 1868. Êíèæêà V. Òîì II. Âèëüíà, 1868,
îòäåë IV. Ñ. 166.
71
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 640. L. 93 (Öèòèðóåìîå ìåñòî çà÷åðêíóòî, íî ãëàâíîå
â ýòîì ñëó÷àå òî, êàê ñèòóàöèþ ñåáå ïðåäñòàâëÿë ñàì Ìóðàâüåâ).
72
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1864 m. B. 1343. L. 1-3; LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 23. B. 67. L. 19;
Ïîåçäêà ãëàâíîãî íà÷àëüíèêà ñåâåðî-çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ ïî Âèòåáñêîé ãóáåðíèè //
Âåñòíèê Çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé æóðíàë. 1865/66. Êíèæêà 1.
Òîì 1. Âèëüíà, 1865, îòä. IV. Ñ. 46; Ðóññêèé. Ãîëîñ èç îáùåñòâà (Îòðûâîê èç ïèñüìà
â ðåäàêöèþ) // Âèëåíñêèé âåñòíèê. 1866. ¹ 1 è äð.
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Áåëîðóññèÿ î÷èñòèëàñü áû îò ýòèõ ïåðåâåðòíåé, îò ýòîé çàðàçû ”.73
Âèäèìî, Ìóðàâüåâ áîÿëñÿ, ÷òî ïðåïîäàâàíèå êàòîëè÷åñêîãî çàêîíà
Áîæèÿ ïî-ðóññêè â íàðîäíûõ øêîëàõ, ÷òî ïîäðàçóìåâàëî è èçäàíèå
êðàòêîãî êàòåõèçèñà íà ðóññêîì, ïðè òàêîì ñîñòîÿíèè íàðîäíîãî ñàìîñîçíàíèÿ ìîãëî ïðèâëå÷ü ê êàòîëè÷åñòâó è ïðàâîñëàâíûõ êðåñòüÿí (áûâøèõ óíèàòîâ).
Èòàê, ñàìûå áëàãîïðèÿòíûå óñëîâèÿ äëÿ áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â íà÷àëüíîì îáðàçîâàíèè áûëè ïðåäëîæåíû ÷ëåíàìè Ó÷åíîãî êîìèòåòà
ÌÍÏ â äåêàáðå 1862 ã. (íå ñ÷èòàÿ àâòîðà àíîíèìíîé çàïèñêè, âðó÷åííîé öàðþ â íà÷àëå 1862 ã.), íî òàêàÿ ïîçèöèÿ â ïðèíöèïå áûëà íåïðèåìëåìà äëÿ ìíîãèõ ðîññèéñêèõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ, êîòîðûå íå òîëüêî ïðèäåðæèâàëèñü êîíöåïöèè òðèåäèíîé ðóññêîé íàöèè (à òàêàÿ ïîçèöèÿ
áûëà äîìèíèðóþùåé), íî è íå áûëè ãîòîâû ïðèçíàòü çà áåëîðóññêîé
êóëüòóðîé, â òîì ÷èñëå è ÿçûêîì, äàæå ñòàòóñà ñóáêóëüòóðû.
* * *
Ïå÷àòàíèå õóäîæåñòâåííûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèé áûëî äðóãîé ñôåðîé, êîòîðàÿ òàêæå ñäåëàëà àêòóàëüíûì âîïðîñ î ñòàòóñå áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà
âî âðåìÿ “Îòòåïåëè”. Äî 1859 ã. ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå
ëàòèíñêèì øðèôòîì íå ñîçäàâàëè, íàñêîëüêî èçâåñòíî, íèêàêèõ ñåðüåçíûõ ïðîáëåì äëÿ öàðñêîé öåíçóðû. Ïðàâäà, îäíîé èç ïðè÷èí òàêîé
òîëåðàíòíîñòè èëè, âåðíåå ñêàçàòü, èíäèôôåðåíòíîñòè áûëà íåìíîãî÷èñëåííîñòü òàêèõ ïðîèçâåäåíèé è îòñóòñòâèå ñåðüåçíûõ (ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ Ìàëîðîññèåé) ïðèçíàêîâ áåëîðóñîôèëüñòâà.
Èìåííî óêðàèíîôèëüñêàÿ äåÿòåëüíîñòü è îêàçàëà ñâîåãî ðîäà “óñëóãó” áåëîðóññêîé ëèòåðàòóðå.  1859 ã. âëàñòè, îçàáî÷åííûå ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèåì ñî÷èíåíèé íà ìàëîðîññèéñêîì íàðå÷èè ëàòèíñêèì øðèôòîì, çàïðåòèëè âîâñå “ïðèìåíåíèå ïîëüñêîãî àëôàâèòà ê ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó”.74  òîì æå ãîäó Âèëåíñêèé öåíçóðíûé êîìèòåò ðàçðåøèë èçäàíèå
“Ïàíà Òàäåóøà”, ïåðåâåäåííîãî íà áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê Â. ÄóíèíûìÌàðöèíêåâè÷åì. Êîãäà ÷àñòü ýòîãî ñî÷èíåíèÿ óæå áûëà íàïå÷àòàíà,
ìåñòíûå öåíçîðû ïðîÿâèëè áäèòåëüíîñòü ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê “áåëîðóññêîìó íàðå÷èþ”, êîòîðîå “ñîñòàâëÿåò îòðàñëü ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà”, è îáðàòèëèñü çà óêàçàíèÿìè â Ïåòåðáóðã. Îòòóäà ïîñëåäîâàëî óêàçàíèå “íå
äîïóñêàòü óïîòðåáëåíèÿ ïîëüñêîãî àëôàâèòà ïðè ïå÷àòàíèè ñî÷èíåß. Áàëâàíîâè÷. Î ðóññêîì îáùåñòâå çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ (Ïèñüìî ê ðåäàêòîðó
“Äíÿ”) // Âåñòíèê Þãî-çàïàäíîé è çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé
æóðíàë. 1863. Èþëü. Òîì I. Êèåâ, 1863, îòäåë IV. Ñ. 86.
74
À. È. Ìèëëåð, “Óêðàèíñêèé âîïðîñ”. Ñ. 65.
73
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Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
íèé íà áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷èè”. Íàçâàíèå äåëà, íà÷àòîãî ïî ýòîìó ïîâîäó â Ãëàâíîì óïðàâëåíèè öåíçóðû, îòðàæàåò ðàçíûé ñòàòóñ äâóõ ÿçûêîâ â ãëàçàõ ðîññèéñêèõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ: “Î ðóêîïèñè “Ïàí Òàäåóø” è î
ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèè çàïðåùåíèÿ ïðèìåíÿòü ïîëüñêèé øðèôò ê ìàëîðîññèéñêîìó ÿçûêó è íà íàðå÷èå áåëîðóññêîå”. Ìàëîðóññêèé – ýòî óæå
“ÿçûê”, à áåëîðóññêèé – òîëüêî “íàðå÷èå”.75
Ýòî çàïðåùåíèå íà áåëîðóññêóþ ëèòåðàòóðó èìåëî êóäà áîëåå ïå÷àëüíûå ïîñëåäñòâèÿ ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ìàëîðîññèéñêîé ïî òîé ïðîñòîé
ïðè÷èíå, ÷òî ëàòèíñêèé øðèôò áåëîðóññêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè áûë áîëåå áëèçîê, ÷åì ìàëîðîññàì. Âîò ÷òî ïî ýòîìó ïîâîäó ïèñàë Â. ÄóíèíÌàðöèíêåâè÷: “ íàøèõ ïðîâèíöèÿõ èç ñòà êðåñòüÿí, íàâåðíî, ìîæíî
íàéòè 10, êîòîðûå õîðîøî ÷èòàþò ïî-ïîëüñêè, êîãäà, íàïðîòèâ, èç òûñÿ÷è íàñèëó ñûùåòñÿ îäèí, çíàþùèé ðóññêèé ÿçûê. Òî, íàïå÷àòàâ êàêîå-ëèáî áåëîðóññêîå ñî÷èíåíèå ðóññêèìè áóêâàìè, ñìåëî ìîæíî çàïåðåòü îíûå â ñóíäóê, èáî âûñøèé êëàññ îáùåñòâà, èìåÿ ïîä ðóêîþ
ðóññêóþ, ïîëüñêóþ, ôðàíöóçñêóþ è íåìåöêóþ ëèòåðàòóðû, íå âîçüìåò
è â ðóêè ïðîñòîíàðîäíîé êíèãè, à êðåñòüÿíå, õîòÿ áû è æåëàëè ÷èòàòü
ïîâåñòè è ðàññêàçû, äëÿ èñïðàâëåíèÿ èõ íðàâîâ è ïîîùðåíèÿ ê ó÷åíèþ íàïèñàííûå, íî, íå çíàÿ ðóññêèõ áóêâ, íå â ñîñòîÿíèè óäîâëåòâîðèòü ñâîåãî æåëàíèÿ.”76 Ïîñëå ýòîãî çàïðåùåíèÿ ñî÷èíåíèÿ íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå ëàòèíñêèì øðèôòîì âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XIX â. ëåãàëüíî áîëüøå íå èçäàâàëèñü. Òîëüêî â 1861 ã. êàêèì-òî îáðàçîì óäàëîñü
èçäàòü â Âàðøàâå áåëîðóññêèé áóêâàðü (ìîæåò áûòü, ìåñòíûå öåíçîðû
ïîñ÷èòàëè åãî ïîëüñêèì).
Ñèòóàöèÿ ñ ñî÷èíåíèÿìè íà êèðèëëèöå áûëà áîëåå ñëîæíîé. Êàê
ïîêàçûâàåò íå îäèí ïðîåêò, ðàçðàáàòûâàâøèéñÿ â Âèëüíå, â íà÷àëå
60-õ ãã. ìåñòíûå ÷èíîâíèêè ñìîòðåëè íà “áåëîðóññêîå íàðå÷èå” êàê íà
âàæíûé èíñòðóìåíò íàöèîíàëèçàöèè êðåñòüÿíñòâà.  íà÷àëå 1862 ã., íàâåðíîå, ïîñëå âçàèìíîãî ñîãëàñîâàíèÿ, âèëåíñêèé ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð
Â. Íàçèìîâ è ïîïå÷èòåëü ÂÓÎ À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ ïðåäëîæèëè
öåíòðàëüíûì âëàñòÿì èäåþ èçäàíèÿ íàðîäíîãî æóðíàëà (ãàçåòû).77 Âî
LVIA. F. 1240. Ap. 1. B. 145. L. 27-28, 47-48; òàì æå. B. 152. L. 9; Ïà÷ûíàëüíiêi.
Ç ãiñòîðûêà-ëiòàðàòóðíûõ ìàòýðûÿëࢠXIX ñò. / Óêëàäàëüíiê Ã. Â. Êèñÿëë¢. Ìiíñê,
1977. Ñ. 131-138. Èíòåðåñíî â ýòîé èñòîðèè åùå è òî, ÷òî âëàñòè âîçìåñòèëè óáûòêè.
76
Ïà÷ûíàëüíiêi. Ñ. 134.
77
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 1. B. 111. L. 6; ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1282. Îï. 2. Ä. 334. Ëë. 13-14.
Îáñóæäåíèå ýòîé èäåè óæå îïèñûâàëîñü â èñòîðè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðå, ïîýòîìó â
äàííîé ñòàòüå ñîñðåäîòî÷èìñÿ òîëüêî íà âàæíåéøèõ àñïåêòàõ. Áîëåå ïîäðîáíî î
ñàìîì îáñóæäåíèè ñì.: È. Ï. Êîðíèëîâ. Ïàìÿòè ãðàôà Ìèõàèëà Íèêîëàåâè÷à
75
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âðåìÿ îáñóæäåíèÿ, ñ íà÷àëà 1862 ã. ïî 1865, ìåíÿëñÿ ôîðìàò, íàçâàíèå
(“Äðóã íàðîäà”, ïîòîì “Ðóññêîå ÷òåíèå”), ÿçûêè, íà êîòîðûõ äîëæíî
áûëî âûõîäèòü ýòî èçäàíèå. Ãëàâíîå äëÿ íàøåé òåìû òî, ÷òî â 1862 ã.
ðàññìàòðèâàëàñü òàêæå âîçìîæíîñòü óïîòðåáëåíèÿ è “áåëîðóññêîãî
íàðå÷èÿ”. À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ â îò÷åòå ÂÓÎ çà 1861 ã. ïðåäëàãàë
èçäàâàòü ãàçåòó “äëÿ æìóäèíîâ íà æìóäñêîì è ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, à äëÿ
áåëîðóññî⠖ íà èõ ðîäíîì íàðå÷èè ðóññêèì øðèôòîì è íà ðóññêîì
ÿçûêå”.78 Õîòÿ Â. Íàçèìîâ â íà÷àëå óïîìÿíóë î æóðíàëå “íà ðóññêîì,
ëèòîâñêîì è ñàìîãèòñêîì ÿçûêàõ”, íî ïîçäíåå óòî÷íèë: “äîñòàòî÷íî,
÷òîáû â æóðíàëå áûëî äâà òåêñòà: “Ðóññêèé èëè ëó÷øå ñêàçàòü Áåëîðóññêèé, ñîñòîÿùèé â ïåðåëîæåíèè íà áóìàãó Ðóññêèì øðèôòîì ìåñòíîãî ðóñèíñêîãî íàðå÷èÿ, êàê ýòî âåñüìà óñïåøíî ñäåëàíî Ëüâîâñêîþ ãàçåòîþ “Ñëîâî”, – è Æìóäñêèé, ñ ñîõðàíåíèåì óñâîåííîãî óæå
ýòîìó ÿçûêó Ëàòèíñêîãî øðèôòà”.79 Ìåíåå ïîçèòèâíî ê âîçìîæíîñòè
óïîòðåáëåíèÿ ýòîãî íàðå÷èÿ îòíîñèëñÿ ïðèñëàííûé èç Ïåòåðáóðãà
÷èíîâíèê Ï. Ùåáàëüñêèé, êîòîðûé áûë óáåæäåí, ÷òî äîñòàòî÷íî “ïðèñïîñîáèòü ÷èñòî ðóññêóþ ðå÷ü ê ìåñòíîìó ãîâîðó, ââîäÿ â íåå íåêîòîðûå ìåñòíûå ñëîâà è îáîðîòû, ìåñòíûå æå ïåñíè è ëåãåíäû, êîòîðûå
âåðîÿòíî íàéäóò ìåñòî â ïðåäïîëàãàåìîì æóðíàëå, ìîæíî ïèñàòü òàê,
êàê îíè ïîþòñÿ è ãîâîðÿòñÿ”, ïîòîìó ÷òî “ëèòåðàòóðû Áåëîðóññêîé
íåò è íå áûëî, è ñîçäàâàòü èñêóññòâåííûì îáðàçîì áåëîðóññêèé ëèòåðàòóðíûé ÿçûê ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ íè÷åì èíûì, êàê ïóñòûì äîêòðèíåðñòâîì”.80 Ñ íà÷àëîì “ìÿòåæà” äëÿ áåëîðóñîâ óæå ïëàíèðîâàëñÿ æóðíàë íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå. Ìåñòíûå ÷èíîâíèêè áûëè âûíóæäåíû äàæå
îïðàâäûâàòüñÿ â öåíòðàëüíîé ïðåññå, ÷òî íå èìåþò è ìûñëè îá èçäàíèè æóðíàëà íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå.81 Òåì áîëåå ÷òî Â. Íàçèìîâà íà
ïîñòó âèëåíñêàãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà çàìåíèë, êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü
Ìóðàâüåâà. Ñ. 164-184; Z. Medišauskienë. Carinës valdþios sumanymas leisti liaudþiai
skirtà þurnalà rusø ir þemaièiø kalbomis XIX a. 7-ajame deðimtmetyje // Lietuviø
Atgimimo istorijos studijos. T. 4. Liaudis virsta tauta. Vilnius, 1993. Pp. 449-478.
78
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 1. B. 111. L. 6.
79
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 4. B. 915. L. 8.
80
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 640. L. 7.
81
“âñå èçâåñòíûå åìó [àâòîðó ñòàòüè] ëèöà, çàèíòåðåñîâàííûå ýòèì äåëîì è
èçúÿâèâøèå ãîòîâíîñòü ó÷àñòâîâàòü â æóðíàëå ñâîèìè òðóäàìè, íå èìåëè è íå
èìåþò íè ìàëåéøåãî ïîìûøëåíèÿ îá èçäàíèè ãàçåòû èëè æóðíàëà íà Áåëîðóññêîì
íàðå÷èè, ñ÷èòàÿ òàêîé ýêñïåðèìåíò âîçâåäåíèÿ ïðîâèíöèàëüíîãî ãîâîðà íà ñòåïåíü
ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà ðåçóëüòàòîì ñáèâøåéñÿ ñ íàñòîÿùåé äîðîãè ìûñëè.” Ðóññêèé.
Èç Âèëüíà (Ïèñüìî â ðåäàêöèþ Ìîñêîâñêèõ âåäîìîñòåé) // Äåíü. 1863. ¹ 40.
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Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
âûøå, Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ, êîòîðûé âîîáùå íå ïðèçíàâàë ýòíîêóëüòóðíîé
èíàêîñòè áåëîðóñîâ.
Õîòÿ èç ñðåäñòâ ÌÍÏ â íà÷àëå 1863 ã. óæå áûëî âûäåëåíî 6000 ðóá.
íà èçäàíèå æóðíàëà è äàæå ñîñòàâëåíà ïðîãðàììà, íî ñ ïðèáûòèåì â
Âèëüíó Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà ïðîåêò íàðîäíîãî æóðíàëà óæå íå èìåë ãîðÿ÷èõ
ñòîðîííèêîâ, êàê ðàíüøå. Ïðàâäà, îñåíüþ 1863 ã. Ìóðàâüåâ êàê áóäòî
îïðåäåëèëñÿ â ïîëüçó èçäàíèÿ ýòîãî æóðíàëà è äàæå ïðèãëàøàë â Âèëüíó Ï. Ùåáàëüñêîãî êàê áóäóùåãî ðåäàêòîðà. Ïðè íîâîì ïîïå÷èòåëå
ÂÓÎ È. Êîðíèëîâå ðàáîòû ïî ïîäãîòîâêå èçäàíèÿ æóðíàëà ïðîäîëæàëèñü, òîëüêî ðå÷ü øëà óæå îá åãî èçäàíèè íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå.82 Îêîí÷àòåëüíî îòêàçàëèñü âëàñòè îò ýòîãî ïðîåêòà â àïðåëå 1865 ã., è äåíüãè
áûëè ïåðåâåäåíû íà íóæäû íàðîäíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ.83 Îäíîé èç ñàìûõ
âåñêèõ ïðè÷èí òàêîãî ðåøåíèÿ, âûñêàçàííûõ êàê Çàïàäíûì êîìèòåòîì, òàê è Ìóðàâüåâûì, ïîñëóæèëà “íåðàçâèòîñòü” ïðîñòîãî íàðîäà.84
Êàê àëüòåðíàòèâà ýòîìó æóðíàëó ìîã ðàññìàòðèâàòüñÿ è ïåðåíåñåííûé ñ îñåíè 1864 ã. èç Êèåâà â Âèëüíó “Âåñòíèê Çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè”85
(õîòÿ ýòî èçäàíèå áîëüøå îðèåíòèðîâàëîñü íà îáðàçîâàííóþ ïóáëèêó). Ýòî íå ìîãëî ïðîèçîéòè áåç ñîãëàñèÿ âèëåíñêàãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà, à ðåäàêöèÿ æóðíàëà äàæå óòâåðæäàëà, ÷òî ýòîò ïåðååçä îñóùåñòâëåí ïî ïðèãëàøåíèþ ñàìîãî Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà.86 Äðóãîé àëüòåðíàòèâîé ìåñòíûå âëàñòè ìîãëè ñ÷èòàòü èçäàâàåìóþ ñ 1863 ã. áîëüøèì òèðàæîì “Êíèãó äëÿ ÷òåíèÿ” íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå.
Íî íå âñå ïîäîáíûå ïðîåêòû îñòàëèñü íåîñóùåñòâëåííûìè. Â
1863 ã., ñêîðåå âñåãî, ïî èíèöèàòèâå À. Øèðèíñêàãî-Øèõìàòîâà áûëè
âûïóùåíû “Ðàçñêàçû íà áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷iè”.87 Ýòà íåáîëüøàÿ êíèæêà
ñîñòàâëåíà èç êîðîòêèõ ðàññêàçîâ, öåëü êîòîðûõ ïðåäåëüíî ÿñíà – âíóÎôèöèàëüíîé ïðè÷èíîé îòêàçà èçäàâàòü æóðíàë èëè ãàçåòó íà ëèòîâñêîì (èëè
æìóäñêîì) ÿçûêå áûëî òî, ÷òî âëàñòè íå ñóìåëè íàéòè ðåäàêòîðà. Íî âåðîÿòíåå
âñåãî, áûëè è áîëåå âåñêèå ïðè÷èíû, ñâÿçàííûå ñî ñòðàòåãèåé íàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ëèòîâöàì: êàê ðàç ñ íà÷àëà 1864 ã. â ëèòîâñêóþ ïèñüìåííîñòü íà÷àëè ââîäèòü êèðèëëèöó.
83
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 640. Ë. 141.
84
Òàì æå. Ll. 87-88, 93-94.
85
À. Öüâiêåâi÷. “Çàïàäíî-ðóññèçì”. Íàðûñû ç ãiñòîðûi ãðàìàäçêàé ìûñëi íà Áåëàðóñi
¢ XIX i ïà÷àòêó XX â. Ìèíñê, 1993. Ñ. 48.
86
Îáúÿâëåíèå îò ðåäàêöèè “Âåñòíèêà Þãî-Çàïàäíîé è Çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè” // Âåñòíèê
Çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé æóðíàë. 1864 ã. Àâãóñò. Òîì I. Êèåâ,
1864. Ñ. I.
87
Ðàçñêàçû íà áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷iè. Âèëüíî, 1863. Îäîáðåíèå öåíçóðû ïîñëåäîâàëî
1 äåêàáðÿ 1862 ã.
82
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øèòü áåëîðóñàì, ÷òî îíè ðóññêèå (“Ðóññêèìè, à íå Ïîëÿêàìè ìû ïîâèííû íàçûâàòöà”88). Ïîïå÷èòåëü ÂÓÎ, èçäàâàÿ ýòè ðàññêàçû, õîòåë
òàêèì îáðàçîì ïðîòèâîäåéñòâîâàòü ïîëüñêîé ïðîïàãàíäå, êîòîðàÿ “ïîñòîÿííî âûïóñêàåò êíèãè è áðîøþðû íà òîì æå íàðå÷èè, ïå÷àòàííûå
ëàòèíñêèì àëôàâèòîì, äîêàçûâàÿ íàðîäó, ÷òî ÿçûê, êîòîðûì îíè ãîâîðÿò, åñòü íàðå÷èå ÿçûêà ïîëüñêîãî è èíûìè áóêâàìè ïåðåäàâàåì áûòü
íå ìîæåò”, à ìåæäó òåì “íàäî ïîêàçàòü êðåñòüÿíàì óäîáñòâî è âîçìîæíîñòü ïå÷àòàíèÿ êíèã, ïèñàííûõ íà ìåñòíîì íàðå÷èè, – ðóññêèì øðèôòîì”89. Íî ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ ðàññìàòðèâàë óïîòðåáëåíèå ýòîãî ÿçûêà òîëüêî êàê âðåìåííóþ ìåðó. Â
îêòÿáðå 1863 ã. â èíñòðóêöèè äëÿ îñìîòðà íàðîäíûõ ó÷èëèù îí óêàçàë
ñîáðàòü èíôîðìàöèþ î òîì, êàê ýòà êíèãà ïðèíèìàëàñü ó÷åíèêàìè, íî
âìåñòå ñ òåì âåëåë “ïðîâîäèòü ìíåíèå î íåîáõîäèìîñòè ó÷èòüñÿ îäíîìó ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó, îáùåìó äëÿ âñåõ ðóññêèõ, à íå ìåñòíîìó íàðå÷èþ,
íå èìåþùåìó ñâîåé ïèñüìåííîñòè è ñëóæàùåìó òîëüêî äëÿ ðàçãîâîðîâ ìåæäó êðåñòüÿíàìè”.90
Èäåÿ î íàðîäíîì æóðíàëå è èçäàíèå “Ðàçñêàçîâ íà áåëîðóññêîì
íàðå÷iè” ïîêàçûâàþò, ÷òî ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå äî íà÷àëà òàê íàçûâàåìîãî
ßíâàðñêîãî âîññòàíèÿ ìåñòíûå âëàñòè íå âèäåëè ñåðüåçíûõ îïàñíîñòåé â ëèòåðàòóðå íà “áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷èè”, èçäàâàåìîé ðóññêèì àëôàâèòîì, è äàæå áîëåå òîãî, ïîïûòàëèñü èñïîëüçîâàòü òàêóþ ëèòåðàòóðó â áîðüáå ñ ïîëüñêèì âëèÿíèåì. Íà÷àëî “ìÿòåæà” âíåñëî ñâîè êîððåêòèâû è çäåñü, íî â èñòîðèîãðàôèè ïî ýòîìó ïîâîäó ìîæíî îáíàðóæèòü ïóòàíèöó. Íåêîòîðûå èñòîðèêè óòâåðæäàþò, ÷òî Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ çàïðåòèë èçäàâàòü êíèãè íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå,91 äðóãèå – ÷òî èçäàíèå
òàêèõ ñî÷èíåíèé áûëî “ôàêòè÷åñêè çàïðåùåíî”,92 (èíà÷å ãîâîðÿ, ïðÿìîãî çàïðåòà íå áûëî), òðåòüè óêàçûâàþò íà òî, ÷òî äîïóñêàëîñü òîëüêî ïå÷àòàíèå îáðàçöîâ óñòíîãî íàðîäíîãî òâîð÷åñòâà â ýòíîãðàôè÷åñêèõ ñáîðíèêàõ è â ïåðèîäè÷åñêîé ïå÷àòè.93  èñòîðèîãðàôèè òàêæå
Òàì æå. Ñ. 21.
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 4. B. 890. L. 89.
90
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1862 m. B. 629. L. 200.
91
V. Merkys. Knygneðiø laikai. Vilnius, 1994. P. 65.
92
Ï. Ó. Öåðàøêîâi÷. Ýòíà-êàíôåiéíàÿ ïàëiòûêà Ðàñåéñêàé àäìiíiñòðàöûi i
ôàðìiðàâàííå áåëàðóñêàé ñâÿäîìàñöi ¢ äðóãîé ïàëîâå XIX – íà÷àòêó XX ñò. // Íàø
ðàäàâîä. 1992. Êí. 4. ×àñòêà 3. Ãðîäíà, 1992. Ñ. 656.
93
Ñ. Ì. Ñàìáóê. Îáùåñòâåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ ìûñëü Áåëîðóññèè âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå
XIX âåêà (ïî ìàòåðèàëàì ïåðèîäè÷åñêîé ïå÷àòè). Ìèíñê, 1976. Ñ. 5; Ì. Ái÷.
Áåëàðóñêàå àäðàæýííå ¢ XIX – ïà÷àòêó XX ñò. Ìiíñê, 1993. Ñ. 5.
88
89
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Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ìîæíî âñòðåòèòü óòâåðæäåíèÿ, ÷òî âëàñòè íå âèäåëè íåîáõîäèìîñòè â
òàêîì çàïðåòå.94
Íåêîòîðûå îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà ïîêàçûâàþò, ÷òî êîíêðåòíîãî çàïðåòà
íà èçäàíèÿ áåëîðóññêèõ ñî÷èíåíèé êèðèëëèöåé íå áûëî. Âî-ïåðâûõ,
î òàêîì çàïðåòå íå óïîìèíàåòñÿ â îôèöèàëüíûõ äîêóìåíòàõ ýòîãî
ïåðèîäà. Âî-âòîðûõ, óæå óïîìèíàâøèéñÿ À. Êèðêîð â 1872 ã. ïèñàë,
÷òî ìîæíî èçäàâàòü ñî÷èíåíèÿ ðóññêèìè áóêâàìè íà áåëîðóññêîì è
ëèòîâñêîì ÿçûêàõ.95 Áûëî áû î÷åíü ñòðàííûì, åñëè áû îäèí èç
èíèöèàòîðîâ èçäàíèÿ áåëîðóññêèõ êíèã, à âî âðåìÿ “ìÿòåæà” – ðåäàêòîð îôèöèàëüíîé ãàçåòû “Âèëåíñêèé âåñòíèê” íå çíàë áû î òàêîì çàïðåòå. Â-òðåòüèõ, â êîíöå XIX â. âèëåíñêèé öåíçîð, íå ðåøàÿñü, êàê ïîñòóïèòü ñ “Áåëîðóññêèìè ðàññêàçàìè Áóðà÷êà” Ô. Áîãóøåâè÷à, îáðàòèëñÿ â Ãëàâíîå óïðàâëåíèå ïî äåëàì ïå÷àòè,96 à çíà÷èò,
îí íå áûë èíôîðìèðîâàí î êàêîì-ëèáî çàïðåòå. Íî, ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, íå íàäî è ïðåóâåëè÷èâàòü çíà÷åíèå ïîñëåäíåãî ôàêòà. Èíîãäà â
ðîññèéñêîé áþðîêðàòè÷åñêîé ìàøèíå èíôîðìàöèÿ “çàáëóæäàëàñü”,
â äðóãèõ ñëó÷àÿõ ìîãëî áûòü òàê, ÷òî ÷èíîâíèêàì áûëî ïðîñòî âûãîäíåå ïîêàçàòü êàêèå-òî ìåðû êàê ñîáñòâåííóþ èíèöèàòèâó. Íàïðèìåð, â 1862 ã., ò. å. ñïóñòÿ òðè ãîäà ïîñëå óïîìÿíóòîãî çàïðåòà íà
èçäàíèå áåëîðóññêèõ ñî÷èíåíèé “ïîëüñêèì àëôàâèòîì”, âèëåíñêèé
ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð Â. Íàçèìîâ ïðåäëàãàë çàïðåòèòü “ïå÷àòàíèå ðóññêèõ êíèã ëàòèíñêèìè áóêâàìè”.97
Õîòÿ ôîðìàëüíîãî çàïðåòà, ñêîðåå âñåãî, íå ïîñëåäîâàëî, íî ñ íàçíà÷åíèåì Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðîì, à È. Êîðíèëîâà – ïîïå÷èòåëåì (â íà÷àëå 1864 ã.), îòíîøåíèå ê èçäàíèÿì íà “áåëîðóññêîì
íàðå÷èè” èçìåíèëîñü. Ñâîþ ðîëü äîëæåí áûë ñûãðàòü è öèðêóëÿð Âàëóåâà îò 18 èþëÿ 1863 ã. î çàïðåòå ïå÷àòàíèÿ âñåõ êíèã íà ìàëîðîññèéñêîì ÿçûêå, êðîìå “èçÿùíîé ëèòåðàòóðû”. Î ïåðåìåíå ïîëèòèêè â ýòîé
ñôåðå ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëà è êðèòèêà “Ðàçñêàçîâ íà áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷iè”,
àâòîðîì êîòîðîé áûë íîâûé ïîïå÷èòåëü ÂÓÎ.98 Íî âñå-òàêè ïîñëå ïîäàâëåíèÿ âîññòàíèÿ 1863-1864 ã. íàðîäíîå òâîð÷åñòâî “íà òàê íàçûâà-
W. Rodkiewicz. Russian Nationality Policy in the Western Provinces of the Empire
(1863-1905). Lublin, 1998. P. 212.
95
H. Kirkor. O literaturze pobratymczych narodów s³owiañskich. Kraków, 1874. P. 54.
96
Ñ. Ê. Ìàéõðîâè÷. Æèçíü è òâîð÷åñòâî Ô. Áîãóøåâè÷à. Ìèíñê, 1961. Ñ. 120-121.
97
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 1267. Îï. 1. Ä. 11. Ë. 37; Èç äåë Çàïàäíîãî êîìèòåòà.
98
È. Ï. Êîðíèëîâ. Ïàìÿòè ãðàôà Ìèõàèëà Íèêîëàåâè÷à Ìóðàâüåâà. Ñ. 62.
94
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åìîì áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷èè” ñ ðàçðåøåíèÿ öåíçóðû ïå÷àòàëîñü è â Ñåâåðî-Çàïàäíîì êðàå,99 è â ñòîëèöàõ.100 Î ïîäãîòîâêå òàêèõ ïóáëèêàöèé
èíôîðìèðîâàëà öåíòðàëüíàÿ ïå÷àòü101.
* * *
Áûëà è åùå îäíà ñôåðà, â êîòîðîé â 1860-å ãîäû îñòðî âñòàë âîïðîñ
î äîïóùåíèè áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà – áîãîñëóæåíèå. Êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü,
â èåðàðõèè èäåíòè÷íîñòåé êðåñòüÿíñòâà, ïî ìíåíèþ ðîññèéñêèõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ, îäíîé èç ãëàâíûõ, åñëè íå ñàìîé ãëàâíîé, áûëà èõ êîíôåññèîíàëüíàÿ ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü. Ïîýòîìó íå óäèâëÿåò òî ïðèñòàëüíîå
âíèìàíèå, êîòîðîå âëàñòè óäåëÿëè íå òîëüêî ãîñïîäñòâîâàâøåìó ïðàâîñëàâíîìó, íî è èíîñëàâíûì áîãîñëóæåíèÿì.
Ïðîáëåìà äëÿ âëàñòåé â ýòîé ñôåðå óñëîæíÿëàñü åùå è ïîòîìó,
÷òî áîëüøèíñòâî ïðàâîñëàâíîãî êðåñòüÿíñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ â ýòîì êðàå
áûëè áûâøèìè óíèàòàìè. Âëàñòè è ðóêîâîäñòâî ïðàâîñëàâíîé öåðêâè ïîíèìàëè, ÷òî “âîññîåäèíåíèå” 1839 ã. íå ñäåëàëî áûâøèõ óíèàòîâ ñðàçó òàêèìè æå ñàìûìè ðóññêèìè-ïðàâîñëàâíûìè, êàêèìè áûëè
æèòåëè âíóòðåííèõ ãóáåðíèé. Ïåðâîñòåïåííîé çàäà÷åé òîãäà áûëî
èõ óäåðæàíèå â ïðàâîñëàâèè. À äëÿ ýòîãî íàäî áûëî ïîçàáîòèòüñÿ î
òîì, ÷òîáû ïðîïîâåäè äëÿ íàðîäà áûëè ïîíÿòíû. Ñêîðåå âñåãî, êàê
ðàç ïî ýòîé ïðè÷èíå â 1840 ã. ïîñëåäîâàë óêàç, â êîòîðîì óêàçûâàëîñü, ÷òîáû ïðèõîäñêèå ïðàâîñëàâíûå ñâÿùåííèêè â Çàïàäíîì êðàå
“÷èòàëè â öåðêâÿõ â âîñêðåñíûå è ïðàçäíûå äíè ïðîïîâåäè íà ïðîñòîì îáùåïîíÿòíîì ÿçûêå, èëè èçúÿñíÿëè â âèäå áåñåä Êàòåõèçèñ”.
Ëèòîâñêàÿ äóõîâíàÿ êîíñèñòîðèÿ åùå óòî÷íèëà, ÷òî ðå÷ü èäåò î “ïðîñòîíàðîäíîì ÿçûêå”.102 Ìîæíî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî óïîòðåáëåíèå “ïðîñòîíàðîäíîãî ÿçûêà” â ïðàâîñëàâíîé öåðêâè òàêæå äîëæíî áûëî ñëóæèòü îò÷óæäåíèþ íàðîäà îò ïîëüñêîãî ÿçûêà. “Îñòàòêè óíèè” â ïðàâîñëàâíîé öåðêâè áûëè îäíîé èç ñàìûõ ñåðüåçíûõ çàáîò Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà. Âìåñòå ñ ïðàâîñëàâíûì àðõèåïèñêîïîì Âèëåíñêèì è Ëèòîâñêèì Èîñèôîì è äðóãèìè åïèñêîïàìè îí ïðèíÿë ìåðû ê òîìó, ÷òîáû
Ñáîðíèê ïàìÿòíèêîâ íàðîäíîãî òâîð÷åñòâà â Ñåâåðî-Çàïàäíîì êðàå. Âèëüíà,
1866.
100
Ï. Áåçñîíîâ. Áåëîðóññêèÿ ïåñíè, ñ ïîäðîáíûìè îáúÿñíåíèÿìè èõ òâîð÷åñòâà è
ÿçûêà, ñ î÷åðêàìè íàðîäíîãî îáðÿäà è âñåãî áûòà. Ìîñêâà, 1871.
101
Ï. Áåçñîíîâ. Îá èçäàíèè ïàìÿòíèêîâ Áåëîðóññêîãî íàðîäíîãî òâîð÷åñòâà // Äåíü.
1863. ¹ 45.
102
LVIA. F. 605. Ap. 2. B. 2187. L. 1, 2; Êàíôåñii íà Áåëàðóñi (Êàíåö XVIII-XIX ñò.)
/ Íàâûêîâû ðýäàêòàð Ó. I. Íàâiöêi. Ìiíñê, 1998. Ñ. 40.
99
287
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ïðàâîñëàâíûå ñâÿùåííèêè êðàÿ áîëüøå íå ãîâîðèëè ïî-ïîëüñêè
äîìà.103
Êàòîëè÷åñêàÿ öåðêîâü, êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, âîîáùå ñ÷èòàëàñü
“ïîëüñêîþ”. Êàê èçâåñòíî, â 1848 ã. Íèêîëàé I çàïðåòèë óïîòðåáëåíèå
ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â áîãîñëóæåíèè “èíîñòðàííûõ” èñïîâåäàíèé (“ïî-ðóññêè çàïðåòèòü; ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü ïðîïîâåäè íà âñåõ èíîñòðàííûõ ÿçûêàõ”104). Íåòðóäíî äîãàäàòüñÿ, ÷òî èìïåðñêèå âëàñòè â ýòîì ñëó÷àå áîÿëèñü ïðîçåëèòèçìà ñî ñòîðîíû “èíîñòðàííûõ” öåðêâåé. Íî, ÷òî ñàìîå èíòåðåñíîå, ïî ìíåíèþ ðîññèéñêèõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ, ýòî çàïðåùåíèå
íå êàñàëîñü “ïðî÷èõ íàðå÷èé è äàæå ìàëîðîññèéñêîãî”.105 Óæå èìååòñÿ íåìàëî ôàêòîâ, ïîêàçûâàþùèõ, ÷òî âìåñòå ñ ïîëüñêèì ÿçûêîì â êàòîëè÷åñêîì äîïîëíèòåëüíîì áîãîñëóæåíèè â òåõ ìåñòíîñòÿõ, ãäå æèëè
áåëîðóñû, óïîòðåáëÿëñÿ è áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê.106 Ìîæíî ñìåëî ïðåäïîëîæèòü, ÷òî òàêàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ ñëîæèëàñü íå èç-çà êàêèõ-òî áåëîðóñîôèëüÄåëî “Î âíóøåíèè öåðêîâíîñëóæèòåëÿì óïîòðåáëÿòü â ðàçãîâîðàõ ðóññêèé
ÿçûê” // LVIA. F. 605. Ap. 8. B. 310; Íîâåéøèå èçâåñòèÿ èç Âèëüíî // Âåñòíèê Þãîçàïàäíîé è çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé æóðíàë. Êèåâ, 1864. Íîÿáðü.
Òîì II. Îòäåë IV. Ñ. 280-281; Ïðåäëîæåíèå âèëåíñêîãî ìèòðîïîëèòà Èîñèôà ä.
Êîíñèñòîðèè // Òàì æå. Ñ. 282-283; Ïàñòûðñêîå ïîñëàíèå ìèíñêîãî àðõèåïèñêîïà
Ìèõàèëà ê äóõîâåíñòâó ýòîé åïàðõèè // Òàì æå. Òîì III. Îòäåë IV. Ñ. 128-128;
Ïðåäëîæåíèå ìèòðîïîëèòà Èîñèôà Ëèòîâñêîé êîíñèñòîðèè î ïîäòâåðæäåíèè
äóõîâåíñòâó âîñïèòûâàòü ñâîèõ äî÷åðåé âî âñåì ïî ðóññêîìó ïðàâîñëàâíîìó
îáðàçîâàíèþ // Âåñòíèê çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé æóðíàë. Âèëüíà,
1865. Íîÿáðü. Òîì II. Îòä. IV. Ñ. 49-50; Ã. ß. Êèïðèÿíîâè÷. Æèçíü Èîñèôà Ñåìàøêè,
ìèòðîïîëèòà Ëèòîâñêîãî è Âèëåíñêîãî. Âèëüíà, 1897. Ñ. 422-423.
104
ÐÃÈÀ. Ô. 821. Îï. 125. Ä. 277. Ë. 233.
105
Òàì æå.
106
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1864 m. B. 1343. L. 1; Î ñîâðàùåíèè â ëàòèíñòâî ïðàâîñëàâíûõ
æèòåëåé ì. Êëåùåëü (Ïî ñëó÷àþ íå âïîëíå âåðíûõ î òîì èçâåñòèé, ïîìåùåííûõ â
íåêîòîðûõ ãàçåòàõ) // Âåñòíèê Þãî-çàïàäíîé è çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Èñòîðèêî-ëèòåðàòóðíûé æóðíàë. 1864. Äåêàáðü. Òîì II. Êèåâ, 1864. Îòä. IV. Ñ. 399; È. Ãîí÷àðóê.
Ðèìñêî-êàòîëè÷åñêàÿ öåðêîâü è ðåëèãèîçíàÿ æèçíü â Áåëîðóññèè â êîíöå XVIII –
ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå XIX â. (ïî ìàòåðèàëàì áåëîðóññêèõ àðõèâîâ) // M. Filipowicz (Ed.).
Churches-States-Nations in the Enlightenment and in the Nineteenth Century. Lublin,
2000. Pp. 190-191.  1849 ã. ïî çàïðîñó ñîñòîÿâøåãî ïðè âèëåíñêîì ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðå ÷èíîâíèêà äëÿ îñîáûõ ïîðó÷åíèé ïî ÷àñòè èñòîðè÷åñêî-ñòàòèñòè÷åñêîé
Ï. Êóêîëüíèêà êàòîëè÷åñêîå äóõîâåíñòâî, ïðåèìóùåñòâî èç Ìèíñêîé è Ãðîäíåíñêîé ãóáåðíèè, ïðåäñòàâèëî ðàçíûå ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèå, èñòîðè÷åñêèå è ýòíîãðàôè÷åñêèå äàííûå.  áîëüøèíñòâå îïèñàííûõ ïðèõîäîâ êðåñòüÿíå èñïîâåäîâàëèñü
íà áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå (êîòîðûé íàçûâàëñÿ ïî-ðàçíîìó: “krzewicki dialekt czyli prosty
jêzyk”, “jêzyk zbli¿ony do russkiego”, “jêzyk prosty” è ò.ä.): LVIA. F. 694. Ap. 1. B.
1916. Ll.30, 33, 34, 45-46, 63, 75, 77, 79, 83, 85, 87, 89, 93, 98, 100, 104, 106.
103
288
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ñêèõ ïîáóæäåíèé, à ïðîñòî ïî íåîáõîäèìîñòè. Êàê óòâåðæäàë óæå öèòèðîâàííûé Â. Äóíèí-Ìàðöèíêåâè÷, áåëîðóñû ïðîñòî íå ïîíèìàëè
äðóãèõ ÿçûêîâ, êðîìå ñâîåãî ìåñòíîãî íàðå÷èÿ. Óæå ïîñëå íà÷àëà “ìÿòåæà”, 12 àïðåëÿ 1863 ã., ïîïå÷èòåëü ÂÓÎ À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ
ïðåäëîæèë òàì, ãäå æèâåò “íàðîä ðóññêèé” çàìåíèòü ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê â
êàòîëè÷åñêîì áîãîñëóæåíèè “ìåñòíûì íàðå÷èåì”.107 Ó÷èòûâàÿ âçãëÿäû À. Øèðèíñêàãî-Øèõìàòîâà íà äîïóùåíèå áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â
íà÷àëüíûõ øêîëàõ è èçäàíèå “Ðàçñêàçîâ íà áåëîðóññêîì íàðå÷iè”, ìîæíî óòâåðæäàòü, ÷òî è â ýòîì ñëó÷àå áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê ðàññìàòðèâàëñÿ
òîëüêî êàê âðåìåííàÿ ìåðà, êîòîðàÿ äîëæíà ïðîëîæèòü ïóòü ðóññêîìó
ÿçûêó.
Íî áîëåå ïîäðîáíî âîïðîñ î äîïóùåíèè áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â äîïîëíèòåëüíîå êàòîëè÷åñêîå áîãîñëóæåíèå îáñóæäàëñÿ óæå ïîçäíåå, ïðè
âèëåíñêîì ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðå Êîíñòàíòèíå ôîí Êàóôìàíå. Â êîíöå
1865 ã. ãåíåðàëüíûé âèêàðèé Ìîãèëåâñêîé ðèìñêî-êàòîëè÷åñêîé àðõèåïàðõèè åïèñêîï Þ. Ñòàíåâñêèé èíôîðìèðîâàë âëàñòè î õîäàòàéñòâå
êàòîëè÷åñêîãî äóõîâåíñòâà Âèòåáñêîé è Ìîãèëåâñêîé ãóáåðíèè äîïóñòèòü ïðîèçíîøåíèå ïðîïîâåäåé íà “áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå”.108 Íå îáñóæäàÿ ìîòèâàöèè êàòîëè÷åñêîãî äóõîâåíñòâà, îáðàòèì âíèìàíèå íà ðåàêöèþ âëàñòåé, à â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü – ñâÿùåííîíà÷àëèÿ ïðàâîñëàâíûõ
öåðêâåé çàïàäíûõ ãóáåðíèé èìïåðèè. Õîòÿ áîëüøèíñòâî åïèñêîïîâ
ïðàâîñëàâíîé öåðêâè ïîääåðæàëî èäåþ âûäâîðåíèÿ ïîëüñêîãî ÿçûêà
èç êàòîëè÷åñêîãî áîãîñëóæåíèÿ, íî íè îäèí èç íèõ íå âèäåë âîçìîæíîñòè ââåäåíèÿ áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà. Óòâåðæäàëîñü, ÷òî ðóññêèé ÿçûê
ïîíÿòåí áåëîðóññêîìó êðåñòüÿíèíó (òàêæå êàê è êñåíäçàì),109 à áåëîðóññêèé ÿçûê, “êàê ãðàììàòè÷åñêè è ôèëîëîãè÷åñêè íåîáðàáîòàííûé”,
ãîäåí òîëüêî “äëÿ äîìàøíåãî ñåëüñêîõîçÿéñòâåííîãî îáèõîäà”.110 Êðîìå òîãî, â áåëîðóññêîì ÿçûêå “ìíîãî ïîëüñêèõ ñëîâ è îáîðîòîâ”,111 ÷òî
äåëàåò åãî îðóäèåì â ðóêàõ ïîëîíèçàòîðîâ: “ýòîò ÿçûê, áóäó÷è ñàì â
LVIA. F. 567. Ap. 21. B. 15. L. 22.
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1866 m. B. 1360. L. 72.
109
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1866. B. 1360. Ll. 101, 105-106 (ìíåíèÿ àðõèåïèñêîïà
Âîëûíñêîãî Àíòîíèÿ, à òàêæå Ïîëîöêîãî è Áðàöëàâñêîãî Ëåîíòèÿ).
110
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1866. B. 1360. Ll. 93-94 (ìíåíèå ìèòðîïîëèòà Êèåâñêîãî
Àðñåíèÿ).
111
Ibidem. L. 97 (Ìíåíèå àðõèåïèñêîïà Ìèíñêîãî è Áîáðóéñêîãî Ìèõàèëà);
À. È. Ìèëîâèäîâ, Ðàñïîðÿæåíèÿ è ïåðåïèñêà ãð. Ì. Í. Ìóðàâüåâà îòíîñèòåëüíî
ðèìñêî-êàòîëè÷åñêîãî äóõîâåíñòâà â Ñåâåðî-çàïàäíîì êðàå. Âèëüíà, 1910. Ñ. 1718; Êàíôåñii íà Áåëàðóñi. Ñ. 88-89.
107
108
289
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ñåáå íàðå÷èåì îáùåãî ñëàâÿíñêîãî ÿçûêà, â çàïàäíîì êðàå èçäàâíà áûë
ïîäãîòîâëÿåì â îðóäèå Ðèìñêîé ïðîïàãàíäû, ÷òîáû íàðîä îáðàòèòü â
êàòîëè÷åñòâî è îïîëÿ÷èòü”.112 Ïðàâäà, îäèí ÷ëåí Ðåâèçèîííîé êîìèññèè ïî äåëàì ðèìñêî-êàòîëè÷åñêîãî äóõîâåíñòâà Ñåâåðî-Çàïàäíîãî
êðàÿ, ó÷ðåæäåííîé â íà÷àëå 1866 ã. âèëåíñêèì ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðîì
Ê. Ï. Êàóôìàíîì, ïðåäëîæèë çàìåíèòü â ïðîïîâåäÿõ ïîëüñêèé ÿçûê
áåëîðóññêèì,113 íî âëàñòè âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå 60-õ ãã. åùå áîëåå íåãàòèâíî îòíîñèëèñü ê âîçìîæíîñòè ïðèäàòü áåëîðóññêîìó ÿçûêó õîòÿ
áû êàêîé- òî îáùåñòâåííî çíà÷èìûé ñòàòóñ, ÷åì â íà÷àëå ýòîãî äåñÿòèëåòèÿ.
* * *
Îáîáùàÿ, ìîæíî êîíñòàòèðîâàòü, ÷òî â ñåðåäèíå XIX â. îùóùàëàñü
ïîòðåáíîñòü â áåëîðóññêèõ êíèãàõ, â áîãîñëóæåíèè è ïðåïîäàâàíèè â
íà÷àëüíûõ øêîëàõ íà ýòîì ÿçûêå. Åñëè äî ñåðåäèíû XIX â. ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèå áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â êðåñòüÿíñêîé ñðåäå íå áåñïîêîèëî
èìïåðñêèå âëàñòè, òî ñ íà÷àëîì “Âåëèêèõ ðåôîðì” ñèòóàöèÿ èçìåíèëàñü. Èíñòèòóöèîíàëèçàöèÿ “áåëîðóññêîãî íàðå÷èÿ” (â øêîëå, êîñòåëå
è ò.ä.) ìîãëà ðàçðóøèòü êîíöåïöèþ òðèåäèíîé ðóññêîé íàöèè. Ïðàâäà,
â íà÷àëå 60-õ ãîäîâ ìåñòíûå âëàñòè, îñîáåííî ïîïå÷èòåëü ÂÓÎ
À. Øèðèíñêèé-Øèõìàòîâ, ïðîáîâàëè èñïîëüçîâàòü “áåëîðóññêîå íàðå÷èå” (ïå÷àòàíèå òîãäà óæå äîïóñêàëîñü òîëüêî “ðóññêèìè áóêâàìè”)
â àíòèïîëüñêîé ïîëèòèêå, íî ñ íà÷àëîì “ìÿòåæà” è íàçíà÷åíèåì ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðîì Ì. Ìóðàâüåâà, à ïîïå÷èòåëåì – È. Êîðíèëîâà ýòî
ïðåêðàòèëîñü. Áåëîðóññêîñòü â îáùåñòâåííîì äèñêóðñå äîïóñêàëàñü
óæå òîëüêî êàê âûðàæåíèå íàðîäíîãî òâîð÷åñòâà. Ïðàâäà, â ðîññèéñêîì ÷èíîâíè÷åñòâå ñóùåñòâîâàëà òåíäåíöèÿ, êîòîðóþ íà ñîâðåìåííîì
íàó÷íîì ÿçûêå ìîæíî íàçâàòü îòðèöàíèåì ýòíîêóëüòóðíîé èíàêîñòè
áåëîðóñîâ. Ïî ñëîâàì ïðîôåññîðà Ïåòåðáóðãñêîé äóõîâíîé àêàäåìèè
Ì. Êîÿëîâè÷à, íåêîòîðûå äåÿòåëè âûñêàçûâàëèñü äàæå çà òî, ÷òîáû
íàðîä ïåðåìåíèë “êîñòþì, ïðè÷åñêó ïî Âåëèêîðóññêèì îáðàçöàì, ãíóøàþòñÿ ñëûøàòü Ìàëîðîññèéñêóþ èëè Áåëîðóññêóþ ðå÷ü è òðåáóþò,
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1866. B. 1360. L. 102 (ìíåíèå Ìîãèëåâñêîãî àðõèåïèñêîïà
Åâñåâèÿ). Ïîäîáíîå ìíåíèå òàêæå âûñêàçûâàë è óæå óïîìèíàâøèéñÿ Ìèíñêèé è
Áîáðóéñêèé àðõèåïèñêîï Ìèõàèë: Ibid. L. 97; À. Ñìîëåí÷óê. Ïîïûòêè ââåäåíèÿ
ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â êàòîëè÷åñêîå áîãîñëóæåíèå â Ìèíñêîé è Âèëåíñêîé äèîöåçèÿõ â
60-70-å ãîäû XIX â. // Lietuviø katalikø akademijos metraðtis. T. 20. Vilnius, 2002. P.
145.
113
LVIA. F. 378. Bs. 1866. B. 1340. L. 80.
112
290
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÷òîáû âîëîñòíûå ÷èíû è ó÷åíèêè ñåëüñêèõ ó÷èëèù í å ï ð å ì å í í î
âñåãäà ãîâîðèëè ê í è æ í û ì Ðóññêèì ÿçûêîì”.114
Ìîæíî ëè òàêîå îòíîøåíèå èìïåðñêèõ âëàñòåé ê áåëîðóñàì è îñîáåííî ê èõ ÿçûêó, êîòîðîå ïðåäñòàâëåíî â ýòîé ñòàòüå, òðàêòîâàòü êàê
ðóñèôèêàöèþ â ñìûñëå êóëüòóðíîé àññèìèëÿöèè?
Âîïðîñ îá “îáðóñåíèè” Çàïàäíîãî êðàÿ ïîäíèìàëñÿ è â 60-å ãîäû
XIX â. Î÷åíü ÷àñòî çàäàâàëñÿ âîïðîñ, êàê ìîæíî “îáðóñèòü” êðàé, êîòîðûé áûë “èçäðåâëå ðóññêèì”? Òàêàÿ íåëîãè÷íîñòü ìîãëà îáúÿñíÿòüñÿ ïî-ðàçíîìó. Îäíè ïðèâåðæåíöû “Ðóññêîãî äåëà” óêàçûâàëè íà äîëãîâðåìåííîå ïîëüñêîå âëèÿíèå â ýòîì êðàå,115 äðóãèå îáúÿñíÿëè, ÷òî
“îáðóñèòü” ìîæíî è íóæíî òîëüêî áåëîðóñîâ êàòîëè÷åñêîãî èñïîâåäàíèÿ, à â îòíîøåíèè ê ïðàâîñëàâíûì ýòî çíà÷èëî áû “òî æå ñàìîå, ÷òî
áåëîå äåëàòü áåëûì, ÿñíîå ÿñíûì, îíè íàïîìèíàþò íàì èçâåñòíóþ
ôðàçó î ‘ìàñëÿíîì ìàñë咔.116
Îòâå÷àÿ íà ïîñòàâëåííûé âîïðîñ óæå ñîâðåìåííûì íàó÷íûì ÿçûêîì, íàäî â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà äîìèíèðîâàâøåå
â îáùåñòâåííîì è îôèöèàëüíîì äèñêóðñàõ ïîíÿòèå “ðóññêîñòè”. Ñîãëàñíî êîíöåïöèè ðåäàêòîðà “Ìîñêîâñêèõ âåäîìîñòåé” Ì. Êàòêîâà,
ê ìíåíèþ êîòîðîãî ïðèñëóøèâàëèñü è â Çàïàäíîì êðàå, ïîíÿòèå ðóññêîñòè áûëî ïîëèýòíè÷åñêèì è ïîëèêîíôåññèîíàëüíûì, à â èåðàðõèè èäåíòè÷íîñòåé ãëàâíàÿ ðîëü îòâîäèëàñü ðóññêîìó ÿçûêó (“ñàìîå ïðî÷íîå èç âñåõ çàâîåâàíèé åñòü çàâîåâàíèå, äåëàåìîå ÿçûêîì
êàêîãî-íèáóäü íàðîäà”117). Ïîíÿòèå “ðóññêèé” îõâàòûâàëî, òàêèì
îáðàçîì, âñåõ áåëîðóñîâ. Íåäîïóùåíèå áåëîðóññêîãî ÿçûêà â îáùåñòâåííîå óïîòðåáëåíèå è äàæå â êàòîëè÷åñêîå áîãîñëóæåíèå ìîæíî
ïî ýòîé êîíöåïöèè ðóññêîñòè õàðàêòåðèçîâàòü êàê êóëüòóðíóþ àññèìèëÿöèþ.
Ñîãëàñíî äðóãîìó, áîëåå òðàäèöèîííîìó, âçãëÿäó, ê ðóññêèì îòíîñèëèñü òîëüêî ëèöà ïðàâîñëàâíîãî èñïîâåäàíèÿ. Êàê ïèñàë âèëåíñêèé
ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð Ì. Ìóðàâüåâ, “ïðàâîñëàâèå ñîåäèíåíî ñ ïîíÿòèåì î ðóññêîé íàðîäíîñòè, êàê, íàïðîòèâ òîãî, êàòîëèê è ïîëÿê ñîñòàâÌ. Êîÿëîâè÷. Êàê óñòðîèòü íîðìàëüíîå ïîëîæåíèå â Çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè? // Äåíü.
1865. ¹ 20.
115
Çàäà÷à Ðîññèè â çàïàäíîì êðàå // Ñî÷èíåíèÿ È. Ñ. Àêñàêîâà. Ò. 3. Ïîëüñêèé
âîïðîñ è Çàïàäíî-ðóññêîå äåëî. 1860-1886, ñòàòüè èç “Äíÿ”, “Ìîñêâû”, “Ìîñêâè÷à”
è “Ðóñè”. Ìîñêâà, 1886. Ñ. 499.
116
Áåëîðóññ. Áåëîðóññêèÿ ïèñüìà // Äåíü. 1864. ¹ 7.
117
[Ì. Êàòêîâ]. Ìîñêâà, 2-ãî àïðåëÿ // Ìîñêîâñêèå âåäîìîñòè. 1864. ¹ 75.
114
291
Ä. Ñòàëþíàñ, Ãðàíèöû â ïîãðàíè÷üå...
ëÿþò îäíî”.118 Êîíå÷íî, íå îäíà êîíôåññèÿ, ïî ýòîé êîíöåïöèè, îïðåäåëÿëà íàöèîíàëüíóþ ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü. Âàæíû áûëè è ïðîèñõîæäåíèå, è ïîëèòè÷åñêèå âçãëÿäû (êàê â ñëó÷àå ñ äâîðÿíñòâîì), è äàæå óïîòðåáëÿåìûé ÿçûê.  ýòîì ñëó÷àå î ïîëèòèêå êóëüòóðíîé àññèìèëÿöèè
ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü òîëüêî â òîì ñëó÷àå, åñëè ðîññèéñêèå âëàñòè ïðèíóæäàëè èëè ïîîùðÿëè “âîçâðàùåíèå” êîãäà-òî “ñîâðàùåííûõ” êàòîëèêîâ-áåëîðóñîâ â ïðàâîñëàâèå. Õîòÿ òàêàÿ ïîëèòèêà èìåëà íåìàëî ñòîðîííèêîâ ìåæäó ðîññèéñêèìè ÷èíîâíèêàìè è äàæå äîñòèãëà íåêîòîðûõ óñïåõîâ â ñåðåäèíå 1860-õ ãîäîâ, íî îíà íå ïðåòâîðÿëàñü â æèçíü
ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíî äàæå ïîñëå âîññòàíèÿ 1863-64 ãã. Òàêàÿ íåïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòü èëè îñòîðîæíîñòü áûëà îáóñëîâëåíà òåì, ÷òî èìïåðñêèå
âëàñòè ñòðåìèëèñü íå òîëüêî ê “îáðóñåíèþ êðàÿ ”, íî òàêæå äîëæíû
áûëè äóìàòü î ñïîêîéñòâèè â îáùåñòâå, î ðåëèãèîçíîñòè íàðîäà è ò.ä.
 êîíöå êîíöîâ, ìíîãèì èç ðîññèéñêèõ ÷èíîâíèêîâ ïðèíöèïû ñîâðåìåííîãî íàöèîíàëèçìà áûëè åùå ÷óæäû, à ãëàâíîé èõ çàáîòîé áûëà
“äåïîëîíèçàöèÿ”, ò.å. óíè÷òîæåíèå ïðåäïîñûëîê ê íîâîìó “ìÿòåæó”.
Ïîýòîìó íàöèîíàëüíàÿ ïîëèòèêà ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê áåëîðóñàì â ñåðåäèíå XIX â. íå âñåãäà îòâå÷àëà èäåîëîãåìå òðèåäèíîé ðóññêîé íàöèè.
SUMMARY
Among the different peoples of the Western borderlands, Belarusians
were “latecomers.” This article explores imperial ethno-linguistic policy
toward the Belarusians in the context of recent debates on the issue of Russification. The author outlines different perceptions of Russianness (linguistic and confessional) and explores the concept of a three-part Russian
nation – Great Russian, Little Russians, Belarusians. The author argues that
by the mid-19th century there was a need for books and press in the Belarusian language, but because Belarusians were considered Russians, the imperial establishment either preferred that they adopt Russian language and
customs or, at least, limit the use of Belarusian to folklore. Despite general
tendencies toward Russification, imperial policies toward the Belarusians
were by no means consequent because the authorities had to tread carefully
due to the presence of Poles in Belarusian lands and they occasionally made
concessions to the Belarusian language.
[Ì. Í. Ìóðàâüåâ]. [Çàïèñêà] ëè÷íî ïðåäñòàâëåíà Ãîñóäàðþ â Ïåòåðáóðãå 5-ãî
àïðåëÿ 1865 ãîäà // Ñáîðíèê ñòàòåé, ðàçúÿñíÿþùèõ ïîëüñêîå äåëî ïî îòíîøåíèþ
ê Çàïàäíîé Ðîññèè. Ñ. 319.
118
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Curt WOOLHISER
CONSTRUCTING NATIONAL IDENTITIES
IN THE POLISH-BELARUSIAN BORDERLANDS
1. Introduction
The recent surge of interest in border issues in both the social sciences
and the humanities is a natural response to the changing political, socioeconomic and cultural realities of the post-Cold-War world. The collapse
of the rigid international political and ideological boundaries established at
the onset of the Cold War, the reunification of Germany, the break-up of the
Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, the move toward deeper
political and economic integration within the European Union, as well as
the extension of its boundaries, intensifying economic and cultural globalization – all of these developments have heightened awareness of state borders and their functions, particularly in Europe, to a degree unparalleled
since the geopolitical convulsions unleashed by the First and Second World
Wars. This heightened interest in border regions has been accompanied by
a fundamental shift in scholarly focus: while previously geographers and
other social scientists dealt with the relationship between borders and cultural and physical geography, as well as border regimes and patterns of
cross-border interaction, over the last decade there has been an increasing
emphasis on the cultural and ideological aspects of borders and border zones
and their reflection in the identities, attitudes and behavior of border residents.1
For recent work in this vein see Peter Sahlins. Boundaries: the Making of France and
Spain in the Pyrenees. Berkeley, 1989; Hastings Donnan and Thomas Wilson (Eds.).
1
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C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
The postmodern theoretical stance of much recent research on issues of
identity in borderlands regions, which tends to downplay the significance
of political borders and relegate identity to the realm of individual choice,
nonetheless overestimates the freedom of the individual to overcome the
ideological frames of reference imposed by the modern state and its territorially-defined institutions. As Wilson and Donnan note: “Lost in the crush
of much contemporary social science is one simple fact – the new politics
of identity is in large part determined by the old structure of the state.”2
Indeed, throughout much of the modern industrialized world, and even in
its rural peripheries, the populations of previously relatively uniform ethnolinguistic territories that are divided by political borders are in many
cases beginning to show signs of significant divergence in national, cultural and linguistic identities, as educational policies, mass media, and national ideologies focus border populations toward different national cultures
and standard languages. At the same time, on the same side of the border,
different sub-groups within the local population may respond differently to
state-managed identity planning policies as a consequence of preexisting
socio-cultural divisions, resulting in more complex ethnolinguistic patterns
characterized by both convergent and divergent tendencies.
To elucidate some of the ways in which state borders may contribute to
both convergent and divergent evolution in the ethnolinguistic characteristics and national identities of indigenous groups, in this article I will discuss the preliminary results of my research on the East Slavic-speaking
communities of the contemporary Polish-Belarusian border region in the
vicinity of Bia³ystok, Poland and Hrodna, Belarus. This border region shares
with many borderlands throughout the world the presence of an indigenous
local population historically characterized by fluid and often indeterminate
ethnic and national identities. Although united by a common language (Belarusian or transitional Belarusian-Ukrainian dialects), the native rural population on both sides of the post-WWII Polish-Belarusian border is quite
heterogeneous in terms of its ethno-national affiliations. Historically, the
primary focus of supra-local identity was religion, dividing the local popuBorder Approaches: Anthropological Perspectives on Frontiers. Lanham, Maryland, 1994.
Pp. 1-14; Anssi Paasi. Territories, Boundaries and Consciousness: The Changing
Geographies of the Finnish-Russian Border. New York, 1996; Hastings Donnan and
Thomas Wilson (Eds.). Border Identities: Nation and State at International Frontiers.
Cambridge, 1998.
2
Hastings Donnan and Thomas Wilson (Eds.). Border Identities. P. 2.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
lation into divergent communities of faith and cultural tradition. In more
recent times, traditional confessionally-based supra-local identities were
revaluated in elite and subsequently in popular discourse as national or
ethnic identities. Thus, the majority of Roman Catholic speakers of East
Slavic dialects on both sides of the border identify themselves as Poles,
while East Slavic speakers of Orthodox heritage are divided among those
who identify themselves as Belarusians, Poles, Ukrainians, or even simply
“Orthodox”. In addition to religion, other markers, such as language, local
cultural traditions, socio-economic status and political orientation, have been
deployed in various ways by local inhabitants to assert or contest distinct
group or national identities.
This article is divided into four main sections. In section 2, by way of
introduction, I will discuss the political and linguistic geography and demography of the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions. Next, in section 3, I will
outline the major historical periods in the ethnolinguistic, social and political history of the region up to the late 1980s. In the fourth and final section, I will discuss contemporary trends in the border region on the basis of
the results of recent sociological research by Polish and Belarusian scholars, as well as my own sociolinguistic and ethnographic fieldwork. I will
focus in particular on the impact of recent efforts on the part of Belarusian
activists to promote ethnic mobilization in the region, and the role of religion and language in the construction and maintenance of national identities. Finally, I will discuss the impact of national identity and language
attitudes on language maintenance, linguistic innovation, and language shift
among local rural populations, as reflected in the results of fieldwork conducted in several Belarusian-speaking villages in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna
regions between 1996 and 2000.
2. The Border Region Today: Political, Cultural and Linguistic
Geography
The border region that is the focus of this study includes the territories
lying between the Brzozówka and lower reaches of the Narew rivers in the
Bia³ystok region of Poland, and the Nioman and Ros’ rivers on the Belarusian side (a region that extends approximately 40 kilometers in both directions from the border). The region under investigation is approximately 90
kilometers in length, bounded on both sides of the border by the Augustowo forest in the north (along the Lithuanian border) and the Bia³owie¿a/
Belaveža forest in the south. I will thus be focusing primarily on those
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C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
regions that have been in the past, and are often still considered today,
ethnolinguistically Belarusian and transitional Belarusian-Ukrainian, with
a mixed Roman Catholic and Orthodox population.
According to the 1989 Soviet census, the population of the Hrodna voblasc’ was 1,164,000, of which 702,000 (60.3%) were self-declared Belarusians. The four border rajons that I will focus on in this presentation,
Hrodna, Berastavica, Vawkavysk and Svislaè, in 1989 had a combined population of 159,201 (excluding the city of Hrodna, with an additional 280,000
residents), of which 94,291 (59%) were Belarusians, 40,480 (25%) were
Poles, and 19,370 (12%) were Russians.3 The three ethnic groups are not,
however, equally distributed according to location. The Poles constitute a
majority of the population in rural areas in the northern part of the Hrodna
rajon, while the majority of Russians live in the city of Hrodna and other
smaller towns, including Vawkavysk, Vjalikaja Berastavica and Svislaè.4
Polish census data for 1993 give the population of the Bia³ystok voivodeship as 699,000. As part of the Polish administrative reforms of 1998-1999,
the Bia³ystok voivodeship was incorporated into the reconstituted Podlasie
voivodeship, including, apart from the territory of the former Bia³ystok
voivodeship, territories that had formerly been part of the £om¿a and Suwalki voivodeships (neither of which had been part of the historical Podlasie, before or after the Union of Lublin in 1569). The population of the
new Podlasie voivodeship is 1,224,189.
Although Polish census data do not include data about language or national identity, it is possible to estimate the approximate numbers of Orthodox believers in the Bia³ystok region, which in turn gives us a rough estimate of the number of people of Orthodox Belarusian (or Ukrainian) heritage. In accordance with the conventional association of Orthodoxy in the
region with East Slavic ethnic origins, the number of people of Belarusian
(or Ukrainian) heritage in the Bia³ystok region has been estimated at between 250,000 to 340,000. It should be stressed, however, that these figures do not provide any indication as to the number of those who still speak
East Slavic dialects, or how many consciously identify themselves as Belarusians or Ukrainians. In addition, it should be noted that Polish census
data do not provide any indication of the numbers of Catholics in the region
S. A. Pol’ski and V. K. Bandarèyk. Belarusy: Etnahrafija, demahrafija, dyjaspara,
kanfesii. Minsk, 1996. P. 11; Itogi Vsesojuznoj perepisi naselenija 1989 goda. Vol. 7:
Nacional’nyj sostav naselenija SSSR. Minneapolis, MN, 1992.
4
Ibid. Pp. 10-11.
3
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
who still speak East Slavic (that is, Belarusian and transitional BelarusianUkrainian), rather than Polish dialects.
The Orthodox population on the Polish side of the border is not evenly
distributed throughout the Bia³ystok region, being concentrated in the eastern and southeastern gminas of the Sokó³ka, Bia³ystok, Bielsk and Hajnówka
powiats. The percentage of the Orthodox population ranges from more than
75% in the Hajnówka powiat to between 50 and 75% in the eastern gminas
of the Bia³ystok powiat, to between 25 and 50% in the eastern gminas of
the Sokó³ka powiat. In the western portions of the former Bia³ystok voivodeship, with the exception of the solidly Catholic northwest fringe along the
Brzozówka river, the Orthodox population ranged from less than 10% to
25%.5
As regards the linguistic geography of the border region, the entire eastern part of the Podlasie voivodeship was, at least until quite recently, overwhelmingly East Slavic in terms of the linguistic characteristics of the local
rural dialects. At present, the Bia³ystok region, rather like southeastern
Lithuania and parts of northwestern Belarus, is an area where widespread
bilingualism, as well as linguistic convergence, often complicates the delineation of clear linguistic boundaries. It is, however, largely due to political considerations that in such sources as the Belarusian Dialect Atlas (hereafter DABM), the dialects of Belarusian mysteriously disappear at the western border with Poland and the northern border with Lithuania (in contrast
to the geographical distribution of Belarusian dialects shown in the maps
compiled by Karski (1903, reproduced in DABM) and the Moscow Dialect
Commission (1914, reproduced in DABM) earlier in the century).6 This
“oversight” on the part of the compilers of the Belarusian Dialect Atlas has,
fortunately, been at least partially corrected by a group of Polish dialectologists, who between 1980 and 1996 published six volumes of the Atlas of
East Slavic Dialects of the Bia³ystok Region.7 The authors of this atlas, on
the basis of data collected mainly in the 1960s and early 1970s, were able
to establish the westernmost limit of East Slavic dialects in the Bia³ystok
region at that time. Roughly speaking, the language border (as represented
by communities in which at least the oldest members still spoke an East
Ibid. Pp. 25.
R. I. Avanesaw et al. Dyjalektalahièny atlas belaruskaj movy. Minsk, 1963 (Hereafter
DABM). Pp. VII-VIII.
7
Stanis³aw Glinka, Antonina Obrêbska-Jab³oñska, Janusz Siatkowski (Eds.) Atlas gwar
wschodnios³owiañskich Bia³ostocczyzny. Wroc³aw/Warszawa Vol. 1 (1980); Vol. 2
(1989); Vol. 3 (1993); Vol. 4 (1995); Vol. 5-6 (1996).
5
6
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C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
Slavic dialect) was found to run from the area east of the Augustów canal in
the north, along the Brzozówka river down to the Supraœl river, then west
of Bia³ystok as far as the Narew. South of Bia³ystok the Polish-East Slavic
language border ran west of Bielsk Podlaski down to Siematycze.
By comparing the geographical distribution of dialectal features as shown
in the Belarusian Dialect Atlas and the Atlas of East Slavic Dialects of the
Bia³ystok region, it is possible to reconstruct the original linguistic landscape of the contemporary border region. In terms of their basic linguistic
characteristics, the East Slavic dialects of the Bia³ystok region are clearly
the western extension of the two main dialectal areas of southwestern Belarus: the southwestern Belarusian dialects per se, and the west Polesian
Brest-Pinsk dialects, typologically closer to Ukrainian, separated by a narrow band of transitional southwest Belarusian-west Polesian dialects extending from the Belaveža forest to the vicinity of Bia³ystok.
In this discussion, the linguistic term “Belarusian” will be applied to
those typologically East Slavic dialects on both sides of the border which
display “classical” Belarusian features, including (among others): so-called
akanne/jakanne (the pronunciation of the low vowel [a] in place of unstressed /o/ and /e/), affrication of the stops /t/ and /d/ before the original
front vowels /i/ and /e/ (known as cekanne and dzekanne), the dispalatalization of /r’/, the use of the demonstrative pronoun hety ‘this’, etc. The
strong structural affinity between the East Slavic dialects on the two sides
of the contemporary border is also supported by the linguistic characteristics of the Belarusian dialect texts collected in final decades of the 19th
century in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions by the Polish linguist, ethnographer and folklorist Micha³ Federowski.8
3. Political, Social and Ethnolinguistic History of the Region
For most of their history, the western Hrodna and eastern Bia³ystok regions have been part of a single political entity, whether the medieval Grand
Duchy of Lithuania, the Lithuanian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Prussia, the Russian Empire, or the interwar Polish Republic.
Since the conclusion of the Second World War, however, the region has
been divided politically, the western portions belonging to Poland, and the
Micha³ Federowski. 1897-1903. Lud bia³oruski na Rusi Litewskiej. Materya³y do
etnografii s³owiañskiej zgromadzone w latach 1877-1891. Kraków, Vol. l, 1897; Vol. 2,
1902; Vol. 3, 1903.
8
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
eastern part having been incorporated into the Soviet Union (and after 1991,
the Republic of Belarus). In this section I will examine the political, social
and ethnolinguistic history of the Polish-Belarusian borderlands to provide
a perspective on the human landscape of the region as it appears today.
3.1 THE 11TH-16TH CENTURIES
The early ethnolinguistic history of the contemporary Polish-Belarusian border region remains to some extent a contentious issue among historians, linguists and archaeologists, the debate often reflecting certain national biases of the researchers. Polish archaeologists and historians (for
example, Tyszkiewicz, Wiœniewski) maintain that in the 10th century, the
entire southern part of the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions as far east as Navahrudak was settled by a Polish Mazovian population, mixed in some areas with relict Baltic populations, as well as East Slavic settlers (presumably the proto-Belarusian Dregovièy) in the eastern regions.9 In the north,
Baltic tribes (Jatvingians in the west, and Lithuanians in the east) dominated the upper reaches of the Biebrza and the Nioman. Some scholars from
the former Soviet Union (Sedov, Kuxarenko and others), on the other hand,
have argued that most if not all of the contemporary Polish-Belarusian border region was occupied from the 10th to the 13th centuries by the Jatvingians, who thus formed a barrier between the East Slavs and the Mazovian
West Slavic population (the so-called “greater Jatvingia” theory).10
While the border region as far east as Vawkavysk had been part of the
realms of Mieszko I (from 980-990) and Boles³aw Chrobry (to 1018), in
the middle of the 11th century the entire territory was annexed by the Rus’ian
principality of Volhynia. Beginning in this period, there commenced a wave
of settlement from the Volhynian lands to the southeast. The early protoUkrainian presence in this southern region is reflected in the composition
of the modern dialects of the southern Bia³ystok and Brest region in Belarus, which are transitional to or typologically closer to Ukrainian than to
Belarusian.
Jan Tyszkiewicz. Mazowsze pó³noco-wschodnie we wczesnym œredniowieczu. Warsaw,
1974; Jerzy Wiœniewski. Zarys dziejów osadnictwa na Bia³ostocczyŸnie // Stanis³aw
Glinka et al. Atlas gwar. Vol. I. Pp. 14-27.
10
See Tyszkiewicz. Mazowsze pó³noco-wschodnie. P. 85 for discussion; V. V. Sedov. O
jugo-zapadnoj gruppe vostoènoslavjanskix plemën // D. A. Avdutin (Ed.). Istorikoarkheologièeskij sbornik. Moscow, 1962. Pp. 197-203; J. V. Kukharenko. Poles’e i ego
mesto v processe etnogeneza slavjan // V. V. Marynov and N. I. Tolstoj (Eds.). Poles’e.
Lingvistika, arxeologija, toponimika. Moscow, 1968. Pp. 29-43.
9
299
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
Under pressure from the Teutonic Knights, the Jatvingians began to move
southward in the 13th century, eventually displacing much of the Mazovian
and East Slavic population. Due to the repeated invasions of the region by
the Teutonic Knights, East Slavs and Lithuanians in the 13th and 14th centuries, the Jatvingians were finally driven from the region, leaving it largely depopulated. This territory, much of it still covered by (or having subsequently reverted to) dense forests (pušèy), was finally taken by the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania from the Teutonic Knights after the battle of Grünwald
in 1410. At this point there commenced a new wave of settlement from the
east by speakers of southwestern Belarusian dialects of the Hrodna type,
accompanied by smaller numbers of Lithuanian and Jatvingian speakers.
Thus, in spite of disagreements on the ethnolinguistic history of the region before the 14th century, most scholars agree that the modern cultural
landscape of the contemporary Polish-Belarusian border region began to
take shape only in the 14th-15th centuries. Along the western part of the
Bia³ystok region (from the Brzozówka in the north to the lower reaches of
the Narew in the south) speakers of East Slavic dialects came into direct
contact with speakers of Mazovian Polish dialects in approximately the
15th-16th centuries. Subsequently, areas of mixed East Slavic-Mazovian
settlement arose as far west as Goni¹dz, Tykocin and Brañsk.11
The religious division, with a majority of Catholics in the northern portions of the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions and a majority of Eastern Orthodox in the areas just to the south, is a reflection of the medieval boundary
between the Catholic Vilnius diocese and the Orthodox Volhynian diocese.
At the same time, some scholars have argued that this border coincides
roughly with the 14th century frontier between areas with a majority Baltic
(Lithuanian and Jatvingian) and a majority East Slavic population.12 The
religious factor is important for reconstructing the ethnolinguistic history
of the region, because it is known that when Jagie³³o (Jogaila) of Lithuania
adopted Catholicism in 1387, the remaining pagan areas, i.e. those inhabited primarily by Lithuanians and other Baltic-speaking groups such as Jatvingians, were converted with him, whereas the East Slavic speakers remained largely Orthodox. Safarewicz and Ochmañski thus argue those BeWiœniewski. Zarys dziejów. Map V.
Jan Safarewicz. The distribution of local geographical names in -iszki over the SlavicLithuanian borderlands // Linguistic Studies. The Hague, 1974; Jerzy Ochmañski.
Litewska granica etniczna na wschodzie od epoki plemiennej do XVI wieku. Poznañ,
1981.
11
12
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
larusian-speaking areas that were overwhelmingly Roman Catholic before
the 17th century must have been originally Baltic-speaking. Since conversion from the Roman Catholic rite to the Uniate rite must have been very
rare, these historians conclude that those Catholic populations that were
formerly Uniate must have been originally East Slavic rather than Lithuanian. The logic of this argument is compelling; however, it must not be
forgotten than Baltic speakers in ethnolinguistically mixed regions may
have converted to Orthodoxy (and subsequently the Uniate church) as well.
On the basis of historical, ethnographic and onomastic data, scholars
have concluded that the majority of Roman Catholic Belarusian speakers in
the contemporary Bia³ystok and western Hrodna regions are the descendents of Catholicized Belarusian Uniates, with an admixture of old Catholic Mazovian and Baltic speakers. The dominance of the ethnographically
Belarusian element among the local Catholic population in the Bia³ystok
and western Hrodna regions is reflected, for example, in the prevalence of
surnames typical of western Belarusian anthroponymy. Thus, among the
indigenous Catholic population on the Polish side of the border we find
such surnames as Sidorowicz, Makarewicz, Horosz, Arciuch, Ciereszko, Ostapowicz, Borysewicz, Andruszkiewicz, Woroniecki, Haka³o, Zieziula, Gryc,
Chociej, Bakun, Boboryko; while on the Belarusian side of the border, Catholic surnames include Arciux, Bazyl’èyk, Pakaèajla, Tkaèuk, Bajarèuk,
Danilèuk, Pir’janoviè, Zdanoviè, Kuprašèviè, Lewkeviè, Siderkeviè, Mickeviè, Babrukeviè, Sjamaška, Hnjazdzejka, etc. At the same time, a smaller
portion of the population on both sides of the border bear surnames of clearly
Baltic origin (e.g. on the Polish side: Szymkuæ, Tulkis, Kiežel, Miksza, Rojsza, Dojna, Možejko, and on the Belarusian side: Vojšal’, Mikuc’, Mikaluc’,
Pavilojc’, Maèel’, emla, Kirmel’, Mikšta, Borcis, etc). On both sides of
the border, the percentage of etymologically Baltic surnames decreases significantly as one moves south from the Catholic and mixed Catholic-Orthodox areas in the vicinity of Sokó³ka and Hrodna to the predominantly
Orthodox areas between Bia³ystok and Vawkavysk.
In the first two centuries of Lithuanian rule in the region, the coexistence of the Catholic and Orthodox churches was quite stable. Significant
for the future of the region, however, was the fact that the two faiths had
come to be associated with two different politico-cultural formations, neither of which was unique to the territory of the Lithuanian state: Catholicism was ‘the Polish faith’, associated with the Kingdom of Poland whence
it had come to Lithuania, while Orthodoxy was the “Rus’ian” faith, still
strongly associated with the legacy of the former Kievan state. The general
301
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
absence of any clear association between the “Polish” and “Rus’ian” religions and specific ethnolinguistic characteristics in the pre-modern era is
strongly suggested by passages in the Lithuanian chronicles, for example,
when we read that Vytautas, son of the Lithuanian prince Skirgaila, ‘became Rus’ian” (stal ruskim) (i.e. upon being christened in the Orthodox
rite), but then converted to “the Polish faith”, i.e. Catholicism.13 The absence of a single traditional “Lithuanian” faith was to have a decisive impact upon the population of the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions in later centuries, when traditional links between state power and religion were deployed in the emerging discourses and practices of modern ethnolinguistic
nationalism.
3.2. THE 16TH-18TH CENTURIES
After 1569, with the transfer of Podlasie (the westernmost part of the
Bia³ystok voivodeship) to the Polish Crown, East Slavic influence in that
region was greatly reduced.14 On the other hand, most of the territory now
occupied by Belarusian speakers in contemporary Poland (not counting the
transitional Belarusian-Ukrainian dialects to the south, which also became
part of the Polish Crown lands) remained part of the Troki voivodeship of
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where it remained until the Partitions in the
late 18th century.15
Over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries the Belarusian and Lithuanian-speaking magnates and gentry of the Grand Duchy gradually shifted
to Polish, resulting by the 19th century in a situation where social stratification closely correlated with differences in language. Thus, by the end of the
18th century, a diglossic pattern of functional differentiation between Polish and Belarusian had emerged on the territory of the former Grand Duchy.
Polish had taken the place of Latin (at least in non-liturgical functions) in
the religious sphere, as well as assuming the cultural and official functions
formerly fulfilled by the Old Belarusian chancellery language. For most of
the population, Catholic, Uniate and Orthodox, the equation of language
with social status had become quite straightforward: to speak Polish was to
speak “like a gentleman” (pa-pansku), while to speak Belorussian was to
speak “plain” (pa-prostu) or “like a peasant” (pa-mužycku). While the gentry
A. S. Kotljarèuk. Samosoznanie belorusov v literaturnyx pamjatnikax XVI-XVIII vv. // A.
K. Kavko (Ed.). Rus’-Litva-Belarus. Moscow, 1997. P. 82.
14
Wiœniewski. Zarys dziejów. P. 21.
15
Stanis³aw Glinka et al. (Eds.). Atlas gwar. Vol. 1. Maps I and i.
13
302
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
was increasingly adopting a Polish or Lithuanian-Polish national consciousness, there is little indication that language was associated with any form of
supra-local identity apart from class identity for most of the peasantry.
In the case of the peasants, whether Catholic, Uniate or Orthodox, it
appears that there was little apart from religious life that separated them,
particularly in religiously mixed villages. The poorer szlachta, who lived
in conditions often no better than their peasant neighbors, often continued
to speak Belarusian amongst themselves well into the 19th century, although
they generally had a better knowledge of Polish than the peasants and used
this criterion to distinguish their settlements (zaœcianki) from neighboring
“cjomnyja/ciemne” ‘dark, benighted’) peasant villages.
3.3. THE 19TH CENTURY TO WWI
Following the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
in 1795, most of the Bia³ystok and western Hrodna regions were annexed
by Prussia, remaining under Prussian rule until 1807, when they were ceded to the Russian Empire. While the Tsarist authorities initially did little to
counter Polish linguistic and cultural influence in the Belarusian lands, the
anti-Russian uprisings in Poland and Lithuania of 1830 and 1863 led to
increasingly draconian measures on the part of the authorities to Russify
the annexed territories, the results of which were widely felt in the Bia³ystok
and Hrodna regions. In 1839 the Uniate Church (to which up to 80% of the
Belarusian peasantry had belonged since the 17th century) was forcibly
merged with the Russian Orthodox Church, and in 1840 Polish was replaced by Russian as the official language of the region. While previously
official St. Petersburg had generally ignored the existence of the Belarusians as a distinct ethnic group, maintaining that the population of the socalled “Northwestern Territory” was predominantly Polish as a concession
to the Polish-oriented elites of the region, it now maintained that the majority of the population were in fact Russian, albeit corrupted by insidious
Polish Catholic influences. To strengthen the Russian cultural and linguistic presence in the region, Roman Catholic Belarusians were forcibly converted to Russian Orthodoxy and the use of both Polish and Belarusian in
education and the cultural sphere was prohibited.
Russian policy in the region after 1863 was torn by contradictions; on
the one hand, it was maintained that the local peasantry, both Catholic and
Orthodox, was on the whole loyal to the Tsar, and thereby constituted a
bulwark of the state; at the same time, the identification of “Catholic” with
“Polish” meant that many Belarusian-speaking Catholic peasants were sub303
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
jected to the same restrictions as Polish gentry (limitations on the purchase
of land, etc.)16 The question of the use of Russian or even Belarusian in
Catholic churches divided Russian officialdom: some supported the idea as
the most effective means to bring about linguistic and cultural Russification among the Belarusian-speaking Catholics, with the ultimate goal of
converting them to Orthodoxy. Others expressed the concern that replacing
Polish with Russian would permit the formation of a sizeable Russian Catholic community, which would inevitably demand equal rights, thereby
strengthening the position of Catholicism in Russia.17
Through forced conversions and other forms of discrimination against
Roman Catholics, the Tsarist authorities unwittingly furthered the identification of Catholicism with Polish national identity in the region, since at
the time only the Polish national cause offered a clearly articulated defensive ideology in the face of the regime’s anti-Catholic policies. Indeed, one
governer of the Vilna guberniia noted that “in general at the present time
[1907] the term ‘Pole’ in Vilna province has lost its ethnographical character and has become almost exclusively a political term.”18 This development is reflected in the Belarusian Catholic poet Francišak Bahuševiè’s
1891 poem “Chresbiny Maciuka” (Maciuk’s Christening), about attempts
by Russian cossacks to force a Belarusian Catholic villager to convert to
Orthodoxy:
“Da ty,” jon kaže mnie, “wiery jakoj?
Ci ty praslawny, ci ty palak?”
A dajciež panoczku, kažu, mnie pakoj.
Da jaž tutejszy, jaž kazaw tak!”...
Kaliž užo tak
Szto waspan bieszsia biaz-daj-pryczyny
To musiæ i prawda szto ja palak
I budu palak ja ad hetaj hadziny!”
(“So what’s your religion?” he says to me.
Are you Orthodox, or are you a Pole?”
16
Theodore R. Weeks. Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia: Nationalism and
Russification on the Western Frontier, 1863-1914. DeKalb, IL, 1996. P. 104.
17
V. V. Grigor’eva and E. N. Filatova. Katolièeskaja cerkov’ v Belorussii: Istoriografija
problemy (konec XVIII-naèalo XX vv.) // Matèryjaly mižnarodnaj navukovaj kanferèncyi
“Carkva i kul’tura narodam Vjalikaha knjastva Litomskaha i Belarusi XIII-paè. XX st.”
Vol. 6. Hrodna, 1994. Pp. 656-657.
18
Theodore R. Weeks. Nation and State. P. 56.
304
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
I say, “Leave me in peace, sir.
“I’m a local, I already said so!...”
...But if your honor beats people for no reason
Then maybe I truly am a Pole
And will remain a Pole from this hour on!).19
The growth of divergent national identities among the rural population
of this region, in particular the gradual transformation of Belarusian-speaking peasants of the “Polish faith” into “Poles”, was thus indirectly a product of Tsarist Russian nationalities policies. While the Orthodox (including
the formerly Uniate majority) were identified as Russians, at the local level
this term continued to be associated primarily with confessional, rather than
national identity.
At the level of everyday life, there was at this time little, apart from
religious practices, that distinguished the Belarusian-speaking Catholic and
Orthodox communities in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions. The deeplyrooted traditional folk beliefs and pre-Christian rituals remained largely the
same for the two groups. The principal differences were reflected in such
areas as anthroponymy (the Catholics employing the Polish system of personal names, and the Orthodox that of the Russian Orthodox Church), in
the languages of religious life (Latin and Polish vs. Church Slavonic and
Russian), in differences in the dates of religious holidays, as well as differences in the significance of certain shared holidays and the existence of
holidays not celebrated by both churches (for example, January 6 for the
Orthodox was Vadoxryšèa (the Christening), and for the Catholics Try karali
(Three Kings). As noted by Grinblat, perhaps the only notable difference in
material culture between Catholic and Orthodox Belarusian-speaking peasants was the fact that the former hung religious pictures in their houses on
the walls, while the Orthodox hung icons in the corner.20
Despite intensified Russification policies after 1863, the linguistic character of the region, particularly outside of the cities, remained largely the
same. Native speakers of Russian, increasingly numerous by the beginning
of the 20th century, were to be found primarily among military personnel,
government officials, white-coller workers and professionals, Orthodox clergy, and some of the landowners who had been granted lands confiscated
from Polish participants in the Uprising of 1863. Native Polish speakers
were found primarily in the towns (mainly among the intelligentsia) and on
19
20
Francišak Bahuševiè. Dudka bia³aruskaja Macieja Buraczka. Kraków, 1891.
M. Ja. Grinblat. Belorusy. Minsk, 1968. P. 253.
305
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
the estates, among the Catholic clergy, and in some rural szlachta settlements. Nowhere in the area east of western Podlasie did speakers of Polish
live in a compact mass in rural areas, except for the so-called “Wilno Island” (Wyspa wileñska) to the northeast of Vilna, itself considered by linguists to be largely the result of relatively recent (late 18th-19th century)
language shift on the part of the originally Lithuanian- and Belarusianspeaking petty gentry and peasantry.21 Even in the towns, native Polish
speakers were generally in the minority, since by the end of the 19th century, from 50 to 75% of the urban population were Jews, of whom most were
bilingual or trilingual in Yiddish, Polish and/or Russian.
Prior to the middle of the 19th century, the Belarusian, Polish and Lithuanian-speaking inhabitants of the former Grand Duchy had been simply
known as “Lithuanians” (“Litwini”), although this term was not used as a
preferred self-designation by all of these groups.22 It was only in the second
half of the 19th century, and particularly after 1863, that the term “Belarusian’ began to be applied, mainly by scholars and government officials, to
the entire East Slavic-speaking population of the western part of the Belarusian speech territory, including the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions. By
the end of the century, we find Polish scholars employing the same term, as
seen in the title of Federowski’s collection of dialect texts from the Sokó³ka,
Bia³ystok, Hrodna and Vawkavysk areas: “Lud bia³oruski na Rusi Litewskiej” (The Belarusian people in Lithuanian Rus’).
The 1897 Russian census, which for the first time relied primarily on
the criterion of language rather than religion or ethnic identity, was an important milestone in the construction of a specifically “Belarusian” linguistic identity. Although officially, Belarusian (“belorusskij jazyk”) was still
regarded as a dialect (nareèie) of a single Russian language, along with
Great Russian (“velikorusskij jazyk”) and Little Russian (“malorusskij
jazyk”), i.e. Ukrainian, the fact that the East Slavic dialects of the former
Grand Duchy of Lithuania were assigned a distinct name was of considerable importance. Reliance on the linguistic criterion alone, however, produced results that from the standpoint of the present, strike one as curious,
Halina Turska. O powstaniu polskich obszarów jêzykowych na WileñszcŸnie // Janusz
Rieger and Wiaczes³aw Werenicz (Eds.). Studia nad polszczyzn¹ kresow¹ I. Wroc³aw,
1982/1939. Pp. 13-121; Kazimierz Nitsch. Jêzyk polski w Wileñszczynie // Przegl¹d
Wspó³czesny. 1925. No. 33. Pp. 25-32; Valerius Èekmonas. “Po prostu” Wilno //
Czasopis. 1993. No. 3. Pp. 3-4.
22
Ryšard Radzik. Paljaki – Belarusy: uzaemnyja stèrèatypy m XIX i XX st. (da 1939
h.) // Belaruski histaryny ahljad. 1997. No. 4 (1-2). Pp. 35-39.
21
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
to say the least. Thus, we are informed that the Sokó³ka district near Bia³ystok
in fact had more Belarusians (more than 75%) than the Grodno district just
to the east (with 50 to 75%), while there were less than 10% of Belarusians
in the Brest and Kobryn regions to the south (where, in fact, the local dialects are indeed linguistically closer to Ukrainian).
The new ethnolinguistic meaning of the term “Belarusian,” cutting across
confessional divisions, did not gain acceptance among the local population
in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions until well into the 20th century, if at
all. In the late 19th century, the Belarusian-speaking peasantry had a clear
idea of what they were not, but their own identities were fragmented along
local, regional, social and confessional lines. In the many stories and anecdotes that deal with different ethnic groups that were collected by Federowski, a consistent distinction is made between the “mužyk” (‘peasant’)
or “nasz cza³awiek” (‘one of our people’), and the other social and ethnic
groups inhabiting the region: “Mazuró/Mazuré” (Polish-speaking peasants,
mainly from western Podlasie and eastern Mazovia), “szlachta” (petty gentry), “pany” (Polish-speaking landowners), “Paleszuki” (West Polesians,
from the Brest region), “Maskale/kacapy/burlaki” (Russians, particularly
Russian soldiers), Jews, Gypsies and Tatars. What is striking about the stereotypes and characterizations revealed in these texts is the fact that there is
still no clearly articulated sense of a Polish nation that cuts across social or
even dialectal distinctions. Indeed, although of the same social class and
same religion, the Mazovian Polish-speaking “Mazury” were considered
quite alien by the Belarusian-speaking Catholics. Referring to Mazovian
population across the Brzozówka river, (part of the Kingdom of Poland
from 1569 to 1795), a Catholic villager in the vicinity of Suchowola (north
of Bia³ystok) told Federowski: “Mazury, co za rékaju na Polszczy, czasto
œmiejuæsie z naszych ludzéj, co chodziaæ w kažuchu i œwici i nazywajuæ nas
Rusínami, kapuœniákami, alé jeny samy nie lépszyje, bo na ích nie zabaczysz ínnaho adzienia jäk kupczo, a swahó nie wyrablajuæ, bo ich kabiety
hultajki... [the Mazury, who live across the river in Poland, often make fun
of our people for wearing sheepskin coats and homespun cloth shirts, and
call us Ruthenians, cabbage-eaters, but they themselves aren’t any better,
because you never see anything but store-bought clothes on them, they
don’t make their own, because their women are lazy]”.23 Another Catholic
peasant in the vicinity of Mscibava, now on the Belarusian side of the borMicha³ Federowski. Lud bia³oruski na Rusi Litewskiej. Materya³y do etnografii
s³owiañskiej zgromadzone w latach 1877-1891. Kraków. Vol. 1. P. 233.
23
307
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
der, showed a similar, if somewhat more charitable view of the “Mazury”,
who by the logic of modern Polish nationalism, should have been considered “fellow Poles”: Mazuró to staránnyje ludzi i dóbryje katóliki, alé niczoho ni chítryje, bo kwóžnaho Mazurá naszo malóje dziciá abszukaje [the
Mazury are conscientious people and good Catholics, but not very smart,
because any child of ours could fool one of them].24 The distinction between “naš èalavek” and the Mazury was not only cultural and regional:
the linguistic peculiarities of the Polish Mazovian dialect were clearly noted and formed the basis of a rich body of linguistic humor.
While standard Polish held considerable authority for the Belarusianspeaking Catholics as the language of religious life and high culture, it was
viewed as inappropriate for a peasant to try to speak pa-pansku, at least as
the language of everyday communication within the community. This perhaps explains why Federowski’s texts contain so many anecdotes which
focus on the often comic attempts of the szlachta to speak Polish; since the
petty szlachta were often materially no better off than their peasant neighbors, their efforts to speak pa-pansku at home were viewed as the epitome
of pretentiousness. In time, however, the more well-to-do and better-educated peasantry in some areas began to follow the example of the szlachta,
resulting in the emergence of Polish-speaking peasant households, particularly in the Vilnius region.
Although cultural and linguistic distinctions contributed to the perception
of the Mazury as a separate ethnic group among Belarusian-speaking Catholics (not to mention the Orthodox population), even the less major linguistic
differences between the East Slavic dialects of the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions became the basis of distinguishing between different groups. Thus, it is
mistaken to claim that the Belarusian peasantry perceived its language (and
variants thereof) only in class terms. Federowski’s dialect materials from the
1880s and 1890s indicate the wide range of local names for neighboring groups,
suggesting that the linguistic divisions within the East Slavic dialects were
often as salient as those between the dialects and Russian and Polish. Often, a
single linguistic feature would become the basis for the definition of an outgroup: those who pronounced the reflexive suffix as -sa rather than -s’a or s’e
(primarily in the vicinity of Vawkavysk) were called by those to the north and
northwest of them “sakaly”, “cakaly” or “Szkocie” (from the ethnicon Scot,
evidently a legacy of the Scottish mercenaries who fought in the region during the wars of the mid-17th century) and regarded as a group as boorish and
24
Ibid. Vol. 1. P. 233.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
unrefined. The sakaly, in turn, referred to Belarusian speakers in the Hrodna
and Soko³ka regions as “Mazury” or “siekaly.”
Another East-Slavic speaking group clearly perceived by Belarusianspeaking villagers as different from “naš èalavek” were the Polesians or
Palešuki from the Brest region, whose dialects are typologically closer to
those of northwestern Ukraine. Federowski’s texts include numerous anecdotes about the alleged primitivism and stupidity of the Palešuki, often
involving imitations of the Polesian dialect. The Polesians, in turn, referred
to their Belarusian-speaking neighbors to the north as Lytvyny (“Lithuanians”) and no doubt had similar negative stereotypes about them.
Similarly, according to Kuraszkiewicz, villagers in the Bielsk region of
Poland (who speak a Polesian dialect with dispalatalization before front
vowels) referred to speakers with pronunciations of the type c’ep’er ‘now’,
dz’e idz’eš ‘where are you going?’ (that is, with cekanne and dzekanne as
in standard Belarusian) with the terms Litviny (‘Lithuanians’), c’epruk’i
(lit. ‘those who say c’ep’er ‘now’ ‘instead of teper), and the variety they
speak as litowski jazyk (‘the Lithuanian language’); the term they use for
themselves is korol’owc’i (people of the Kingdom (of Poland), and for their
dialect, po korol’owsku hovoryt’i ‘to speak in the Kingdom way’.25 These
terms, it should be noted, reflect the earlier territorial divisions in the region: the dialects with cekanne and dzekanne for the most part were confined to the part of the Bia³ystok region north of the river Narew which
belonged Grand Duchy of Lithuania, while the areas south of the Narew
had been incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland in 1569 .
Thus, we may suppose that the identity of the Belarusian-speaking peasant in the Bia³ystok and western Hrodna regions at the turn of the 20th century had three dominant components, each with social as well as linguistic
correlates: 1) membership in the local community (tutejšy ‘from hereabouts’,
naš èalavek ‘one of our people’) as reflected in the observance of local
speech norms (pa-svojmu ‘our way of speaking’, svaja havorka ‘our dialect’) and other local traditions; 2) membership in a specific social class
(mužyk ‘peasant’, prosty èalavek ‘simple person’) with a specific class dialect (prostaja mova ‘simple language’, pa-prostu ‘the simple way of speaking’); 3) membership in a community of faith (pol’skaja vera/ruskaja vera
‘the Polish faith/Russian (Rus’ian) faith), associated with specific “High”
languages of religious observance (Latin/Polish or Church Slavonic/Rus25
W³adys³aw Kuraszkiewicz. Najwa¿niejsze zjawiska jêzykowe ruskie w gwarach miêdzy
Bugiem i Narwia // Sprawozdania Komisji Jêzykowej Towarzystwa Naukowego
Warszawskiego. 1938. Vol. XXXI. z. II. Wydzia³ 1. Pp. 104-119.
309
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
sian). The dominant ideologies of the 20th century, socialism and nationalism, would compete for the loyalties of the Belarusian peasant on the basis
of these fundamental components of his identity, seeking to infuse them
with new meaning based on the “imagined communities” of the international working class or the Polish, Russian, Belarusian or nations.
The First World War represents a major turning point in the development of the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions, and indeed for the entire Belarusian ethnolinguistic territory. In 1915, as part of the Tsarist government’s
“scorched earth policy,” Russian officials organized the evacuation of a
sizeable portion of the Orthodox population of the western Hrodna and
Bia³ystok regions, spreading rumors through Cossack detachments to the
effect that the advancing Germans were slaughtering civilians. As a result,
entire villages were depopulated and burned, particularly in the Bielsk and
southeastern Bia³ystok regions, as well as the Svislaè and Vawkavysk regions in modern Belarus. Between 700,000 and 900,000 refugees from the
Grodno gubernija, which included the Bia³ystok region, the western part of
the Hrodna region, and the Brest region of modern Belarus were loaded
onto trains and wagons, and transported to central Belarus and as far east as
Moscow and the Urals.26 Most of the local Catholic population, on the other hand, remained behind in their villages, witnessing and in some cases
participating in the struggle for the restoration of the Polish state. Only in
1921 after the Treaty of Riga had been signed did the thousands of Orthodox refugees from the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions begin the long journey home. During the time they had spent in central Belarus and Russia,
many of the villagers had been exposed to Bolshevik agitation, and in some
cases, Belarusian nationalist ideas. Significantly, more than half of the 227
delegates at the Congress of Refugees from Belarus organized by the Bolsheviks in July 1918, were from the territory of the western Hrodna region,
the Brest region and the Bia³ystok region.27
3.4. THE INTER-WAR PERIOD
In accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of Riga, the Bia³ystok
and Hrodna regions, along with the rest of western Belarus and the Vilnius
region, became part of the Second Polish Republic, while the eastern half
of modern Belarus, as the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic, officially
joined the Soviet Union in 1922. While the Polish authorities effectively
26
27
Doroteusz Fionik. Bie¿eñstwo: Nieznany exodus, 1915-1921. Bielsk Podlaski, 1996. P. 3.
Ibid. P. 3.
310
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
put an end to Belarusian language education and Belarusian cultural autonomy in western Belarus by the mid 1920s, in the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic the Belarusian language was elevated to the status of state
language, and although Belarusian national life was increasingly subordinated to the interests and ideology of the Soviet state, the BSSR represented
for nationally-conscious Belarusians in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions a
positive alternative to Polish rule.
It should be stressed that it was only in the inter-war period that the term
“Belarusian” as a self-designation first became common in rural communities in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions, being promoted primarily by political, rather than cultural institutions. Belarusian political and cultural aspirations were thus represented primarily by parties of the left: the Communist Party of Western Belarus (founded in 1923), an autonomous subunit
of the Communist Party of Poland, and the Belarusian Peasants’ and Workers’ Union (Hramada). Thus, Belarusian activism in this region became
from the beginning closely associated with left-wing political views. For
politically non-committed Orthodox locals, “Belarusian” meant a “conspirator, oppositionist” and for Catholics and ethnic Poles, “Communist”.
In contrast to the Nowogródek and Wilno voivodeships, where Catholics played an important part in the leadership of the Belarusian national
movement, the Belarusian-speaking Catholics of the eastern Bia³ystok region and western Hrodna remained largely unaffected by Belarusian nationalist agitation. Thus, to a much greater degree than in eastern and central Belarus, in the western regions the Belarusian movement was primarily
associated with the Orthodox population.
While the Belarusian-speaking Catholics of the region identified themselves (at least to outsiders) as Poles, the establishment of a Polish state did
not, at least initially, result in their complete cultural and linguistic assimilation. Polish observers as late as the mid 1930s indicate that even in the
western Sokó³ka region the predominant means of referring to the local
people was still “one of our people” (naš èalavek) or simply “èalavek”, or
“prosty èalavek”, as noted by Federowski in the same region in the 1880s
and 1890s, and the older generation in the Sokó³ka region still referred to
Polish as “pa-pansku” (the gentry’s way of speaking). Szyroki notes that in
the Janów parish (north of Bia³ystok) “everyday conversation still takes
place mainly in Belarusian, or ‘po-prostemm; one rarely hears Polish, and
even more rarely, correct Polish.28 And there is nothing surprising about
S. Szyroki. Monografia parafii janowskiej w dekanacie sokó³skim woj. bia³ostockiego.
Bia³ystok, 1936. P. 20.
28
311
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
this, inasmuch as the Janów parish is ethnically Belarusian (ludowobia³oruska) par excellence.”
The interwar period also witnessed the emergence (however tentative)
of a new hybrid identity which would become far more significant in the
Bia³ystok region in the post-war period: that of Orthodox Pole. In 1935, a
Movement of Orthodox Poles was founded (under the sponsorship of the
Ministry of the Interior) in Bia³ystok, its members made up primarily of
local officials and intellectuals who had been educated in Polish institutions. Due to continued identification of Polishness with Catholicism, however, this movement failed to elicit much sympathy among Orthodox villagers. The majority of the rural Orthodox in the region continued to identify themselves as simply “tutejšyja”, “ruskija,” and among the politically
active, Belarusians.
3.5. WORLD WAR II AND THE POSTWAR BORDER SETTLEMENT
Under the provisions of the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between the
Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, the entire western portion of the Belarusian speech territory, including both the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions, was
incorporated into the Soviet Union as part of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. The new Polish-Soviet border thus corresponded roughly to
the border between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania before 1569, and to the western border of the Western Provinces with
the Kingdom of Poland under Imperial Russia. The linguistic border between Polish and East Slavic dialects lay somewhat to the east, inasmuch
as the western part of the former Podlasie voivodeship was solidly Polishspeaking. Before war broke out between Germany and the Soviet Union in
1941, elements of the Soviet system were imposed throughout the Bia³ystok
and Hrodna regions, including schools with Belarusian and Russian as the
languages of instruction. This policy affected to an equal degree both Orthodox and Catholic communities.
During the Soviet and Nazi occupations of the territory in 1939-1944,
as well as in the immediate postwar period, in general the Belarusian-speaking Catholics adopted the same political position as the Polish-speaking
population of western Podlasia and eastern Mazovia.29 On the other hand, a
portion of the local Orthodox population participated actively in the establishment of Soviet rule in the region, including repressions against local
Polish officials, landowners and clergy. Following the outbreak of war with
29
Eugeniusz Mironowicz. Bia³orusini w Polsce 1944-1949. Warszawa, 1993. P. 70.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Nazi Germany, many of the same people joined the Soviet partisan movement.
The Soviet occupation and particularly WWII brought about a number
of drastic demographic and social changes in the region. These changes
included the near total annihilation of the primarily Yiddish-speaking Jewish population of the region, which before the war had comprised up to
60% of the population in cities such as Hrodna and Bia³ystok, and up to
90% in some smaller towns, as well as the repression or forced emigration
of Polish-speaking landowners, businesspeople, government officials, clergy
and intelligentsia.
Following the expulsion of German forces from the region by Soviet
troops in 1944, the Lublin government and the Soviet Union agreed on the
Curzon line, as the future border between the USSR and Poland. Although
the Curzon line purported to mark the “natural” ethnolinguistic division
between Polish and East Slavic territories, in the Bia³ystok region the allies
made a significant deviation in Poland’s favor, giving her not only the city
of Bia³ystok, but also all of the predominantly Belarusian-speaking territory to the north and east of the city. The rationale for this revision was to
provide Poland with more direct access to the Suwalki region to the north,
and to provide Poland with a more satisfactory defensive line along the
Svislaè river and the western fringe of the Bia³owie¿a/Belaveža forest.30
The political preferences and ethnolinguistic characteristics of the local
population in the proposed border region appear to have played little or no
role in the decision.
The establishment of the new border was accompanied by the so-called
“repatriation,” an exchange of population between Poland and the USSR,
between November 1944 and November 1945. Although the resettlement
was supposed to be voluntary, there were numerous incidents reported of
Soviet representatives forcing the Orthodox inhabitants of the Micha³owo,
Gródek, Zabludów and other areas to sign up for “repatriation.” At the
same time, many of those who were being recruited for resettlement were
supposedly promised private farms in the BSSR or on the Volga.
In addition to coercion and cajolery on the part of the Soviet representatives, another factor that led many Orthodox inhabitants of the Bia³ystok
region to choose resettlement in the Soviet Union were the actions of the
30
V. N. Savèenko. (1995). Vostoènoslavjansko-pol’skoe pograniè’e 1918-1921 gg.
Etnosocial’naja situacija i gosudarstvenno-politièeskoe razmeživanie. Moscow, 1995.
P. 124.
313
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
Polish anti-Communist underground, which terrorized the Orthodox population in some areas, accusing it of complicity in the Communist takeovers
before and after the German occupation.31 Fortunately, due to the limited
nature of Belarusian political and partisan activity, the local Orthodox population was spared the wholesale relocation experienced by the Ukrainian
population of southeastern Poland in “Operation Wis³a”.
In contrast to other population movements at the end of the war, the
“repatriation” of populations across the new Polish-Belarusian border was
a relatively small-scale operation. Vjaliki and Jazykoviè cite the following
figures: although 115,000 people in the Bia³ystok region had been registered for “repatriation,” only 27,409 people were actually relocated to the
BSSR, while from the Belarusian side, 148,724 were registered, of which
47,054 actually were resettled in Poland, 36,009 were refused resettlement,
while 101,670 of those registered declined to leave.32
The majority of those who ultimately opted for “repatriation” on both
sides of the border appear to have been motivated primarily by ideological
and political considerations, although economic factors also played a role
in some cases. From the Belarusian side, the majority of those leaving were
individuals with a strong attachment to the Polish national idea (which generally correlated with a better knowledge of Polish, and in many cases the
use of Polish as the home language); others were motivated primarily by an
aversion to Soviet rule. From the Polish side, in addition to those who had
actively collaborated with the Soviet authorities in 1939-1941 and/or had
supported the Soviet partisans, came landless agricultural laborers and other members of the rural poor. Only a part of those “repatriated” to the BSSR
were primarily motivated by Belarusian nationalism.
In this period, the Polish authorities acted as if they expected the entire
Belarusian/Orthodox population of the Bia³ystok region to leave for the
Soviet Union. Thus, in 1945-1946, efforts were made to “polonize” the
local administration, and the Belarusian-language schools that had been set
up in the eastern Bia³ystok region in 1944 were liquidated. Only in 1949
were Belarusian schools and cultural organizations allowed to resume their
activities.
In the first years after the war, the PPR experienced difficulty in recruiting members among the Catholics (both Belarusian and Polish-speaking)
E. Mironowicz. Bia³orusini.P. 140.
Anatol’ Vjaliki and Larysa Jazykoviè. Perasjalenne belaruskaha nasel’nictva z Pol’šèy
w BSSR i z BSSR u Pol’šèu // Kantakty i dyjalohi. 1998. P. 27, 30.
31
32
314
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
in the western and northern parts of the Bia³ystok region; as a consequence,
the authorities had to rely on the same elements in the region that had supported the Soviet partisans during the war: the Orthodox. In the heavily
Orthodox southeastern parts of the Bia³ystok region, party cells were established in Hajnówka, Bielsk Podlaski, Ciechanowicz, Gródek and other locations. Another unfortunate consequence of this was that up to 50% of the
personnel of the security organs at the local level was made up of ethnic
Belarusians.33
In general, interethnic conflicts were more heated in those areas where
the Catholic-Orthodox divide coincided with clear ethnolinguistic divisions,
for example in the western and central Bielsk region south of Bia³ystok,
where Catholic Poles of Mazovian origin were interspersed with Orthodox
East Slavs. In the region to the north of Bia³ystok, where rural Catholic
Poles and Orthodox both spoke Belarusian dialects, relations between the
two groups were less tense.34
3.6. FROM THE 1950S TO 1989
Despite the fact that, at least after 1947, Poland was firmly tied to the
Soviet Bloc, the differences between the eastern Bia³ystok region and the
western Hrodna region grew more pronounced as time went on. The heavily guarded Polish-Soviet border was now virtually closed, and even crossborder contacts between relatives became extremely limited.
On the Belarusian side of the border, sovietization and immigration from
other parts of the Soviet Union brought a number of profound changes in the
local demographic and ethnolinguistic situation. Throughout the Hrodna region, there was a marked influx of Russian and Russian-speaking military
personnel, Communist Party and government officials, educators and workers from other parts of the Soviet Union. As a reflection of Stalin’s distrust of
cadres who had spent the war in occupied territory, after 1945 party and state
functionaries of local origin in western Belarus were replaced by apparatchiki from the more Russified eastern regions of Belarus, as well as from Russia
and eastern Ukraine. As Roman Szporluk has pointed out, from the very beginning there was evidently a conscious policy on the part of the Soviet authorities to expand the use of Russian in western Belarus, as reflected in the
numbers of Russian-language newspapers published in the region in the im33
34
E. Mironowicz. Bia³orusini.P. 134-135.
Ibid. P. 180.
315
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
mediate post-war period.35 This policy was, it would seem, based on an assessment of the strength of local nationalism, and also reflected the importance assigned by Soviet military planners to the western Belarusian region as
a vital part of the Soviet Union’s new western border.
In keeping with Soviet precepts, all agriculture on the Belarusian side of
the border was collectivized by the late 1940s, and formerly autonomous
farming communities were gradually merged into larger collective and state
farms. In these farms the daily lives of the peasants were controlled to a
considerable degree by outsiders (that is, state-appointed farm administrators, agronomists and other personnel) who generally had no ties to the
community and who for the most part did not speak the local dialect. In the
Bia³ystok region, as in the rest of postwar Poland, attempts to impose socialist models of agriculture were largely abandoned by the 1950s, the vast
majority of peasants having retained or received private plots after the postwar land reform. As a result, the independent freeholder peasantry existed
largely outside the framework of the state apparatus and indeed frequently
perceived its role as one of opposition to it.
Despite some pronounced differences in land tenure and farming practices on the two sides of the border, both sides experienced a similar process of rural-urban migration beginning in the late 1950s. The regional
urban centers, Bia³ystok on the Polish side and Hrodna on the Belarusian
side, attracted the lion’s share of migrants from the local Belarusian-speaking rural population, who in the urban environment tended to assimilate to
the dominant language, whether Polish or Russian.
While Russian was taught as an obligatory subject in Polish schools in
the Bia³ystok region, on the Belarusian side of the border Polish was completely excluded from the sphere of education. In the Hrodna region, standard Belarusian was used as the language of instruction alongside Russian
in rural schools, although the number of subjects taught primarily or exclusively in Russian increased significantly by the 1960s, and by the 1970s
many rural schools had for all intents and purposes switched to Russian as
the primary language of instruction. In Hrodna, Vawkavysk and other towns,
the switch to Russian occurred much earlier; by the 1970s, there was not a
single Belarusian-language school left in Hrodna, as in the other major cities in Belarus.
Roman Szporluk. West Ukraine and West Belorussia: Historical Tradition, Social
Communication, and Linguistic Assimilation // Soviet Studies. 1979. Vol. XXXI. No. 1.
Pp. 76-98.
35
316
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
On the Polish side of the border, Belarusian-language schools were
opened in the late 1940s in some predominantly Orthodox communities in
the eastern part of the Bia³ystok voivodeship, although in many of them
Belarusian was in fact only taught as a subject. Obviously, no effort was
made to provide Belarusian-language instruction for Catholic Belarusian
speakers in the northern Bia³ystok region, for whom, in any event, Polish
was the preferred language of education.
Although the Belarusians in Poland were allowed a certain degree of
cultural autonomy, particularly after 1956, as noted by Mironowicz: “[t]he
Belarusians were a topic that was not discussed at the official level on the
territory of the Bia³ystok voivodeship. In accordance with the logic of the
conception of one state-one nation, they simply did not exist.”36 Under the
Gierek administration in the 1970s, as the regime sought to bolster its legitimacy by appealing to Polish nationalism, the conception of Poland as an
ethnically homogeneous state was elevated to the status of official doctrine. Naturally, this policy strengthened the already formidable pressures
for linguistic and cultural assimilation among Belarusian speakers, both
Orthodox and Catholic, in the Bia³ystok region. The postwar new intelligentsia from Belarusian-speaking Orthodox rural communities became
Polonized quite rapidly, with only some exceptions. The local peasantry,
on the other hand, remained deeply suspicious of government officials and
institutions, but was on the whole politically unengaged.37
On the Belarusian side of the border, although “Polish nationality” was
officially recognized, as reflected in internal passports and censuses, this
did not translate into any opportunities for organized Polish activity or for
the cultivation of a distinctive Polish cultural and linguistic identity. To a
considerable extent, the fact that most of the local Polish-speaking intelligentsia had been repressed, forced into emigration, or “repatriated” after
the war meant that the majority of the population who identified themselves as Poles in the region were Belarusian-speaking Catholic peasants,
among whom the modern ethnolinguistic definition of Polishness had as
yet not been thoroughly assimilated. The degree to which knowledge of
Polish has become restricted on the Belarusian side of the border is reflected in the results of a survey conducted in 1989, according to which only
3.8% of Belarusians in the Hrodna region claimed fluency in spoken Polish,
36
37
E. Mironowicz. Bia³orusini. P. 153.
Ibid. P. 178.
317
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
2.2% of Russians, and 36% of Poles.38 For comparison, on the Polish side,
a survey of local residents showed that: 94.3% of Poles claimed fluency in
spoken Polish.39 Unfortunately, the survey did not provide information on
Belarusians’ knowledge of Polish; significantly, however, 24.8% of selfdeclared Belarusians in the Bia³ystok region claimed to use Polish at home.40
The post-war sociolinguistic situation in the Bia³ystok region thus represents in a sense a continuation of processes that had been underway
throughout the entire western part of the Belarusian ethnolinguistic territory during the inter-war period. Today, in those Belarusian-speaking communities in the Bia³ystok region where Catholicism is the dominant religion, the shift toward Polish is virtually complete among the younger generations, while in predominantly Orthodox rural communities, particularly
in the eastern part of the region, stable bilingualism is still often the norm.
In the cities, however, such as Sokó³ka and Bia³ystok, even the Orthodox
show a strong tendency to shift to Polish. The general tendency toward
language shift in urban areas has left an imprint on the speech of the urban
population of the region, in particular the older, less educated segment.
The Solidarity movement in Poland proved to be an important impetus
for the development of new forms of Belarusian cultural and political activity. The 1980s and early 1990s saw the emergence, alongside traditional
institutions such as the Belarusian Social and Cultural Association and the
Belarusian-language newspaper Niva, of new organizations that explicitly
linked Belarusian and Orthodox cultural identity with political goals, including the Belarusian Democratic Alliance (Belaruskaje Demakratyènaje
Ab’jadnannie) and the Association of Belarusian Students (Belaruskaja
Ab’jadnanne Studentaw (BAS)). The demands of these organization (mainly representation of Belarusian interests in local and national government
and official recognition of the Belarusians in Poland as a national minority)
led to a growing estrangement between Solidarity and its erstwhile allies in
the Belarusian movement. After 1989, many Belarusians in the Bia³ystok
region began to see Solidarity as essentially a Polish nationalist and radically pro-Catholic and anti-Orthodox movement, while local representatives of Solidarity and other rightist parties became increasingly hostile
toward the Belarusians, often accusing them of pro-Communist sympathies.
Taccjana Mikuliè. Mova i etniènaja samasvjadomasc’. Minsk, 1996. P. 153.
Andrzej Sadowski. Pogranicze polsko-bia³oruskie: To¿samoœæ mieszkañców. Bia³ystok,
1995. P. 163.
40
Ibid. P. 165.
38
39
318
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
At the same time, the more politically assertive Belarusians were regarded
with suspicion by the more assimilation-minded portion of the Orthodox
community.
The assimilationists, however, were beginning to find themselves in a
difficult position, both with regard to changing local attitudes on the part of
the more nationalistic elements within the local Polish community and with
regard to the attitudes of the now more assertive pro-Belarusian groups. As
the role of religion in public life grew over the course of the 1980s, the
boundary separating the Catholics and Orthodox in the Bia³ystok region
grew more salient. For many Catholic Poles, the Orthodox (whether or not
they regarded themselves as Belarusians) were not fully-fledged members
of the Polish nation, since Polishness and Orthodoxy were considered incompatible, while from the Belarusian camp the “Orthodox Poles” now
began to be regarded as “renegades” (a designation formerly used in Orthodox communities for those who had converted to Catholicism).
While elite attitudes grew more polarized, at the level of local contacts
relations between the two communities in general were far less strained,
although sociological research in the early 1990s showed that 58% of Orthodox respondents in the city of Bia³ystok felt that there was still too little
contact between ethnic Poles and Belarusians, a situation which they believed tended to reinforce mutual ethnic stereotypes.41
The impact of ethnic mobilization on the Orthodox population of the
Bia³ystok region has been uneven; in general, those areas where a majority
of the local population is Orthodox have been more receptive. An interesting outcome of this is that Belarusian national identity and identification
with the Belarusian standard language as a national symbol are strongest in
those regions where the local dialects are furthest from standard Belarusian
(i.e. in the region to the southeast of Bia³ystok, in the villages near Bielsk
and Hajnówka, where transitional Belarusian-Ukrainian dialects are spoken and up to 75% percent of the local population is Orthodox). In contrast,
with the exception of the Gródek and Micha³owo gminas, in those parts of
the Bia³ystok region where dialects much closer to the Belarusian standard
are spoken, the majority of the rural population is Roman Catholic and
considers itself Polish.
In the Hrodna region on the Belarusian side of the border, signs of ethnic mobilization can also be observed, to varying degrees, among both the
Andrzej Sadowski. Polscy Bia³orusini na temat Polaków i kultury polskiej // Pogranicze.
Studia Spo³eczne. Vol. VI. Bia³ystok, 1997. Pp. 26-51.
41
319
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
Catholic and Orthodox population. Use of the Belarusian language in both
rural and urban schools, the media, and was briefly expanded in the early
1990s, but since the Lukashenko-sponsored referendum on state languages, in which a majority voted in favor of official Belarusian-Russian bilingualism, the Belarusanization of the educational system has been reversed
to a considerable degree. Inasmuch as the rollback of Belarusianization has
been accompanied by a general crackdown on all independent organizations and media, it is difficult to assess the extent to which Lukashenko’s
language policies reflect the desires of those who voted for official bilingualism in the referendum. In any event, it appears as if the linguistic trends
which began in the late 1940s in the Hrodna region under Soviet rule will
continue for the foreseeable future.
The weakness in rural areas of parties with a specifically national agenda, such as the Belarusian Popular Front, is symptomatic of a general political conservatism and a continuing disinclination on the part of the rural
population to link ethnic identity with political goals. Attempts to promote
Polishness not only as a local religious and cultural identity, but as a specifically ethnolinguistic national identity, have likewise met with limited success. The most important organization in this regard is the Union of Poles
of Belarus, which has promoted the publication of Polish-language newspapers and the opening of Polish-language schools. However, the status of
the Polish language in education in Belarus is perhaps even worse than that
of Belarusian-language schools in Poland, being limited to one or two Polish lyceums and Polish as an optional subject in some rural schools.
In religious life, the Catholic Church in Belarus, which had been subjected to greater restrictions by the authorities during the Soviet period,
began to expand its presence in the Hrodna region and throughout the country
in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Initially, the majority of new Catholic
priests were from Poland, and in many cases sought to bring to their parishioners a specifically Polish vision of Catholicism. Gradually, however, under pressure both from Belarusian nationalists and from the Belarusian government, the Catholic church of Belarus began to adapt its message, becoming less overtly Polish in orientation and even encouraging the use of
Belarusian in services in some areas.
With the relaxation of cross-border movement in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the expansion of cross-border economic activity, as well as new
joint initiatives in the educational and cultural spheres, the possibility
emerged that a new regional identity could be formed, at the same time
allowing the cultivation of minority identities on both sides of the border.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
However, the optimistic signs in the first years after 1991 have been supplanted in the Lukashenko era by decreased permeability of the border and
restricted contacts between Belarus and Poland. Due to the increasing selfisolation of the Lukashenko regime, as well as the admission of Poland to
NATO and the likelihood of its admission to the European Union, the Polish-Belarusian border will no doubt become even less permeable in the
future than it is today.
The political evolution of post-Soviet Belarus has no doubt disillusioned
many young Belarusians in the Bia³ystok region, and has very likely weakened the attractiveness of the Belarusian identity for that part of the Orthodox population which remains suspended between traditional confessional
and regional identity and Polishness. For Catholics on the Belarusian side
of the border, many of whom are similarly suspended between traditional
confessionally-based identities and contemporary conceptions of nationality, whether Belarusian or Polish, there is a growing sense of marginalization as the present Belarusian regime increasingly presents Belarus as a
Slavic Orthodox adjunct of the Russian state.
4.0. Identities in Flux: The Polish-Belarusian Borderlands in the 1990s
In this section I will examine contemporary trends in the formation and
maintenance of Belarusian, Polish and other identities in the Bia³ystok and
Hrodna regions, and the role of political, religious and linguistic factors in
identity construction, both at the elite and at the popular level. I will rely on
the results of sociological research conducted by Polish and Belarusian scholars, the analysis of examples of local discourse on nationality issues, as
well as the results of my own ethnographic and sociolinguistic research in
several Belarusian-speaking rural communities on both sides of the border.
The bulk of the fieldwork that I will report on in this section was carried
out from the fall of 1996 to the summer of 2000. Tape-recorded interviews
and sociolinguistic surveys were administered under my supervision in eight
Belarusian-speaking villages, five on the Belarusian side, and three on the
Polish side. On the Belarusian side, the survey sites included the village of
Malaja Berastavica (with an Orthodox majority), the villages of Indura and
Luckawljany (both with a Catholic majority and Orthodox minority), the
Catholic village of Šuryèy on the edge of the Belaveža forest in the Svislaè
rajon, and the Orthodox village of Ulezly-Matveewcy (near Vawkavysk).
On the Polish side of the border, interviews and surveys were carried
out in three Belarusian-speaking villages: the Orthodox village of Ja³owo
321
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
in the D¹browa Bia³ostocka gmina north of Bia³ystok, the Catholic village
of Ha³o in the Sokó³ka gmina, and the Orthodox village of Gródek (dial.
[haradók]) east of Bia³ystok. However, since the survey data from Gródek
are still incomplete, I will focus primarily on the first two communities.
In order to reduce potential observer effects during the interviews I had
decided to employ local students from the School of Belarusian Philology
at Hrodna University (in Belarus) and the Institute for East Slavic Philology at Bia³ystok University in Poland as fieldworkers. All of the fieldworkers were natives of the villages investigated and were themselves speakers
of the local Belarusian dialects.
Informants for the study were selected by means of a judgment sample
of 32 people from each of the eight villages investigated, with four females
and four males representing each of the following age cohorts: 13-24 yrs,
25-39 yrs, 40-54 yrs, and 55 and above. The informants were drawn primarily from among my student assistants’ social networks in the villages (including family, friends, neighbors and members of their networks).
4.1. SURVEY DATA ON NATIONAL IDENTITIES
The well-known traditional self-designation for much of the Belarusian
peasant population, “tutejšy” (‘from hereabouts’), which has become something of a buzzword among students of Eastern European history and ethnography, is no longer widely encountered in the region, having been supplanted by other terms. However, there is evidence that ties to the local
community or region remain much stronger, among both Catholics and Orthodox, than those to the “imagined community” of the nation. According
to Sadowski’s 1993 survey, 34% of the respondents on the Polish side of
the border, and 39% on the Belarusian side indicated that for them, their
“homeland” (Pol. ziemia ojczysta, Bel. radzima, Rus. rodina) is the village
or town of their birth or current residence. An additional 36% on the Polish
side and 10% on the Belarusian side stated that their “homeland” was the
region in which they live. Only 12% of respondents on the Polish side (the
majority of them claiming Polish nationality) and 10% on the Belarusian
side indicated that their homeland was the country of their birth or current
residence.42
Nonetheless, the pressures of modernity have forced most of the population to identify itself with larger national or ethnolinguistic communities,
at least for the purposes of contacts with outsiders. As Sadowski notes: “In
42
A. Sadowski.Pogranicze. P. 175.
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group-internal contacts national definitions are on the whole not raised.
Here everything is clear and easily understood. We are ‘locals’, ‘from hereabouts’, ‘normal’, ‘at home’; only the ‘outside world’ demands specific
declarations of national identity.”43 To avoid charges of disloyalty to the
state, or to satisfy the expectations of census-takers and government agencies, or to compensate for the progressing disintegration of traditional local
bonds, individuals were increasingly looking (or being forced to look) beyond the local community for foci of identity. In the context of the modern
nation-state, being without a nationality (at least in a formal sense) was
becoming increasingly anachronistic.
The response to these external pressures has differed among the Catholics and Orthodox on the two sides of the border. In the Bia³ystok region,
the majority of the Orthodox population (53%), regardless of its own language and culture, identifies itself primarily as Polish.44 Sadowski explains
the high percentage claiming Polish nationality as less of an expression of
full identification with Polish national culture and the Polish language, but
rather as a way of asserting the rights guaranteed by Polish citizenship and
as a way of avoiding the marginal status ascribed to those who identify
themselves above all as Belarusians.45 Among the older generation there
are also undoubtedly many who remember the immediate post-war period,
when it was feared that any response other than “Polish” to the question of
nationality could have resulted in their being deported to the Soviet Union.
The portion of the population of the Bia³ystok region who consciously
identify themselves as Belarusians, on the other hand, has been estimated
at somewhere between 60 to 70 thousand, i.e. less than 28% of the total
Orthodox population in the region, that is, only 10% of the population of
the former Bia³ystok voivoideship and less than 6% of the population of the
new Podlasie voivodeship.46
I have already noted that on the Polish side of the border, the Belarusian
movement has gained the greatest number of adherents in the heavily Orthodox region southeast of Bia³ystok, in the vicinity of Bielsk Podlaski and
Hajnówka. However, even in these areas, popularly considered the most
consciously “Belarusian” in terms of the identity of the local population,
we find that the gains of the Belarusian movement among the Orthodox
Andrzej Sadowski. Narody wielkie i ma³e. Bia³orusini w Polsce. Kraków, 1991. P.
115.
44
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 128.
45
A. Sadowski. Narody wielkie.P. 116.
46
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 99.
43
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population as a whole are still relatively modest. Thus, for example, a 1993
survey of students at the Belarusian lyceums in Bielsk Podlaski and Hajnówka found that only 23.4% of the students considered themselves Belarusians, while 45% considered themselves Poles.47
On the Belarusian side of the border, we find a somewhat different picture due to the fact that Soviet nationalities policies stipulated that an individual’s nationality, chosen on the basis of the nationality of at least one of
the parents, must be registered in his or her internal passport. Nationality is
thus interpreted in the Soviet tradition as ethnic heritage, rather than the
presence of specific ethnolinguistic characteristics or even consciousness
of belonging to a specific group. At the same time, the very use of the
passport system appears to have promoted continued consciousness of the
existence and immutability of ethnic boundaries, if only at a somewhat
abstract level. The effects of the Soviet passport system in promoting a
specific conception of nationality are reflected in the results of Sadowski’s
survey in the Hrodna and Bia³ystok regions, where 55% of the respondents
on the Belarusian side (as compared with 38% on the Polish side) claimed
that it was impossible to change one’s nationality, while only 12% (as compared with 30% on the Polish side) indicated that nationality may be
changed.48
I would argue, thus, that the Belarusian majorities in the westernmost
rajons of the Hrodna region, bordering on Poland, are to a significant extent a product of identity planning policies that were put in place in the
1940s. It seems likely that the situation in the western Hrodna region at that
time was similar to what we see among the Orthodox on the Polish side of
the border today, with a variety of self-identifications apart from Belarusian, including those based on citizenship, religion (“Orthodox”, “ruski”),
or local identity “tutejšy”. Although there is no existing documentation, to
my knowledge, concerning the exact procedures whereby nationality was
assigned to the population of the areas annexed by the Soviet Union in
1939 and again in 1945, we may speculate that “Belarusian” was employed
by Soviet officials as a default category for individuals of Orthodox heritage who were unable or unwilling to state their nationality.
In the case of the Belarusian-speaking Catholics in the western Hrodna
region, Soviet policies may have contributed to the retention of a nominally Polish identity among this segment of the local population. Given the
47
48
Ibid. P. 120.
Ibid. P. 99.
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fact that Polishness, as a non-territorial identity, was not supported in the
BSSR (Polish cultural autonomy in eastern Belarus having been eliminated
in the 1930s); “passport nationality” must have played some role for Belarusian Poles, just has it had for Belarusians.
On the other hand, we must not overemphasize the significance of the
nationality entry in the Soviet internal passport in the everyday consciousness of Belarusian and Polish inhabitants of the western BSSR, as if it somehow served to “fix” national identities and eliminate once and for all any
potential ambiguities. After all, in theory both groups were ultimately part
of the Soviet “family of nations,” in which national identities were expected to be subordinated to an all-encompassing Soviet identity. Indeed, the
concept of the “Soviet nation – A New Historical Community”, developed
in the 1970s and early 1980s by Soviet ideologists, had some degree of
plausibility as applied to much of the population of Belarus. In the context
of Soviet and post-Soviet Belarus, one could thus speak of “passport Belarusians” and “conscious” (svjadomyja) Belarusians”, a distinction that
became central to the discourse of the Belarusian nationalist movement.
Underlying this distinction, however, is the assumption that those with “Belarusian” in their passports, regardless of behavioral and attitudinal factors,
are nonetheless at some level “really” Belarusians. The notion of persons
having a “true nationality” which they might seek to conceal is even found
in academic discourse on Belarusian-speakers in the border region. Thus,
for example, in a recent article in the International Journal of the Sociology
of Language dealing with East Slavic-speaking minorities in Poland we
read: “...the exact number [of Belarusians in Poland] is not known since no
statistics concerning nationalities are kept, and the Belorussians themselves
do not always acknowledge their nationality.”49
4.2. RELIGION AND IDENTITY
I will now turn to the role of religion in contemporary conceptions of
national identity in the Polish-Belarusian borderlands, as reflected in recent survey data as well as ethnographic qualitative analysis.
It may be argued that the anti-religion policies of the socialist regimes
that ruled the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions in the period after WWII were,
whether consciously or not, targeted at one of the most salient markers of
the division between Poles and Belarusians in the region. On the Polish
49
Maria Czurak. Belorussians and the Belorussian language in Poland // International
Journal of the Sociology of Language. 1996. No. 120. P. 55.
325
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
side of the border, the promotion of a secular Polish national identity under
the sponsorship of the officially atheist Polish United Workers’ Party made
possible an increasing identification on the part of the Orthodox with the
Polish state. The development of a new Polish Orthodox identity was also
promoted by the policies of the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church,
which avoided any official identification with Belarusian organizations and
cultivated the use of Polish (and to a lesser extent, Russian) in non-liturgical functions.
On the Soviet side of the border, more significant restrictions on religious practice made religion as a group identity marker even less noticeable than in the Bia³ystok region. The restrictions on religious life were felt
above all by the Catholics, who were regarded as particularly suspect by
the Soviet regime. However, despite the decline in formal religious observance, the consciousness of “Polish” cultural heritage remained to some
extent among the younger generations in the 1980s, and was still deeply
embedded in local cultural norms in rural areas.
One sign of the decreased significance of religion in local culture on the
two sides of the border from the 1950s to the 1980s are naming practices,
which were once one of the key external markers of Catholic vs. Orthodox
identity in the region. During this period there was a marked convergence
of anthroponymic patterns among Catholics and Orthodox, with the Catholic system prevailing among both communities on the Polish side, and the
Orthodox prevailing on the Belarusian side. Naming practices on the two
sides of the border are but one small aspect of the cultural configuration of
the Polish-Belarusian border region, but are indexical, I would argue, of
other, deeper patterns of socio-cultural divergence in the decades following
WWII. Thus, on the Polish side of the border, names marked as specifically
Orthodox or associated with the Orthodox community, such as Bazyli,
Sergiusz, Borys, Wiaczes³aw, Olga, Nina, Nadzieja, Natalia, Wiera, Zinaida, were avoided by the majority of Orthodox parents by the 1970s; general Polish or ethnically neutral names, such as: Jan, Tadeusz, Piotr, Miko³aj,
Ma³gorzata, Elžbieta, Katarzyna, Marta, Anna, etc. were preferred.50 In
contrast, on the Belarusian side of the border, traditionally Russian Orthodox names, ethnically neutral names, as well as fashionable post-WWII
Soviet Russian names, were predominant among both Orthodox and CathZofia Abramowicz. Transformacja imion bia³oruskich na jêzyk polski (na podstawie
metryk chrztu Bia³ostoczan z lat 1919-1985) // Helena Karwacka and Jan F. Nosowicz
(Eds.). Na pograniczu: Studia i szkice. Bia³ystok, 1992. Pp. 132-137.
50
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olics: Ivan, Sergej, Aleksandr, Nikolaj, Oleg, Natal’ja, Tat’jana, Irina, Inna.
Traditionally Polish names, such as Adam, Czes³aw, Mieczys³aw, Tomasz,
Jan, Jerzy, Jadwiga, Elžbieta, Ma³gorzata, Danuta, Jolanta, etc. had become a rarity among Poles on the Belarusian side of the border born after
the 1950s. On neither side of the border do we find many examples of the
traditional Belarusian forms of personal names, such as Janka, Vasil’, Kastus’, Zmitrok, Ales’, Jazep, Pilip,Vincuk, Piatro, Hanna, Aryna, Kaciaryna,
etc., which are evidently still marked as colloquial or non-standard by speakers of Belarusian, and in any case were often not accepted by the church or
state authorities for use in official documents.
With the re-emergence of religion as an important factor in public life in
Poland in the early 1980s and in Belarus at the end of the decade, the relationship between religion and national identity gained new prominence.
The reassertion of old cultural models which identified Polishness with
Catholicism and Belarusianness with Orthodoxy created new difficulties
for emerging groups, such as Catholic Belarusians and Orthodox Poles,
which did not conform to the traditional ethno-confessional stereotypes.
Thus, although numerically the “Orthodox Poles” account for a sizeable
percentage of the Orthodox population of the Bia³ystok region, “Orthodox
Pole” has become a strongly contested identity, both among many members of the Catholic majority, and among that portion of the Orthodox community that explicitly identifies itself as Belarusian. Although many “Orthodox Poles” have adopted Polish as a first language and are culturally
well-assimilated into the Polish mainstream, the lack of recognition of their
Polishness on the part of many Catholic Poles in the region underscores the
persistent nature of ethnic boundaries. As Fredrik Barth notes: “When defined as an ascriptive and exclusionary group, the nature of continuity of
ethnic units is clear: it depends on the maintenance of a boundary. The
cultural features that signal the boundary may change, and the cultural characteristics of the members may likewise be transformed, indeed, even the
organizational form of the group may change – yet the fact of continuing
dichotomization between members and outsiders allows us to specify the
nature of continuity, and investigate the changing cultural form and content.”51 Thus, the boundary of religion, which many local Poles still view as
crucial to the definition of Polishness, remains an ethnic boundary at least
from the standpoint of the majority. Similarly, in the case of Belarusians in
Fredrik Barth. Introduction // Fredrik Barth (Ed.). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The
Social Organization of Culture Difference. 9-38. London, 1969. P. 14.
51
327
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
the Bia³ystok region, for whom Orthodoxy is an essential component of
their identity, the recognition of practicing Catholics as fellow Belarusians
would be somewhat problematic, for this would undermine the religious
basis of their group identity.
Contemporary data on the relationship between religion and national
identity in the Polish-Belarusian border region reveal a pattern of both continuity and change. By far the most stable, on both sides of the border, is the
connection between Catholicism and Polish identity. Sadowski’s data from
the Polish side of the border show that only about 3% of Roman Catholics
consider themselves Belarusian, while some 53% of the Orthodox identify
themselves as Poles, and only about 28% of the Orthodox consider themselves to be Belarusians. On the other hand, Sadowski’s data from the Hrodna region, which include a considerable number of urban informants, indicated a larger number of “hybrid” identities from the standpoint of traditional nomenclature: 14% of self-declared Belarusians were Roman Catholic, while 21% of Poles were Orthodox.52 Sadowski explains the surprisingly high percentage of Orthodox Poles in the Hrodna region as the result of
religiously mixed marriages (which are, it should be pointed out, more likely
to occur in the urban than rural context). Among the older generation, this
could also reflect the results of processes that had begun under Polish rule
in the 1920s and 30s.
Sadowski’s findings for the Bia³ystok region are corroborated by the
results of my research in the villages of Belarusian-speaking villages of
Ja³owo and Ha³o. Thus, with respect to self-reported nationality, in the Orthodox village of Ja³owo, 60% of the informants consider themselves Poles,
30% Belarusians, and 10% Orthodox. In the Catholic village of Ha³o, on
the other hand, all informants considered themselves Poles.
In contrast, my data from villages in the Hrodna region reveal a greater
continuity in the traditional understanding of the link between religion and
identity among both Catholics and Orthodox than suggested by Sadowski’s
data.
On the Belarusian side, in the Catholic village of Šuryèy, all respondents gave their nationality as Polish, while in the Orthodox village of
Macveewcy-Ulezly, all respondents gave their nationality as Belarusian. I
had expected greater numbers of “hybrid” identities in the mixed CatholicOrthodox villages of Malaja Berastavica, Luckawljany and Indura, but found
that here, too, religion still coincided to a surprisingly high degree (much
52
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 128.
328
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
more so than native language) with self-reported nationality. In only two
cases (out of a total of 96 respondents in the three villages) did I find instances of non-coincidence of religion and nationality: two Catholic Belarusians in the village of Indura, with a Catholic majority.
The persistence of traditional conceptions of religion and nationality on
the Belarusian side of the border, particularly in Catholic communities, was
noted by the Polish sociologist Anna Engelking. Reporting on fieldwork
conducted in the predominantly Catholic Voranava region of northwestern
Belarus, Engelking notes the persistence of the earlier semantics of “ruski”
and “pol’ski” among the older population (60s-70s) as reflected in statements such as: “There are no Orthodox Poles... all Belarusians are Orthodox, Poles are Catholic”; “that’s how they’re called: “pol’skija” and “ruskija”. There can’t be a “pol’ski” Orthodox, or a “ruski” Catholic.” At the
same time, the link between language and culture and the labels “pol’ski’
and ‘ruski’ remains unclear: “Lithuanians are Poles, only they speak Lithuanian”; “The Germans were a Polish nation, they were Poles, Catholics”.53
4.3. LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY
In the study of the role of language in national movements, it is important to distinguish at least three aspects of language and linguistic behavior
and their possible ramifications for national identity: 1) language structure;
2) language use and language functions; and 3) language attitudes. The
basis for the symbolic use of language as a component of national identity
is the assumption that the speech community is coterminous with the nation. This requires, however, that the speech community be defined above
all in functional and attitudinal rather than structural terms, so that differences in the linguistic structure of the various lects that are to be subsumed
under the rubric of national language can be downplayed or overlooked to
allow the acceptance of a single standard form or koine as “the” national
language.
4.3.1. Language Structure
As was noted in section 2, the findings of traditional dialectology and
dialect geography confirm the East Slavic (more specifically, Belarusian
and transitional Belarusian-Ukrainian) linguistic character of the dialects
53
Anna Engelking. Jak katolik, to Polak. Co to znaczy? Wstêpne wnioski z badañ
terenowych na Bia³orusi // Andrzej Sadowski (Ed.). Wschodne pogranicze w
perspektywie socjologicznej. Bia³ystok, 1995. Pp. 141, 143.
329
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
of the eastern Bia³ystok region and western Hrodna region. However, as
sociolinguistic research has repeatedly demonstrated, geographical variation is only one dimension of language variation; in the same location, considerable differences in linguistic structure and function can be observed,
which reflect differences in age, gender, social status and other social parameters. Moreover, as is now widely recognized (at least in academic circles), it is impossible to extrapolate from purely linguistic data the ethnolinguistic or national identity of dialect speakers.
Apart from strictly linguistic data, which in accordance with traditional
historically-oriented dialectological methodology were obtained primarily
from the oldest living dialect speakers, the Atlas of East Slavic Dialects of
the Bia³ystok Region also includes information on the communities investigated, including the extent to which the dialect was still used by the local
population. The sociolinguistic data indicate that by the 1960s, the rural
population in the western third of the East Slavic speaking area was in the
advanced stages of language shift to Polish. More recent observations have
indicated a further reduction in the number of rural communities where
East Slavic dialects remain the primary means of communication. Nevertheless, overall, the Belarusian dialects as spoken by fluent younger speakers do not differ significantly from those spoken by the older generation
(except, perhaps, for the degree of lexical influence from Polish).
As regards the Belarusian dialects on the Belarusian side of the border,
the data from the Belarusian Dialect Atlas present a generally static view of
the linguistic character of the region. As confirmed by my fieldwork on the
Belarusian side of the border in 1996-97, there are numerous signs in the
local Belarusian dialects of convergence with Russian in the speech of the
generations born after WWII. The ultimate linguistic result, if we compare
the Belarusian dialects on the Polish and Belarusian sides of the border, is
dialectal divergence in apparent time, with the dialects of the older generations within the same dialectal area on both sides of the border showing
minimal differences, while the younger generations have either shifted altogether to the dominant languages (particularly in the cities and towns), or
speak increasingly different varieties characterized by greater structural
conservatism (on the Polish side) or convergent structural innovation in the
direction of the dominant standard language, Russian, and to a much lesser
extent, toward standard Belarusian, on the Belarusian side.
One of the most readily apparent signs of a “border effect” in the postWWII evolution of the Belarusian dialects of the Bia³ystok and Hrodna
regions is a growing divergence in the lexicon. At the beginning of the 20th
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
century, the Belarusian dialectologist Jawxim Karski noted that the dialects
of both the Bia³ystok and western Hrodna region shared a relatively large
number of lexical polonisms as compared with other parts of the Belarusian speech territory. By the end of the century, we find that the number of
lexical borrowings from Polish in the Belarusian dialects of the Bia³ystok
region has remained relatively stable, at least in those communities where
the dialect continues to serve as the primary means of communication for
the majority of the older inhabitants. There is, however, some regional variation on the Polish side of the border with respect to lexical borrowing
from Polish. In general, the number of lexical polonisms is higher in the
predominantly Catholic area to the north of Bia³ystok, while the dialects of
the predominantly Orthodox areas to the east and south of the city have
remained somewhat more resistant to Polish lexical influence, at least with
respect to basic vocabulary. I found, however, that Orthodox villagers in
the Catholic-dominated north, for example in the Orthodox village of Ja³owo,
do not differ significantly from their Belarusian-speaking Catholic neighbors in their use of lexical borrowings from Polish, with the exception perhaps of some religious terminology. Some typical examples of lexical polonisms encountered both in Ja³owo and the Catholic village of Ha³o further
south include: dz”is’ ‘today’ (< Pol. dziœ, cf. St. Bel. sjónnja), k’edy ‘when’
(< Pol. kiedy, cf. St. Bel. kali), teras ‘now’ (< Pol. teraz, cf. St. Bel. zaraz,
cjaper), v’él’k’i ‘large’ (< Pol. wielki, cf. St. Bel. vjaliki), zmenèycc¹ ‘to
get tired’ (< Pol. zméczyæsié, cf. St. Bel. stamicca), etc.
On the Belarusian side of the border, we find that among the generations
born after the 1930s, the number of lexical Polonisms has shown a significant decline, accompanied by a marked increase in the number of lexical
borrowings from Russian. This influence is particularly noticeable in larger
communities with stronger ties to urban centers, in particular the villages of
Indura and Luckawljany, just south of Hrodna. In some cases, these borrowings include function words and other basic vocabulary, as shown in
the following examples: kahdá ‘when’ (< Rus. kogda, cf. St. Bel. kali),
s’ièás ‘now’ (< Rus. sejèas, cf. St. Bel. zaraz, cjaper), pašc’i ‘almost’ (< Rus.
poèti, cf. St. Bel. amal’), oèan’ ‘very’ (< Rus. oèen’, cf. St. Bel. velmi), nastajašèy ‘real’ (< Rus. nastojašèij, cf. St. Bel. saprawdny), etc. All of these examples were taken from the oral interviews conducted in the villages.
Of far greater structural significance, however, is the linguistic divergence occurring at the phonological, morphological and morpho-syntactic
levels in the two groups of dialects. That this linguistic divergence is a
consequence, rather than a possible motivation for, the present political
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C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
border is reflected in the fact that the relevant innovations show clear differences in apparent time, with older dialect speakers on the two sides of
the border differing less in their speech than younger speakers. The apparent time evidence, together with real time data taken from Federowski’s
dialect texts from the 1880s and 1890s, suggests that most of these changes
have occurred over the course of the last 50 years, that is, since the establishment of the contemporary Polish-Belarusian border.
Divergence at the dialectal level between the Belarusian dialects on the
two sides of the border has increased the significance of the standard Belarusian language as a possible link between Belarusian-speakers on the
two sides of the border. However, when communication takes place between dialect speakers from the two sides of the border, it usually takes
place in one of the dominant state languages: whether Russian or Polish.
Even in the case of standard usage, there are noticeable differences between the Bia³ystok region and the Hrodna region. One noticeable tendency is for the Belarusian-language press in the Hrodna region to increasingly
use more Polonisms, as a means of distancing the language vis-à-vis Russian, while in Belarusian-language publications from the Bia³ystok region,
the number of lexical Russianisms is often higher, due to a similar attempt
to distance the language vis-à-vis Polish.
The increasing dissimilarity of the Belarusian dialects on the Polish and
Belarusian sides of the border is not, however, the only type of linguistic
discontinuity found in the region. As I have already noted, even on the
same side of the border there are significant linguistic differences between
some of the dialects whose speakers regard themselves, or are regarded by
others, to be Belarusians. On the Polish side of the border, as we have already seen, the Belarusian movement is in fact strongest in those areas to
the southeast of Bia³ystok where the dialects are transitional to Ukrainian.
The problematic nature of the use of linguistic structure alone as a criterion for group membership is highlighted by the emergence over the last
decade or so of two new linguistic movements in the region: the Podlasian
Ukrainian and the Polesian/Jatvingian movement. Given the linguistic ambiguity of the East Slavic dialects in the region south of Bia³ystok, it was
inevitable that they would be claimed by the Ukrainian movement as well
as the Belarusian; certainly for some of the dialects, the Ukrainian case is
perhaps even stronger. It was precisely on the basis of linguistic (and to a
lesser extent, cultural) criteria that a branch of the Union of Ukrainians in
Poland was established in Bielsk. The organization of Ukrainian cultural
life in the region has also proceeded apace, with regular meetings and cul332
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
tural events in both Bielsk and Bia³ystok. However, despite the new signs
of Ukrainian activity in the Bia³ystok region, the numbers of those who
claim Ukrainian nationality there are still very small. According to one
recent survey, for example, less than 1% of the region’s population consider themselves Ukrainians.54
On the Belarusian side of the border, there has not, to my knowledge
been a similar expansion of pro-Ukrainian activities among the local population in west Polesia (the Brest-Pinsk region), where the local dialects,
typologically closer to Ukrainian than to Belarusian, are similar to those
spoken southeast of Bielsk on the Polish side of the border. On the other
hand, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, a movement among part of the
Polesian intelligentsia, represented by the newspaper “Zbudinne” (Awakening), promoted the idea of a distinct “Polesian” nationality, which in the
ideology developed by the founder of the movement, the linguist and journalist Mikola Sheliahoviè, was in fact made up of the Slavicized descendents of the Baltic Jatvingians.55 Some members of the Belarusian intelligentsia denounced this movement, seeing in it a Moscow-inspired attempt
to weaken and divide the newly-emerging Belarusian nationak movement.
By the late 1990s, however, the Polesian movement had subsided; despite
the very salient linguistic and cultural differences between the inhabitants
of West Polesia and the rest of Belarus, the majority of the population of
this region continues to regard itself as Belarusian.
4.3.2. Language Use and Language Functions
If we look at actual language use in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna regions,
we find that there is no clear connection between this aspect of language
behavior and national identity, inasmuch on the Polish side there are now
many Orthodox, both Poles and Belarusians, who speak Polish as a first
language, and many Catholics on both sides of the border who are speakers
of dialectal or standard Belarusian. In addition, on the Belarusian side of
the border, we find many Belarusians and Poles who speak primarily Russian in the home.
The data from a 1993 survey by Sadowski include responses to questions about the language used at home, which provides a rough indication
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 119.
For a discussion of attempts to develop a literary standard for the West Polesian dialects,
see Aleksandr D. Dulièenko. The West Polesian Literary Language // Sven Gustavsson
and Harald Runblom (Eds.). Language, Minority, Migration. Uppsala, 1995. Pp. 119131.
54
55
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C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
of the first language of the respondents (in contrast to “native language”
(Bel. ródnaja mova, Pol. jêzyk ojczysty, Rus. rodnoj jazyk), which in the
context of the borderlands, as we will see later, is a highly ideologized
concept that does not necessarily reflect actual linguistic behavior). Sadowski’s survey, based on a representative sample of the population of the
Bia³ystok region (excluding the exclusively Catholic regions), indicates that
83% of Poles and 25% of Belarusians speak Polish at home. Of the Poles,
an additional 14% claimed to speak Belarusian or a Belarusian dialect, while
15% claimed to speak a Polish dialect (in other words, some respondents
indicated the use of more than one language in the home environment).56
With regard to the term “Polish dialect,” it should be noted that many Belarusian-speaking Catholics consider their dialect a variety of Polish rather
than of Belarusian. Among Belarusians, 20% claimed to speak Belarusian,
while the majority, 73.9%, claimed to speak a Belarusian dialect at home.
Statistics from a 1989 survey of language use in the Hrodna region as a
whole indicate that roughly 16.3%% of Belarusians and 16.2%% of Poles
claimed to use Belarusian at home, while 41.3% of Belarusians and 33.3%
of Poles claimed to speak a mixture of Belarusian and Russian at home. In
addition, 42.5% of Belarusians and 27.1% of Poles indicated that they spoke
Russian in the home environment. Only 13% of the Polish population indicated that Polish was the language of the home.57 Sadowski’s 1993 survey
of the westernmost rajons of the Hrodna region gave the following results:
19.4% of Belarusians and 14.6% of Poles claimed to use Belarusian as the
home language, 38.3% of the Belarusians and 34.4% of Poles claimed to
speak a dialect of Belarusian, and 44.4% of Belarusians and 40.6% of Poles
claimed to speak Russian in the home environment.58 The higher figures
for Russian in Sadowski’s sample may reflect the greater urban bias of his
survey, with more than a third of respondents from the city of Hrodna.
The statistics on language use, however, do not reveal an important function of language in the construction of national identity – its symbolic status as a marker of membership in the nation. The linguistic ideologies of
19th century European Romantic nationalism have had a major impact not
only on how modern nationalist movements look at language, but how the
public (and even many in the scholarly community) conceive of language
issues as well. On the basis of content analysis of the western European
press, the Dutch sociolinguists Blommaert and Verschueren note the extent
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 165.
Taccjana Mikuliè. Mova i etniènaja samasvjadomasc’. Minsk, 1996. P. 125-126.
58
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 165.
56
57
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
to which the popular media in Europe have internalized the ideological
framework of ethnolinguistic nationalism, particularly in the coverage of
issues relating to stateless peoples: “[d]escent, history, culture, religion,
and language are treated as a feature cluster. Their identificational function
implies separability, a natural discontinuity in the real world. These discontinuities are ‘nations’ or ‘peoples,’ i.e. natural groups... If feathers are predictive of beaks, eggs, and an ability to fly, so is a specific language predictive of a distinct history and culture... Thus, the absence of the feature ‘distinct language’ tends to cast doubts on the legitimacy of claims to nationhood.”59 There is little doubt that a similar study of the press of East Central
and Eastern Europe would reveal a very similar picture. The question is, to
what extent does the simplistic equation between language and national
identity presented in much of the European popular media reflect objective
reality, and to what extent does it influence the identities, attitudes and
linguistic choices of non-elites?
From its inception in the late 19th century, the modern Belarusian national movement assigned a preeminent position to language in defining
the nation, and the “language as national identity” motif has remained central to Belarusian nationalism throughout this century – despite signs of
progressing language shift toward Russian (and Polish on the Polish side of
the post-WWII border) in recent decades. The notion that ethnic Belarusians are inherently Belarusian speakers is even reflected in the title of a
Belarusian language textbook for Russian speakers: Belorusskij jazyk dlja
nebelorusov (“Belarusian for Non-Belarusians”) implying that only nonBelarusians need instruction in the Belarusian language. In the context of
ongoing language shift, the notion of the language as something rooted in
the genetic make-up of the nation, even if only employed as a metaphor,
also becomes an important motif in the discourse of language advocates.
Thus, in a recent issue of “Litaratura i mastactva” the weekly newspaper
of the Belarusian creative intelligentsia, we read: “only the language of this
land, encoded in our genes, is capable of forming a fully realized individual, a true citizen, and assist in the development of all the potential and abilities of the child.”60 A similar stance is noted by Alexandra Jaffe in the case
of Corsican language advocates in contemporary France: “every true Corsican is represented as a potential natural, authentic speaker. Those who do
Jan Blommaert and Jef Verschueren. The Role of Language in European Nationalist
Ideologies // Pragmatics. 1992. Vol. 2. No. 3. Pp. 359.
60
Svjatlana Bahdankeviè. Romnasc’ – heta dyskryminacyja? // Litaratura i mastactva.
1998. July 24.
59
335
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
not speak the language have simply not actualized instinctual cultural abilities.”61
Elite notions of a coterminous relationship between nationality and native language have been accepted to a large extent by the population of the
Polish-Belarusian border region, as least as far as can be determined from
survey data. However, the concept of the “native language” is just as problematic in this region as the concept of national or ethnic identity. In my
own fieldwork I encountered speakers of what was essentially Belarusianaccented Russian (such as the wife of a collective farm chairman in the
village of Indura on the Belarusian side of the border), who claimed that
their native language was Belarusian. In the same village I met a Catholic
woman who spoke a fairly conservative variety of the local dialect, but
claimed that Russian was her native language. On the Polish side of the
border, I spoke with Catholic Belarusian dialect speakers in the village of
Ha³o who all insisted that their native language was Polish. Thus, it would
appear that self-declared native language, as reflected in official census
data and other types of surveys, is more an indicator of a specific ideological or cultural orientation than of actual linguistic competence and language use.
In the chart below, I cite the results on native language from Sadowski’s
1993 survey of the population on the two sides of the border. With respect
to the data from the Bia³ystok region, the most striking finding is that over
95% of Polish respondents consider Polish their native language. In other
parts of Poland (excluding, perhaps, Kashubia and Silesia) this would not
be a surprising result, but given the fact that many Catholic settlements to
the north and east of Bia³ystok are still Belarusian-speaking (at least among
the older and middle generations), we must consider this a reflection above
all of the national identity of the respondents. This is also suggested by the
fact that among those in the Bia³ystok region who consciously identify themselves as Belarusian, the percentage of those who claim Belarusian or a
Belarusian dialect as a native language increases to nearly 65%. This figure
is comparable with that for Belarusians on the Belarusian side (78%), for
whom, however, standard Belarusian (rather than Belarusian dialects) is
the primary symbol of national affiliation, reflecting perhaps the dominant
view (promoted primarily in the educational sphere) that the standard language is the sole legitimate form of the national language.
Alexandra Jaffe. Obligation, Error and Authenticity: Competing Cultural Principles
in the Teaching of Corsican // Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 1993. Vol. 3. No. 1.
Pp. 99.
61
336
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Self- declared nationality:
Pole Belarusian
Total
Pole
Belarusian Total
What is your native
language ?
East ern Bialyst ok region
1. Polish
95.7%
2 6 . 1%
83.5% 31.2%
3.3%
11.5%
2. Belarusian
2.3%
44.2%
8.6%
32.3%
78.3%
55.1%
3. Polish dialect
0.1%
0.0%
0.1%
1.0%
1.7%
1.5%
4. Belarusian dialect
0.9%
20.6%
4.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
5. Other languages
0.7%
8.5%
3.4%
15.6%
6.7%
13.3%
West ern Hrodna region
Fig. 1. Native Language of Respondents in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna Regions62
Significantly, only 30% of Poles on the Belarusian side indicate Polish
as their native language, while even fewer (between 13% and 18% according to Mikuliè and Sadowski) claim to use Polish as the language of the
home.63 In my data from the mixed Catholic-Orthodox villages of Indura,
Luckauljany and Malaja Berastavica, as well as the all-Catholic village of
Šuryèy on the Belarusian side of the border, out of some 80 Catholic informants, only one (a woman in her 70s) claimed to use Polish in the home.
The low numbers of Poles claiming Polish as a native language have
been erroneously interpreted by some western scholars, such as Gordon,
who writes of Polish “linguistic assimilation” to Belarusian in rural areas in
the Hrodna region.64 However, as attested by historical and ethnographic
data, the majority of these Polish communities have not “lost” their Polish,
but rather simply never had the opportunity to acquire it, at least as a first
language. In other words, we are speaking here of the absence of assimilation to Polish, or at best, the loss of non-native competence in Polish within
a community for which Belarusian dialect is the native vernacular. The
absence of a strong correlation between Polish nationality and Polish as a
native language in the Hrodna region may be said to reflect the still ambiguous nature of the Polish identity on the Belarusian side of the border, being transitional between the traditional confessional and cultural conception and the modern ethnolinguistic model.
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 165.
T. Mikuliè. Mova i etniènaja; A. Sadowski. Pogranicze.
64
Ellen J. Gordon. The Revival of Polish National Consciousness: A Comparative Study
of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine // Nationalities Papers. Vol. 24. No. 2. P. 234.
62
63
337
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
In my own sociolinguistic survey of the villages on the two sides of the
border, I also investigated the relationship between self-declared nationality and self-declared native language. Overall, in the Orthodox village of
Ja³owo, 33% of Belarusians claimed Belarusian as their native language,
while 67% indicated that pa-prostu (Belarusian dialect) was their native
language. With respect to Orthodox Poles, 83% indicated Polish as their
native language, while only 17% indicated pa-prostu. In the Catholic village of Ha³o, on the other hand, all informants indicated Polish as their
native language, although most of the informants indicated that they used
the local Belarusian dialect (pa-prostu, pa-svojmu) with nearly all members of their family (with Polish predominating only in communication with
grandchildren and children born after 1960).
On the Belarusian side of the border, on the other hand, we find that the
category “mixed language” (zmešanaja mova/zmešany jazyk) has largely
supplanted pa-prostu or pa-svojmu among speakers born after the 1930s
and 1940s. Overall, 82% of Belarusians and 61% of Poles claimed Belarusian as their native language, while 12% of Belarusians and 19% of Poles
gave Russian as their native language.
One factor that could have contributed to the higher figure for Russian
among Poles is that two of the predominantly Polish communities investigated, Indura and Luckauljany, are closer to the regional urban center Hrodna (however, among the Orthodox in Indura, only 16% gave Russian as
their native language as opposed to 38% of Poles, while in Luckauljany, the
percentage of Poles and Orthodox Belarusians claiming Russian as a native
language was the same, 20% for both groups).
The fact that there is a significant gap between language use and the function of language as a symbol of national identity in the Bia³ystok and Hrodna
regions is also highlighted by Sadowski’s data concerning the views of respondents as to the characteristics required for an individual to be considered
a member of a given nation. In the Bia³ystok region, 82.3% of Catholics and
75.2% of Orthodox indicated that to be a Pole, one must speak Polish. In the
western Hrodna region, 72.1% of Catholics and 74.1% of Orthodox indicated
the importance of speaking Polish for a person to be considered a Pole.65 In
the case of being Belarusian, 69.8% of the respondents on the Polish side, and
72.8% on the Belarusian side said that one must speak Belarusian (the data are
not broken down by religion of respondents).66 However, at a more concrete
65
66
A. Sadowski. Pogranicze. P. 87.
Ibid. P. 90.
338
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
level, i.e. at the level of the individual respondent, we find that language is
less central in conceptions of national identity. Thus, in response to the
question, “what unites you with your nation above all?”, having one’s own
distinct language was indicated, among other criteria, by 41% of Poles and
59% of Belarusians in the Bia³ystok region, and by only 26% of Poles and
27% of Belarusians in the Hrodna region.67
Languages, especially in their standard written form, can also function
as an instrument of assertion of state sovereignty and border delineation.
The Polish-Belarusian border is in this sense a symbolic border (as understood at the official level) between the Russian- and Belarusian- speaking
worlds and the Polish speech community. The official conception of state
border as linguistic frontier is reflected in the symbolic space created by
the language of street names, roadsigns, store signs, advertisements, signs
on government buildings, posters, etc. All of these visual manifestations of
linguistic territoriality constitute what Landry and Bourhis term the “linguistic landscape.”68
In the years following 1990, in the Bia³ystok region the private sector
made some concessions to regional linguistic diversity by posting signs in
Russian aimed at traders from Belarus and Russia; of course these signs
were clearly oriented toward the “other”, i.e. not the local East Slavic population. In the political sphere, the appearance of campaign posters in Belarusian during the 1989 elections and after aroused considerable emotion;
in many cases, such posters, viewed as a challenge to the hegemony of
Polish on the territory of the Polish state, were torn down immediately.
Similarly, the demands of Belarusian organizations such as the Belarusian
Democratic Alliance to permit the visual presence of Belarusian in the form
of bilingual road signs and signs on public buildings in areas with an Orthodox majority met with resistance and open hostility on the part of the
regional authorities and part of the local population.
On the Belarusian side of the border, Russian had become the dominant
language of the linguistic landscape by the 1960s, although Belarusianlanguage texts continued to appear sporadically in the public arena, particularly in the cultural sphere. In 1989-1994, however, some efforts were
made to increase the number of Belarusian-language signs, including road
Ibid. P. 132.
Rodrigue Landry and Richard Bourhis. Linguistic Landscape and Ethnolinguistic
Vitality: An Empirical Study // Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 1997. Vol.
16. No. 1. Pp. 23-49.
67
68
339
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
signs and street names, as well as some shop signs. Since the private sector
was still virtually non-existent, and government regulations restricted the
use of languages other than Russian and Belarusian even in commercial
signs, the visual presence of Polish in Hrodna and other smaller communities along the western border was minimal.
4.3.3. Language Attitudes
The construction and reproduction of ethnic and social boundaries through
language are grounded not only in objective differences in linguistic form, but
also in culture-specific and ideologically-loaded conceptions of what aspects
of linguistic structure and language use are relevant in determining group
membership. What ordinary speakers believe about the relationship between
language and group or national identity, and about the sociolinguistic hierarchy of language varieties in use in their own linguistic repertoires and those of
neighboring communities, is thus of central importance for understanding the
structure of the local speech economy and the functional allocation and social
distribution of linguistic resources within the community. Such local conceptions do not, however, arise in a vacuum; they are, at least in modern societies,
crucially shaped by government policies which seek to promote among speakers
of diverse vernacular language varieties subjective identification with, and
sociolinguistic subordination to, a codified language variety that is commonly
designated the “national language.”
The process of the attitudinal and functional subordination of non-standard and minority language speakers to a codified national standard language
comes into sharpest relief in border regions such as the Polish-Belarusian border region. The choice of linguistic identities on the part of local populations
in such border regions is to a significant extent constrained by state-managed
identity planning policies, implemented via the educational system, mass media, and other institutions, which tend to focus populations on a single national language and culture. However, the homogenizing influence of national
languages and cultures on local populations must not be overestimated; various forms of overt or covert resistance to dominant linguistic ideologies are
often observed among borderlands populations. In many cases, on the same
side of the border, different sub-groups within local communities of vernacular speakers may respond differently to official identity-planning policies as a
consequence of preexisting socio-cultural divisions.
As Labov has argued, in sociolinguistic terms a speech community is
defined less by a high degree of congruence in the use of certain linguistic
structures than by the presence of a shared system of language norms, as
340
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
reflected in both overt attitudes and abstract patterns of linguistic variation
associated with different contextual styles.69 In order to determine whether
we can still speak of the dialects of the Belarusian-Polish borderlands as
still constituting a single speech community in the Labovian sense, in this
section I will examine differences in language attitudes (toward the local
dialect, standard Belarusian, Russian and Polish) among dialect speakers
on both sides of the border.
In order to investigate some of the affective correlates of language use
and the ideological construct of “native language” in the Polish-Belarusian
borderlands, I included in the sociolinguistic questionnaire the questions
“Which language do you like to speak most?” and “Which language do you
like most of all?”. The results are shown in Figures (2) and (3) below.
Fig. 2. Which language do you like to speak most of all?
dialect (pa-prostu)
mixed
Belarusian
Polish
Russian
Ja ³owo ‡ (P)
80%
0%
0%
20%
0%
Ha ³o † (P)
57%
0%
0%
42%
0%
MacveewcyUlezly ‡ (B)
6%
81%
6%
0%
3%
Šuryèy † (B)
0%
81%
9%
3%
6%
P = Poland
B = Belarus
† = Roman Catholic
‡ = Orthodox
Fig. 3. Which language do you like most of all?
dialect (pa-prostu)
mixed
Belarusian
Polish
Russian
Ja ³owo ‡ (P)
40%
0%
0%
60%
0%
Ha ³o † (P)
0%
0%
0%
100%
0%
MacveewcyUlezly ‡ (B)
3%
21%
40%
0%
28%
Šuryèy † (B)
0%
9%
63%
9%
9%
69
William Labov. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia, 1972. Pp. 120-121.
341
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
On both sides of the border, we find that in everyday communication a
majority of respondents prefer to use a non-standard variety, whether dialect (pa-prostu) on the Polish side, or mixed Belarusian-Russian on the
Belarusian side. The preference for what are designated as mixed Belarusian-Russian varieties in intra-group communication on the Belarusian side
of the border suggests that although the traditional dialects no longer function as the primary markers of local identity, neither standard Belarusian
nor standard Russian have acquired a fully hegemonic position in the local
speech economy. It could be argued that the attraction of the mixed Belarusian-Russian varieties to villagers lies in the fact that mixed language allows them to assert two identities at once: loyalty to the local “team”, and
“modernity”, which is associated with urban (i.e. primarily Russophone)
culture.
In the questionnaire, I also investigated possible links between the traditionally most salient marker of supra-local identity, religion, and language,
by posing the question: how would you feel about the use of Belarusian in
your church? Respondents in Ha³o on the Polish side of the border were
perplexed – such a possibility had never even occurred to them. When I
reformulated the question, asking whether they would approve of the use
of their native dialect, pa-prostu, in sermons, the liturgy, and prayers in
place of Polish, most became highly indignant (it will be recalled that all
informants in Ha³o indicated that their native language was Polish). In contrast, in the Catholic village of Šuryèy, on the Belarusian side of the border,
all informants but one (a ten-year old girl) indicated that they had a positive
view of the use of Belarusian instead of Polish in church. Not surprisingly,
a majority of respondents in Šuryèy (83%) also gave Belarusian as their
native language. The degree of acceptance of Belarusian in the religious
sphere showed similar, if slightly less dramatic, differences among Orthodox respondents on the two sides of the border. In the Orthodox community
of Ja³owo in the Bia³ystok region, only 20% of informants approved of the
use of Belarusian in church instead of Church Slavonic, Polish and Russian; in contrast, in the Orthodox community of Macveewcy-Ulezly on the
Belarusian side, 78% expressed support for the use of Belarusian in church.
Since the standard language is considered the primary linguistic measure of national identity, in the written questionnaire, informants were asked
a number of questions concerning the language varieties in use in the community, including the following: “Would you like to be able to speak Belarusian the way it is spoken on Belarusian radio and television?” The language of the electronic media was specifically chosen as a point of refer342
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ence, since for most people in the region, this is the most common source of
exposure to the standard language. Out of 160 respondents, 93% said that
they would like to be able to speak standard Belarusian, while on the Polish
side of the border, 50% of the respondents (out of a total of 38) answered in
the affirmative. Significantly, however, on the Polish side of the border
there was a marked discrepancy between Belarusian-speaking Orthodox
and Catholics with respect to their attitudes toward standard Belarusian: in
the Orthodox village of Ja³owo, 60% of the respondents gave a positive
answer, while in the Catholic village of Ha³o, only 40% answered in the
affirmative.
In the sociolinguistic questionnaire, respondents were also asked to indicate, if possible, the reasons for their answers. These explanations are
also revealing with respect to popular conceptions of the standard language
and its relationship to national identity on both sides of the border. Among
the positive responses, the most common related to such criteria as: 1) aesthetic qualities/correctness; 2) native language; 3) national identity; 3) and
usefulness (“it may come in handy”; “it’s good to know more than one
language”; “one should know the language of one’s neighbors,” etc.).
Orthodox respondents on both sides of the border were more likely than
Catholics to make reference to aesthetic and ethnolinguistic criteria in their
evaluations of standard Belarusian, e.g.: “I like the way it sounds”, “”it’s a
beautiful language,” “because it’s more attractive than Russian,” “because
it’s closer to me than Russian,” “because we speak Belarusian”, “because
it’s my native language,” “because I am a Belarusian,” “because we live in
Belarus,” although utilitarian motivations are also common, particularly on
the Polish side of the border, for example: “it may come in handy” (“moža
prydasca”), “it’s good to know several languages, “ etc. At the same time,
it should be noted that on the Polish side of the border, attitudes toward
local speech forms are also quite positive among most dialect speakers; one
Orthodox informant in his 20s replied that he wouldn’t want to speak literary Belarusian, “in order to preserve the language of our fathers” ( “kab
zaxavac’ movu bac’kow”), while others simply stated that “our way of speaking is better” ( “pa-svojmu lepej”).
Significantly, among the 40% of respondents in the Belarusian-speaking Catholic village of Ha³o who indicated that they would like to be able to
speak literary Belarusian, the explanations given were exclusively utilitarian, reflecting the absence of any emotional ethnocultural attachment to the
Belarusian standard language: “Belarus is our neighbor,” “Belarusian is
somewhat similar to Polish.” The only markedly emotional responses were
343
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
those of the other 60% who indicated a total lack of interest in being able to
speak standard Belarusian: “I hate it”, “what good is it?”, “it’s an ugly
language”, etc.
Interestingly, however, while Belarusian-speaking Catholics on the Polish side of the border have a generally neutral or negative attitude toward
the Belarusian standard language, their attitude toward their local dialect is
as positive as that of their Orthodox neighbors (in Ha³o, for example, 80%
indicated that they considered their local dialect beautiful, as compared
with just over 80% in the Orthodox village of Ja³owo).
On the Belarusian side of the border, overt attitudes toward the local
dialect are much less favorable, the majority of respondents preferring either standard Belarusian or Russian. For most villagers on the Belarusian
side of the border, literary Belarusian is viewed essentially in the same
terms as literary Russian – that is, as a related code, but distinctly different
from what they speak (even though the dialects of this region are quite
close to the literary standard in most respects). While the older generations,
particularly those born prior to 1940, generally refer to their home language as “pa-prostu” (“the simple way of speaking”), “prostaja mova” (“simple language”), “pa-svojmu” (“our way of speaking”), “svaja havorka” (“our
own dialect”), the generations born after the 1940s increasingly designate
their speech as “zmešanaja mova/zmešany jazyk” (“mixed language”), usually implying by this a mixture of Belarusian and Russian, and in some
cases, Polish. This evaluation, as the linguistic data from the region testify,
is a fairly accurate assessment on the part of younger villagers of an ongoing breakdown in the intergenerational transmission of traditional dialect
features.
Thus, the data on language attitudes suggest that the sociolinguistic integration of Belarusian dialect speakers on the two sides of the border into
two different regional and national speech communities is as yet incomplete and shows some contradictory aspects, but appears to be progressing
apace. On the Polish side of the border, the majority of Belarusian speakers
can be said to be integrated to a significant extent into the Polish speech
economy regardless of the language used for in-group interaction. The local dialects, still generally referred to as pa-prostu, serve primarily as a
marker of local, rather than ethnic identity for most respondents. On the
Belarusian side of the border, the majority of the rural population are integrated into a Russo-Belarusian speech community, in which Russian and
Belarusian are complementary and at times overlapping “High” forms of
language, while mixed Russo-Belarusian forms of speech have largely sup344
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
planted the traditional dialects as markers of in-group, local solidarity in
rural communities.
5. Conclusion
The ways in which national identities, developed in and propagated
from political or ethnolinguistic core areas, are adopted, modified or resisted by the populations on the periphery is a question of fundamental importance in the study of modern nationalism. Indeed, it may be said that the
contingent and mutable nature of national identities, whether state-sponsored or the product of the activities of nationalist counter-elites, is brought
into sharpest focus in borderlands regions. It is precisely in border regions,
where ethnographic characteristics, languages, and religious affiliations often
fail to coincide, that national identities are most clearly constructed through
the selective use of certain markers of group identity. In this study of the
Polish-Belarusian borderlands I have sought not only to shed some new
light on the ways in which state and non-state actors can promote or hinder
the development of certain national identities within a pre-national ethnolinguistic community, but also on the role of political borders in divergent
and convergent ethnolinguistic processes.
SUMMARY
 òå÷åíèå ïîñëåäíèõ äåñÿòèëåòèé âíèìàíèå èññëåäîâàòåëåé áûëî
ïðèêîâàíî ê ðîëè ãðàíèö â ôîðìèðîâàíèè ðàçëè÷íûõ èäåíòè÷íîñòåé.
 ñòàòüå Ê. Âóëõàéçåðà ðàññìàòðèâàþòñÿ èñòîðè÷åñêèå óñëîâèÿ âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ïîëüñêîãî ÿçûêà è ðàçëè÷íûõ âîñòî÷íîñëàÿíñêèõ ãîâîðîâ â ðàéîíå ñîâðåìåííîé ãðàíèöû Ïîëüøè è Áåëàðóñè (ãîðîäîâ Áåëîñòîê è Ãðîäíî ïðåæäå âñåãî). Ïðè ýòîì, àâòîð ñòàâèò ñåáå çàäà÷åé
îñâåùåíèå òîãî, êàêèì îáðàçîì ãîñóäàðñòâåííàÿ ãðàíèöà ñïîñîáñòâóåò
âîçíèêíîâåíèþ äèñêðåòíîñòè â ÿçûêîâîì êîíòèíóóìå â îñîáûõ óñëîâèÿõ ïîëüñêî-áåëîðóññêîãî ïîãðàíè÷üÿ, ãäå âëèÿíèå ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ,
ñîöèàëüíûõ è êîíôåññèîíàëüíûõ èäåíòè÷íîñòåé íà ôîðìèðîâàíèå
íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîñîçíàíèÿ êàê ïîëÿêîâ, òàê è áåëîðóñîâ ñïîñîáñòâîâàëî âîçíèêíîâåíèþ ñëîæíîé ÿçûêîâîé êàðòèíû, íå ñîâïàäàþ345
C. Woolhiser, Constructing National Identities...
ùåé ñ êàðòàìè äèàëåêòîëîãèè è ýòíîãðàôèè. Àâòîð ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíî
èññëåäóåò èñòîðè÷åñêî-ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêóþ ãåîãðàôèþ ðåãèîíà, îáñóæäàåò îñíîâíûå ïåðèîäû â èñòîðèè ðåãèîíà è ñîâðåìåííóþ ñèòóàöèþ
â ðàéîíå ïîëüñêî-áåëîðóññêîé ãðàíèöû.  ñòàòüå èñïîëüçóåòñÿ øèðîêèé ñïåêòð èñòî÷íèêîâ, âêëþ÷àÿ ðåçóëüòàòû ñîáñòâåííûõ èññëåäîâàíèé àâòîðà â ðåãèîíå.
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Åëåíà ÁÅÇÂÈÊÎÍÍÀß
ÃÅÎÏÎËÈÒÈ×ÅÑÊÎÅ ÏÐÎÑÒÐÀÍÑÒÂÎ
ÑÒÅÏÍÎÃÎ ÊÐÀß:
ÎÌÑÊÀß ÎÁËÀÑÒÜ È ÏÐÎÁËÅÌÀ ÃÐÀÍÈÖÛ
 ÃÎÑÓÄÀÐÑÒÂÅÍÍÎÌ ÑÒÐÎÈÒÅËÜÑÒÂÅ
ÐÎÑÑÈÉÑÊÎÉ ÈÌÏÅÐÈÈ (20 – 30-å ãã. XIX â.)
 ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå XIX â. ïîäîøåë ê ñâîåìó ëîãè÷åñêîìó çàâåðøåíèþ îäèí èç ýòàïîâ ïðîöåññà ñòðîèòåëüñòâà Ðîññèéñêîãî èìïåðñêîãî
ïðîñòðàíñòâà. Èìïåðñêóþ ïîëèòèêó ýòîãî äîíàöèîíàëüíîãî ïåðèîäà
ìîæíî îõàðàêòåðèçîâàòü êàê ñîâîêóïíîñòü âîåííî-àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûõ,
ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ è èäåîëîãè÷åñêèõ ìåðîïðèÿòèé, íàïðàâëåííûõ íà ðåãóëèðîâàíèå îòíîøåíèé ìåæäó öåíòðîì è îêðàèííûìè òåððèòîðèÿìè. Ïîèñêè íàèáîëåå ýôôåêòèâíûõ ìåòîäîâ óïðàâëåíèÿ ðåãèîíàìè ïðîäîëæàëèñü íà âñåì ïðîòÿæåíèè XVIII â. è ýâîëþöèîíèðîâàëè îò óñòàíîâêè íà öåíòðàëèçàöèþ è óíèôèêàöèþ âëàñòè äî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ äåöåíòðàëèçàòîðñêèõ ýëåìåíòîâ. Èíòåãðèðóÿ âíîâü ïðèñîåäèíåííûå âíåøíèå îêðàèíû (Çàêàâêàçüå, Ñèáèðü, Ñòåïíîé êðàé è äð.) â
èìïåðñêóþ ìîäåëü àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ, ñàìîäåðæàâèå èçáåãàëî óíèôèêàòîðñêîãî ïîäõîäà ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê íèì, ñòðåìÿñü ó÷èòûâàòü ðåãèîíàëüíûå îñîáåííîñòè. Âìåñòå ñ òåì, â èìïåðñêîé ïîëèòèêå ïðèñóòñòâîâàëà òåíäåíöèÿ ê ïîñòåïåííîé ìîäåðíèçàöèè ïðèíöèïîâ óïðàâëåíèÿ, ñóäåáíîé ñèñòåìû, ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ îòíîøåíèé íà îêðàèíàõ ïî îáðàçöó öåíòðàëüíûõ ïðîâèíöèé. Ôàêòè÷åñêè,
ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê XIX â. ðå÷ü èäåò îá îôîðìëåíèè íîâîãî íàïðàâëåíèÿ
èìïåðñêîãî àäìèíèñòðèðîâàíèÿ – ðåãèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè, òðåáóþùåé
371
Å. Áåçâèêîííàÿ, Ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ...
äèôôåðåíöèðîâàííûõ ïîäõîäîâ ê êàæäîé àäìèíèñòðàòèâíî-òåððèòîðèàëüíîé åäèíèöå.
Íåîòúåìëåìîé ñîñòàâëÿþùåé çàâåðøàþùåãî ýòàïà èíòåãðàöèè îêðàèí â èìïåðèþ ÿâëÿëîñü óòâåðæäåíèå ÷åòêèõ ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ ãðàíèö
êàê ãàðàíòà èìïåðñêîé áåçîïàñíîñòè è òåððèòîðèàëüíîãî åäèíñòâà. Ñîâåðøåííî î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî ïîïûòêà ðîññèéñêîãî ñàìîäåðæàâèÿ óñòàíîâèòü ãðàíèöû â Ñòåïíîì êðàå âî ìíîãîì áûëà ðåçóëüòàòîì ïåðåíîñà
åâðîïåéñêîãî äèñêóðñà ãåîïîëèòèêè íà àçèàòñêóþ ïî÷âó (î ÷åì ÿðêî
ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò ÿçûê ïóáëèêóåìûõ íèæå äîêóìåíòîâ, â ÷àñòíîñòè, ïîïûòêà ðàöèîíàëèçàöèè ïðîñòðàíñòâà Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ ñ ïîìîùüþ ìàðêèðîâêè ïðèðîäíûõ ðóáåæåé è ñîîòíåñåíèÿ àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîé åäèíèöû ñ
õàðàêòåðîì íàñåëåíèÿ). Íî ñïåöèôèêà ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèõ óñëîâèé àçèàòñêîé Ðîññèè, îáðàç æèçíè íàñåëåíèÿ ðåãèîíà, ñëîæíîñòü ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñèòóàöèè (ñòîëêíîâåíèå ðàçëè÷íûõ èìïåðèé) îáóñëîâèëè ïîòðåáíîñòü â äèôôåðåíöèðîâàííîì ïîäõîäå ê ïîíÿòèþ “ãðàíèöà”.
Ïðåäëîæåííàÿ À. Ðèáåðîì (â ñòàòüå, ïóáëèêóåìîé â íàñòîÿùåì íîìåðå Ab Imperio) êëàññèôèêàöèÿ “ãðàíèö” äîñòàòî÷íî óäà÷íî âïèñûâàåòñÿ â ðåàëèè Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ íà÷àëà XIX â.  äàííîì ñëó÷àå ìîæíî
ãîâîðèòü î òðåõ âçàèìîñâÿçàííûõ òèïàõ ãðàíèö. Ïðåæäå âñåãî – ãðàíèöà ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ (â òåðìèíîëîãèè îôèöåðà Ãåíåðàëüíîãî øòàáà,
ñîòðóäíèêà Ðóññêîãî ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîãî îáùåñòâà Ì. È. Âåíþêîâà – “äåéñòâèòåëüíàÿ” ãîñóäàðñòâåííàÿ ãðàíèöà1), ïðåäñòàâëÿþùàÿ ëèíèþ âîåííûõ êðåïîñòåé è ôîðïîñòîâ. Ïîñëåäíèå ðàññìàòðèâàëèñü â êà÷åñòâå
ýòàïîâ ïðîäâèæåíèÿ â Öåíòðàëüíî-Àçèàòñêèé ðåãèîí (ñì. íèæå Ïðåäñòàâëåíèå ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè È. À. Âåëüÿìèíîâà
âîåííîìó ìèíèñòðó À. È. ×åðíûøåâó îò 23 ìàðòà 1835 ã.). Îïðåäåëåíèå ãðàíèö Îìñêîé îáëàñòè äåìîíñòðèðóåò âàæíîñòü ñîîòíîøåíèÿ
ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ãðàíèöû ñ ãðàíèöåé êóëüòóðíî êîíñòðóèðóåìûõ ìåòàðåãèîíî⠖ åâðîïåéñêîãî è àçèàòñêîãî. Íàêîíåö, ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèé òèï ãðàíèöû îáðàçóåòñÿ â ðåçóëüòàòå ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ äâóõ æèçíåííûõ óêëàäî⠖ îñåäëî-çåìëåäåëü÷åñêîãî è êî÷åâîãî ñêîòîâîä÷åñêîãî. Îñíîâàííûå íà ðàçëè÷íûõ ñîöèàëüíî-ïðàâîâûõ íîðìàõ (îáû÷íîì
ïðàâå è óíèôèöèðîâàííîì çàêîíîäàòåëüñòâå), ýòè æèçíåííûå óêëàäû
ñ íà÷àëüíîãî ìîìåíòà ñâîåãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ïîðîæäàþò ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå ïðîòèâîðå÷èÿ è êîíôëèêòû.2 Èñïîëüçóÿ òåðìèíîëîãèþ ñîâðåÌ. È. Âåíþêîâ. Îáîçðåíèå ðóññêî-àçèàòñêèõ ãðàíèö. Á.ì., 1873. Ñ. 27.
Ñ. Ã. Êëÿøòîðíûé, Ò. È. Ñóëòàíîâ. Ãîñóäàðñòâà è íàðîäû åâðàçèéñêèõ ñòåïåé.
Äðåâíîñòü è ñðåäíåâåêîâüå. ÑÏá., 2000. Ñ. 294-295.
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ìåííîé ãåîïîëèòèêè, äàííóþ òèïîëîãèþ âîçìîæíî îáúåäèíèòü â ñëîæíîñîñòàâíîé ôåíîìåí “àçèàòñêîé ãðàíèöû”,3 ïîä êîòîðîé ïîíèìàåòñÿ
íåñòàáèëüíîå, ïîñòîÿííî èçìåíÿþùååñÿ ïðîñòðàíñòâî, âûñòóïàþùåå
êàê áàçà äëÿ ïîñëåäóþùåãî ðàñøèðåíèÿ èìïåðñêîé òåððèòîðèè. Ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê Ñèáèðè è Ñòåïíîìó êðàþ åùå áîëåå àäåêâàòíûì êàæåòñÿ îïðåäåëåíèå “åâðàçèéñêàÿ” (à íå “àçèàòñêàÿ”) ãðàíèöà.  êíèãå òàêîãî ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿ ðîññèéñêîãî åâðàçèéñêîãî äâèæåíèÿ, êàê Ï. Ñàâèöêèé, îíà îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êàê óêðåïëåííàÿ ëèíèÿ, òî ïîÿâëÿþùàÿñÿ, òî
èñ÷åçàþùàÿ.4 Äåéñòâèòåëüíî, ñ íà÷àëà XVIII â. ñàìîäåðæàâíàÿ âëàñòü,
ðóêîâîäñòâóÿñü ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ çàùèòû þæíûõ
òåððèòîðèé ãîñóäàðñòâà îò íàáåãîâ êàçàõñêèõ êî÷åâíèêîâ, èíèöèèðîâàëà ñòðîèòåëüñòâî “ëèíèé” âîåííûõ óêðåïëåíèé (Ñèáèðñêàÿ, Èðòûøñêàÿ, Êîëûâàíñêàÿ è äð.). Ïîñëåäíèå ïðåäñòàâëÿëè ñîáîé êðåïîñòè è
ôîðïîñòû, ðàñïîëîæåííûå íà äîñòàòî÷íî áîëüøîì ðàññòîÿíèè äðóã
îò äðóãà.5 Íàïðèìåð, Ñèáèðñêàÿ ëèíèÿ ïðîòÿíóëàñü íà äîñòàòî÷íî ïðîòÿæåííîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå îò Áóõòàðìèíñêîé äî Çâåðèíîãîëîâñêîé êðåïîñòè. Ïðàêòèêà âîçâåäåíèÿ îòäåëüíûõ îáîðîíèòåëüíûõ óêðåïëåíèé,
êîòîðûå âïîñëåäñòâèè ïðåâðàòèëèñü â àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûå öåíòðû Ñèáèðè è Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ, ïîçâîëèëà èìïåðñêîìó öåíòðó îïðåäåëèòü íàïðàâëåíèÿ ïîñëåäóþùåé ýêñïàíñèè. Í. Þ. Çàìÿòèíà îõàðàêòåðèçîâàëà äàííóþ ïîëèòèêó êàê ñòðàòåãèþ “îöåíòðîâàíèÿ òåððèòîðèè”.6 Ýòà
ñòðàòåãèÿ çàêëþ÷àëàñü â ñîçäàíèè îòäåëüíûõ àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûõ îïîðíûõ ïóíêòîâ (ãîðîäîâ, óêðåïëåíèé) ñ öåëüþ óòâåðæäåíèÿ ïîçèöèé
èìïåðèè â ðåãèîíå. Îñíîâûâàÿ âîåííûå ïóíêòû, ãîñóäàðñòâî óòâåðæäàëî ñâîå ïðàâî íà äàííîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî, ôîðìèðîâàëî ñîîòâåòñòâóþùóþ èìïåðñêóþ èäåîëîãèþ, óìîçðèòåëüíûå, à âïîñëåäñòâèè è âïîëíå
ðåàëüíûå ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î åãî ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè è ïîëíîé çàâèñèìîñòè
Ä. Í. Çàìÿòèí. Ìîäåëèðîâàíèå ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ñèòóàöèé (íà ïðèìåðå
Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XIX â.) // Ïîëèñ. 1998. ¹ 2. Ñ. 64-76.
4
Ï. Ñàâèöêèé. Êîíòèíåíò Åâðàçèÿ. Ì., 1997. Ñ. 317 – 321. Èñïîëüçîâàíèå ïîíÿòèÿ
“åâðàçèéñêàÿ ãðàíèöà” â èíòåðïðåòàöèè Ï. Ñàâèöêîãî íå îçíà÷àåò, ÷òî îíî
âñåñòîðîííå õàðàêòåðèçóåò äàííîå ñëîæíîå ÿâëåíèå. Íî îíî îòðàæàåò ðåàëüíîñòü
ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ äâóõ ïðîòèâîïîëîæíûõ ìèðîâ, êóëüòóðíûõ ñîîáùåñòâ, êîòîðûå
âçàèìîäåéñòâóþò äðóã äðóãîì, à íå ïûòàþòñÿ òîòàëüíî íàâÿçàòü ñâîè ïðèíöèïû
ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ.
5
Ì. Âåíþêîâ. Ìåæäóíàðîäíûå âîïðîñû â Àçèè // Ðóññêèé âåñòíèê. 1877. ¹ 6. Ñ.
488-489.
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Í. Þ. Çàìÿòèíà. Ìîäåëè ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà // Ïîëèñ. 1999. ¹ 4. Ñ. 2941.
3
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Å. Áåçâèêîííàÿ, Ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ...
îò èìïåðñêîãî öåíòðà. Îðãàíèçàöèÿ âîåííî-àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûõ åäèíèö çíà÷èòåëüíî îïåðåæàëà ïðîöåññû òîðãîâî-ïðîìûøëåííîãî ïðîíèêíîâåíèÿ â Ñòåïíîé êðàé.
 íà÷àëå XIX â. ïîòðåáíîñòü çàâåðøåíèÿ èìïåðñêîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà, îïûò óïðàâëåíèÿ äðóãèìè íàöèîíàëüíûìè îêðàèíàìè, îòñóòñòâèå
âîçìîæíîñòè ëîêàëèçîâàòü ïîãðàíè÷íûå êîíôëèêòû ñèëàìè èððåãóëÿðíûõ âîéñê çàñòàâèëè ñàìîäåðæàâèå ïåðåéòè ê þðèäè÷åñêîìó îôîðìëåíèþ ñòàòóñà Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ, ïðîäâèæåíèþ “ëèíèè” âîåííûõ óêðåïëåíèé â ïðåäåëû ñòåïíîé çîíû. “Óñòàâ î ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçàõ” îò
22 èþëÿ 1822 ã.7 ñïîñîáñòâîâàë íå òîëüêî ñèñòåìàòèçàöèè ïðèíöèïîâ
óïðàâëåíèÿ, ñóäîïðîèçâîäñòâà, ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ îòíîøåíèé,
íî è çàêîíîäàòåëüíî îôîðìèë ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèå ïëàíû ñàìîäåðæàâèÿ â
îòíîøåíèè ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ãðàíèöû â ðåãèîíå. § 317 Óñòàâà ãëàñèë:
“Ñèáèðñêèå ëèíèè â çíà÷åíèè ñòðàæè íå ñîñòàâëÿþò ó÷ðåæäåíèÿ íà
âñåãäàøíèå âðåìåíà, íî ïî ìåðå ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ïîðÿäêà â çàíèìàåìûõ êèðãèçàìè çåìëÿõ, ñòðàæà ñèÿ ïðîäâèãàåòñÿ âïåðåä è, íàêîíåö,
äîëæíà êîí÷èòü ïîñòîÿííûì óòâåðæäåíèåì ñåáÿ íà äåéñòâèòåëüíîé
ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ãðàíèöå”. Ïîä “äåéñòâèòåëüíîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ãðàíèöåé” ïîíèìàëèñü “åñòåñòâåííûå ïðåäåëû”, ò.å. ðåêè è ãîðíûå õðåáòû. Ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ïîäàâëÿþùåãî áîëüøèíñòâà ðîññèéñêèõ ÷èíîâíèêî⠗ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé öåíòðàëüíîé è ñèáèðñêîé àäìèíèñòðàöèè, ñòåïíàÿ çîíà íå îáåñïå÷èâàëà íàäåæíûõ ãðàíèö äëÿ ãîñóäàðñòâà, à êî÷åâîå
íàñåëåíèå íå ïðåäñòàâëÿëî çíà÷èòåëüíîãî ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî èíòåðåñà äëÿ
èìïåðèè.8 Âîåííûé èñòîðèê, ÷èíîâíèê, ñòîðîííèê òåîðèè “åñòåñòâåííûõ ãðàíèö” À. È. Ìàêøååâ ðàññìàòðèâàë ïðîöåññ ïðîíèêíîâåíèÿ
ðîññèéñêîãî èìïåðñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà â ñòåïü êàê “íåóäåðæèìîå ñòðåìëåíèå ðóññêîãî íàðîäà è ðîññèéñêîé öèâèëèçàöèè äâèãàòüñÿ íà âîñòîê” ïîä âëèÿíèåì çàêîíà èñòîðè÷åñêîé íåîáõîäèìîñòè.9 Ïðåäñòàâëåííûå â ðóáðèêå “Àðõè┠ìàòåðèàëû, ñâÿçàííûå ñ ïðîâåäåíèåì âîåííîòîïîãðàôè÷åñêîãî îáîçðåíèÿ Îìñêîé îáëàñòè â 1832 ã. (îáîçðåíèå ïðîâîäèëîñü øòàáñ-êàïèòàíîì Ãåíåðàëüíîãî øòàáà Ì. Ï. Áóòîâñêèì ïî
Ïîëíîå Ñîáðàíèå Çàêîíîâ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè (ÏÑÇ-1). Ò. XXXVIII. ¹ 29127.
ÑÏá., 1830.
8
À. Â. Ðåìíåâ. “Åñòåñòâåííûå ãðàíèöû” èìïåðèè è ñòåïü â ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîé
êîíñòðóêöèè Ì. È. Âåíþêîâà // Ñòåïíîé êðàé: çîíà âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ðóññêîãî è
êàçàõñêîãî íàðîäîâ (XVIII – XIX ââ.). Òåçèñû äîêëàäîâ è ñîîáùåíèé II
Ìåæäóíàðîäíîé íàó÷íîé êîíôåðåíöèè. Îìñê, 2001. Ñ. 7.
9
Ðîññèéñêèé Ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé Âîåííî-Èñòîðè÷åñêîé Àðõèâ (ÐÃÂÈÀ). Ô. 400.
Îï. 1. Ä. 4733. Ë. 8.
7
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èíèöèàòèâå íà÷àëüíèêà Ãëàâíîãî øòàáà ãåíåðàë-ëåéòåíàíòà Ï. Ï. Ñóõòåëåíà), ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò î òîì, ÷òî çà îñíîâó ðàçäåëåíèÿ ðåãèîíà áûëè
âçÿòû “åñòåñòâåííûå ïðåäåëû”, ò.å. ðåêè, îçåðà, ãîðíûå õðåáòû, êîòîðûå ìîãëè ñòàòü âåõàìè äëÿ ïîñòàíîâêè ïîãðàíè÷íûõ çíàêîâ. Ñîâåðøåííî î÷åâèäíî åäèíñòâî âçãëÿäîâ öåíòðàëüíîé è ñèáèðñêîé àäìèíèñòðàöèé ïî âîïðîñó î öåëÿõ äàëüíåéøåé èìïåðñêîé ýêñïàíñèè â Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè. Ôàêòè÷åñêè, ñòðàòåãè÷åñêîé öåëüþ èìïåðñêîé ïîëèòèêè Ðîññèè ÿâëÿëîñü ïðîäâèæåíèå â ðåãèîí äî ãðàíèö ñ Êèòàåì è
Àôãàíèñòàíîì. Ñòàòóñ ïîãðàíè÷íûõ îïîðíûõ ïóíêòîâ ïîñòåïåííî
äîëæåí áûë ïåðåéòè îò êðåïîñòåé, ðàñïîëîæåííûõ íà Ñèáèðñêîé ëèíèè, ê àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûì åäèíèöàì âíóòðè Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ – îêðóæíûì ïðèêàçàì. Äëÿ îñóùåñòâëåíèÿ ñòîëü òðóäíîé çàäà÷è áûëà ó÷ðåæäåíà íîâàÿ àäìèíèñòðàòèâíî-òåððèòîðèàëüíàÿ åäèíèöà – Îìñêàÿ îáëàñòü.
Ïåðåõîäíûé è äèíàìè÷íûé õàðàêòåð ýòîãî “ðóáåæà” îáóñëîâëèâàëñÿ
ïðèñóòñòâèåì íà òåððèòîðèè Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ïîñòîÿííûõ è èððåãóëÿðíûõ âîéñê, ïðåäîñòàâëåíèåì îáëàñòíîìó íà÷àëüíèêó ãðàæäàíñêèõ,
âîåííûõ è äàæå äèïëîìàòè÷åñêèõ ïîëíîìî÷èé. Îñíîâíûìè çàäà÷àìè
îáëàñòíîé àäìèíèñòðàöèè, ïðåæäå âñåãî, îáëàñòíîãî íà÷àëüíèêà, ñòàëè: ïðîâåäåíèå ÷åòêèõ ïîãðàíè÷íûõ ëèíèé ìåæäó Îìñêîé îáëàñòüþ è
Òîìñêîé è Òîáîëüñêîé ãóáåðíèÿìè (èìïåðàòîðñêèé óêàç îò 26 ÿíâàðÿ
1822 ã.);10 îðãàíèçàöèÿ âíóòðåííèõ îêðóãîâ è èõ ðàçãðàíè÷åíèå; ôîðìèðîâàíèå ñèñòåìû âíåøíèõ îêðóãîâ ñ ó÷åòîì ñîöèàëüíîé îáñòàíîâêè â Ñòåïíîì êðàå. Ïðåäñòàâëåííûå â ðóáðèêå àðõèâíûå ìàòåðèàëû
ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò î òîì, ÷òî ïðîáëåìà ïðîâåäåíèÿ òî÷íûõ ãðàíèö ìåæäó äàííûìè òåððèòîðèàëüíûìè îáðàçîâàíèÿìè íå áûëà îêîí÷àòåëüíî
ðàçðåøåíà âïëîòü äî óïðàçäíåíèÿ Îìñêîé îáëàñòè â 1838 ã. Ïðåäñòàâëåííûé â 1826 ã. ïðîåêò âîåííî-òîïîãðàôè÷åñêîãî îáîçðåíèÿ îáëàñòè,
ñîñòàâëåííûé ãåíåðàë-êâàðòèðìåéñòåðîì Ìèõàèëîì Ïåòðîâè÷åì Áóòîâñêèì, íà÷àë ðåàëèçîâûâàòüñÿ ëèøü ñ 1832 ã., è òî íå â ïîëíîì îáúåìå. Ðåãóëÿðíî âîçíèêàþùèå ïðîòèâîðå÷èÿ ìåæäó àäìèíèñòðàöèÿìè
Òîáîëüñêîé è Òîìñêîé ãóáåðíèé è Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ïî âîïðîñó î âåäîìñòâåííîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè îòäåëüíûõ íàñåëåííûõ ïóíêòîâ è óêðåïëåíèé, îãðàíè÷åííîñòü ôèíàíñîâûõ ñðåäñòâ íå ïîçâîëÿëè îêîí÷àòåëüíî ðàçðåøèòü âîïðîñ î ñåâåðî-çàïàäíûõ è âîñòî÷íûõ ãðàíèöàõ
îáëàñòè, íî ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàëè î çíà÷èòåëüíîé äîëå ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîñòè ãóáåðíñêîé è îáëàñòíîé âëàñòè â ðåøåíèè ïîãðàíè÷íûõ âîïðîñîâ.
10
ÏÑǖ1. Ò.XXXVIII. ¹ 28892. ÑÏá., 1830.
375
Å. Áåçâèêîííàÿ, Ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ...
×òî êàñàåòñÿ þæíûõ ïðåäåëîâ Îìñêîé îáëàñòè, òî îíè âîâñå íå áûëè
îáîçíà÷åíû. Åäèíñòâåííîå îãðàíè÷åíèå ñîñòîÿëî â òîì, ÷òî îáëàñòíîìó âåäîìñòâó ïîä÷èíÿëèñü êàçàõè Ñðåäíåé îðäû.  ñèëó êî÷åâîãî õàðàêòåðà æèçíåäåÿòåëüíîñòè íàñåëåíèÿ Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ âîçìîæíîñòü
î÷åðòèòü äàæå ïðèáëèçèòåëüíûå êîíòóðû áóäóùåé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé
ãðàíèöû ñâîäèëàñü íà íåò. Ïðåäïðèíèìàåìûå Ãåíåðàëüíûì øòàáîì è
ñèáèðñêîé àäìèíèñòðàöèåé ïîïûòêè óòî÷íèòü ïðèìåðíûå ãðàíèöû
êî÷åâîê êàçàõîâ îáû÷íî ñâîäèëèñü ê ïðîâåäåíèþ òîïîãðàôè÷åñêîé
ñúåìêè îòäåëüíûõ ÷àñòåé ðåãèîíà, êðåïîñòåé è áëèçëåæàùèõ êî÷åâèé.
Ñîâåðøåííî î÷åâèäíî ñóùåñòâîâàíèå íåêîòîðûõ ðàçëè÷èé â óñòàíîâêàõ öåíòðàëüíîé è ðåãèîíàëüíîé àäìèíèñòðàöèé ïî âîïðîñó îá
èíòåíñèâíîñòè ïðîäâèæåíèÿ Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè â Ñòåïíîé êðàé.
Ïåðâîíà÷àëüíûé ýíòóçèàçì ñèáèðñêîãî ðóêîâîäñòâà â äåëå ñêîðåéøåé
îðãàíèçàöèè îêðóæíîé ñèñòåìû (ïåðâûå äâà îêðóãà – Êîê÷åòàâñêèé è
Êàðêàðàëèíñêèé, áûëè ñîçäàíû óæå â 1824 ã.) äîñòàòî÷íî áûñòðî ñìåíèëñÿ áîëåå îñòîðîæíîé è ïðîäóìàííîé ïîëèòèêîé.  òå÷åíèå ïîñëåäóþùèõ íåñêîëüêèõ ëåò (1825 – 1830 ãã.) áûëî ðåøåíî îòêàçàòüñÿ íå
òîëüêî îò îòêðûòèÿ íîâûõ îêðóæíûõ ïðèêàçîâ, íî è îò ïðîâåäåíèÿ
ñòàòèñòè÷åñêîãî ó÷åòà íàñåëåíèÿ óæå ñîçäàííûõ.11 Ñîöèàëüíûå êîíôëèêòû â êî÷åâîì îáùåñòâå, íàðîäíûå äâèæåíèÿ (âîåííûå äåéñòâèÿ,
ãðàáåæè, íàïàäåíèÿ íà ðîññèéñêèå êðåïîñòè) ïîä ðóêîâîäñòâîì Ñàðæàíà è Êåíåñàðû Êàñûìîâûõ, Ñàðòàÿ ×èíãèñîâà è äð., âûçâàííûå âíóòðèðîäîâûìè ïðîòèâîðå÷èÿìè êàçàõñêîé àðèñòîêðàòèè, óãðîçîé ñî ñòîðîíû ñðåäíåàçèàòñêèõ õàíñòâ, ïîïûòêàìè ðîññèéñêîé àäìèíèñòðàöèè
âíåñòè ýëåìåíòû åâðîïåéñêîé ðàöèîíàëüíîñòè â îáðàç æèçíè êî÷åâíèêîâ, îáîñòðåíèå ïðîòèâîðå÷èé ìåæäó êàçàõàìè è êàçàêàìè, îòíîøåíèÿ ñ Êèòàéñêîé èìïåðèåé çàñòàâëÿëè îáëàñòíîå ðóêîâîäñòâî äåéñòâîâàòü ïîñòåïåííî è íå òîðîïèòüñÿ ñ îêîí÷àòåëüíûì ðåøåíèåì âîïðîñà
î ãðàíèöàõ ìåæäó îêðóãàìè. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, þæíûå îêðàèíû Îìñêîé
îáëàñòè â 20 – 30-õ ãã. XIX â. áûëè ïðåäñòàâëåíû îòäåëüíûìè àäìèíèñòðàòèâíî-âîåííûìè óêðåïëåíèÿìè (îêðóæíûìè ïðèêàçàìè), ñ îïðåäåëåííûì øòàòîì ÷èíîâíèêîâ è îòðÿäàìè êàçàêîâ. Ìåæäó îòäåëüíûìè ïðèêàçàìè çà÷àñòóþ ïîëíîñòüþ îòñóòñòâîâàëî âçàèìîäåéñòâèå, ÷òî
ñóùåñòâåííî îñëîæíÿëî ïðîöåññ ïðèíÿòèÿ óïðàâëåí÷åñêèõ ðåøåíèé
â ìàñøòàáàõ îáëàñòè. Îáëàñòíàÿ àäìèíèñòðàöèÿ, óáåäèâøèñü â íåâîçìîæíîñòè ïðîâåäåíèÿ ÷åòêèõ ïîãðàíè÷íûõ ëèíèé ìåæäó îòäåëüíûìè
îêðóãàìè, ïðåäïî÷ëà ñîñðåäîòî÷èòüñÿ íà îðãàíèçàöèè ýôôåêòèâíîé
11
Ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé Àðõèâ Îìñêîé Îáëàñòè (ÃÀÎÎ). Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 36. Ë. 374.
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ðàáîòû ïðèêàçîâ, îòëîæèâ ðåøåíèå âîïðîñà î ãðàíèöå íà áîëåå äàëüíèé ñðîê.
Íåñîìíåííî, ÷òî îñîáåííîñòè ñòåïíîãî ðåëüåôà, îòñóòñòâèå åñòåñòâåííûõ ïðåãðàä, îòäåëÿþùèõ Ðîññèéñêîå ãîñóäàðñòâî îò ñîñåäíèõ
òåððèòîðèàëüíûõ îáðàçîâàíèé, íåèçáåæíî òîëêàëè ñàìîäåðæàâèå ê
ðàñøèðåíèþ ñâîèõ ïðåäåëîâ, äàæå âîïðåêè òðåáîâàíèÿì çäðàâîãî
ñìûñëà. Îãðîìíûå ôèíàíñîâûå çàòðàòû, ñ êîòîðûìè áûë ñîïðÿæåí
ïðîöåññ ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ èìïåðñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà,12 îêóïàëèñü äîñòèæåíèåì òåððèòîðèàëüíîé öåëîñòíîñòè è êîíêóðåíòîñïîñîáíîñòè ãîñóäàðñòâà íà ìåæäóíàðîäíîé àðåíå. Â ýòîì îòíîøåíèè Îìñêàÿ îáëàñòü
èñïîëíèëà ðîëü àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîãî öåíòðà â ïðîöåññå ïðîäâèæåíèÿ
èìïåðèè â Öåíòðàëüíî-Àçèàòñêèé ðåãèîí, ïîäãîòîâèëà ïî÷âó äëÿ ïîñëåäóþùåãî ïðîâåäåíèÿ âîåííûõ ìåðîïðèÿòèé, â ðåçóëüòàòå êîòîðûõ
óäàëîñü ðåøèòü è ïðîáëåìó óñòàíîâëåíèÿ áîëåå îïðåäåëåííûõ þæíûõ ãðàíèö èìïåðèè. Ñëîæíîñòü ïîñòàâëåííûõ çàäà÷, ãðîìàäíîñòü
ïðîñòðàíñòâà, êîòîðîå ïðåäïîëàãàëîñü ðåîðãàíèçîâàòü, ñòîëêíîâåíèå
ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêèõ èíòåðåñîâ îáóñëîâèëè ïðîòèâîðå÷èâîñòü è íåçàêîí÷åííîñòü àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûõ ïðåîáðàçîâàíèé â Ñòåïíîì êðàå. Îìñêîé îáëàñòè áûëà óãîòîâàíà ðîëü ñòðàòåãè÷åñêîãî îðèåíòèðà, “îïûòíîãî îáðàçöà” â ïðîöåññå ïîñëåäóþùåãî îñâîåíèÿ ðåãèîíà èìïåðèåé. Ïðåêðàùåíèå ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ äàííîé àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîé åäèíèöû â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ïîëîæåíèåì “Îá îòäåëüíîì óïðàâëåíèè ñèáèðñêèìè êèðãèçàìè” îò 6 àïðåëÿ 1838 ã.13 îçíà÷àëî äâèæåíèå
ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ãðàíèöû Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè îò Ñèáèðñêîé ëèíèè
âãëóáü ñòåïíîãî ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà. Îíî òàêæå îçíà÷àëî
ñîõðàíåíèå ãëóáîêèõ âíóòðåííèõ ãðàíèö ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ñâîéñòâà íà âíîâü ïðèîáðåòåííîé òåððèòîðèè, êîòîðûå è ïîçâîëÿþò ãîâîðèòü îá èìïåðñêîì õàðàêòåðå ðîññèéñêîé èñòîðèè.
Ïóáëèêóåìûå íèæå äîêóìåíòû õðàíÿòñÿ â Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì àðõèâå
Îìñêîé îáëàñòè (ÃÀÎÎ), â òðåòüåì ôîíäå Ãëàâíîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè. Îíè âêëþ÷àþò ðóêîïèñíûå ìàòåðèàëû ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî îôèöèàëüíîãî äåëîïðîèçâîäñòâà (ðóêîïèñíûå òåêñòû ðàñøèôðîâàíû àâòîðîì ïóáëèêàöèè). Îñíîâíûì êðèòåðèåì ïîäáîðà äîêóìåíòîâ
ÿâèëàñü ñòåïåíü ðàñêðûòèÿ â íèõ âîïðîñîâ ïîãðàíè÷íîãî óñòðîéñòâà
Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè â Ñòåïíîì êðàå, à òàêæå âçãëÿäîâ ñèáèðñêîé è
12
Þ. Â. Îëåéíèêîâ. Ïðèðîäíûé ôàêòîð ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñòðàòåãèè Ðîññèè //
Ôèëîñîôèÿ è îáùåñòâî. 1997. ¹ 6. Ñ. 129.
13
ÏÑÇ-2. Ò. XIII. ¹ 11122. ÑÏá., 1839.
377
Å. Áåçâèêîííàÿ, Ãåîïîëèòè÷åñêîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî Ñòåïíîãî êðàÿ...
öåíòðàëüíîé àäìèíèñòðàöèé íà ýòè âîïðîñû. Íåñìîòðÿ íà òî, ÷òî ýòè
äîêóìåíòû âûñîêî âîñòðåáîâàíû èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè – êàê ðîññèéñêèìè, òàê è çàïàäíûìè – ïðåäëàãàåìûé ìíîþ àñïåêò èõ ðàññìîòðåíèÿ ñ
òî÷êè çðåíèÿ èìïåðñêîãî âèäåíèÿ “åñòåñòâåííûõ”, ñèìâîëè÷åñêèõ,
ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ è ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö ðàñêðûâàåò íîâûå
âîçìîæíîñòè èõ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ.
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ÄÎÊÓÌÅÍÒÛ
ÈÇ ÃÎÑÓÄÀÐÑÒÂÅÍÍÎÃÎ ÀÐÕÈÂÀ
ÎÌÑÊÎÉ ÎÁËÀÑÒÈ
I.
Ïðåäëîæåíèÿ Îá îòêðûòèè Îìñêîé îáëàñòè
Ïðèåìëÿ îñíîâàíèåì ó÷ðåæäåíèå äëÿ Óïðàâëåíèÿ ñèáèðñêèõ ãóáåðíèé, â 22 äåíü èþëÿ 1822 ãîäà Âûñî÷àéøå óòâåðæäåííîå, ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ îá îòêðûòèè íîâîé Îìñêîé îáëàñòè, ñäåëàòü ñëåäóþùåå:
§1. Òîðæåñòâåííîå îòêðûòèå Óïðàâëåíèé Îìñêîé îáëàñòè, îáùåãî
è ÷àñòíîãî, â ïðèëàãàåìîì ïðè ñåì ïîä ëèò. À, ðàñïèñàíèè ïîèìåíîâàííûõ, íàçíà÷àåòñÿ ñåãî ãîäà íîÿáðÿ â 8 äåíü.
§2. Ñ òîãî âðåìåíè âñå ÷èíîâíèêè â ñèþ Îáëàñòü Âûñî÷àéøå óòâåðæäåííûå ïî ïðåäñòàâëåííîé âëàñòè Ãåíåðàë Ãóáåðíàòîðîì íàçíà÷åííûå, ðàâíî è îáëàñòíûì íà÷àëüñòâîì èçáðàííûå, â ïðèëàãàåìîì
ïðè ñåì ïîä ëèò. Á, ðàñïèñàíèè ïîèìåíîâàííûå, ïî ïðèâåäåíèè èõ íà
âåðíîñòü ñëóæáû Åãî Èìïåðàòîðñêîìó Âåëè÷åñòâó ê ïðèñÿãå, âñòóïàþò â îòïðàâëåíèå èõ îáÿçàííîñòåé, Âûñî÷àéøå óòâåðæäåííûì î Ñèáèðñêèõ Ãóáåðíèÿõ Ó÷ðåæäåíèåì1 è âñåìè ñóùåñòâóþùèìè ãîñóäàðñòâåííûìè óçàêîíåíèÿìè ïîñòàíîâëåííûõ.
§3. Ïî îòêðûòèè îáëàñòíûõ Óïðàâëåíèé, îáùåãî è ÷àñòíûõ, êàæäîå èç íèõ äîëæíî äîíåñòè áëèæàéøåìó ñâîåìó íîâîìó âûñøåìó ïî
Ðå÷ü èäåò îá “Ó÷ðåæäåíèè äëÿ óïðàâëåíèÿ ñèáèðñêèõ ãóáåðíèé” îò 22 èþíÿ
1822 ã. (ÏÑÇ-1. Ò. XXXVIII. ¹ 29125. ÑÏá., 1830), äîïîëíåíèåì ê êîòîðîìó
ïîñëóæèëè óñòàâû “Îá ýòàïàõ â Ñèáèðñêèõ ãóáåðíèÿõ”, “Î ññûëüíûõ”, “Îá
óïðàâëåíèè èíîðîäöåâ”, “Î ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçàõ”, “Î ñèáèðñêèõ ãîðîäîâûõ
êàçàêàõ” è äð.
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Äîêóìåíòû èç Îìñêîãî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà
íåì íà÷àëüñòâó î ñîâåðøåíèè îòêðûòèÿ è î ïðèíÿòîì äåéñòâèè ñâîèõ
îáÿçàííîñòåé.
§4. Äåéñòâèÿ Îáëàñòíîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ îáùåãî è ÷àñòíûõ, ïî îòêðûòèè èõ, çàêëþ÷àòñÿ áóäóò ïî óçàêîíåíèÿì ôîðìàëüíûì îáðàçîì â îòíîøåíèè òîëüêî ëèíåéíûõ âíóòðåííèõ îêðóãîâ;2 ê óñòðîåíèè æå íà òàêîì
ïîëîæåíèè âíåøíèõ èç ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçîâ, ïî îñîáåííîìó îá íèõ
Âûñî÷àéøå óòâåðæäåííîìó Óñòàâó,3 ïðèñòóïèòü âïðåäü ïî ìåðå óäîáñòâ,
êàêèå èçûñêàíû è ïðåäñòàâëåíû äëÿ ñåãî ëó÷øèìè, ïî ïðåäâàðèòåëüíîìó ðàññìîòðåíèþ êàñàþùèõñÿ ê îíûì îáñòîÿòåëüñòâ, áëèæàéøåìó îáîçðåíèþ ìåñòíûõ ïîëîæåíèé è ïî ñîîáðàæåíèè âñåõ âèäîâ ê äîñòèæåíèþ âîçìîæíûõ ñïîñîáîâ ó÷ðåäèòü èõ ïîðÿäêîì, ìîãóùèì ñëóæèòü ê
òâåðäîìó âîññòàíîâëåíèþ áëàãîñîñòîÿíèÿ ñåãî íàðîäà è ê íàñòîÿùåé
ïîëüçå; à äî òîãî îñòàâàòüñÿ çà ëèíåéíûì êèðãèçàì íà ïðåæíåì ïîëîæåíèè, ïî ìåñòíîìó óäîáñòâó, ïîä çàâèñèìîñòüþ è íàäçîðîì áëèæàéøèõ
íà ëèíèè îêðóæíûõ íà÷àëüñòâ, êîèì ïðåäîñòàâëåíî äåéñòâîâàòü ê ñîõðàíåíèþ ìåæäó íèìè òèøèíû è ñïîêîéñòâèÿ êðîòêèìè è áëàãîðàçóìíûìè ñðåäñòâàìè, ñîîáðàçíî ñ ïðàâèëàìè â Óñòàâå îá íèõ íà÷åðòàííûìè; â ñëó÷àå êàêèõ ëèáî áåñïîðÿäêîâ, èëè âàæíûõ ïðîèñøåñòâèé, ïî
êîòîðûì íóæíî áóäåò ïðèíÿòü ìåðû ê ïðåñå÷åíèþ çëà è äîñòàâëåíèþ â
îáèäàõ ïî æàëîáàì óäîâëåòâîðåíèÿ ñëåäñòâèåì è ðàñïðàâîþ, äîíåñòü
îáëàñòíîìó íà÷àëüñòâó è ïîñòóïàòü ïî åãî ðàçðåøåíèþ.
§5. Ãðàíèöû Îáëàñòè ñîîáðàçíî ñ ïðèìåðíîþ êàðòîþ,4 çàêëþ÷àþò
âñå âîèíñêèå ïîñòû è çàñåëåíèÿ íà ëèíèè5 è â áëèçêîì îò îíîé ðàññòîÿíèè ëåæàùèå. Ïî ñåìó âñå çåìëè è óãîäüÿ, êîèìè ãîðîäñêèå æèòåëè è
âîèíñêèå êîìàíäû äîíûíå ïîëüçîâàëèñü, òàê æå çåìëè è óãîäüÿ ïðèíàäëåæàùèå ñåëåíèÿì â Îáëàñòü Îìñêóþ âõîäÿùèå, îñòàþòñÿ â òåõ
 ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ “Ó÷ðåæäåíèåì äëÿ óïðàâëåíèÿ ñèáèðñêèõ ãóáåðíèé” â Îìñêîé
îáëàñòè áûëî ó÷ðåæäåíî ÷åòûðå âíóòðåííèõ îêðóãà: Ïåòðîïàâëîâñêèé, Îìñêèé,
Ñåìèïàëàòèíñêèé è Óñòü-Êàìåíîãîðñêèé. Ïðîöåññ ñîçäàíèÿ âíóòðåííèõ îêðóãîâ
çàâåðøèëñÿ ê íà÷àëó 1824 ã.
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Âíåøíèå îêðóãà Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ïðåäïîëàãàëîñü ñîçäàòü íåïîñðåäñòâåííî â
êàçàõñêîé ñòåïè, ïðèìûêàþùåé ê ëèíèè êðåïîñòåé è ôîðïîñòîâ. Îðãàíèçàöèÿ è
äåÿòåëüíîñòü äàííûõ àäìèíèñòðàòèâíî-ñóäåáíûõ åäèíèö ðåãóëèðîâàëàñü “Óñòàâîì
î ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçàõ” îò 22 èþëÿ 1822 ã.
4
Ïðèìåðíàÿ êàðòà ãðàíèö îáëàñòè ñòàëà ïðèëîæåíèåì ê èìïåðàòîðñêîìó óêàçó îò
26 ÿíâàðÿ 1822 ã. “Î ðàçäåëåíèè ñèáèðñêèõ ãóáåðíèé íà Çàïàäíîå è Âîñòî÷íîå
óïðàâëåíèÿ” (ÏÑÇ-1. Ò. XXXVIII. ¹28892. ÑÏá., 1830). Ê ñîæàëåíèþ, îáíàðóæèòü
ýòó êàðòó â Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì àðõèâå Îìñêîé îáëàñòè íå óäàëîñü.
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Ñèáèðñêàÿ ëèíèÿ áûëà îñíîâàíà â ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíå XVIII â. è ïðåäñòàâëÿëà ñîáîé
îòäåëüíûå êðåïîñòè è ôîðïîñòû.
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ñàìûõ ãðàíèöàõ, êàê ãîðîäîâûå îáûâàòåëè, âîäâîðåííûå êàçàêè, ñîëäàòû, êðåñòüÿíå è ñòàíè÷íûå êèðãèçû âëàäåþò îíûìè íûíå6 ñ íàñòóïëåíèåì æå â áóäóùåì 1824 ãîäó âåñíû, äëÿ íàçíà÷åíèÿ ïîñòîÿííûõ ãðàíèö Îáëàñòè îò Òîáîëüñêîé è Òîìñêîé Ãóáåðíèé, íàòóðàëüíîþ ÷åðòîé,
à ãäå óäîáíî æèâûìè óðî÷èùàìè è ïîñòàíîâëåíèåì çíàêîâ, îòïðàâÿòñÿ
íà ìåñòà, êàê îò îíûõ Ãóáåðíèé, òàê è îò Îáëàñòè ÷èíîâíèêè, êîòîðûå
ñíàáæåíû áóäóò ïîäðîáíûìè ïî ñåìó ïðåäìåòó íàñòàâëåíèÿìè.7
§6. Îêðóãè âíóòðåííèå çàêëþ÷àþò â ñåáå, òîæå ñîîáðàçíî ñ ïðèìåðíîþ êàðòîþ, îò ãðàíèö Òîáîëüñêîé è Òîìñêîé Ãóáåðíèé, âñå ìåñòà
íà ëèíèè è áëèç îíîé, â îáëàñòü âõîäÿùèå, â íèæåñëåäóþùåì ïðîñòðàíñòâå, íà÷èíàÿ ñ ïðàâîé ñòîðîíû ëèíèè: îêðóã Ïåòðîïàâëîâñêèé:
îò ðåäóòà Ñèáèðñêîãî äî êðåïîñòè Ïîëóäåííîé, âûêëþ÷èòåëüíî ñ îíûìè. Îêðóã Îìñêèé: îò ðåäóòà Àòìàññêîãî, âûêëþ÷èòåëüíî ñ îíûìè.
Îêðóã Ñåìèïàëàòèíñêîé: îò ðåäóòà Òàòàðñêîãî äî ðåäóòà Òàëèöêîãî
âêëþ÷èòåëüíî ñ îíûìè. Îêðóã Óñòü-Êàìåíîãîðñêèé: îò ôîðïîñòà Øóëüáèíñêîãî, çà óñòüå ðå÷êè Áåðåëü, ê âåðøèíàì ðåêè Áóõòàðìû äî Êèòàéñêèõ âëàäåíèé.8
Ïåðå÷èñëåííûå â äîêóìåíòå ñîñëîâèÿ íà ïðîòÿæåíèè XVIII – XIX ââ. ïðåòåðïåëè ñóùåñòâåííîå èçìåíåíèå ñâîåãî ñòàòóñà è ïðàâîâîãî ïîëîæåíèÿ. Ãîðîäñêèå
îáûâàòåëè (ñ 1775 ã. ìåùàíå) çàíèìàëèñü ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî ðåìåñëîì, ìåëêîé
òîðãîâëåé è èíîãäà íåçíà÷èòåëüíûìè çåìåëüíûìè íàäåëàìè. Êàçà÷åñòâî Ñèáèðè
ðàçäåëÿëîñü íà äâå êàòåãîðèè: ãîðîäîâûå, ïðåâðàòèâøèåñÿ ê íà÷àëó XIX â. â àäìèíèñòðàòèâíî-ïîëèöåéñêèõ ñëóæèòåëåé, è ïðèãðàíè÷íûå, âõîäèâøèå â ñîñòàâ
Îòäåëüíîãî Ñèáèðñêîãî êîðïóñà. Êðåñòüÿíñêîå ñîñëîâèå ïðåäñòàâëåíî êàòåãîðèåé ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ êðåñòüÿí, â ñîñòàâ êîòîðûõ ñ 1720-õ ãã. âîøëè ÷åðíîñîøíûå
êðåñòüÿíå, à òàêæå íåêðåñòüÿíñêîå íàñåëåíèå, çàíèìàþùååñÿ ñåëüñêèì õîçÿéñòâîì
(ÿìùèêè, ìîíàñòûðñêèå êðåñòüÿíå, îòñòàâíûå ñîëäàòû, “ãóëÿùèå ëþäè” è ò.ä.).
Íàêîíåö, êàòåãîðèÿ ñòàíè÷íûõ (âíóòðåííèõ) êèðãèçîâ ïîÿâèëàñü â Ñèáèðè â ðåçóëüòàòå ðàñïðîñòðàíèâøåéñÿ ïðàêòèêè ïåðåñåëåíèÿ êî÷åâíèêîâ íà ïðàâûé áåðåã
ðåêè Èðòûø íà ïðîòÿæåíèè XVIII – XIX ââ., êîòîðîé äëÿ êî÷åâîê âûäåëÿëèñü
çåìåëüíûå óãîäüÿ ïî ñîãëàñîâàíèþ ñ êðåñòüÿíñêîé îáùèíîé è ìåñòíîé ñèáèðñêîé
àäìèíèñòðàöèåé.
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Äåéñòâèòåëüíî, êîðïóñíûì îáåð-êâàðòèðìåéñòåðîì Äúÿêîíîâûì, ïî óêàçàíèþ
ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè, â òå÷åíèè 1824 ã. áûëà ïðîâåäåíà èíñòðóìåíòàëüíàÿ ñúåìêà ïðàâîãî è ëåâîãî ôëàíãîâ Ñèáèðñêîé ëèíèè, ÷òî ïîçâîëèëî
ñîñòàâèòü íîâóþ êàðòó îáëàñòè, êîòîðàÿ è áûëà óòâåðæäåíà èìïåðàòîðîì 15 ñåíòÿáðÿ 1827 ã. (ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 127. Ë. 105).
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Äî ìîìåíòà çàêëþ÷åíèÿ Ïåêèíñêîãî äîãîâîðà 1860 ã. íèêàêèõ ÷åòêî ôèêñèðîâàííûõ ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèõ ïðåäåëîâ íà çàïàäíîé ÷àñòè ðóññêî-êèòàéñêîé ãðàíèöû íå
ñóùåñòâîâàëî. Àðõèâíûå äîêóìåíòû ïîçâîëÿþò ðàññìàòðèâàòü â êà÷åñòâå òàêîâûõ öåïü êèòàéñêèõ ïèêåòîâ, ïðîòÿíóâøèõñÿ çà Òàðáàãàòàåì, â ðàéîíå Òÿíü-Øàíÿ
è Êàøãàðèè. Ñì. ïîäðîáíåå: Ãðàíèöû Êèòàÿ: èñòîðèÿ ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ. Ì., 2001.
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Äîêóìåíòû èç Îìñêîãî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà
§7. Îêðóãè ñèè îáðàçóÿñü èçâåñòíûì íàçíà÷åíèåì èõ ïðîñòðàíñòâà,
ñîîòâåòñòâåííî ìåñòíîìó ðàñïîëîæåíèþ íà ëèíèè êàçà÷üèõ ïîëêîâ
(êðîìå 9 è 10-ãî, ðàñïîëîæåííûõ â Òîìñêîé ãóáåðíèè)9 âìåùàþò â
ñåáÿ âñå çàêëþ÷àþùèåñÿ íà òîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå ãîðîäà, êðåïîñòè, ðåäóòû, ôîðïîñòû è ïðî÷èå çàñåëåíèÿ, â ïðèëàãàåìîé ïðè ñåì ïîä ëèò. Á,
Âåäîìîñòè èìåíîâàííûõ, ñî âñåìè â îíûõ îáûâàòåëÿìè, êóïöàìè, ìåùàíàìè, òîðãîâöàìè Àçèàòñêèìè, èíîçåìöàìè, êðåñòüÿíàìè, êàçàêàìè, îòñòàâíûìè ñîëäàòàìè è ñòàíè÷íûìè êèðãèçöàìè. Ïî ñåé âåäîìîñòè îçíà÷àåòñÿ ÷èñëî ñòàíèö, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî ðàñïîëîæåíèþ ýñêàäðîíîâ, êîèìè äîëæíû óïðàâëÿòü êîìàíäèðû èõ, î çàñåëåíèè âíóòðè
ëèíèè è áëèç îíîé, ãäå æèâóò êðåñòüÿíå, îáðàçóþòñÿ îñîáûå âîëîñòè,
ðàñïîëîæåíèå êîèõ ïî ìåñòíîìó îáîçðåíèþ ïðåäñòàâëåíî Îêðóæíûì
íà÷àëüíèêàì< >
§9. Ñî äíÿ îòêðûòèÿ Óïðàâëåíèÿ Îìñêîé îáëàñòè îáùåãî è ÷àñòíûõ ( î ÷åì èçâåñòèòüñÿ è ÷ðåç ïóáëè÷íûå âåäîìîñòè) ïðåêðàùàåòñÿ äåéñòâèå íà÷àëüñòâ Òîáîëüñêîé è Òîìñêîé Ãóáåðíèé íà ìåñòà
è æèòåëåé â íîâîå âåäîìñòâî îáëàñòè Îìñêîé ïîñòóïàþùèõ; à âî
âñåõ ïîòðåáíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ Ãóáåðíñêèå è îêðóæíûå íà÷àëüíèêè è ïðèñóòñòâåííûå ìåñòà ñíîñÿòñÿ ñ íà÷àëüñòâîì îáëàñòíûì è îêðóæíûì
è Ïðèñóòñâåííûìè ìåñòàìè Îìñêîé îáëàñòè íà îáùèõ ïðàâèëàõ.
§10. Ïî îòêðûòèè Îáëàñòè è ÷àñòíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèé, îáÿçàíû îíè
çàíÿòüñÿ íåìåäëåííî ñîñòàâëåíèåì î âñåì âåäåíèþ è óïðàâëåíèþ
êàæäîãî ïðåäîñòàâëåííîì ïîäðîáíûõ âåäîìîñòåé è äîñòàâëåíèåì
îíûõ ïî ïîðÿäêó ê áëèæàéøåìó ñâîåìó íà÷àëüñòâó, äëÿ ñîñòàâëåíèÿ îáùåãî ñòàòèñòè÷åñêîãî ïî íîâîìó îáëàñòè óñòðîéñòâó îïèñàíèÿ.
§11. Ñ îòêðûòèåì îáëàñòíîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ, äåëà ñóùåñòâóþùåé Ïîãðàíè÷íîé Êîìèññèè,10 ïîñòóïàþò â îíîå, ñîîáðàçíî èõ ðîäó, îäíè ïî
çàãðàíè÷íûì ñíîøåíèÿì â êàíöåëÿðèþ îáëàñòíîãî Ñîâåòà, à äðóãèå
èñêîâûå è óãîëîâíûå â Îáëàñòíîé ñóä; ÷èíîâíèêè æå åå ðàçìåùàþòñÿ
Ãðàíèöû âíóòðåííèõ îêðóãîâ óñòàíàâëèâàëèñü â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ðàñïîëîæåíèåì
ïîëêîâ Ñèáèðñêîãî êàçà÷üåãî âîéñêà, ò.å. ïî ïîëêîâîìó ïðèçíàêó.
10
Ñ 1816 ãîäà â ãîðîäå Îìñêå äåéñòâîâàëî îñîáîå ó÷ðåæäåíèå – Ïîãðàíè÷íàÿ
êîìèññèÿ, ïîëíîìî÷èÿ êîòîðîé çàêëþ÷àëèñü â ðàçðåøåíèè âçàèìíûõ ïðîòèâîðå÷èé
ñðåäè êàçàõñêèõ êî÷åâíèêîâ ïî èõ ïðîñüáå. Äàííàÿ êîìèññèÿ ñòàëà ïðîîáðàçîì
îêðóæíîé ñèñòåìû óïðàâëåíèÿ, ñîçäàííîé â Ñòåïíîì êðàå â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ
“Óñòàâîì î ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçàõ”. (È. Ô. Áàáêîâ. Âîñïîìèíàíèÿ î ìîåé ñëóæáå â
Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè, 1859 – 1875. ÑÏá., 1912. Ñ. 309-310).
9
382
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ê äîëæíîñòÿì â ÷èñëå ïðî÷èõ ïîêàçàííûõ ïî ðàñïèñàíèþ óïîìÿíóòîìó â §2.
Ïîëêîâíèê Áðîíåâñêèé.11
(ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 127. Ë. 81 – 86)
II.
Äîíåñåíèå îáëàñòíîãî íà÷àëüíèêà Ãåíåðàë Ãóáåðíàòîðó
Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè12 Ï. Ì. Êàïöåâè÷ó îò 13 ìàÿ 1824 ã.
 áûòíîñòü ìîþ çà ãðàíèöåþ â Ñîâåòå Îìñêîãî Îáùåãî Îáëàñòíîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ ðàññìàòðèâàëîñü äîíåñåíèå Îìñêîãî Îêðóæíîãî íà÷àëüíèêà13 ïîñëåäîâàâøåå ñ ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ ê íåìó óïðàâëÿþùåãî Îìñêèì
çåìñêèì ñóäîì î íåâîøåäøèõ â Îáëàñòíîå Âåäîìñòâî êðåñòüÿíñêèõ
ñåëåíèÿõ ñîñòîÿùèõ îò ëèíèè íå ìåíåå ÷åì â 30-òè âåðñòàõ;14 î ÷åì
Ïîëêîâíèê Ñåìåí Áîãäàíîâè÷ Áðîíåâñêèé (1786 - 1858) – ïåðâûé îìñêèé
îáëàñòíîé íà÷àëüíèê (1823 - 1824), îðãàíèçàòîð îêðóæíîé ñèñòåìû óïðàâëåíèÿ,
ó÷àñòíèê Êàâêàçñêèõ âîéí (1803 - 1808), ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð Âîñòî÷íîé Ñèáèðè
(1835 - 1837). Ñì. ïîäðîáíåå: Èç âîñïîìèíàíèé ïåðâîãî îìñêîãî îáëàñòíîãî
íà÷àëüíèêà Ñ. Á. Áðîíåâñêîãî. Âñòóïèòåëüíàÿ ñòàòüÿ, ïîäãîòîâêà òåêñòà ê ïå÷àòè è
êîììåíòàðèè À. Â. Ðåìíåâà // Èçâåñòèÿ Îìñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî èñòîðèêîêðàåâåä÷åñêîãî ìóçåÿ. 1999. ¹ 7. Ñ. 276-299.
12
Ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè ïåðâîé ïîëîâèíû XIX â. âûñòóïàë ãëàâîé
ìåñòíîãî ñèáèðñêîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ è íàäåëÿëñÿ îáøèðíûìè àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîõîçÿéñòâåííûìè, ôèíàíñîâûìè è ñóäåáíûìè ïîëíîìî÷èÿìè. Ïîä åãî
íåïîñðåäñòâåííûì íàäçîðîì íàõîäèëàñü àäìèíèñòðàöèÿ ãóáåðíèé, îêðóãîâ,
âîëîñòåé, ãîðîäîâ è äðóãèõ åäèíèö, â òîì ÷èñëå è îìñêèé îáëàñòíîé íà÷àëüíèê.
Ïðè ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðå äåéñòâîâàë Ñîâåò Ãëàâíîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè,
íàäåëåííûé ñîâåùàòåëüíûìè ôóíêöèÿìè. Íà ïðîòÿæåíèè XIX â. îòìå÷àåòñÿ
òåíäåíöèÿ ê óâåëè÷åíèþ åãî âëèÿíèÿ â êà÷åñòâå ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ôèãóðû,
îáåñïå÷èâàþùåé ãîñóäàðñòâåííóþ áåçîïàñíîñòü â ïðåäåëàõ ãåíåðàëãóáåðíàòîðñòâà, óñèëåíèþ åãî ëè÷íîé âëàñòè. Ýòî ïðèâîäèò ê óñëîæíåíèþ
îòíîøåíèé ñ ãóáåðíàòîðàìè è ðàñøèðåíèþ âåäîìñòâåííîãî ïðèñóòñòâèÿ
ìèíèñòåðñòâ â ðåãèîíå. Ñì. ïîäðîáíåå: À. Â. Ðåìíåâ. Ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðñêàÿ
âëàñòü â XIX ñòîëåòèè. Ê ïðîáëåìå îðãàíèçàöèè ðåãèîíàëüíîãî óïðàâëåíèÿ
Ðîññèéñêîé èìïåðèè // Âåñòíèê Îìñêîãî îòäåëåíèÿ Àêàäåìèè ãóìàíèòàðíûõ íàóê.
Îìñê, 1997. Ñ. 79-85.
13
Íà÷àëüíèê Îìñêîãî âíóòðåííåãî îêðóãà ïîëêîâíèê Áåçíîñèêîâ ïîääåðæàë èíèöèàòèâó êðåñòüÿí, îáðàòèâøèõñÿ â ñóä ñ ïðîñüáîé îïðåäåëèòü èõ âåäîìñòâåííóþ
ïðèíàäëåæíîñòü.
14
Ðå÷ü èäåò î äâóõ êðåñòüÿíñêèõ âîëîñòÿõ – Ëóçèíñêîé è Êóëà÷èíñêîé.
11
383
Äîêóìåíòû èç Îìñêîãî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà
Ïðåäñåäàòåëüñòâóþùèé òîãäà â Ñîâåòå ïðåäñòàâèë êî ìíå â êîïèè
æóðíàë, ïðåäîñòàâëÿþùèé âîéòè ñ ïðåäñòàâëåíèåì Ãëàâíîìó Íà÷àëüñòâó, ñ èñïðîøåíèåì îò îíîãî íà îïðåäåëåííîå ðàññòîÿíèå îò ëèíèè
íàçíà÷åíèÿ Îáëàñòíîé ÷åðòû ðàçðåøåíèÿ. Ñîãëàñÿñü âî âñåì ñ ïîëîæåíèåì Îáëàñòíîãî Ñîâåòà, ïðèåìëþ ñìåëîñòü ïðåäñòàâèòü íà óâàæåíèå ê Âàøåìó Âûñîêîïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâó ñ îíîãî ñïèñîê è ïîêîðíåéøå ïðîøó: ðàçðåøèòü ìåíÿ â ðåøèòåëüíîì ïîëîæåíèè Îáëàñòíîé
÷åðòû îò ñîñòîÿùåé ëèíèè â Âåäîìñòâà Ãóáåðíñêèå; ïðè ÷åì ñìåþ
ïðèñîåäèíèòü, ÷òî íàñòîÿùåå îò Ãóáåðíñêèõ ìåñò â Îáëàñòü ïðè÷èñëåíèå êðåñòüÿíñêèõ ñåëåíèé è ïî ñîáñòâåííîìó ìîåìó óäîñòîâåðåíèþ íåóäîáíî: èáî ìíîãèå ñåëåíèÿ, êîòîðûå îò ëèíèè äàëåå, ïðè÷èñëåíû ê îáëàñòè, à áëèæíèå îñòàëèñü â Ãóáåðíñêîì Âåäîìñòâå; áûâøèå ó îäíîãî ïðèõîäà, èëè ïðèíàäëåæà îäíîé öåðêâè ðàçäðîáëåíû è
íåêîòîðûå âûñåëêè èç äåðåâåíü èìåÿ îáùèå ñâÿçè ðîäñòâà è âëàäåÿ
ñìåæíî çåìëÿìè è óãîäüÿìè òîæå ðàçëó÷åíû òåïåðü ðàçäåëîì â ðàçíûå âåäîìñòâà; è ïîòîìó åñëè êàê ïðåäïîëîæåíî îçíà÷èòü íîâóþ ÷åðòó Îáëàñòè, òî îíà âåñüìà áóäåò íåðîâíà è îò òîãî íåìèíóåìî ïðîèçîéäóò â çåìëÿõ ó êðåñòüÿí ñïîðû, êàê Ñîâåò â ñâîåì ïîëîæåíèè
èçúÿñíÿåò. Áóäå æå ðåøèòåëüíî áëàãîóãîäíî áóäåò Âàøåìó Âûñîêîïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâó ïðèêàçàòü Îáëàñòíóþ ÷åðòó íàçíà÷èòü ïîâñåìåñòíî îò ëèíèè â ïðÿìîì íàïðàâëåíèè íå äàëåå 30-òè èëè 40 âåðñò, òîãäà
êðåñòüÿíå Îáëàñòíûå è Ãóáåðíñêèå áóäóò óâåðåíû â ïîñòîÿííîì ÷åðòû ïðîëîæåíèè è ïðåäñòîÿùèå íåäîðàçóìåíèÿ è òÿæáû î óãîäüÿõ îòâðàùåíû áóäóò; äà è êèðãèçöàì, ïåðåõîäÿùèì íà çèìîâêó è âåðíîïîääàííûì äîñòàâèòñÿ óäîáñòâî êî÷åâàòü íà çåìëÿõ âåäîìñòâà Îáëàñòíîãî è íå ïåðåõîäèòü â ñîñåäñòâåííûå Ãóáåðíèè, ãäå óæå âëàñòü íàäçîðà ïî ñèëå Ñèáèðñêîãî ó÷ðåæäåíèÿ ñî ñòîðîíû Îáëàñòíîãî Íà÷àëüñòâà íå ïðîñòèðàåòñÿ. Âïðî÷åì ÿ ïîëàãàþ åùå ñî ñâîåé ñòîðîíû âñþ
íå çàñåëåííóþ ñòåïü ìåæäó Èðòûøà è ×àíîâñêèõ îçåð, ðàâíî ìåæäó
Îáüþ è Èðòûøà ëåæàùóþ îïðåäåëèòü â Îáëàñòü, êîòîðàÿ îñòàâàÿñü â
äèêîì ñîñòîÿíèè è íàòóðîþ êàê áû íàçíà÷åíà äëÿ êî÷åâûõ íàðîäîâ,
ãäå îíè è äåéñòâèòåëüíî â áîëüøîì êîëè÷åñòâå ñî ñâîèìè ñòàäàìè
íàõîäÿòñÿ; ïðåäàþ ñèå âïðî÷åì Íà÷àëüñòâåííîìó Âàøåìó áëàãîóñìîòðåíèþ.
Ãâàðäèè ïîëêîâíèê Áðîíåâñêèé
(ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 127. Ë. 162-163)
384
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
III.
Îòíîøåíèå Òîìñêîãî ãðàæäàíñêîãî ãóáåðíàòîðà Ôðîëîâà ê
Ãåíåðàë-Ãóáåðíàòîðó Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè Ï. Ì. Êàïöåâè÷ó
îò 31 îêòÿáðÿ 1824 ã.
Èñïðàâëÿþùèé äîëæíîñòü Îìñêîãî îáëàñòíîãî íà÷àëüíèêà, â
ñëåäñòâèå ïîëîæåíèÿ Îáëàñòíîãî Ñîâåòà â ïðåäñòàâëåíèè ê Âàøåìó
Âûñîêîïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâó îò 13 ìàÿ ñåãî ãîäà çà ¹ 179 èñïðàøèâàë ðàçðåøåíèÿ íà ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå ÷åðòû Îáëàñòè ñ ïðèëåãàþùèìè ê îíîé Ãóáåðíèÿìè â ïðÿìîì íàïðàâëåíèè ïî ëèíèè íà 30 èëè 40
âåðñò è î âêëþ÷åíèè â ãðàíèöû îáëàñòè âñåé íåçàñåëåííîé ñòåïè
ìåæäó Èðòûøà è ×àíîâñêèõ îçåð ðàâíî ìåæäó Îáüþ è Èðòûøîì
ëåæàùåé < >
Ïî ðàññìîòðåíèè òàêîâîãî ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ ïîëêîâíèêà Áðîíåâñêîãî
êî ìíå îò Âàøåãî Âûñîêîïðåâîñõîäèòåëüñòâà ïðåïðîâîæäåííîãî, ÿ
äîëãîì ïîñòàâëÿþ èçëîæèòü ïî ñåìó ïðåäìåòó ìíåíèå ìîå íà Ãëàâíîíà÷àëüñòâåííîå Âàøå óñìîòðåíèå.
Îìñêàÿ îáëàñòü ïî ñìûñëó Âûñî÷àéøåãî ó÷ðåæäåíèÿ îíîé, áóäó÷è
ñîñòàâëåíà ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî äëÿ ëó÷øåãî óñòðîéñòâà êèðãèçêàéñàêîâ
ñðåäíåé îðäû, à òàêæå êèðãèçîâ âíóòðè ëèíèè êî÷óþùèõ15, äîëæíà
âêëþ÷àòü â ñåáÿ íå òîëüêî êðåñòüÿíñêèå ñåëåíèÿ, êîè ñîñòîÿò â ñìåæíîñòè â ëèíèþ, ÷òî ïðåäñòàâëÿëî áû çàòðóäíèòåëüíîñòü â Óïðàâëåíèè
èõ ïîñòîðîííèì íà÷àëüñòâîì. Ïîñåìó íå ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ îñîáåííîé
íàäîáíîñòè âî âêëþ÷åíèè â ãðàíèöû Îáëàñòè ìíîãèõ êðåñòüÿíñêèõ
ñåëåíèé, êîè êàê âûøå èçúÿñíåíî ñîñòàâëÿþò òîëüêî ïîáî÷íóþ öåëü
ó÷ðåæäåíèÿ îíîé. < >
(ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 127. Ë. 172-175)
 ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ “Ó÷ðåæäåíèåì äëÿ óïðàâëåíèÿ ñèáèðñêèõ ãóáåðíèé” 1822 ã.
þðèäè÷åñêè çàêðåïëÿëîñü ñóùåñòâîâàíèå òàêîé êàòåãîðèè êàçàõñêèõ êî÷åâíèêîâ
êàê “âíóòðåííèå êèðãèçû”. Ïîñëåäíèå íà ïðîòÿæåíèè XVIII – íà÷àëà XIX ââ. ðåãóëÿðíî ïåðåõîäèëè Ñèáèðñêóþ ëèíèþ è êî÷åâàëè íà âíóòðåííåé ñòîðîíå ðåêè
Èðòûø, â ïîèñêàõ çàùèòû îò ðîäîâûõ ìåæäîóñîáèö è âíåøíåé àãðåññèè ñðåäíåàçèàòñêèõ ãîñóäàðñòâåííûõ îáðàçîâàíèé. Íà íèõ ðàñïðîñòðàíÿëèñü îñíîâíûå ïîëîæåíèÿ “Óñòàâà îá óïðàâëåíèè èíîðîäöåâ”. Âïîñëåäñòâèè, ñ 1854 ã. êàçàõè, ïðîæèâàþùèå âî âíóòðåííèõ îêðóãàõ áûëè ïîä÷èíåíû îñîáîìó óïðàâëåíèþ.
15
385
Äîêóìåíòû èç Îìñêîãî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà
IV.
Ñâåäåíèÿ î ïðåäïîëàãàåìîì âîåííî-òîïîãðàôè÷åñêîì îáîçðåíèè
Îìñêîé îáëàñòè (14 äåêàáðÿ 1826 ã.)
×òîáû ïðîèçâåñòè ñèå îáîçðåíèå ñî âñåâîçìîæíîþ âåðíîñòüþ è
ïîäðîáíîñòüþ, òî ñîîáðàçèâ ÷òî ïðîñòðàíñòâî îíîé çàêëþ÷àåò â ñåáå
íå ìåíåå 600.000 êâàäðàòíûõ âåðñò, ÷òî îíà îáèòàåìà òîëüêî êî÷óþùèìè êèðãèçàìè, êðîìå âíóòðåííèõ îêðóãîâ, ÷òî ìåñòîïîëîæåíèå â
îíîé áîëüøåé ÷àñòèþ ãîðèñòîå è äèêîå, ÷òî åñòü áîëüøèå ïðîñòðàíñòâà â îíîé âîâñå íåîáèòàåìûå è áåçâîäíûå, – ÿ ïîëàãàþ äëÿ ñåãî îáîçðåíèÿ óäîáíåå âñåãî óïîòðåáèòü < >16: îíî ìîæåò áûòü ñäåëàíî íå
áîëåå êàê â òðè ãîäà, ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì:
Îáîçðåíèå 1-ãî ãîäà äîëæíî ñîñòîÿòü â òîì, ÷òîáû ïðèíÿâ çà îñíîâàíèå Ñèáèðñêóþ ëèíèþ ñíÿòóþ èíñòðóìåíòàëüíî â ïðîøåäøèõ ãîäàõ,
îïðåäåëèòü ãðàíèöó Îìñêîé îáëàñòè, ãëàâíåéøèå ìåñòà â îíîé è ñâÿçü
èíñòðóìåíòàëüíûõ ëèíèé. Òàêèì îáðàçîì â 1-ì ãîäå áóäåò ñäåëàíà ãëàâíàÿ èíñòðóìåíòàëüíàÿ ñåòü âñåé îáëàñòè, â êîòîðóþ â ñëåäóþùèå ãîäû
áóäóò âíîñèòñÿ âñå ïîäðîáíîñòè âîåííî-òîïîãðàôè÷åñêîãî îáîçðåíèÿ.
Äëÿ îïðåäåëåíèÿ ñåé ñåòè, ÿ ïîëàãàþ â 1-é ãîä êîìàíäèðîâàòü ïÿòü
ïàðòèé, êàæäóþ ñ ýíäîìåòðîì â ñëåäóþùèå ìåñòà: – 1-ÿ ïàðòèÿ äîëæíà
îòïðàâèòüñÿ â êðåïîñòè: Áóõòàðìèíñêóþ âäîëü âîçëå Êèòàéñêîé ãðàíèöû, ìèìî îçåðà Íàð-Çàéñàíà è îïðåäåëèâ ìåñòî â êîòîðîì èç ñåãî îçåðà
âûòåêàåò ðåêà Èðòûø, ïðîäîëæàòü èäòè âäîëü âîçëå Êèòàéñêîé ãðàíèöû ìèìî ã. ×óãó÷àêà, ïî ðåêå Êàðàòàëó äî òîãî ìåñòà, ãäå ÷ðåç îíóþ
ïðîëåãàåò ãëàâíàÿ êàðàâàííàÿ äîðîãà â Êàøãàðèþ; îò ñåãî ìåñòà è ñåþ
æå äîðîãîþ îáðàòíî äî ãîðîäà Ñåìèïàëàòèíñêà. < >
2-ÿ ïàðòèÿ äîëæíà îòïðàâèòüñÿ èç ãîðîäà Ñåìèïàëàòèíñêà êóïå÷åñêîé äîðîãîé èäóùåé â Òàøêåíò è Êîêàíäèþ, äî ðåêè ×óé, âïàäàþùåé
â Ñûð-Äàðüþ, è îò òîãî ìåñòà ÷ðåç Êàðêàðàëèíñêèé îêðóã è ÷ðåç óðî÷èùå Áàÿíàóë äî êðåïîñòè ßìûøåâñêîé. 3-ÿ ïàðòèÿ îòïðàâèòñÿ èç êðåïîñòè ßìûøåâñêîé äî èñòî÷íèêà ðåêè Èøèì, è îò îíîãî ìèìî îçåð
Òåíò è Êûçûëàê äî ãîðîäà Îìñêà. 4-ÿ ïàðòèÿ îòïðàâèòñÿ èç Îìñêà,
÷ðåç Êîê÷åòàâñêèé âíåøíèé îêðóã äî òîãî ìåñòà, ãäå ðå÷êà Êèíêóë
âïàäàåò â ðåêó Èøèì, îòñþäà ââåðõ ïî ðåêå Èøèìó äî èñòî÷íèêà îíîé;
îò îíîãî ïðîéòè âîçëå õðåáòà ãîð Àëãèíñêèõ äî èñòî÷íèêà ðåêè Êèíêóë. 5-ÿ ïàðòèÿ îòïðàâèòñÿ èç ãîðîäà Ïåòðîïàâëîâñêà ââåðõ ïî ðåêå
Èøèìó, äî òîãî ìåñòà ãäå â ñèþ ðåêó âïàäàåò ðå÷êà Êèíêóë; îòñþäà
16
Íå÷åòêèé ïîä÷åðê.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ââåðõ ïî ñåé ðå÷êå äî èñòî÷íèêà îíîé, îò êîåãî ïðîéòè âîçëå õðåáòà ãîð
Àëãèíñêèõ ïî íàïðàâëåíèþ ê ðåêå Òîáîëó è äîéäÿ äî ñåé ðåêè ïðîéòè
âíèç ïî ïðàâîìó áåðåãó îíîé äî êðåïîñòè Çâåðèíîãîëîâñêîé. < >
Êðîìå ïîäðîáíîãî òîïîãðàôè÷åñêîãî îáîçðåíèÿ ñåé îáëàñòè, ÷òîáû èìåòü âñåâîçìîæíûå ñâåäåíèÿ îá îíîé â îòíîøåíèè ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ
è òîðãîâîì, îòêëîíèâ îäíàêî æå âñå âðåäíûå äëÿ ïðàâèòåëüñòâà òîëêè
êèòàéöåâ, êèðãèçîâ è äðóãèõ ñîñåäíèõ íàðîäîâ, êîòîðûå âñå âîîáùå
ìíèòåëüíû è ñòîëüêî æå ëþáîïûòíû, äîëæíî ñòðîãî âíóøèòü âñåì
÷èíàì â ïàðòèÿõ íàõîäÿùèìñÿ, ÷òî öåëü ñåãî îáîçðåíèÿ îòíîñèòñÿ åäèíñòâåííî òîëüêî ê ðàçíûì îòêðûòèÿì è èññëåäîâàíèÿì ïî ÷àñòè áîòàíèêè, ìèíåðàëîãèè, ìåäèöèíû è âîîáùå ïî ó÷åíîé ÷àñòè. Òîãî æå ÷èíîâíèêà Êâàðòèðìåéñêîé ÷àñòè, êîòîðîãî óãîäíî áóäåò íà÷àëüíèêó
íàçíà÷èòü äëÿ îñìîòðó è ïîâåðêè ïðîèçâîäñòâà îáîçðåíèÿ âñåõ ïàðòèé,
ïîñòàâèòü â íåïðåìåííóþ è ãëàâíóþ îáÿçàííîñòü ïðèîáðåòàòü ñ áîëüøåé îñòîðîæíîñòüþ âñåâîçìîæíûå ñâåäåíèÿ â îòíîøåíèè ïîëèòè÷åñêîì è òîðãîâîì, êàê òî: óçíàâàòü èñòèííîå ìíåíèå êèðãèçîâ è ñîñåäåé
î ïðåäïîëàãàåìîì îòêðûòèè îêðóãîâ è âîîáùå î íîâîì èõ óñòðîéñòâå;
áóäåò ëè îíî ïîëåçíî äëÿ ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ òîðãîâëè Ðîññèéñêîé âî
âíóòðè Àçèè; íåèçâåñòíû ëè òàì êàêèå äåéñòâèÿ àíãëè÷àí êàñàòåëüíî
òîðãîâëè è äðóãèõ ïðåäìåòîâ; êàêîãî ðîäà ñâåäåíèÿ ñîáèðàþò àíãëè÷àíå, èáî êàê èçâåñòíî, íåêîòîðûå èç íèõ áûëè îêîëî þæíûõ ãðàíèö
Îìñêîé îáëàñòè; íå îòêðîþòñÿ ëè êàêèå äðóãèå ñïîñîáû, êîòîðûìè áû
ìîæíî ìèðíî è óñïåøíî äîñòè÷ü ïîëåçíîé äëÿ Ðîññèè òîðãîâëè; èìåþò ëè âíîâü ïðèîáðåòàåìûå êèðãèçû èñêðåííþþ äîâåðåííîñòü ê ðîññèéñêèì êóïöàì è ê ÷àñòíûì íà÷àëüñòâàì, à åñëè íåò, òî ïî÷åìó èìåííî, è ÷åì áîëåå îíóþ ìîæíî ïðèîáðåñòè è ïð. è ïð. < >
Øòàáñ-êàïèòàí, Ãåíåðàë-êâàðòèðìåéñòåð Ãëàâíîãî øòàáà
Åãî Èìïåðàòîðñêîãî Âåëè÷åñòâà Ìèõàèë Áóòîâñêèé.
(ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 642. Ë. 3-4)
V.
Ïðîåêò Î âîåííî-òîïîãðàôè÷åñêîì îáîçðåíèè Îìñêîé îáëàñòè
(äåêàáðü 1826 ã.)
< > Ìåæäó òåì, êàê âñå ñèè ïÿòü ïàðòèé â ïåðâûé ãîä áóäóò çàíèìàòüñÿ ñîñòàâëåíèåì èíñòðóìåíòàëüíîé ñåòè âåðíî è ïî âîçìîæíîñòè
ïîäðîáíî, äàáû â ïîñëåäñòâèè âðåìåíè óäîáíûå ìåñòà ìîæíî áûëî âíîñèòü â îíóþ ãëàçîìåðíóþ ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêó – îñòàëüíûå òîïîãðàôû ïðè
ñúåìêå Ñèáèðè ñòîÿùèå, â òîò æå ãîä äîëæíû ïðîèçâîäèòü ïîäðîáíóþ
387
Äîêóìåíòû èç Îìñêîãî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà
ãëàçîìåðíóþ ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêó íà ïðîñòðàíñòâå ïîêðûòîì íà ñåé êàðòå
ñèíåþ êðàñêîé. Ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêà ñèÿ äîëæíà ïðîèçâîäèòñÿ, íà÷èíàÿ îò
îêðóãà Êàðêàðàëèíñêîãî, âî âñå ñòîðîíû íà âñåì ïðîñòðàíñòâå: ñëåäîâàòåëüíî â 1-é ãîä äîëæíà áûòü êîí÷åíà èíñòðóìåíòàëüíàÿ ñåòü âñåé
Îìñêîé îáëàñòè è ÷àñòü ãëàçîìåðíîé ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêè.
Âî 2-é ãîä âñå òîïîãðàôû ïðè ñúåìêå Ñèáèðñêîé ñîñòîÿùèå, äîëæíû ïðîèçâîäèòü ãëàçîìåðíóþ ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêó, íà÷èíàÿ îò îêðóãà Êîê÷åòàâñêîãî âî âñå ñòîðîíû íà ïðîñòðàíñòâå ïîêðûòîì íà ñåé êàðòå
æåëòîé êðàñêîé; è íàêîíåö, â 3-é ãîä, ãëàçîìåðíàÿ ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêà
äîëæíà ïðîèçâîäèòüñÿ ñèëàìè æå òîïîãðàôîâ, íà÷èíàÿ îò äðåâíåãî
çäàíèÿ Êóçó-Êóðïåø, âî âñå ñòîðîíû íà ïðîñòðàíñòâå ïîêðûòîì íà ñåé
êàðòå ðîçîâîþ êðàñêîþ. < >
Øòàáñ-êàïèòàí Ìèõàèë Áóòîâñêèé
(ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 642. Ë. 7-10)
VI.
Îò÷åò îá óïðàâëåíèè Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè çà 1823 ãîä
×àñòü ïåðâàÿ
Îá óñòðîéñòâå âîîáùå
Îòäåëåíèå 1.
Îáðàçîâàíèå Óïðàâëåíèé
§5. ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈÅ È ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈÅ ÓÏÐÀÂËÅÍÈß ÎÌÑÊÎÉ ÎÁËÀÑÒÈ
< >Äî îòêðûòèÿ Îìñêîé îáëàñòè, Ãåíåðàë-Ãóáåðíàòîð îçàáî÷åí
áûë ïðèóãîòîâèòåëüíûìè ìåðàìè ãëàâíåéøèå ê îïðåäåëåíèþ ãðàíèö
åå ñ òàêîâîþ ïðàâèëüíîñòüþ, ÷òîáû âõîäÿùèå â ñîñòàâ åå æèòåëè èìåëè âñå óäîáñòâà ê èõ çàâèñèìîñòè, à ìåñòíûå íà÷àëüñòâà – ê óïðàâëåíèþ ââåðåííûìè èì ÷àñòÿìè áåç ìàëåéøåãî ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ îò ñòîðîííèõ íà÷àëüñòâ. Ñèå ñòîëü îáøèðíîå äåëî áûëî òåì áîëåå çàòðóäíèòåëüíûì, ÷òî ãóáåðíñêèå êàðòû áóäó÷è òîêìî ïðèìåðíûìè ïðè ïðîâåðêå èõ ïîêàçûâàëè âî ìíîãèõ ìåñòàõ íå òî, ÷òî åñòü â íàòóðå. Íàêîíåö ïðîèçâåäåííàÿ êîðïóñíûì îáåð-êâàðòèðìåéñòåðîì èíñòðóìåíòàëüíàÿ ñúåìêà ïðàâîãî è ëåâîãî ôëàíãà Ñèáèðñêîé ëèíèè äàëà âîçìîæíîñòü ñîñòàâèòü âåðíóþ êàðòó Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ñ îïðåäåëåíèåì ãðàíèö
åå îò Òîáîëüñêîé è Òîìñêîé ãóáåðíèé.17
Äàííîå óòâåðæäåíèå íå ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ðåàëüíîé äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè, ïîñêîëüêó è
â 1835 ã. îòñóòñòâîâàëè òî÷íûå ãðàíèöû ìåæäó Îìñêîé îáëàñòüþ è Òîáîëüñêîé è
Òîìñêîé ãóáåðíèÿìè (ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 568).
17
388
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Ïðè î÷åðòàíèè ãðàíèö Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ñîãëàñíî ñ ïðèñëàííîé
Ñèáèðñêèì êîìèòåòîì êàðòîþ îêàçàëîñü, ÷òî êðåïîñòü Çâåðèíîãîëîâñêàÿ ñ ðåäóòîì Àëàáóæñêèì, ñîñòîÿùàÿ â êîíöå Îðåíáóðãñêîé ëèíèè,
âõîäÿò â ÷åðòó Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ïî ïîëîæåíèþ èõ íà ïðàâîì áåðåãó
ðåêè Òîáîëà, íåïîñðåäñòâåííî ïðèìûêàÿñü ê Ñèáèðñêîé ëèíèè. Ðåêà
ñèÿ îáðàçóÿ åñòåñòâåííóþ ãðàíèöó ìåæäó Îðåíáóðãñêîé è Ñèáèðñêîé
ëèíèÿìè, ïîäàëà ïðè÷èíó ê ïðåäëîæåíèþ î ïðèñîåäèíåíèþ òîé êðåïîñòè è ðåäóòà ê Ñèáèðñêîé ëèíèè; íî íà ïðåäëîæåíèå ñèå Âûñî÷àéøåãî ñîèçâîëåíèÿ íå ïîñëåäîâàëî. < >
Ãëàâíîå ïðåïÿòñòâèå ê îòêðûòèþ â êèðãèçñêèõ ñòåïÿõ îêðóãîâ âñòðåòèëîñü îò íå èìåíèÿ âåðíîé è ïîäðîáíîé êàðòû ñòåïåé ñèõ, íå äîâîëüíî åùå èçâåñòíûõ ïî ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîìó ñâîåìó ïîëîæåíèþ. Êàðòà ñèÿ
íèêîãäà íå áûëà ñòîëü íåîáõîäèìà, êàê â íàñòîÿùåì ñëó÷àå ñêîëüêî
äëÿ ðóêîâîäñòâà ïðè îáðàçîâàíèè âíåøíèõ îêðóãîâ, ñòîëüêî æå â îòíîøåíèè ê äðóãèì âèäàì, îò òî÷íîé èçâåñòíîñòè êèðãèçñêîé ñòåïè
ïðîèçîéòè ìîãóùèõ. Âñå ñèå ïîáóäèëî Ãåíåðàë-Ãóáåðíàòîðà ïðèçíàòü
íåîáõîäèìûì ïðèñòóïèòü ê ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêå ñòåïåé êèðãèçñêèõ è äàæå
â íóæíûõ ïóíêòàõ ê èíñòðóìåíòàëüíîé èõ ñúåìêå, î ïðåäïîëîæåíèÿõ
ñèõ ñ îáúÿñíåíèåì èìåþùèõñÿ çäåñü ñðåäñòâ ê èñïîëíåíèþ, ïðåäñòàâëåíî Íà÷àëüíèêó Ãëàâíîãî øòàáà Åãî Èìïåðàòîðñêîãî Âåëè÷åñòâà îò
13 ìàðòà 1823 ãîäà äëÿ èñõîäîòàéñòâîâàíèÿ Âûñî÷àéøåãî íà òî ñîèçâîëåíèÿ.
(ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 228)
VII.
Ñïèñîê ñ ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ ãîñïîäèíó Âîåííîìó ìèíèñòðó,
êîìàíäèðà Îòäåëüíîãî Ñèáèðñêîãî êîðïóñà è ÃåíåðàëÃóáåðíàòîðà Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè îò 23 ìàðòà 1835 ãîäà
< >Ñ òîãî âðåìåíè, íàçíà÷åííûå Âûñî÷àéøå óòâåðæäåííûì óñòàâîì î ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçàõ: ðàçãðàíè÷åíèå çåìåëü è îïðåäåëåíèå íîâîé ëèíèè îñòàåòñÿ áåç èñïîëíåíèÿ. Ïåðâîå èç íèõ íåîáõîäèìî êàê
äëÿ ìíîãèõ îáùèõ ïî óïðàâëåíèþ âíåøíèìè îêðóãàìè îòíîøåíèé,
òàê è äëÿ ÷àñòíîé ïîëüçû êèðãèç è ïðåêðàùåíèÿ ìåæäó íèìè ðàñïðåé
íåðåäêî âîçíèêàþùèõ îò ñïîðîâ î ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè çåìåëü, à âî âòîðîì, ïî íåèçâåñòíîñòè ìíå âèäîâ ïðàâèòåëüñòâà â îòíîøåíèè ïðåäåëîâ ñ âëàäåíèÿìè Ñðåäíåé Àçèè, ÿ äîëæåí îãðàíè÷èòü ñâîè ñóæäåíèÿ
ñëåäóþùèì:
389
Äîêóìåíòû èç Îìñêîãî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà
< >Ñèáèðñêèå êðåïîñòè ñîõðàíÿþò òîëüêî íàçâàíèå êðåïîñòåé, íî
â ñóùíîñòè íå ñîîòâåòñòâóþò íàçâàíèþ: èáî ïðèçíàêè äðåâíèõ óêðåïëåíèé âðåìÿ îò âðåìåíè èñ÷åçàþò; à ïîòîìó ÿ íå íàõîäÿ ïðÿìîé ïîëüçû
îò ñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ óïîìÿíóòûõ êðåïîñòåé êîðäîííîãî âåäîìñòâà â íàñòîÿùåì èõ ïîëîæåíèè è âñòðå÷àÿ ïîäîáíî ïðåäìåñòíèêàì ìîèì çàòðóäíåíèÿ â ðàñõîäîâàíèè ñóìì íà âîçâåäåíèå â íèõ ïðî÷èõ çäàíèé
ìîãóùèõ áûòü âïîñëåäñòâèè îñòàâëåííûìè, à âìåñòå ñ òåì ïîëàãàÿ,
÷òî áëàãîâðåìåííîå îñíîâàíèå êðåïîñòåé íà âíîâü èçáðàííûõ ïóíêòàõ, ñîâåðøåííî ñîîáðàçíûõ ñ ìåñòíîñòüþ â âîåííîì è ïîëèòè÷åñêîì
îòíîøåíèÿõ Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè, âåñüìà íåèçëèøíå – ñ÷èòàþ ïîëåçíûì:
êàê ïî èçëîæåííûì ìíîé ïðè÷èíàì òàê è äëÿ îãðàæäåíèÿ îòäàëåííûõ
âîëîñòåé âåðíîïîääàííûõ êèðãèçîâ îò íàáåãîâ Òàøêåíöåâ18 è äðóãèõ
õèùíûõ ñêîïèù, ïðèñòóïèòü ïî áëàãîóñìîòðåíèþ Ïðàâèòåëüñòâà, ê
ó÷ðåæäåíèþ ëèíèè âïåðåäè âíåøíèõ îêðóãîâ, êîòîðûå óæå îòêðûòû,
íî äëÿ òîãî ïîëàãàë áû ïðåäâàðèòåëüíî íóæíûì: ðàçãðàíè÷åíèå çåìåëü Ñèáèðñêèõ è Îðåíáóðãñêèõ êèðãèçîâ è âîçîáíîâëåíèå ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêè Êèðãèçñêîé ñòåïè: òåì áîëåå ÷òî âñå âåðíîïîääàííûå êèðãèçû ñðåäíåé îðäû ïî îáúÿâëåíèè èì íàìåðåíèÿ è èñïîëíåíèÿ áûâøåé
ðåêîãíîñöèðîâêè íå ïîêàçûâàëè íè ìàëåéøåãî íåóäîâîëüñòâèÿ, è âîîáùå âñÿêîå íîâîå íåîòÿãîòèòåëüíîå äëÿ íèõ äåéñòâèå íàøèõ âîéñê
âíóòðè èõ îêðóãîâ, ñ÷èòàþò äîêàçàòåëüñòâîì ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâà. < >
Øòàòíûå æå êðåïîñòè Îìñêóþ, Ïåòðîïàâëîâñêóþ è Óñòüêàìåíîãîðñêóþ èëè âìåñòî åå Áóõòàðìèíñêóþ êàê áëèæàéøóþ ê êèòàéñêîé
ãðàíèöå è ìîãóùóþ ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü ê ðàçâèòèþ â ýòîì êðàå òîðãîâëè,
ÿ ïî÷èòàë áû ïîëåçíûì èìåòü âñåãäà â äîëæíîì âèäå è ñ äîñòîéíûì
ãàðíèçîíîì; à êàê óñòðîéñòâî âíåøíèõ îêðóãîâ óâåëè÷èâøåå Îìñêóþ
îáëàñòü áîëåå íåæåëè 775 òûñÿ÷ êâàäðàòíûõ âåðñò è ïîëóìèëëèîíîì
íàðîäà äåëàåò ýòó ÷àñòü Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè âåñüìà çíà÷èòåëüíîþ, êàê
ïî áëèçîñòè àçèàòñêèõ âëàäåíèé âåäóùèõ ñ Ðîññèåé òîðãîâëþ, òàê è
ïî ðàñïîëîæåíèþ â íåé ÷àñòè âîéñê Ñèáèðñêîãî Îòäåëüíîãî Êîðïóñà,
òî äëÿ ëó÷øåãî óäîáñòâà â óïðàâëåíèè, ñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ áëàãîóñòðîéñòâà è ñêîðåéøåãî òå÷åíèÿ äåë ñ÷èòàþ òàêæå íåîáõîäèìûì: ÷òîáû
Íàñåëåíèå Òàøêåíñêîãî áåêñòâà – ñðåäíåàçèàòñêîãî ïîëóãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ, ïîãëîùåííîãî â ïåðâîì äåñÿòèëåòèè XIX â. Êîêàíäñêèì õàíñòâîì.
Îñíîâíûìè çàíÿòèÿì íàñåëåíèÿ ÿâèëèñü òîðãîâëÿ è ãðàáåæ. Ðîññèéñêàÿ àäìèíèñòðàöèÿ òåðìèíîì “òàøêåíöû” çà÷àñòóþ íàçûâàëà âñå íàðîäû, ïðîæèâàþùèå çà
îçåðîì Áàëõàø, çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì áóõàðöå⠖ æèòåëåé Áóõàðñêîãî ýìèðàòà. Ñì. ïîäðîáíåå: Èñòîðèÿ íàðîäîâ Âîñòî÷íîé è Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè ñ äðåâíåéøèõ âðåìåí
äî íàøèõ äíåé / Ïîä ðåä. Ê.Ç. Àøðîôÿí. Ì., 1989. Ñ. 387.
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Êîðïóñíàÿ êâàðòèðà è Ãëàâíîå Óïðàâëåíèå Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè íàõîäèëèñü â Îìñêå, ñîñòàâëÿþùåì öåíòð ëó÷øåé è áîëåå íàñåëåííîé åå ÷àñòè – ñðåäîòî÷èå ìåæäó Òîáîëüñêîì è Òîìñêîì.
Ãåíåðàë îò èíôàíòåðèè Âåëüÿìèíîâ19
(ÃÀÎÎ. Ô. 3. Îï. 1. Ä. 568. Ë. 231-236)
VIII.
Æóðíàë Ñîâåòà Ãëàâíîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè
îò 22 äåêàáðÿ 1838 ã.
Ñîâåò Ãëàâíîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè âî èñïîëíåíèå ñëîâåñòíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ Ã. Ãåíåðàë Ãóáåðíàòîðà,20 èìåë ðàññóæäåíèå î
íàçíà÷åíèè ñðîêà äëÿ óïðàçäíåíèÿ Îìñêîé îáëàñòè è íàõîäÿ: ÷òî õîòÿ
Ã. Ìèíèñòð Âíóòðåííèõ äåë äî ñåãî âðåìåíè íå ñäåëàë íèêàêîãî îòçûâà, â ñëåäñòâèå îòíîøåíèÿ Åãî Ñèÿòåëüñòâà, îò 20-ãî èþëÿ ¹ 83 íà
ñ÷åò ïåðå÷èñëåíèÿ ñåëåíèé è ñòàíèö ïî íîâîìó ðàñïèñàíèþ, ñîãëàñíî
ïðåäïîëàãàåìîìó ñ óíè÷òîæåíèåì Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ïðåîáðàçîâàíèþ
Òîáîëüñêîé è Òîìñêîé ãóáåðíèé <...>
Ïî âñåì ñèì ñîîáðàæåíèÿì, Ñîâåò Ãëàâíîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ ïîëàãàåò:
1). Çàêðûòü Îìñêóþ îáëàñòü 1-ãî ÿíâàðÿ 1839 ã.
2). Â ñëåäñòâèè ñåãî ïðåäëîæèòü ÃÃ. Òîìñêîìó Ãðàæäàíñêîìó Ãóáåðíàòîðó, ñîñòîÿùåìó â äîëæíîñòè Òîáîëüñêîãî Ãðàæäàíñêîãî Ãóáåðíàòîðà,21 Óïðàâëÿþùåìó Îìñêîé îáëàñòè22 è èñïîëíÿþùåìó äîëæíîñòü
Ïîãðàíè÷íîãî íà÷àëüíèêà ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçîâ,23 èñïîëíèòü áåç óìåäëåíèÿ è âî âñåõ ÷àñòÿõ ðàçîñëàòü ê íèì Ïîëîæåíèå Ãëàâíîãî Óïðàâëåíèÿ 17-18 íîÿáðÿ ¹ 107, î ñðåäñòâàõ ïåðåäà÷è äåë è ñóìì ïî óïðàçäíåííîé Îìñêîé îáëàñòè è î âñåõ ðàñïîðÿæåíèÿõ ïî ñåìó ïðåäìåòó,
äîíåñòè Ã. Ãåíåðàë Ãóáåðíàòîðó Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè.
3).  1-å ÷èñëî ßíâàðÿ íàñòóïàþùåãî ãîäà, îòêðûòü óïðàâëåíèå ñèáèðñêèìè êèðãèçàìè ñ ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèåì ñåãî óïðàâëåíèÿ íà âñå ïîä÷èíåííûå åìó ÷àñòè.
Èâàí Àëåêñàíäðîâè÷ Âåëüÿìèíî⠖ ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîð Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè (18271834).
20
Äîëæíîñòü çàïàäíîñèáèðñêîãî ãåíåðàë-ãóáåðíàòîðà ñ 1836 ïî 1851 ãã. èñïîëíÿë
Ïåòð Äìèòðèåâè÷ Ãîð÷àêîâ.
21
Ïîëêîâíèêó Ô. Áåðãó.
22
Îáÿçàííîñòè îáëàñòíîãî íà÷àëüíèêà â 1838 ã. èñïîëíÿë Èâàí Äìèòðèåâè÷
Òàëûçèí, êîòîðûé â 1834 ã. çàíèìàë äàííóþ äîëæíîñòü.
23
Ïîëêîâíèêó Ôàëåöêîìó.
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Äîêóìåíòû èç Îìñêîãî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî Àðõèâà
4). Îá óïðàçäíåíèè Îìñêîé îáëàñòè è ïðèñîåäèíåíèè ãîðîäîâ è
îêðóãîâ ïî íîâîìó ðàñïðåäåëåíèþ ñîãëàñíî Âûñî÷àéøåìó Óêàçó 6-ãî
Àïðåëÿ ñåãî ãîäà, ðàâíî î ðàçãðàíè÷åíèè ñåëåíèé è ñòàíèö ê ñèì îêðóãàì, ñîãëàñíî ïðèëàãàåìîìó ðàñïèñàíèþ24, ïîðó÷èòü Òîìñêîìó ãðàæäàíñêîìó ãóáåðíàòîðó è Òîáîëüñêîìó ñîñòîÿùåìó â äîëæíîñòè Ãðàæäàíñêîãî Ãóáåðíàòîðà, îïîâåñòèòü âñåõ æèòåëåé Çàïàäíîé Ñèáèðè ÷åðåç ïå÷àòíûå îáúÿâëåíèÿ. <...>
8). Î çàêðûòèè Óïðàâëåíèÿ Îìñêîé îáëàñòè äîíåñòè ÷ðåç Ã. Ãåíåðàë Ãóáåðíàòîðà Ïðàâÿùåìó Ñåíàòó è óâåäîìèòü ÃÃ. Ìèíèñòðîâ.
Ïîäëèííîå ïîäïèñàëè Ì. Íèêóëèùåâ, À. Ïîëåòàåâ,
Â. Ïðîòîïîïîâ, ß. Êàïóñòèí, Í. Ñîëîâüåâ è Å. Øàêóðèí.
SUMMARY
In the archival section of this issue, Ab Imperio presents materials pertaining to the history of the Omsk region (oblast’), a peculiar administrative
unit on the fluctuating frontier of the Russian empire, an episode in the
history of the Russian empire’s territorial expansion and integration of newly
acquired realms. The publication of these materials was prepared by Elena
Bezvikonnaia who also wrote the foreword . In her foreword, Bezvikonnaia
places the history of the Omsk region in the context of the development of
the Russian imperial administration, which was characterized by flexible
policy toward regional diversity. The imperial administration, on the one
hand, was imbued with the desire to rationalize government following Enlightenment models that presumed the demarcation of a clear state border/
frontier, but, on the other hand, encountered insurmountable difficulty in
mapping the state’s territory in a southeastern borderland made up of a few
sedentary inhabitants (Cossacks and Russian city dwellers) and the nomadic population of the Middle Horde (now known as Kazakhs). The result was
a compromise expressed in the form of the Omsk region which was established in 1822, lacked clear-cut frontiers and was entrusted with the task of
Îñíîâíûå ïîëîæåíèÿ íîâîãî àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîãî äåëåíèÿ áûëè èçëîæåíû â ïîëîæåíèè “Îá îòäåëüíîì óïðàâëåíèè ñèáèðñêèìè êèðãèçàìè” îò 6 àïðåëÿ 1838 ã.
Âíóòðåííèå îêðóãà Îìñêîé îáëàñòè ïðèñîåäèíÿëèñü ê Òîáîëüñêîé è Òîìñêîé ãóáåðíèÿì, à âíåøíèå îáðàçîâûâàëè îòäåëüíóþ Îáëàñòü ñèáèðñêèõ êèðãèçîâ.
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creating an administrative framework for dealing with the nomadic population of the steppe and for further expansion of the empire in Asia. Bezvikonnaia provides a brief historical sketch of this administrative formation
and an analysis of frontier developments on that part of the imperial borderland rim. She approaches the history of the Omsk region from the perspectives of central and regional bureaucrats (which often proved to be at odds
with one another) and their views on the nature and functions of the state
frontier. She also extends the analysis of the Omsk region to the concept of
the frontier as a meeting point between different socio-economic structures,
in this case between the sedentary population (often settlers brought to the
region by empire’s advance) and the native, nomadic population. Bezvikonnaia concludes that the complex history behind this frontier episode may
best be conceptualized in the concept of the “Eurasian frontier” and within
the context of the Russian empire as a peculiar type of organization of political space. The archival documents include “Proposals as to the Establishment of the Omsk Oblast’,” correspondence between different administrative bodies of Siberia and internal documentation of the Omsk regional government. The published documents provide an insight into the semantics
and machinery of the imperial administration in the borderland as well as
report on the social and cultural profile of one of the Russian empire’s regions.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Òàòüÿíà ÑÊÐÛÍÍÈÊÎÂÀ
ÏÎÃÐÀÍÈ×ÍÛÅ ÈÄÅÍÒÈ×ÍÎÑÒÈ:
ÁÓÐßÒÛ ÌÅÆÄÓ ÌÎÍÃÎËÈÅÉ È ÐÎÑÑÈÅÉ*
Íåîáõîäèìîñòü âûõîäà èç èäåîëîãè÷åñêîãî êðèçèñà îïðåäåëÿåò àêòèâèçàöèþ ñîâðåìåííîãî èäåîëîãè÷åñêîãî êîíñòðóèðîâàíèÿ â ðåñïóáëèêàõ Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè: êðèçèñ èäåíòè÷íîñòè ñòèìóëèðóåò ôîðìóëèðîâàíèå íîâûõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ èäåîëîãåì â ðîññèéñêîì îáùåñòâå.
Îùóùåíèå êðèçèñà ñâÿçàíî íå òîëüêî ñ ðàñïàäîì ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé
ñèñòåìû, íî è ñ ôàêòîðîì ãëîáàëèçàöèè, ñ ðàçâèòèåì ñîâðåìåííûõ
Ðàáîòà âûïîëíåíà ïî ãðàíòó ÐÃÍÔ ¹ 02-01-00263à.
Ìíîþ áûëè âûäåëåíû ñëåäóþùèå óðîâíè èäåíòè÷íîñòè, àêòóàëüíûå â XIX â.
(ïîäðîáíåå ñì. Ò. Ä. Ñêðûííèêîâà. Òðàäèöèîííàÿ ïîòåñòàðíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ
êóëüòóðà è ñîâðåìåííàÿ ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèÿ áóðÿò // Ñèáèðü: ýòíîñû è êóëüòóðû.
Òðàäèöèè è èííîâàöèè â ýòíè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðå áóðÿò. Âûï.5. Ñ. 4-29.):
1. Çíà÷èìîñòü ðîäîâîãî äåëåíèÿ: ïî ðîäàì ôîðìèðîâàëîñü âîéñêî, êàæäûé ðîä
èìåë ñâîå çíàìÿ, áóääèéñêèé õðàì. Ðîäñòâî áûëî ïàòðèëèíåéíûì è âûðàæàëîñü â
ðàçíûõ òåðìèíàõ: îòîã, îáîã, ýñýã, ÿhàí (ïîñëåäíèé - ó ñåëåíãèíñêèõ áóðÿò).
2. Ðîäû îáúåäèíÿþòñÿ â îáùíîñòü ñëåäóþùåãî òàêñîíîìè÷åñêîãî óðîâíÿ, êîòîðàÿ,
êàæåòñÿ, íå èìååò æåñòêîé òåðìèíîëîãè÷åñêîé îïðåäåëåííîñòè, - íàðîä, ëþäè (çîí
èëè óëàñ) è ìîæåò ñîîòâåòñòâîâàòü îäíîìó èç çíà÷åíèé ãðå÷åñêîãî ýòíîñ - ïëåìÿ.
Ýòî ýõèðèòû, áóëàãàòû, õîíãîäîðû, õîðè. Ïðè÷åì ïðèáëèçèòåëüíî äî ñåð. ÕIÕ â.
ïîñëåäíèå äèñòàíöèðîâàëèñü îò ïåðâûõ òðåõ, îáîçíà÷àåìûõ ýòíîíèìîì áóðÿòû.
3. Ïðîèñõîäèò ðàñøèðåíèå ýòíè÷åñêèõ è ãåîãðàôè÷åñêèõ ãðàíèö îáùíîñòè
áóðÿòû: õîðè âêëþ÷àþòñÿ â íåå ÷åðåç ìèôîëîãè÷åñêèõ ïðåäêîâ è ÷åðåç
“èñòîðè÷åñêîå” îáîñíîâàíèå ãåíåàëîãè÷åñêîãî ðîäñòâà.
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395
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
èíôîðìàöèîííûõ òåõíîëîãèé, óñêîðÿþùèõ ïðîöåññ íèâåëèðîâàíèÿ
èíäèâèäóàëüíûõ êóëüòóð. Ïåññèìèçì óñóãóáëÿåòñÿ òåì, ÷òî ìàëûå ýòíîñû îñîçíàþò îãðàíè÷åííîñòü ñâîèõ âîçìîæíîñòåé â ìèðîâîì ñîîáùåñòâå èëè â Ðîññèè, ïîýòîìó âñå áîëüøåé ïîïóëÿðíîñòüþ ïîëüçóþòñÿ èäåè ñëåäîâàíèÿ òðàäèöèîííûì îáðàçöàì è ïðàêòèêàì. Îñîáåííî
àêòèâíî êîíñòðóèðîâàíèå ëîêàëüíûõ èäåîëîãåì ïðîõîäèò â íàöèîíàëüíûõ ðåñïóáëèêàõ – áûâøèõ àâòîíîìèÿõ, ïðèìåðîì ÷åãî ìîæåò
ñëóæèòü Áóðÿòèÿ.
Áóðÿòû ïðåäñòàâëÿþò ñîáîé íåìíîãî÷èñëåííûé ýòíîñ â ïîëèýòíè÷íîì ãîñóäàðñòâå, ðàññåëåííûé íà òåððèòîðèè òðåõ ñóáúåêòîâ Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè. Ïðåæäå âñåãî ýòî – Ðåñïóáëèêà Áóðÿòèÿ, ãäå ïî äàííûì ïåðåïèñè 1989 ã. ïðè îáùåé ÷èñëåííîñòè íàñåëåíèÿ ðåñïóáëèêè â
1.038.252 ÷åëîâåêà ïðîæèâàëî 249.525 áóðÿò, èç êîòîðûõ 111.069 æèëè
â ãîðîäàõ, à 138.456 áóðÿò – íà ñåëå.  ñòîëèöå ðåñïóáëèêè – ÓëàíÓäý – íàñ÷èòûâàëîñü 74.243 áóðÿòà. ×àñòü áóðÿò ïðîæèâàåò â äâóõ ñîñåäíèõ îáëàñòÿõ, ãäå äëÿ íèõ ñîçäàíû àâòîíîìíûå îêðóãà – íàöèîíàëüíûå òåððèòîðèàëüíî-àäìèíèñòðàòèâíûå ñóáúåêòû ôåäåðàöèè. Â
Èðêóòñêîé îáëàñòè íà 1989 ã. ÷èñëèëàñü 81 òûñ. áóðÿòñêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ,
â òîì ÷èñëå â Óñòü-Îðäûíñêîì Áóðÿòñêîì àâòîíîìíîì îêðóãå – 49,3
òûñ., â Èðêóòñêå – 7 òûñ.  ×èòèíñêîé îáëàñòè íàñ÷èòûâàëîñü 66,6
òûñ. ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà, èç íèõ â Àãèíñêîì Áóðÿòñêîì
àâòîíîìíîì îêðóãå – 42,4 òûñ., â 16 ðàéîíàõ îáëàñòè – 24,2 òûñ. è â
×èòå – 4.719 áóðÿò. Õàðàêòåðíûå äëÿ ÕÕ â. ìèãðàöèè íàñåëåíèÿ â Ñîâåòñêîì Ñîþçå ïðèâåëè ê ñíèæåíèþ óäåëüíîãî âåñà áóðÿò íà òåððèòîðèè ðåñïóáëèêè äî 25% â 1989 ã., òîãäà êàê â 1923 ã., êîãäà ñîçäàâàëàñü
Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ Àâòîíîìíàÿ Ñîâåòñêàÿ Ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêàÿ ðåñïóáëèêà, áóðÿòû ñîñòàâëÿëè â íåé 55 % íàñåëåíèÿ. Èçìåíèëàñü è ñîöè4. Îòìå÷àåòñÿ îäíîâðåìåííîå ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèå íàðÿäó ñ òàêñîíîì áóðÿòû è
èíîãî - áóðÿò-ìîíãîëû, ïîä÷åðêèâàþùåãî îáùíîñòü ïðåæäå âñåãî õîðèíñêèõ è
ñåëåíãèíñêèõ áóðÿò ñ ìîíãîëàìè.
5. Îáîñíîâàíèå ãåíåòè÷åñêîãî ðîäñòâà âëàñòèòåëåé ó ìîíãîëîâ è áóðÿò ñ öàðñêèìè
ðîäàìè áóääèéñêèõ ãîñóäàðñòâ âêëþ÷àåò èõ â áóääèéñêóþ öèâèëèçàöèþ.
6. È åùå îäèí óðîâåíü èäåíòè÷íîñòè, êîòîðûé îòìå÷àåòñÿ â òðàäèöèè - ïîíèìàíèå/
îñîçíàíèå áóðÿò â ñîñòàâå Ðîññèè.
Ýòà èåðàðõèÿ èäåíòè÷íîñòåé, íå èñêëþ÷àþùèõ îäíà äðóãóþ, àêòóàëüíà è ñåé÷àñ.
Îáðàùåíèå ê òðàäèöèîííîé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðå áóðÿò ïîçâîëÿåò ïîíÿòü
ìíîãîìåðíîñòü ïðîöåññà ýòíîèäåíòèôèêàöèè ñåãîäíÿ: ðàçëè÷íûå ïîëèòè÷åñêèå
ãðóïïû (ïðåäñòàâèòåëè èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé ýëèòû) îòáèðàþò èç ïðîøëîãî
àðãóìåíòû, èñïîëüçóåìûå â ñîâðåìåííîé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé æèçíè.
396
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àëüíàÿ ñòðóêòóðà – ïîÿâèëîñü ãîðîäñêîå áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå, ÷åãî íå
áûëî äî ðåâîëþöèè 1917 ãîäà. Ñåãîäíÿ äîëÿ ãîðîæàí-áóðÿò ñîñòàâëÿåò 45%, äîëÿ ñåëü÷àí – 55 %.1
Òåððèòîðèè ïðîæèâàíèÿ áóðÿò âîøëè â ñîñòàâ Ðîññèè âî âòîðîé
ïîëîâèíå XVII â. Ïåðâîíà÷àëüíî âçàèìîîòíîøåíèÿ êîðåííîãî íàñåëåíèÿ ñ ïðèøëûì áûëè íåîäíîçíà÷íûìè; èçâåñòíû ôàêòû ïðèòåñíåíèÿ
áóðÿò, ÷òî, â ÷àñòíîñòè, âûçâàëî ïîåçäêó äåëåãàöèè õîðèíñêèõ áóðÿò â
1702-1703 ãîäàõ ê Ïåòðó I. Ðåçóëüòàòîì ýòîé ïîåçäêè ñòàëà “Âûñî÷àéøå ïîæàëîâàííàÿ öàðñêàÿ ãðàìîòà”: “À îíè äå èíîçåìöû (áóðÿòû, –
Ò.Ñ.) â Íåð÷èíñêîì óåçäå â Èòàíöèíñêîì çèìîâèè ìíîãèå ãîäû ñëóæàò ñ Íåð÷èíñêèìè ñòàðûìè êàçàêàìè çà åäèíî ðàäåòåëüíî áåç ïîðîêó
è ïðîòèâ íåïðèÿòåëüñêèõ âîèíñêèõ ëþäåé áüþòñÿ, íå ùàäÿ ãîëîâ ñâîèõ, òàêæå è ÿñàê â íàøó Âåëèêîãî Ãîñóäàðÿ êàçíó ïëàòÿò ïî âñÿ ãîäû
áåç íåäîáîðó ñ ïðèáûëüþ ”.2  òî æå âðåìÿ èç òåêñòà Óêàçà ñëåäóåò,
÷òî ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ áóðÿò ñ ðóññêèìè îòðÿäàìè è ïîñåëåíöàìè, çàõâàòûâàâøèìè èõ çåìëè, íå áûëè ðåäêîñòüþ. Ýòà ñòîðîíà âõîæäåíèÿ áóðÿò
â ñîñòàâ Ðîññèéñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà íàøëà ñâîå îòðàæåíèå â ìèôîëîãè÷åñêèõ òåêñòàõ î áàðãó-áóðÿòàõ, ñîãëàñíî êîòîðûì áàðãóòû ïîãèáëè â
ñâÿçè ñ ïðèõîäîì â Áàðãóçèí ðóññêèõ (áåëûõ ëþäåé, ñâÿçàííûõ ñ áåëûì äåðåâîì – áåðåçîé):
À âîò áåëûé íàðîä, áåðåçà áåëà ñòàëà ðàñòè, îíè ãîâîðÿò, ÷òî
íàðîä áåëûé áóäåò òåïåðü è äàâàé çàâàëèâàòü äðóã äðóæêó âîò â
åòèõ ÿìàõ, è òàì ÿìû ó íàñ íàãðåáåíû Îíå îòòîãî ñòàëè óáèâàòü ñàìè ñåáÿ, ÷òî áåëûé íàðîä, îíå áîÿëèñü áåëûé íàðîä Ëåñ
ðîñ òîëüêî ñîñíîâûé, õâîéíûé. À ïîòîì ñòàëà ïîÿâëÿòüñÿ áåðåçà.
Íàðîä ñòàë ãîâîðèòü, ÷òî ïðèäóò íîâûå ëþäè, áåëûå. Îíè íå õîòåëè ìåíÿòü ñâîèõ óñòîåâ è ñòàëè óáèâàòü ñàìè ñåáÿ. Áðîñàëèñü
ñî ñêàë, òîïèëèñü â ðåêàõ.3
Ö. Á. Áàäìàæàïîâ, àíàëèçèðóÿ ÿçûê ñàìîîïèñàíèÿ îäíîé èç ãðóïï
áóðÿò – õîðèíöåâ, ïðèâîäèò ñëåäóþùåå âûðàæåíèå, áûòîâàâøåå, ñ åãî
À. À. Åëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå, ðàçâèòèå, ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ìîñêâà,
2000. Ñ. 306.
2
Óêàç Öàðÿ Ïåòðà Àëåêñååâè÷à. Ïðèëîæåíèå 1 // Ö. À. Æèìáèåâ, Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ. Ïîåçäêà äåëåãàöèè õîðè-áóðÿò ê Ïåòðó Ïåðâîìó â 1702-1703 ãã. Óëàí-Óäý,
2000. Ñ. 35-38.
3
Å. Ë. Òèõîíîâà. Ðóññêèå ïðåäàíèÿ îá èñ÷åçíóâøèõ íàðîäàõ Çàáàéêàëüÿ //
Ïðîáëåìû òðàäèöèîííîé êóëüòóðû íàðîäîâ Áàéêàëüñêîãî ðåãèîíà. Ìàòåðèàëû
Ìåæäóíàðîäíîé íàó÷íî-ïðàêòè÷åñêîé êîíôåðåíöèè (2-3 èþëÿ 1999 ã.). Óëàí-Óäý,
1999. Ñ. 132-135.
1
397
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
òî÷êè çðåíèÿ, åùå ñ XVIII âåêà: “îé ìîäîí îëîí ãóó // îðîä ìàíãàä
îëîí ãóó” (“ìíîãî ëè äåðåâüåâ â ëåñó // ìíîãî ëè ðóññêèõ ìàíãàòîâ”).4
Ôðàçà ìîæåò áûòü ïîíÿòà êàê “ðóññêèõ òàê æå ìíîãî, êàê äåðåâüåâ â
ëåñó”, ïðè÷åì ýòíîíèì “ðóññêèå” âûðàæåí äâóìÿ ñëîâàìè: îðîñ è ìàíãàò. Ïåðâîå îçíà÷àåò ðóññêèé êàê â ëèòåðàòóðíîì, òàê è ðàçãîâîðíîì
ÿçûêàõ. Âòîðûì – ìàíãàò – îáîçíà÷àåòñÿ â áóðÿòñêîì, êàê è â ìîíãîëüñêîì ÿçûêå íå÷òî/íåêòî ÷óæäîå, âðàæäåáíîå, ïðåäñòàâëåííîå â
ýïîñå â îáðàçàõ ÷óäîâèù, çìååâ-âåëèêàíîâ è ò.ï.  ðàçãîâîðíîé ðå÷è
îáîçíà÷åíèå ðóññêèõ ýòèì ñëîâîì ìîæåò èìåòü íåãàòèâíûé, îñêîðáèòåëüíûé îòòåíîê.
Ñîõðàíèâøèåñÿ õðîíèêè è ðîäîñëîâíûå, áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü êîòîðûõ
âîçíèêëà áëàãîäàðÿ ïðåáûâàíèþ â ñåðåäèíå XIX â. â áóðÿòñêèõ ñòåïÿõ
ìîíãîëîâåäà Î. Ì. Êîâàëåâñêîãî, ïîçâîëÿþò âûÿâèòü õàðàêòåð ðîññèéñêîé ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè áóðÿò. Íàäî çàìåòèòü, ÷òî Ðîññèÿ âîñïðèíèìàëàñü áóðÿòàìè êàê ëîÿëüíîñòü ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî óðîâíÿ, ãäå áóðÿòû
áûëè ïîääàííûìè (àëáàòà) “Âåëèêîãî Èìïåðàòîðà, Áîãàòûðÿ, Áåëîãî
Õàíà, Âëàäûêè Ðîññèè” (áóð. Îðîäîé îðîíèèå ýçýëýãøý Åõý äýýäý èìïåðàòîð áààòàð ñàãààí õààíàé àðàä àëáàòà).5 Èíîãäà çàâèñèìîñòü îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ ñëîâîì ìýäýëäý – âåäåíèå, ò.å. íàõîäèòüñÿ â âåäåíèè.6
Ñîïðÿæåíèå ãîñóäàðñòâà è îáùåñòâà íàøëî îòðàæåíèå è â ôîëüêëîðíîé òðàäèöèè: “Êîëëåêòèâíîìó ìåíòàëèòåòó õîðè-áóðÿò ïðèñóùå
ðàçâèòîå ÷óâñòâî ñâÿçè “ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî” è “îáùåñòâåííîãî”: “ãîñóäàðñòâó ïîñòóïèëî, çíà÷èò ïîñòóïèëî ìíîãèì (íàðîäó, – Ò.Ñ.)”.”7 Ïîëîæèòåëüíûé îáðàç ãîñóäàðñòâà ïðåäîïðåäåëÿë ïîëîæèòåëüíûå îöåíêè äåéñòâèé â åãî ïîëüçó: “Òàê, óòâåðæäåíèå êàêîé-ëèáî ïîçèòèâíîé
òî÷êè çðåíèÿ íà òó èëè èíóþ ïðîáëåìó, ñâÿçàííóþ ñ îáÿçàííîñòÿìè
ïåðåä ãîñóäàðñòâîì, ìîãëî çàâåðøèòüñÿ ñàêðàìåíòàëüíîé ôðàçîé: “áóäó÷è /ïðåáûâàþùèìè/ â ðóññêîì ãîñóäàðñòâå”.8
Áóðÿòû âîñïðèíèìàëè öàðñêóþ ìîíàðõèþ êàê îñíîâíîé èíñòèòóò
ëåãèòèìàöèè ãîñóäàðñòâà, êîòîðîå áûëî ëè÷íûì âëàäåíèåì èìïåðàòî4
Ö. Á. Áàäìàæàïîâ. Ñåìàíòè÷åñêîå äåêîäèðîâàíèå ñàìîîïèñàíèé ëîêàëüíîé
êóëüòóðû // Ñèáèðü: ýòíîñû è êóëüòóðû. Ýòíè÷åñêàÿ êóëüòóðà: èñòîðèÿ è
ñîâðåìåííîñòü. Âûï.7. Ì.-Óëàí-Óäý, 2002. Ñ.133.
5
Áóðÿàäàé òóóõý áýøýãóóäý (Áóðÿòñêèå èñòîðè÷åñêèå ëåòîïèñè). Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1992. Ñ. 14, 37, 38, 179 è äð.
6
Òàì æå. Ñ. 12, 37, 180 è äð.
7
Ö. Á. Áàäìàæàïîâ. Ñåìàíòè÷åñêîå äåêîäèðîâàíèå ñàìîîïèñàíèé ëîêàëüíîé
êóëüòóðû. Ñ. 141.
8
Òàì æå.
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ðà. Îáðàòèì âíèìàíèå íà ïàðàäèãìû òðàäèöèîííîé êóëüòóðû, â êîíòåêñòå êîòîðîé ìîäåëèðóþòñÿ îòíîøåíèÿ ñ âëàñòüþ.9 Ïðåæäå âñåãî îíè
ìîãëè îïðåäåëÿòüñÿ òåðìèíàìè êðîâíîãî ðîäñòâà îòåö – ñûíîâüÿ, ÷òî
äîñòàòî÷íî àêòóàëüíî â òðàäèöèîííîé êóëüòóðå: “Âåëèêèå ãîñóäàðè
ðîññèéñêèå îòíîñÿòñÿ ñ ìèëîñåðäèåì ê ñâîèì ïîääàííûì, ëþáÿò âñåõ
èõ, ñëîâíî ñûíîâåé ñâîèõ”.10 Êðîìå òîãî, â îáîçíà÷åíèè öàðñêîé âëàñòè èñïîëüçóþòñÿ õàðàêòåðíûå äëÿ ìèôîëîãè÷åñêîãî ñîçíàíèÿ ìàðêåðû ñâîåãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà. Èìïëèöèòíîå ñîîòíåñåíèå ñåáÿ è Ðîññèéñêîé
èìïåðèè êàê åäèíîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, ñâîåãî ìèðà, ñîäåðæèòñÿ, íà ìîé
âçãëÿä, è â îïðåäåëåíèè, äàííîì áóðÿòàìè ðóññêîìó öàðþ – ñàãààí (áåëûé), ÷òî, áåçóñëîâíî, îïðåäåëÿëîñü íå òîëüêî àíòðîïîëîãè÷åñêèì
ôàêòîðîì, íî è òåì, ÷òî “ìû, íàðîä îäèííàäöàòè õîðèíñêèõ ðîäîâ,
ïðèáåãàëè ê ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâó çîëîòîãî ïðåñòîëà âåëèêîãî ãîñóäàðÿ
ðîññèéñêîãî”11 (áóð. àëòàí øýðýýãýé óìýãòý).12 Ïðåñòîë â òðàäèöèîííîì ñîçíàíèè ÿâëÿåòñÿ ìàðêåðîì öåíòðà, ñàêðàëèçóþùåãî è öèâèëèçóþùåãî ìèð, ÷òî ïîä÷åðêèâàåòñÿ è åãî öâåòîì – çîëîòûì.
 áóðÿòñêèõ ëåòîïèñÿõ è ðîäîñëîâíûõ îòìå÷àåòñÿ, ÷òî ãàðìîíèçèðóþùàÿ ôóíêöèÿ ðîññèéñêîé âëàñòè îñóùåñòâëÿåòñÿ ÷åðåç ìèëîñòü
ðîññèéñêèõ öàðåé13: “ïî ìèëîñòè Áåëîãî öàðÿ”, “Åêàòåðèíà II îêàçàëà
ìèëîñòü” (áóð. ñàãààí õààí õàéðàäà; Õî¸ðäóãààð Åêàòåðèíà õàòàí õààí
õàéðëàæà).14 Îòå÷åñêàÿ ìèëîñòü/ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâî âûðàæàëèñü â ëè÷íîì ó÷àñòèè öàðåé â æèçíè ïîääàííûõ – áóðÿò: à) â çàùèòå èõ îò ïðèðîäíûõ íàïàñòåé (îò ãîëîäà – Åêàòåðèíà II, îò îñïû – Àëåêñàíäð I)15, îò
ïðèòÿçàíèé ðóññêèõ,16 á) â óñòàíîâëåíèè çàêîíîâ óïðàâëåíèÿ Ñèáèðüþ,17
â) â ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâå áóääèçìó ÷åðåç áóäòî áû ëè÷íîå ó÷àñòèå èìïåðàÅñòü ñâèäåòåëüñòâà âîñïðèÿòèÿ áóðÿòàìè Ðîññèè êàê âíåøíåãî ïî îòíîøåíèþ
ê òåððèòîðèè èõ ïðîæèâàíèÿ ïðîñòðàíñòâà. Íàïðèìåð, êîãäà ïèøóò “èç Ðîññèè
ïîñòóïèëè â ïðîäàæó...” Ñì.: Áóðÿòñêèå ëåòîïèñè / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ,
Ö. Ï. Âàí÷èêîâà. Óëàí-Óäý, 1995. Ñ. 81.
10
Òàì æå. Ñ. 38.
11
Òàì æå. Ñ. 43.
12
Áóðÿàäàé òóóõý áýøýãóóäý (Áóðÿòñêèå èñòîðè÷åñêèå ëåòîïèñè) / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1992. Ñ. 41.
13
Áóðÿòñêèå ëåòîïèñè / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ, Ö. Ï. Âàí÷èêîâà. Óëàí-Óäý,
1995. Ñ. 8, 11.
14
Áóðÿàäàé òóóõý áýøýãóóäý (Áóðÿòñêèå èñòîðè÷åñêèå ëåòîïèñè) / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1992. Ñ.14, 17.
15
Áóðÿòñêèå ëåòîïèñè / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ, Ö. Ï. Âàí÷èêîâà. Óëàí-Óäý,
1995. Ñ. 11.
16
Òàì æå. Ñ. 8, 78-79.
17
Òàì æå, Ñ. 70-71, 116.
9
399
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
òîðîâ â îðãàíèçàöèè áóääèéñêîé öåðêâè è åå ñòðóêòóðû.18 Ìîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî öàðü íàäåëÿåòñÿ ÷åðòàìè êóëüòóðíîãî ãåðîÿ (òâîðöà öåííîñòåé äàííîãî îáùåñòâà, åãî çàùèòíèêà).
Ñëåäóåò îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà òî, ÷òî â ñîçíàíèè áóðÿò öàðñêàÿ
âëàñòü êàê ìàðêèðîâàëàñü àòðèáóòàìè òðàäèöèîííîé êóëüòóðû (ïðåñòîë, çíàìÿ – ñèìâîëû öåíòðà, âëàñòè, âûïîëíÿþùèå ãàðìîíèçèðóþùóþ ôóíêöèþ), òàê è âêëþ÷àëàñü â áóääèéñêèé êîíòåêñò, ÷òî áûëî
ñâÿçàíî ñ ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèåì áóääèçìà ñðåäè áóðÿò ñ êîíöà XVII âåêà.19
Òàì æå, Ñ. 46, 50, 51.
Ïðè îöåíêå ñîïðÿæåííîñòè öàðèçìà è áóääèçìà íåîáõîäèìî ó÷èòûâàòü îòíîøåíèå ê áóääèçìó öàðñêîãî ïðàâèòåëüñòâà, êîòîðîå ðàññìàòðèâàëî åãî êàê âàæíåéøèé ïîëèòè÷åñêèé ôàêòîð, ïî÷åìó óæå â 1741 ã. Åëèçàâåòà óòâåðäèëà ñòàòóñ áóääèéñêîé öåðêâè â Ðîññèè.
Èäåÿ òðåõ áóääèéñêèõ ìîíàðõèé, ðàçðàáîòàííàÿ ìîíãîëüñêîé èñòîðèîãðàôèåé
(Èíäèÿ, Òèáåò, Ìîíãîëèÿ), òàêæå ïîëó÷àåò ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå, õîòÿ è â èíîì âàðèàíòå – Òèáåò, Ìîíãîëèÿ, Áóðÿòèÿ. Ïîñëåäíÿÿ ÷àñòî âûñòóïàåò íå êàê öåëîå, à êàê
îòäåëüíûå ãðóïïû áóðÿò: ñåëåíãèíñêèå, õîðèíñêèå, àãèíñêèå, õàìíèãàíå. Ñì. Áóðÿòñêèå ëåòîïèñè / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ, Ö. Ï. Âàí÷èêîâà. Óëàí-Óäý, 1995.
Ñ. 22-26-27. Êàê âèäèì, â áóðÿòñêèõ ëåòîïèñÿõ ýòîãî ïåðèîäà íå óïîìèíàþòñÿ íå
òîëüêî Êèòàé, íî äàæå Èíäèÿ, ÷òî íå ìåøàåò ñîâðåìåííûì èññëåäîâàòåëÿì ãîâîðèòü î òîì, ÷òî áëàãîäàðÿ áóääèçìó “òðàäèöèîííàÿ îáðÿäíîñòü ñòàëà îáðåòàòü
÷åðòû îáùåé áóääèéñêîé êóëüòóðû Âîñòîêà” è ïîä÷åðêèâàòü, ÷òî áóääèçì “îêàçûâàë âñå áîëåå çàìåòíîå âëèÿíèå íà âñå ñòîðîíû äóõîâíîé è îáùåñòâåííîé æèçíè
áóðÿòñêîãî îáùåñòâà è, â öåëîì, íà ýòíè÷åñêîå ñòàíîâëåíèå è ôîðìèðîâàíèå áóðÿòñêîé íàðîäíîñòè”. Ñì.: À. À. Åëàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä: ñòàíîâëåíèå, ðàçâèòèå,
ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå. Ìîñêâà, 2000. Ñ.95.
Ýòî áûëî ñâÿçàíî ñ òåì, ÷òî äåÿòåëüíîñòü ìîíàñòûðåé (äàöàíîâ) îõâàòûâàëà âñå
ñôåðû æèçíè áóðÿòñêîãî îáùåñòâà. Êàê êóëüòîâûå öåíòðû, äàöàíû ñïîñîáñòâîâàëè ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèþ è óòâåðæäåíèþ ñðåäè áóðÿò áóääèéñêîãî ó÷åíèÿ, ÷òî îñóùåñòâëÿëîñü ÷åðåç ñèñòåìó äàöàíñêîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ (ôàêóëüòåòû: ó÷åáíûé, ôèëîñîôñêèé, ìåäèöèíñêèé, æèâîïèñè), ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå áóääèéñêîé ëèòåðàòóðû (ñîçäàíèå ïå÷àòíûõ ìàñòåðñêèõ ïî èçäàíèþ êñèëîãðàôîâ íà ìîíãîëüñêîì è òèáåòñêîì ÿçûêàõ – îáðÿäíèêè, äèäàêòè÷åñêàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà, ó÷åáíèêè è ò.ä.), èçãîòîâëåíèå ïðåäìåòîâ êóëüòà, è ôîðìèðîâàíèþ áóðÿòñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè.
Ñòðîãî ãîâîðÿ, ýòîò óðîâåíü èäåíòèôèêàöèè íåëüçÿ íàçâàòü ýòíè÷åñêèì, ïðàâèëüíåå áûëî áû åãî îáîçíà÷èòü öèâèëèçàöèîííûì. Àâòîðû õðîíèê íå ïðîñòî ñâÿçûâàþò áóðÿò îáùèì ïðîèñõîæäåíèåì ñ Òèáåòîì è Ìîíãîëèåé, íî è îáúÿñíÿþò ýòèì
“ðîäñòâîì” âîçíèêíîâåíèå âëàñòè ó áóðÿò. “Ãåíåòè÷åñêîå ðîäñòâî” ïîäòâåðæäàåòñÿ è ïðååìñòâåííîñòüþ îáó÷åíèÿ, êîãäà äëÿ ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ó÷åíèÿ ê áóðÿòàì
ïðèåçæàþò 50 òèáåòñêèõ è 100 ìîíãîëüñêèõ ëàì. Ñàìè àâòîðû ëåòîïèñåé, èíòåëëåêòóàëüíàÿ ýëèòà ÕIÕ â., îïðåäåëÿþò åãî ýòíîãåíåòè÷åñêè, ÷òî ñâîéñòâåííî òðàäèöèîííîìó ñîçíàíèþ. Ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü, ÷òî â äàííîì êîíòåêñòå áóääèçì âûñòóïàë êàê ôàêòîð èíòåãðàöèè íå òîëüêî ýòíîñà, íî è ìîíãîëîÿçû÷íîé è öåíòðàëüíîàçèàòñêîé îáùíîñòåé.
18
19
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Ïðè îöåíêå ñîïðÿæåííîñòè öàðèçìà è áóääèçìà íåîáõîäèìî ó÷èòûâàòü îòíîøåíèå ê áóääèçìó öàðñêîãî ïðàâèòåëüñòâà, êîòîðîå ðàññìàòðèâàëî åãî êàê âàæíåéøèé ïîëèòè÷åñêèé ôàêòîð, ïî÷åìó óæå â 1741 ã.
Åëèçàâåòà óòâåðäèëà ñòàòóñ áóääèéñêîé öåðêâè â Ðîññèè.
Ïðè÷åì ñ÷èòàëîñü, ÷òî ìîíàðõè ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâîâàëè ýòîìó ïðîöåññó: “Êîãäà ìû, íàðîä îäèííàäöàòè ðîäîâ, ïðèáåãàëè ê ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâó çîëîòîãî ïðåñòîëà âåëèêîãî ãîñóäàðÿ ðîññèéñêîãî, ìû ÿâèëèñü ñ
ëàìàìè ðåëèãèè, êîòîðóþ ìû ñàìè èñïîâåäûâàëè, è ñî ñâåòñêèìè ó÷èòåëÿìè â ñâîåé ñðåäå, ñòðîèëè êîøìîâûå õðàìû â òåõ ìåñòíîñòÿõ, ãäå
êî÷åâàëè, è íåóêîñíèòåëüíî èñïîëíÿëè, ïî ñîáñòâåííîìó æåëàíèþ,
áîãîñëóæåíèÿ è ìîëåáñòâèÿ”.20  “Áèøûõàí çàïèñêý” (î ñîñòàâå è ïðîèñõîæäåíèè ñåëåíãèíñêèõ áóðÿò) ìû ìîæåì íàéòè íåîäíîêðàòíîå
îòðàæåíèå ñîïðÿæåííîñòè áóääèçìà è öàðèçìà, ãäå ïîä÷åðêèâàåòñÿ
áóääèéñêèé õàðàêòåð äåÿòåëüíîñòè “Áåëîãî öàðÿ”, âûïîëíÿþùåãî öèâèëèçàòîðñêóþ ôóíêöèþ ñàêðàëüíîãî ñâîéñòâà â ñîöèàëüíîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå áóðÿò. Òàê, â íà÷àëå ìû ÷èòàåì: “Ïóñòü íàì ñîïóòñòâóåò óäà÷à â
óñëîâèÿõ øèðîêîãî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ áóääèéñêîé ðåëèãèè ïîä ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâîì Áåëîãî öàðÿ”.21  çàêëþ÷åíèè äðóãîé ëåòîïèñè (“Èñòîðèÿ
îáðàçîâàíèÿ ïîäãîðîäíîãî ðîäà”) ìîæíî ïðî÷åñòü: “Ñ áëàãîñëîâåíèÿ
Áóääû, ïîä çíàìåíåì öàðÿ, ïîëüçóÿñü ïîñòîÿííîé è âå÷íîé äîáðîäåòåëüþ âñåõ æèâûõ ñóùåñòâ, èñïûòûâàÿ ñàìîå ãëóáîêîå ñ÷àñòüå, äà áóäåì
ïî÷èòàòü ñâîèõ ðîäèòåëåé, íå çàáûâàÿ èõ áëàãîäåÿíèÿ! Äà ðàñïðîñòðàíèòñÿ äîáðî è áëàãî”.22
Ðóññêèé öàðü è åãî ïðàâëåíèå íàäåëÿþòñÿ ïîëîæèòåëüíûìè êà÷åñòâàìè, ÷òî îòðàçèëîñü â ñëîâàõ Àíäàõàÿ, îñíîâîïîëîæíèêà ïîäãîðîäíîãî ðîäà (èç òåêñòà Ãåìïèëîíà, àâòîðà “Èñòîðèè îáðàçîâàíèÿ ïîäãîðîäíîãî ðîäà”): “Îòïðàâëþñü ÿ â Ðîññèþ. Ãîâîðÿò, ÷òî Åãî Âåëè÷åñòâî
Áåëûé öàðü âåëèêîäóøåí è ìèëîñòèâ, çàêîíû åãî ñïðàâåäëèâû Ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâóé íàì, âåëè÷åñòâåííîå çíàìÿ ìîãóùåñòâåííîãî öàðÿ,
ñïîñîáíîå îòîãíàòü ÷óæåçåìíîãî æåñòîêîãî âðàãà Åñëè çà ìíîþ áóäåò ïîãîíÿ, òî ïóñòü ãðîçíîå çíàìÿ öàðÿ ïîäàâèò åå”.23 Äàæå êîãäà ñûí
Àíäàõàÿ âïîñëåäñòâèè ïîñåòèë Ìîíãîëèþ è òàì åìó óãðîæàëà îïàñíîñòü, îí åå íå ïîáîÿëñÿ, ñêàçàâ: “Âåëèêà ñèëà íàøåãî öàðÿ!”.24  “ÁèÁóðÿòñêèå ëåòîïèñè / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ, Ö. Ï. Âàí÷èêîâà. Óëàí-Óäý,
1995. Ñ. 43.
21
Òàì æå. Ñ. 133.
22
Òàì æå. Ñ.167.
23
Òàì æå. Ñ. 163.
24
Òàì æå. Ñ. 166.
20
401
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
øûõàí çàïèñêý” ýòà ñèëà íàçûâàåòñÿ âîëøåáíîé (øýä): “Òóðý øàæàí
äýëãýðæý, ñàãààí õààíàé àëäàðøàhàíàé øýäåýð áèäå òóáøýí ñýäüõýëýýð ìóíõý îðîíîî îðøîõî áîëî¸ (“Ðàñïðîñòðàíÿÿ Âûñøèé çàêîí è ðåëèãèþ (= áóääèçì), ñëàâíîé âîëøåáíîé /ñèëîé/ áåëîãî õààíà ìû ìèðíûì ñåðäöåì (ìûñëÿìè) äîñòèãíåì âå÷íîé ñòðàíû” – ïåðåâîä ìîé, –
Ò.Ñ.)”.25 Çäåñü æå: “Ó Ñàéí-õàíà áûëè æåñòîêèå çàêîíû è ñóðîâîå ïðàâëåíèå, à íà çåìëå áåëîãî öàðÿ – ìèð è ñïîêîéñòâèå”,26 ïðè÷åì öàðü
âåëè÷àåòñÿ “ýçýí áîãäûí áààòàð ñàãààí õààí (Áåëûé õààí, áîãàòûðü,
âëàäûêà ïðåñâåòëûé)”.27
Ñëåäóåò ñêàçàòü, ÷òî âûøåïðèâåäåííàÿ ëåêñèêà, ïðèçâàííàÿ îòðàçèòü ôàêò ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâà öàðåé áóðÿòàì, êîððåëèðóåò ñ áóääèéñêîé
ëåêñèêîé ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâà áîæåñòâ. Íàïðèìåð, èäåÿ “çîëîòîãî òðîíà” (“àëòàí øèðýý”) ðóññêèõ öàðåé ñîõðàíÿëà ñâîå çíà÷åíèå ïîçèòèâíîãî ñèìâîëà âëàñòè äëÿ áóðÿò è â 20-å ãîäû XX â. Òàê, â ïåðèîä íàöèîíàëèçàöèè äàöàíîâ (áóääèéñêèå ìîíàñòûðè) â 1927 ã. ìîíãîëüñêèå
ëàìû (Ñåëåíãèíñêèé ðàéîí) ïîñëàëè ïèñüìî ê Ïàí÷åí-ëàìå ñ ïðîñüáîé
ñïàñòè èõ îò êðàñíîé îïàñíîñòè. Â ïèñüìå îíè ñêîðáÿò ïî ïîâîäó òîãî,
÷òî “êðîâàâûå ðàáî÷èå” ñâåðãëè “çîëîòîé òðîí” âåëèêîãî èìïåðàòîðà.28 Ýòî – íå åäèíè÷íûé ñëó÷àé èäåíòèôèêàöèè ñàìîäåðæàâèÿ è áóääèçìà. Ìîæíî âñïîìíèòü, ÷òî åùå â XVIII â. ðóññêèå èìïåðàòðèöû,
ïîêðîâèòåëüñòâîâàâøèå áóääèçìó â Ðîññèè, íàçûâàëèñü ïåðåðîæäåíöàìè Áåëîé Òàðû. Âîçìîæíî, èìåííî ïîýòîìó ïîçæå è öàðè íàçûâàëèñü Áåëûìè.29
Áóðÿàäàé òóóõý áýøýãóóäý (Áóðÿòñêèå èñòîðè÷åñêèå ëåòîïèñè). Ñ. 179.
Áóðÿòñêèå ëåòîïèñè / Ñîñò. Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ, Ö. Ï. Âàí÷èêîâà. Óëàí-Óäý,
1995. Ñ. 148.
27
Áóðÿàäàé òóóõý áýøýãóóäý (Áóðÿòñêèå èñòîðè÷åñêèå ëåòîïèñè). Ñ. 195.
28
Ê. Ì. Ãåðàñèìîâà. Îáíîâëåí÷åñêîå äâèæåíèå áóðÿòñêîãî ëàìàèñòñêîãî äóõîâåíñòâà. Óëàí-Óäý, 1964. Ñ. 121.
29
Õîòÿ, ïî ìíåíèþ À. Í. Êî÷åòîâà, “ïîïóëÿðíàÿ áîãèíÿ Öàãàí-Äàðà-Ýõå âîïëîòèëàñü â îáðàçå Åêàòåðèíû II, è âñå ïîñëåäóþùèå öàðè òàêæå ÿâëÿþòñÿ åå çåìíûì
âîïëîùåíèåì. Âî âðåìÿ ïðîåçäà öåñàðåâè÷à Íèêîëàÿ Ðîìàíîâà ÷åðåç Áóðÿòèþ ïî
ïóòè â ßïîíèþ â 1891 ã. ëàìñòâî îêàçûâàëî åìó ïî÷åñòè, êàê “æèâîìó áîãó”. Íà
ìåñòå, ãäå Íèêîëàþ “áëàãîóãîäíî áûëî çàâòðàêàòü” âî âðåìÿ ïîñåùåíèÿ èì Àöàãàòñêîãî äàöàíà, âïîñëåäñòâèè ïîñòðîèëè ñïåöèàëüíûé õðàì (äóãàí) â ÷åñòü Öàãàí-Äàðà-Ýõå (Áåëîé Òàðû. – Ò.Ñ.). Ïîðòðåòû öàðåé âèñåëè â äàöàíàõ íà âèäíûõ
ìåñòàõ ñðåäè èçîáðàæåíèé áîãîâ. Âî âðåìÿ ðóññêî-ÿïîíñêîé âîéíû 1904 ã. õàìáîëàìà Èðîëòóåâ ïðåïîäíåñ íàìåñòíèêó öàðÿ îò èìåíè ëàìñòâà ïðèâåòñòâåííûé
àäðåñ è î “áëàãîñêëîííîì ïðèåìå” àäðåñà ïîñïåøèë óâåäîìèòü òåëåãðàììîé ñâîåãî çàìåñòèòåëÿ. Ëàìû ïðîâîäèëè â äàöàíàõ ìîëåíèÿ ñ ïðîñüáîé “äàðîâàíèÿ ïîáåäû” è îáúÿâèëè áîãèíþ Öàãàí-Äàðà-Ýõå “íåáåñíîé ïîêðîâèòåëüíèöåé âîéíû”.
25
26
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Òîëåðàíòíîå îòíîøåíèå èìïåðñêîé ðîññèéñêîé âëàñòè ê áóääèçìó
ñðåäè áóðÿò è êàëìûêîâ è, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, îòâåòíàÿ áëàãîäàðíîñòü
áóðÿò íàøëè ñâîå îòðàæåíèå â ìèôîëîãèè, ñêëàäûâàâøåéñÿ ñðåäè áóääèñòîâ äàæå çà ïðåäåëàìè Ðîññèè. Âîèí, ñðàæàâøèéñÿ ñ êèòàéöàìè âî
èìÿ áóääèçìà, îáîçíà÷àëñÿ ñëîâîì îðîñ,30 ÷òî â ìîíãîëüñêîì è áóðÿòñêîì ÿçûêàõ îçíà÷àåò ðóññêèé. Çàòåì ýòèì òåðìèíîì ñòàëè íàçûâàòü âñåõ
åâðîïåéöåâ: îðîñ-àíãëè÷àíèí, îðîñ-ôðàíöóç è ò.ä.
Êîíñòðóèðîâàíèå èäåíòè÷íîñòåé – ýòî ïðîáëåìà âûáîðà ëîÿëüíîñòè, êîòîðàÿ îñîçíàåòñÿ äàæå ñàìîé èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé ýëèòîé,31 ïðèíèìàþùåé àêòèâíîå ó÷àñòèå â ïðîöåññå ìîäåëèðîâàíèÿ ãðàíèö ýòíè÷åñêîé, öèâèëèçàöèîííîé è ãðàæäàíñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè. Ïîýòîìó âïîëíå
åñòåñòâåííî, ÷òî â ãîäû ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ñòàáèëüíîñòè ïîä÷åðêèâàëàñü
ïîçèòèâíàÿ ñòîðîíà ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè áóðÿò ê Ðîññèéñêîìó ãîñóäàðñòâó,
â òî âðåìÿ êàê â ìîìåíòû îáîñòðåíèÿ ñîöèàëüíî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ è ïîÏîñëå ãèáåëè áëèç Ïîðò-Àðòóðà áðîíåíîñöà “Ïåòðîïàâëîâñê” Èðîëòóåâ
ïðåäëîæèë øèðåòóþ Ãóñèíîîçåðñêîãî äàöàíà è ïîäâåäîìñòâåííûì åìó ëàìàì
“íåìåäëåííî îòïðàâëÿòü ê âñåâûøíåìó ãîðÿ÷èå ìîëåáñòâèÿ” î òîì, ÷òî “âåëèêèé
êíÿçü Êèðèëë Âëàäèìèðîâè÷ ñïàñåí, à ïîëó÷èë ëåãêóþ ðàíó, ïî÷åìó íóæíî ÷èòàòü
‘Öàãàí-Äàðà-Ýõåé’, îòñëóæèòü çà çäîðîâüå åãî âåëè÷åñòâà””. À. Í. Êî÷åòîâ.
Ëàìàèçì. Ì., 1973. Ñ. 55-56.
Ïîçæå, “êîãäà ïðàçäíîâàëîñü 300-ëåòèå äîìà Ðîìàíîâûõ, õàìáî-ëàìà Èòèãýëîâ
äàæå âûïóñòèë ñîáñòâåííóþ ìåäàëü äëÿ íàãðàæäåíèÿ åþ îñîáåííî ðåâíîñòíûõ â
ïðîñëàâëåíèè öàðèçìà ëàì” (Òàì æå. Ñ. 57).
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Áóðÿòñêèé ó÷åíûé è ïóòåøåñòâåííèê âî âðåìÿ ïóòåøåñòâèÿ â Àìäî è Àëàøàíè
çàïèñàë ëåãåíäó, êîòîðàÿ îáúÿñíÿåò ïðîèñõîæäåíèå ýòîãî âîèíñòâà – îðîñîâ:
Ó÷èòåëü Ïàäìà Ñàìáõàâà æåíèëñÿ íà äî÷åðè öàðÿ, è îíà ðîäèëà åìó ñûíà. Öàðü,
óçíàâ îá ýòîì, íàïàë íà íèõ, à Ïàäìà Ñàìáõàâà “ñîáðàë ñòåáåëüêè òðàâû “äóðâà”,
êîòîðûå â ñèëó åãî âåëèêîé ÷àðû ÷óäåñíî ïðåâðàòèëèñü â æèâûõ ëþäåé, â öåëîå
âîéñêî, íàãíàâøåå ñòðàõ íà öàðñêîå âîéñêî. Îäåðæàíà ïîáåäà. Âñêîðå ýòè
“÷óäåñíûå” âîèíû ñäåëàëèñü îðîñàìè-åâðîïåéöàìè. Îðîñû íåïîáåäèìû, èáî èõ
ñîòâîðèë âåëèêèé ó÷èòåëü Ïàäìà Ñàìõàâà”. Ñì.: Äóãàðîâ, 1994, Ð. Í. Äóãàðîâ.
Áàçàð Áàðàäèí î ñþæåòàõ ëåãåíä Àëàøàíè // Íàöèîíàëüíàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ,
äóõîâåíñòâî: èñòîðèÿ è ñîâðåìåííîñòü. Óëàí-Óäý, 1994.Ñ. 62-62.
31
Òàê, Æ. Áîøîêòóåâ, òàêæå ñîñòàâèòåëü ëåòîïèñè, åùå âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå XIX â.
îòìå÷àë: “...íå îáíàðóæåíî íè ïèñüìåííîãî ñî÷èíåíèÿ, íè óñòíîãî ïðåäàíèÿ, ãäå
áû ãîâîðèëîñü, ÷òî ìû áûëè ïåðåäàíû îò Àëòàí-õàíà Áóáýé-áýéëý... íàéäÿ â
èñòîðèè ìîíãîëüñêèõ õàíîâ èìÿ íåêîåãî Õîðèäîÿ, Äàðáàåâ è Ñààãèåâ ïðèñïîñîáèëè
õîðèíñêóþ èñòîðèþ ê èìåíè (çäåñü è íèæå âûäåëåíî ìíîé. – Ò.Ñ.) ýòîãî ÷åëîâåêà.
Ïðàâäà, Äàðáàåâ è Ñààãèåâ ÿâëÿþòñÿ óìíûìè ëþäüìè, íî ñêëîííûìè ïîñòóïàòü
ñàìî÷èííî. Òî, ÷òî îíè óâÿçàëè ïðîøëîå õîðèíöåâ ñ èñòîðèåé ìîíãîëüñêèõ õàíîâ,
ñëåäóåò ïðèçíàòü èñêóññòâåííûì è íåâåðíûì”. Ö. Á. Öûäåíäàìáàåâ. Áóðÿòñêèå
èñòîðè÷åñêèå õðîíèêè è ðîäîñëîâíûå. Óëàí-Óäý, 1972. Ñ. 180.
403
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
ëèòè÷åñêèõ ïðîòèâîðå÷èé àêòèâèçèðîâàëîñü íåãàòèâíîå îòíîøåíèå ê
ðîññèéñêîé öåíòðàëüíîé âëàñòè,32 êàê ýòî ïðîèçîøëî â íà÷àëå ðîññèéËèäåð áóðÿòñêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ Ö. Æàìöàðàíî (áûë ðàññòðåëÿí â
1937 ã.) ïèñàë: “Ïîñëóøàåì ñïåðâà, ÷òî ãîâîðÿò ìåñòíûå ðóññêèå èíòåëëèãåíòû î
áóðÿòàõ.  ïîñòàíîâëåíèè ×èòèíñêîãî îòäåëåíèÿ ïðèàìóðñêîãî Îòäåëà ÈÐÃÎ-âà
(âûï.VII, 1905 ã.) ÷èòàåì: “Ïîëîæåíèå èíîðîäöåâ Çàáàéêàëüñêîé îáëàñòè ïå÷àëüíî.
Åñëè ðóññêîìó ãîñóäàðñòâó âûïàëî íà äîëþ ñîåäèíèòü ìàññó ðàçëè÷íûõ íàðîäíîñòåé, òî íà íåì ëåæèò âûñîêàÿ îáÿçàííîñòü ïðåä ÷åëîâå÷åñòâîì, îõðàíÿÿ ëó÷øèå
ïðèðîäíûå êà÷åñòâà ýòèõ íàðîäíîñòåé, ñëèòü èõ â îäíó ìàññó íà ïî÷âå îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ íà÷àë ãóìàííîñòè è ñïðàâåäëèâîñòè. ×òî æå ìû âèäåëè â äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè?
Íå ãîâîðÿ óæå î ïðèñêîðáíîì ôàêòå áûñòðîãî âûìèðàíèÿ ñåâåðíûõ çàáàéêàëüñêèõ îðî÷åí, âñëåäñòâèå ñïàèâàíèÿ èõ âîäêîé è ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ñèôèëèñà, áîëåå
ñòîéêîå ìîíãîëüñêîå ïëåìÿ áóðÿò ïîêà âñþ ýíåðãèþ è óäèâèòåëüíóþ æèçíåñïîñîáíîñòü ñâîþ íàïðàâëÿåò íà áîðüáó çà ñâîþ íàðîäíóþ ñàìîáûòíîñòü ñ ÿâëåíèÿìè, åå
ðàçðóøàþùèìè. Èõ âåðîâàíèå, ïî çàêîíó 1853 ã., îòäàíî ïîä íàäçîð àäìèíèñòðàöèè. Ïðîòèâ èõ èñêîííîãî êî÷åâîãî áûòà âñå âðåìÿ âåäåòñÿ áîðüáà íåðàçóìíûìè
ñðåäñòâàìè è êîñâåííûìè ñòåñíåíèÿìè. Ïîñòåïåííîå è ìèðíîå íàìåðåíèå áûòîâîãî ñòðîÿ èõ áûëî íàðóøåíî àäìèíèñòðàòèâíîé ðåôîðìîé, èìåâøåé öåëüþ íèâåëèðîâàòü êî÷åâûõ èíîðîäöåâ ñ îñåäëûì êðåñòüÿíñòâîì. È íå ìóäðåíî, ÷òî õîòÿ ïðîøëè âåêà ñîâìåñòíîé æèçíè ðóññêèõ ñ èíîðîäöàìè, à äî ñåãî âðåìåíè ïåðâûå íå
îêàçàëè íèêàêîãî êóëüòóðíîãî âëèÿíèÿ íà âòîðûõ (ìíåíèå íå âïîëíå ñïðàâåäëèâî.
Ö.Æ.). È ýòî òåì áîëåå ïå÷àëüíî, ÷òî áóðÿòû, âñåãäà ÷óòêî îòíîñÿùèåñÿ ê èçìåíÿþùèìñÿ óñëîâèÿì æèçíè, â ïîëíîì ñîçíàíèè íåèçáåæíîñòè ïåðåõîäà ê íîâûì è ëó÷øèì åå ôîðìàì, ñ áîëüøîé îõîòîé ñòðåìÿòñÿ ê îáðàçîâàíèþ. Íà èõ ñðåäñòâà ãëàâíûì îáðàçîì âûñòðîåíà ãèìíàçèÿ â ×èòå (íà îäíó ìóæñêóþ ãèìíàçèþ çàáàéêàëüñêèå áóðÿòû äàëè ñðàçó áîëåå 100.000 ðóáëåé â òî âðåìÿ, êàê ðóññêîå ñåëüñêîå íàñåëåíèå îáëàñòè è íå äóìàëî îòçûâàòüñÿ. – Ö.Æ.), îíè äàþò ñòèïåíäèè â ñðåäíèå è
âûñøèå øêîëû, îíè áåçðåçóëüòàòíî äîëãèå ãîäû õëîïî÷óò îá óñòðîéñòâå ñåëüñêîõîçÿéñòâåííîãî ó÷èëèùà è æåëàþò, êàê äîêàçàë íåäàâíèé áóðÿòñêèé ñúåçä â ×èòå
(àïðåëü 1905 ã.) , îáÿçàòåëüíîãî âñåîáùåãî îáó÷åíèÿ ñâîèõ äåòåé ðîäíîé è ðóññêîé
ãðàìîòå”. Òàê ãîâîðèò ìåñòíîå ó÷åíîå ó÷ðåæäåíèå â ëèöå ëó÷øèõ ñâîèõ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé, êàê, íàïð., À. Êóçíåöîâ, Ä. Ãîëîâà÷åâ, È. Áèðþêîâ è äð., âîøåäøèõ â êîìèññèþ äëÿ âûðàáîòêè “ïîñòàíîâëåíèÿ ïî âîïðîñàì ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî áëàãîóñòðîéñòâà
è áëàãîñîñòîÿíèÿ çàáàéêàëüñêîé îáëàñòè”. Áûòü ìîæåò, âçãëÿä ó÷åíîãî îáùåñòâà î
òîì, ÷òî ðóññêèå íå îêàçàëè “íèêàêîãî” âëèÿíèÿ íà èíîðîäöåâ, – íåñêîëüêî ïðåóâåëè÷åííî-îòðèöàòåëüíûé, íî â îáùåì ôàêòû îòìå÷åíû ñîâåðøåííî ïðàâèëüíî.
È â ñàìîì äåëå, áóðÿòû – ñåâåðî-áàéêàëüñêèå è çàáàéêàëüñêèå – âñþ ñâîþ ñèëó â
òå÷åíèå ñòîëåòèé ïðèíóæäåíû áûëè òðàòèòü íà áîðüáó ñ ìåñòíûìè âëàñòÿìè è ìèññèîíåðàìè è ñ öåíòðàëüíûì ïðàâèòåëüñòâîì çà ñâîè “ïîðîäíûå çåìëè”, çà îáùèííîå çåìëåïîëüçîâàíèå, çà ñâîè õîçÿéñòâåííûå èíòåðåñû, çà íåïðèêîñíîâåííîñòü
íàöèîíàëüíûõ îñîáåííîñòåé è ñâîáîäó â ãðàæäàíñêî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé è äóõîâíî-ïðàâîâîé æèçíè. Áîðüáà áûëà íåïîñèëüíàÿ, íèêîìó íåçàìåòíàÿ, ïå÷àëüíàÿ, áåç âñÿêîé
ïî÷òè ïîääåðæêè ñî ñòîðîíû ìåñòíîãî ðóññêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ Âñå ìåðû ïðàâèòåëüñòâà íà÷èíàÿ ñ 1890 ãîäà (â Èðêóòñêîé ãóáåðíèè) âïëîòü äî íàøèõ äíåé áûëè íàïðàâëåíû ïðîòèâ êîììóíèñòè÷åñêè-ðîäîâîãî áûòà áóðÿò, ïðîòèâ òîé ñîëèäàðíîñòè,
32
404
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ñêîé êîëîíèçàöèè Ñèáèðè, â íà÷àëå è â êîíöå ÕÕ âåêà.33 Ýòî, â ñâîþ
î÷åðåäü, âûçâàëî ïîäúåì íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ è ìîáèëèçàöèþ
ýòíè÷åñêîãî ñàìîñîçíàíèÿ.
Íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîå âîçðîæäåíèå íà÷àëà ÕÕ âåêà áûëî ñòèìóëèðîâàíî óâåëè÷åíèåì ïîòîêà ðóññêèõ ïåðåñåëåíöåâ è, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ñîêðàùåíèåì çåìåëüíûõ íàäåëîâ áóðÿò, ëèêâèäàöèåé áóðÿòñêîãî
ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ – Ñòåïíûõ äóì, ïîä÷èíåíèåì áóðÿò ðóññêèì êðåñòüÿíñêèì íà÷àëüíèêàì âîëîñòíûõ óïðàâëåíèé. Ðåçóëüòàòîì ýòîãî ïðîöåññà ñòàëî íå òîëüêî ñîñòàâëåíèå ïðîãðàìì âîçðîæäåíèÿ áóðÿòñêîãî
ýòíîñà, íî è ôîðìóëèðîâàíèå ïðåòåíçèé ê ðîññèéñêîìó ãîñóäàðñòâó è
ê ðóññêèì: “Óñòðàíåíèå ÷åðåñïîëîñèöû, – çàÿâëÿëè ëèäåðû Áóðíàöêîìà â 1917 ã., – îäèí èç ìíîãî÷èñëåííûõ ñ÷åòîâ, êîòîðûå ìû èìååì
ïðåäúÿâèòü ðóññêîé äåìîêðàòèè è ðóññêîìó íàðîäó”, – ïðè÷åì â íàèáîëåå êðàéíåé ôîðìå ýòó ïðîáëåìó ïðåäëàãàëè ðåøèòü ïóòåì “íåìåäëåííîãî, ïðèíóäèòåëüíîãî, çà ñ÷åò ãîñóäàðñòâà, âûñåëåíèÿ ðóññêèõ ñ
áóðÿòñêèõ çåìåëü”.34 Ýòà òåìà – íåãàòèâíîå îòíîøåíèå ê Ðîññèè, ðóññêèì, ñàìîäåðæàâèþ è ñîâåòàì (óæå âî âðåìåíà ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè) –
äîñòàòî÷íî ÷àñòî ïîâòîðÿëàñü â ïîëèòè÷åñêîì äèñêóðñå, ÷òî ìîãëî
ïîðîé äîõîäèòü äî àáñóðäà, êîãäà, íàïðèìåð, “àãèíñêàÿ ñòåïíàÿ äóìà
äàæå ïðèíÿëà ðåøåíèå î çàïðåòå ðóññêîãî òóàëåòíîãî ìûëà è ðóññêèõ
äóõîâ”.35
Íî ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ïîçèòèâíàÿ îöåíêà âõîæäåíèÿ áóðÿò â
ñîñòàâ Ðîññèè ïðîäîëæàëà ñîõðàíÿòüñÿ. Ö. Æàìöàðàíî, ïîääåðæèâàÿ
òðåáîâàíèÿ áóðÿò âûäåëèòü ìåñòî äëÿ áóðÿòñêîãî ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿ â Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé äóìå, ïèñàë:
òîãî åäèíñòâà â æèçíè ïëåìåíè, êîòîðîå äåëàëî áóðÿò âåñüìà ñòîéêèìè, æèâó÷èìè â
áîðüáå ïðîòè⠓îáðóñåíèÿ”. Íàñêîëüêî ïðàâèòåëüñòâåííûå ìåðû ìàëî îòâå÷àëè áûòó
áóðÿò, ìîæåì óÿñíèòü ñåáå èç îçíàêîìëåíèÿ ñ ýòèì áûòîì”. Ñì.: Ö. Æàìöàðàíî. Î
ïðàâîñîçíàíèè áóðÿò // Ñèáèðñêèå âîïðîñû. 1905. ¹ 2. Ñ. 167-169.
33
Ãîâîðÿ î íà÷àëå ÕÕ â. êàê î ïåðèîäå àêòèâíîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ, ÿ èìåþ
â âèäó âåñü ïåðèîä ñ ìîìåíòà îðãàíèçàöèè ïåðâûõ îáùåñòâåííûõ îðãàíèçàöèé,
íàïðèìåð, “Çíàìÿ áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà” (1905 ã.), öåëüþ êîòîðûõ áûëî íàöèîíàëüíîêóëüòóðíîå âîçðîæäåíèå, è ïîÿâëåíèÿ ïåðâûõ ïóáëèêàöèé íà ýòó òåìó äî
îáðàçîâàíèÿ Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêîé àâòîíîìíîé ñîâåòñêîé ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêîé
ðåñïóáëèêè â ìàå 1923 ã.
34
Öèò. ïî: Ê. Ì. Ãåðàñèìîâà. Îáíîâëåí÷åñêîå äâèæåíèå áóðÿòñêîãî ëàìàèñòñêîãî
äóõîâåíñòâà. Óëàí-Óäý, 1964. Ñ. 33.
35
Ê. Ì. Ãåðàñèìîâà. Î áóðÿòñêîé “áóðæóàçíîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè” íà÷àëà ÕÕ â. //
Íàöèîíàëüíàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ, äóõîâåíñòâî è ïðîáëåìû ñîöèàëüíîãî,
íàöèîíàëüíîãî âîçðîæäåíèÿ íàðîäîâ Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1995. Ñ. 23.
405
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
 çàêëþ÷åíèå ïðèâåäó âûäåðæêó èç äîêëàäíîé çàïèñêè ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé çàáàéêàëüñêèõ áóðÿò: “îí (áóðÿòñêèé íàðîä), âåðíûé
ñâîåé ïðèñÿãå, äàííîé âïåðâûå öàðþ Àëåêñåþ Ìèõàéëîâè÷ó, áåçðîïîòíî ñíîñèë âñå òÿãîñòè, êîòîðûå íàëàãàëî íà íåãî ïðàâèòåëüñòâî, çàùèùàÿ ñâîåþ ãðóäüþ ðóññêóþ çåìëþ îò íàøåñòâèÿ ìîíãîëîâ (â òî âðåìÿ ïî÷òè âñå çàáàéêàëüñêèå áóðÿòû ñëóæèëè â âîéñêå: áûëî 4 áóðÿòñêèõ ïîëêà ñ áóðÿòñêèìè íà÷àëüíèêàìè. Áóðÿòû
îñâîáîäèëèñü âïîñëåäñòâèè. – Ö.Æ.). Çà âñå âðåìÿ ïîääàíñòâà è
ïðîæèâàíèÿ, îí âñåãäà, îòñòàèâàÿ ñâîè ïðàâà âåðíûõ äóõó ñâîåé
ðåëèãèè, äåðæàëñÿ çàêîííîé ïî÷âû åäèíñòâî íàðîäíîñòè è ðåëèãèè ïîçâîëÿåò áóðÿòàì ìîíîïîëèçèðîâàòü âñþ ðàáîòó, êîãäà
íàäî ïî÷åìó-ëèáî ïðèâëå÷ü ìîíãîëîâ, äàæå ñàìûõ îòäàëåííûõ ê
Ðîññèè ñêîòà, ëîøàäåé, áàðàíîâ äëÿ àðìèè”. È ñâîþ ïðîñüáó î
ïðåäñòàâèòåëå áóðÿòû çàêàí÷èâàþò ñëîâàìè: “êàê âåðíûå ñûíû
âåëèêîé Ðîññèéñêîé Èìïåðèè, ìû æåëàåì ïðèíåñòè â ïîëüçó îáøèðíîãî îòå÷åñòâà è íàøåé äàëåêîé îêðàèíû – ñâîþ ïîñèëüíóþ
ëåïòó”. Áóðÿòû äîáèâàþòñÿ áûòü ïîëíîïðàâíûìè ãðàæäàíàìè è,
êàê òàêîâûå, ó÷àñòâîâàòü â ïîëèòè÷åñêîé æèçíè ñòðàíû âìåñòå ñ
äðóãèìè íàðîäíîñòÿìè; à êàê íàöèîíàëüíîñòü – òðåáóþò ïðàâà
íà êóëüòóðíîå ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå.36
Îäíîâðåìåííî àâòîð ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëÿåò ðîññèéñêóþ âëàñòü íàðîäó è åãî “ëó÷øèì” ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿì – èíòåëëèãåíöèè:
Äëÿ íàñ, âåðóþùèõ â ñâîé íàðîä, â âîçìîæíîñòü êóëüòóðíîãî
âîçðîæäåíèÿ âñåõ ìîíãîëîâ (à íå ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî è øîâèíèñòè÷åñêîãî ïàíìîíãîëèçìà), èðêóòñêèå áóðÿòû, ýòà ìàëåíüêàÿ ÷àñòè÷êà
âñåãî ÷åòûðåõìèëëèîííîãî ìîíãîëüñêîãî íàðîäà, åñòü òîëüêî îäíà
èç òûñÿ÷è òî÷åê äëÿ ïðèëîæåíèÿ ñèëû, äëÿ ïðîâåäåíèÿ ñâîèõ èäåé.
Áóðÿòû âñå – çàáàéêàëüñêèå è ñåâåðîáàéêàëüñêèå – òîëüêî àâàíãàðä (ìîæåò ñòàòü è àðüåðãàðäîì) ïðîñûïàþùèõñÿ ìîíãîëîâ. È ñî
ñòîðîíû Ðîññèè, ðóññêîãî íàðîäà äîëæíà èäòè äåìîêðàòè÷åñêàÿ
âîëíà ê ìîíãîëàì, èáî ó ðóññêîãî íàðîäà íåò òîãî ïðåçðèòåëüíîãî
âûñîêîìåðíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ê èíîðîäöàì, êàêîé çàìå÷àåòñÿ ó äðóãèõ íàðîäîâ Åâðîïû è Àìåðèêè, òîëüêî ó ðóññêîãî íàðîäà (íå ïðàâèòåëüñòâà) ìû âèäèì øèðîêóþ òåðïèìîñòü ê äðóãèì íàðîäàì.37
Ö. Æàìöàðàíî. Î ïðàâîñîçíàíèè áóðÿò // Ñèáèðñêèå âîïðîñû. 1905. ¹ 2. Ñ. 183184..
37
Öèò. ïî: Á. Ä. Öèáèêîâ. Öûáåí Æàìöàðàíî. Ê 80-ëåòèþ ñî äíÿ ðîæäåíèÿ // Òðóäû
Áóðÿòñêîãî êîìïëåêñíîãî íàó÷íî-èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî èíñòèòóòà. Âûï. 10. Ñåðèÿ
èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1962. Ñ. 132.
36
406
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Ïåðâûå ïîñëåðåâîëþöèîííûå ãîäû õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿ áîëüøèì ÷èñëîì êîíôëèêòîâ ìåæäó íàñåëåíèåì è ñêëàäûâàâøåéñÿ ñòðóêòóðîé ñîâåòñêîé âëàñòè, êîòîðàÿ àññîöèèðîâàëàñü ñ Ðîññèåé, ÷òî âûçûâàëî íå
òîëüêî îòðèöàòåëüíîå îòíîøåíèå ê Ðîññèè (ñð. ïðèìåð îòêàçà îò ðóññêîãî ìûëà), íî è ïîÿâëåíèå õóäîæåñòâåííûõ ïðîèçâåäåíèé, ãäå ôîðìóëèðóþòñÿ ïðè÷èíû ýòîãî îòíîøåíèÿ, èíîãäà è â èñòîðè÷åñêîì êîíòåêñòå. Íåãàòèâíûå îöåíêè ïðèñóòñòâóþò â ïüåñå “Ïëà÷ øàìàíêè”, íàïèñàííîé Á. Áàðàäèíûì â íà÷àëå 20-õ ãîäîâ ÕÕ â. è îïèñûâàþùåé òðàãåäèþ ïîä÷èíåíèÿ áóðÿò Ðîññèè.  îñíîâó ñþæåòà ïîëîæåí ðåàëüíûé
èñòîðè÷åñêèé ôàêò ïîåçäêè ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé îäèííàäöàòè õîðèíñêèõ
ðîäîâ ïîä ïðåäâîäèòåëüñòâîì Áàäàíà Òóðàêèíà ñ æàëîáîé íà ïðèòåñíåíèÿ ñî ñòîðîíû ðóññêèõ ê Ïåòðó I, êîòîðûé Óêàçîì îò 22 ìàðòà 1703 ã.
çàêðåïëÿåò çà áóðÿòàìè çàíèìàåìûå èìè çåìëè è çàïðåùàåò ðóññêèì
âëàñòÿì ïðèòåñíÿòü áóðÿò. Ïðèâåäó íåñêîëüêî îòðûâêîâ èç ýòîãî ïðîèçâåäåíèÿ. Þíîøà – ãåðîé ïüåñû, ñêðûâàþùèéñÿ â ëåñó, ãîâîðèò:
Çàïîëîíèëàñü ðóññêèìè ðîäèíà íàøà.
Îöåïèëè íàñ èç êîíöà â êîíåö.
Ãëîæóò íàñ, âöåïèâøèñü çóáàìè,
Ñêîò íàø ê ñåáå óãîíÿþò,
Äðóã çà äðóãîì íàñ èñòðåáëÿþò,
Çåìëè íàøè äðîáÿò íà êóñêè,
Òóøàò íàøè âñå î÷àãè,
Ñìåøàëè èõ ñî ñâîèìè,
È âîò ñòàëè òåïåðü ìû ëþäüìè,
Íå èìåþùèìè ñâîåé ðîäèíû,
Ñâîåé ðîäíîé çåìëè 38
 ýòîì îòðûâêå ìîæíî óâèäåòü ôîëüêëîðíûå ìîòèâû, îòìå÷åííûå
âûøå: ìíîãî÷èñëåííîñòü ðóññêèõ (ñð. “êàê äåðåâüåâ â ëåñó”) è èõ äåéñòâèÿ, ñðàâíèìûå ñ äåéñòâèÿìè ýïè÷åñêîãî ìàíãàäõàÿ, ðàçðûâàþùåãî
ëþäåé è óíè÷òîæàþùåãî î÷àãè (= ðîäèíó). Õàðàêòåðèñòèêà, êîòîðàÿ
äàåòñÿ âðàãàì, âêëàäûâàåòñÿ â óñòà âòîðîãî ïàðíÿ, êîòîðûé ïðèçûâàåò
ñîïëåìåííèêîâ (âûäåëåíî ìíîé. – Ò.Ñ.):
Ìû, áóðÿòû, ñêîëüêî åñòü íàñ,
Îñòàíîâèì íåñóùèõ íàì çëî,
Ïåðåðåæåì íåíàâèñòíûõ,
Ïîäàâèì íàøèõ âðàãîâ!39
À. Á. Ñîêòîåâ. Ñòàíîâëåíèå õóäîæåñòâåííîé ëèòåðàòóðû äîîêòÿáðüñêîãî ïåðèîäà.
Óëàí-Óäý, 1976. Ñ. 385-386.
39
Òàì æå. Ñ. 390.
38
407
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
Âîñïðèÿòèå ðóññêèõ êàê ìàêñèìàëüíîé îïàñíîñòè, âî èçáåæàíèå
êîòîðîé â ñëó÷àå ïîðàæåíèÿ ëó÷øå ïîãèáíóòü, îòðàçèëèñü â ñëîâàõ
äåâóøêè èç ãðóïïû ïëåííûõ, êîíâîèðóåìûõ ÷åòûðüìÿ ðóññêèìè ñòðàæíèêàìè:
×åì ñ÷èòàòüñÿ ñêîòîì ó ðóññêèõ,
×åì äëÿ ðóññêèõ ïîäìåòêîé ñòàòü,
Óæ ëó÷øå – âñåìó êîíåö,
Óæ ëó÷øå óìðó ÿ â òàéãå 40
Çäåñü æå äàåòñÿ êà÷åñòâåííàÿ õàðàêòåðèñòèêà âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé
ðóññêèå – áóðÿòû, êîãäà áóðÿòû äîëæíû áóäóò çàíÿòü íèæíèå óðîâíè
èåðàðõèè: ÷åëîâåê – æèâîòíîå / ðóññêèé – áóðÿò, èëè âåðõ – íèç / ðóññêèé – ïîäìåòêà, ÷òî èìïëèöèòíî ìîæåò õàðàêòåðèçîâàòü è âîñïðèÿòèå àâòîðîì ñîâðåìåííîé åìó ñèòóàöèè.
Îäíîâðåìåííî ñëîâàìè, âëîæåííûìè â óñòà øàìàíà Íàãàðàé-çààðèíà, “âîññòàíàâëèâàåòñÿ èñòèíà” – â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ äèñêóðñîì íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî âîçðîæäåíèÿ ïîêàçàíî “ðåàëüíîå” ìåñòî áóðÿò
â èñòîðèè:
Ìû èç ïëåìåíè ìîíãîëî⠖
Èç òåõ, êòî ìèð íà ÷àñòè ðóøèë,
Âñå ëîìàë, âåñü ìèð òîïòàë,
Èç óïðÿìîé ïîðîäû ëèõèõ ñìåëü÷àêîâ
Ñ ìîùüþ íåñîêðóøèìîþ!
Íàñòóïèò êîãäà-òî ïîðà,
Êîãäà ìû, õîðè-áóðÿòû,
Ðàçîãíåì ñîãáåííûå ñïèíû.
Àõ, åñëè áû íà íàøåé ïðåêðàñíîé,
Íà íàøåé öâåòóùåé ðîäèíå
Ìû æèëè áû âñå åäèíîé ñåìüåé,
Óæ áû ñëàâà î íàñ
 îäíî ïðåêðàñíîå âðåìÿ ãðåìåëà 41
Ïîñêîëüêó îäíîé èç îñíîâíûõ çàäà÷ íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî âîçðîæäåíèÿ íà÷àëà ÕÕ â. ÿâëÿëîñü ñîçäàíèå ñîáñòâåííîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè, òî â ìîíîëîãå Áàäàíà Òóðàêèíà, îäíîãî èç ëèäåðîâ õîðèíöåâ,
èçîáðåòàåòñÿ “çîëîòîé âåê”, â êîòîðîì íåò ìåñòà ðóññêîìó:
40
41
Òàì æå. Ñ. 385.
Òàì æå. Ñ. 391.
408
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Íå ïîäïàäàòü ïîä ïÿòó
Ìíîãî÷èñëåííûõ ðóññêèõ,
Äà îáðàçóåì ìû ãîñóäàðñòâî,
Âåëèêîå è îáøèðíîå,
Ñ ïå÷àòüþ âûñîêîé ñ÷àñòëèâîé ñóäüáû.
 êîòîðîì äëÿ âñåõ áóäåò ñ÷àñòüå
È áóäåò öàðèòü íàäî âñåì
Îäèí ëèøü âûñîêèé óì! 42
Ñëåäóåò íàïîìíèòü, ÷òî ýòè ñòðîêè áûëè íàïèñàíû òîãäà, êîãäà
âïåðâûå â èñòîðèè áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà ñîçäàâàëàñü áóðÿòñêàÿ ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòü. Åùå â 1917 ã. äðóãîé ëèäåð íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ è
àêòèâíûé ó÷àñòíèê ñîçäàíèÿ ïåðâîãî áóðÿòñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà ïèñàë:
“Åñëè èíîðîä÷åñêèå ìàññû, â òå÷åíèå ñòîëåòèé âèäåâøèå ñî ñòîðîíû
ðóññêèõ îäíè ëèøü ïðèòåñíåíèÿ, îòíîñèëèñü è îòíîñÿòñÿ ñ áîëüøèì
íåäîâåðèåì è íåïðèÿçíüþ êî âñåìó ðóññêîìó, òî èíîðîä÷åñêàÿ èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ, âîñïèòàííàÿ öåëèêîì â äóõå ëó÷øèõ òðàäèöèé è èäåàëîâ
ðóññêîé îáùåñòâåííîñòè è ëèòåðàòóðû, ñîâåðøåííî èíà÷å ïðîÿâëÿëà
ñâîå îòíîøåíèå ê òðåòüåìó ýëåìåíòó Ðîññèè âîîáùå è Ñèáèðè â ÷àñòíîñòè. ßðêèå è áëàãîðîäíûå ïðèìåðû ßäðèíöåâûõ, Ïîòàíèíûõ è äð.
íå ìîãëè íå âûçâàòü â äóøå è ñîçíàíèè èíîðîä÷åñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè
Ñèáèðè ÷óâñòâà ãëóáîêîé ïðèçíàòåëüíîñòè è óâàæåíèÿ ïî àäðåñó òðåòüåãî ýëåìåíòà (“âåðõè îáëàñòíè÷åñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè”. – Ò.Ñ.)”.43
Àìáèâàëåíòíîñòü âîñïðèÿòèÿ Ðîññèè îáùåñòâåííûì ñîçíàíèåì îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ðåàëüíîé ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ïðàêòèêîé (Áóðÿòèÿ ñ XVII âåêà íàõîäèòñÿ â ñîñòàâå Ðîññèè), ñ äðóãîé, – ìîáèëèçîâàííîé ýòíè÷íîñòüþ ïåðèîäà íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî âîçðîæäåíèÿ. Ïðèâåäåííûå ìàòåðèàëû åùå ðàç äåìîíñòðèðóþò ñëîæíîñòü ïðîáëåìû ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè è ïîêàçûâàþò, ÷òî â èñòîðè÷åñêîì ïðîøëîì
áóðÿò ýòíîãðóïïîâûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè èìåëè ìíîæåñòâåííûé, íå âçàèìîèñêëþ÷àþùèé õàðàêòåð, ãäå ðîññèéñêàÿ (ãðàæäàíñêàÿ) èäåíòè÷íîñòü çàíèìàëà ñâîå ìåñòî, õîòÿ äëÿ áîëüøåé ÷àñòè íå òîëüêî íîñèòåëåé òðàäèöèè, íî è ó÷åíûõ íàöèîíàëüíîå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñèíîíèìîì ýòíè÷åñêîãî.
Áóðÿòñêèé ìàòåðèàë äåìîíñòðèðóåò âíåáèîëîãè÷åñêèé (îêêàçèîíàëüíî êîíñòðóèðóåìûé) õàðàêòåð ýòíè÷íîñòè è ðàçíûå óðîâíè ýòíè÷åñêîé
ëîÿëüíîñòè, õàðàêòåðíûå äëÿ áóðÿòñêîé êóëüòóðû. Ýòî ïîäòâåðæäàåò
ñëîâà Ý. Ãåëëíåðà î òîì, ÷òî “íàöèè ñîçäàåò ÷åëîâåê, íàöèè – ýòî ïðî42
43
Òàì æå. Ñ.393-394.
Ýëáåê-Äîðæè Ðèí÷èíî. Äîêóìåíòû. Ñòàòüè. Ïèñüìà. Óëàí-Óäý, 1994. Ñ. 49.
409
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
äóêò ÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ óáåæäåíèé, ïðèñòðàñòèé è íàêëîííîñòåé”,44 ÷òî ýòî
ïðåæäå âñåãî âíóòðèãðóïïîâàÿ äåôèíèöèÿ, îáîçíà÷àåìàÿ èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè êàê ñâîåãî ðîäà “ïîñòîÿííûé, íåôîðìàëüíûé, èçâå÷íî ïîäòâåðæäàåìûé ïëåáèñöèò”.45
Âåñü âûøåèçëîæåííûé áóðÿòñêèé ìàòåðèàë ïîäòâåðæäàåò òî, ÷òî
ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèÿ – ýòî, êàê ïðàâèëî, öåïî÷êà (ðÿä) âûáîðîâ ïî
èåðàðõèè èäåíòè÷íîñòåé. Íàäî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî ñèòóàòèâíîñòü è ïðîèçâîëüíîñòü âûáîðà ãåíåàëîãè÷åñêîãî ðîäñòâà è, òàêèì îáðàçîì, ýòíè÷åñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè ó áóðÿò îòìå÷àëèñü óæå è ñàìèìè íîñèòåëÿìè
òðàäèöèè, ÷òî ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î ñóùåñòâîâàíèè äàæå â ðàìêàõ òðàäèöèè êðèòèêè ìèôîëîãèçèðîâàíèÿ ýòíîãåíåòè÷åñêèõ ñâÿçåé.
 êîíñòðóèðîâàíèè ñîâðåìåííîé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé èäåîëîãèè èíòåëëåêòóàëüíàÿ áóðÿòñêàÿ ýëèòà óäåëÿåò çàìåòíîå âíèìàíèå òàêèì ïàðàäèãìàì, êàê íàöèîíàëüíàÿ ñàìîáûòíîñòü, íàöèîíàëüíîå ñàìîñîçíàíèå, åäèíñòâî áóðÿòñêîãî ýòíîñà, âîïëîùåííîå â ýòíîíèìå áóðÿòû
(øèðå: îáùåìîíãîëüñêîå åäèíñòâî, íàøåäøåå ñâîå âûðàæåíèå â ïàðàäèãìå áóðÿò-ìîíãîëû èëè Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëèÿ); îáîñíîâàíèå ýòîãî åäèíñòâà ÷åðåç îáùåå ïðîèñõîæäåíèå è îáùóþ òåððèòîðèþ (= ðîäíàÿ çåìëÿ), èçâåñòíîå êàê òåìà Blut und Boden; îáùàÿ âåðà, â êîòîðîé ïðåæäå
âñåãî âûäåëÿþòñÿ ìèðîâîççðåíèå è ñâÿçàííàÿ ñ íèì êóëüòóðà.
Ìîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî èäåè, îáîñíîâûâàþùèå ïóòè âûæèâàíèÿ áóðÿò,
ïîëó÷èëè ñâîå ðàçâèòèå â ðàìêàõ ýòíîöåíòðèñòñêîé èäåîëîãèè. Ýòíîöåíòðèçì è âîçíèêàåò êàê ðåàêöèÿ íà ñîâðåìåííûå ñîáûòèÿ è ñòðàõ
èñ÷åçíîâåíèÿ (ðàñòâîðåíèÿ) â íîâîì ìèðå. Ïîýòîìó ðàçâîðà÷èâàþòñÿ
èäåè ñëåäîâàíèÿ òðàäèöèîííûì îáðàçöàì è ïðàêòèêàì. Ïåññèìèçì óãëóáëÿåòñÿ îñîçíàíèåì ìàëûìè ýòíîñàìè óðîâíÿ ñâîèõ âîçìîæíîñòåé
(ñïîñîáíîñòè) ê âûæèâàíèþ â ìèðîâîì ñîîáùåñòâå èëè â Ðîññèè. Ýòíîöåíòðèñòñêàÿ èäåîëîãèÿ, áóäó÷è ïî ñóùåñòâó íåñîâðåìåííîé, ïîñêîëüêó, êàê ïðàâèëî, áàçèðóåòñÿ íà òðàäèöèîííûõ ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿõ è
îáðàùåíà ê ïðîøëîìó, ÿâëÿåòñÿ â òî æå âðåìÿ ìåõàíèçìîì ìîäåðíèçàöèè îáùåñòâà (ò.å. èçìåíåíèÿ åãî â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ñîâðåìåííûìè òðåáîâàíèÿìè ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ åå ñòîðîííèêîâ), âäîõíîâëÿÿ ÷ëåíîâ ñîîáùåñòâà íà “âîçðîæäåíèå” (òî åñòü âîñ-ñîçäàíèå ñåáÿ). Èäåîëîãåìû,
ëåãèòèìèðóþùèå ýòíîöåíòðèçì, èçûñêèâàþòñÿ èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé,
òâîð÷åñêîé è ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýëèòîé â èñòîðè÷åñêîì ïðîøëîì:
Öèò. ïî: Â. À. Òèøêîâ. Î÷åðêè òåîðèè è ïîëèòèêè ýòíè÷íîñòè â Ðîññèè. Ì.,
1997. Ñ.39
45
Òàì æå.
44
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Íåò ó áóðÿò, êðîìå Áóðÿòèè, äðóãîé ðîäèíû, ãîòîâîé âñòàòü íà
çàùèòó íàøåãî íàðîäà, åãî ïðàâ, åãî èíòåðåñîâ. Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ Ðåñïóáëèêà ñîçäàâàëàñü ðàäè çàùèòû áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêîãî ýòíîñà, ðàäè ñîõðàíåíèÿ è ïðèóìíîæåíèÿ ýòîãî äðåâíåãî ìîíãîëüñêîãî ýòíîñà, êîðåííîãî íàðîäà Ïðèáàéêàëüÿ. Ýòîò òèòóëüíûé,
ãîñóäàðñòâîîáðàçóþùèé íàðîä, åãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòü ïåðåæèâàåò íåäîáðûå âðåìåíà (â ïîëèòè÷åñêîì äèñêóðñå äîïóñêàåòñÿ
ïðîòèâîðå÷èå ñàìîìó ñåáå, âûøå â ýòîé ñòàòüå àâòîð ãîâîðèë î
ïîçèòèâíîñòè ñåãîäíÿøíåé äåìîêðàòèè, ñïîñîáñòâóþùåé íàöèîíàëüíîìó âîçðîæäåíèþ. – Ò.Ñ.). Âñïîìíèì 1937 ã., êîãäà åäèíàÿ
Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëèÿ áûëà ðàñ÷ëåíåíà íà ïÿòü ÷àñòåé.  ðåçóëüòàòå
áûë ïðèîñòàíîâëåí ïðîöåññ êîíñîëèäàöèè íàöèè, ïðèîñòàíîâëåíî ôîðìèðîâàíèå åäèíîé íàöèîíàëüíîé êóëüòóðû, åäèíîé ïèñüìåííîñòè, ëèòåðàòóðíîãî ÿçûêà. Áóðÿòû, îêàçàâøèåñÿ âíå
ÁÌÀÑÑÐ, áûëè ëèøåíû âîçìîæíîñòè ó÷àñòâîâàòü â îáùåíàöèîíàëüíîé æèçíè. Âñïîìíèì 1958 ã., êîãäà çà ñïèíîé íàðîäà ëèêâèäèðîâàëè òðàäèöèîííîå íàçâàíèå Ðåñïóáëèêè “Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëèÿ”,
íàçâàíèå íàðîäà “áóðÿò-ìîíãîëû”.46
 ðàìêàõ íåîòðàäèöèîíàëèñòñêîé ýòíîöåíòðèñòñêîé ýññåíöèàëèñòñêîé èäåîëîãèè ðîæäàþòñÿ ïàðàäèãìû ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî äèñêóðñà, êîòîðûå èìåþò âî ìíîãîì ìåòàôèçè÷åñêèé õàðàêòåð. Ïóáëèêàöèè ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé ýëèòû â ïîñëåäíåå äåñÿòèëåòèå ñîçäàþò îñîáóþ ôåíîìåíîëîãè÷åñêóþ ðåàëüíîñòü. Íàèáîëåå ÿâíî ïðèíöèïû íàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè ñôîðìóëèðîâàíû â âûñòóïëåíèè äîêòîðà ôèëîëîãè÷åñêèõ íàóê Â. Ö. Íàéäàêîâà (äèðåêòîðà Èíñòèòóòà îáùåñòâåííûõ
íàóê). Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, Â. Ö. Íàéäàêîâ êàê áóäòî ðàçâîðà÷èâàåò êîíñòèòóöèîííûé ëîçóí㠓ìû – ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíûé íàðîä”: “Ðåñïóáëèêà
Áóðÿòèÿ, âûñòóïàþùàÿ êàê ãîñóäàðñòâî âñåõ íàñåëÿþùèõ åå íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé, â ðàâíîé ñòåïåíè çàùèùàåò èíòåðåñû âñåõ åãî ãðàæäàí, â òîì
÷èñëå è íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíûå èíòåðåñû”.47 Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, â äîêëàäå îäíîâðåìåííî ïðîñëåæèâàåòñÿ èäåÿ èåðàðõèçàöèè íàðîäîâ, íàñåëÿþùèõ Áóðÿòèþ: “Î ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿõ áîëüøèíñòâà íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé,
íàñåëÿþùèõ ðåñïóáëèêó, ãîâîðèòü êàê î íàðîäàõ ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ
Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ. Áóðÿò-ìîíãîëüñêèé ýòíîñ è ìîíãîëüñêèé ìèð // Ïðîáëåìû òðàäèöèîííîé êóëüòóðû íàðîäîâ Áàéêàëüñêîãî ðåãèîíà. Ìàòåðèàëû Ìåæäóíàðîäíîé íàó÷íî-ïðàêòè÷åñêîé
êîíôåðåíöèè (2-3 èþëÿ 1999 ã.). Óëàí-Óäý, 1994. Ñ. 12-13.
47
Â. Ö. Íàéäàêîâ. Ïðîáëåìû íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ íàðîäîâ
Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ // Ãàçåòà “Áóðÿòèÿ”. 1997. 10 àïðåëÿ. Ñ. 2.
46
411
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
íåò íèêàêèõ îñíîâàíèé âñå îíè ÿâëÿþòñÿ ÷àñòüþ ñâîèõ íàðîäîâ, èìåþùèõ ãîñóäàðñòâåííûå îáðàçîâàíèÿ â äàëüíåì è áëèæíåì çàðóáåæüå,
èëè â ñîñòàâå Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè”.48 Ýòî îòíîñèòñÿ è ê ðóññêîìó
íàñåëåíèþ: “Ðîäèíîé âåëèêîãî ðóññêîãî íàðîäà ÿâëÿåòñÿ ãîñóäàðñòâî
Ðîññèÿ Ïîýòîìó êîãäà ìû ãîâîðèì ðóññêèé íàðîä, ìû èìååì â âèäó
âñå ðóññêîå íàñåëåíèå Ðîññèè è äðóãèõ ñòðàí, à íå òó èëè èíóþ åãî ÷àñòü,
æèâóùóþ íà òåððèòîðèè êàêîãî-ëèáî ñóáúåêòà Ôåäåðàöèè”.49
Íåñêîëüêî â èíîì ïîëîæåíèè íàõîäèòñÿ áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ. “Áóðÿòû – àáîðèãåííûé, êîðåííîé íàðîä, èñêîííî
îáèòàþùèé îêðåñò Áàéêàëà, íà òåððèòîðèè Ïðèáàéêàëüÿ è Çàáàéêàëüÿ È ïîñêîëüêó òåððèòîðèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ ðàñïîëîæåíà â
Çàáàéêàëüå, áóðÿòû, ñîñòàâëÿþùèå ëèøü ÷àñòü âñåãî íàñåëåíèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè – ãîñóäàðñòâà â ñîñòàâå Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè, ÿâëÿþòñÿ ãîñóäàðñòâîîáðàçóþùèì íàðîäîì, òèòóëüíîé íàöèåé, äàâøåé íàçâàíèå
ãîñóäàðñòâó – ðåñïóáëèêå Íî áóðÿòñêîå íàñåëåíèå ÐÁ ñîñòàâëÿåò
ãåíåðàëüíóþ äèàñïîðó íàöèè – íàðîä, æèâóùèé â ñâîåì ãîñóäàðñòâå
(âûäåëåíî ìíîé. – Ò.Ñ.), êîòîðîå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðèòÿãàòåëüíûì öåíòðîì
äëÿ âñåõ áóðÿò.”50
Òàêèì îáðàçîì, â âûñòóïëåíèè Â. Ö. Íàéäàêîâà ôîðìóëèðóþòñÿ
èäåè ëåãèòèìàöèè ïðèîðèòåòíîãî ïðàâà áóðÿò. Ýòè èäåè íîñÿò äîñòàòî÷íî îáùèé äëÿ áóðÿòñêîé íàóêè õàðàêòåð. Òàê, íàïðèìåð, ïðè ðàçðàáîòêå Êîíöåïöèè íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà äîêòîð ôèëîñîôñêèõ
íàóê Þ. Á. Ðàíäàëîâ è äîêòîð èñòîðè÷åñêèõ íàóê Ã. Ë. Ñàíæèåâ ïèñàëè â ïðîåêòå: “Êîðåííîé íàðîä ðåñïóáëèêè – áóðÿòñêèé (çäåñü è íèæå
âûäåëåíî ìíîé. – Ò.Ñ.) â îñíîâíîì ñâîåì ÿäðå ñôîðìèðîâàëñÿ â íîâóþ
èñòîðè÷åñêóþ îáùíîñòü – íàöèþ ñîâåòñêîãî òèïà ñî ñâîèìè ýêîíîìè÷åñêèìè, ñîöèàëüíî-êóëüòóðíûìè è ñîöèàëüíî-ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèìè êà÷åñòâàìè è ïðèçíàêàìè. Ñóùåñòâåííûå êà÷åñòâåííûå èçìåíåíèÿ ïðîèçîøëè â ñîöèàëüíîé ñòðóêòóðå ðóññêîãî íàñåëåíèÿ ðåñïóáëèêè, ÿâëÿþùåãîñÿ îðãàíè÷åñêîé ÷àñòüþ ðóññêîé íàöèè”.51 Çäåñü ôîðìóëèðóåòñÿ èåðàðõè÷íîñòü äâóõ îñíîâíûõ ãðóïï íàñåëåíèÿ Áóðÿòèè – áóðÿò (=
íàöèÿ – âûñøàÿ ñòàäèÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ýòíîñà) è ðóññêèõ (îáîçíà÷åíî çäåñü
êàê íàñåëåíèå – àìîðôíûé òåðìèí).
Òàì æå.
Òàì æå.
50
Òàì æå.
51
Âîïðîñû ìåòîäîëîãèè è èñòîðèè íàöèé è íàöèîíàëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé â ðåãèîíå
Âîñòî÷íîé Ñèáèðè. Òåçèñû è ìàòåðèàëû íàó÷íîãî ñîâåùàíèÿ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1992.
Ñ. 27.
48
49
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Âî âñåõ öèòàòàõ, ïðèâåäåííûõ âûøå, îáðàùàåò íà ñåáÿ âíèìàíèå
òî, ÷òî Ðîññèÿ, ðóññêèå èëè ðóññêîÿçû÷íûå (íå áóðÿòû) âûñòóïàþò êàê
íå÷òî âíåøíåå (÷óæîå) ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê Áóðÿòèè è áóðÿòàì, ÷òî, áåçóñëîâíî, ñîãëàñóåòñÿ ñ ýññåíöèàëèñòñêèìè ýòíîöåíòðèñòñêèìè óñòàíîâêàìè ìîáèëèçîâàííîé ýòíè÷íîñòè. Ïðè ýòîì ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî
â Áóðÿòèè íå îòìå÷àåòñÿ äåñòðóêòèâíûõ òåíäåíöèé è ïóáëèêàöèè íå
íîñÿò àãðåññèâíîãî õàðàêòåðà.
Îòäåëåíèå ñåáÿ îò Ðîññèè (Ìîñêâà – ñåðäöå Ðîññèè, Êðåìëü – ñåðäöå Ìîñêâû) ìîæåò ïðîèñõîäèòü è ÷åðåç ìàíèôåñòàöèþ ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè ê ìîíãîëüñêîé îáùíîñòè, ê êîòîðîé áóðÿòû íå òîëüêî ñåáÿ îòíîñÿò, íî è âêëþ÷àþò â ñâîé ïàíòåîí êóëüòóðíûõ ãåðîåâ, íàïðèìåð, ×èíãèñ-õàíà. Çàìå÷àòåëüíûì ïðèìåðîì ìîãóò ñëóæèòü ýêñïðåññèâíî-ðîìàíòè÷åñêèå ïîýòè÷åñêèå òåêñòû, ïðèìåðîì êîòîðûõ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïóáëèêàöèÿ Îêòÿáðèíû Åøååâîé:
Ëþáëþ ñìîòðåòü êàðòèíû, ãäå åñòü ëîøàäè Âîçìîæíî,
ãîâîðèò êàêàÿ-òî äàëåêàÿ ïàìÿòü, ãåíû óøåäøèõ ÷èíãèñèäîâ (çäåñü
è äàëåå âûäåëåíî ìíîé, – Ò.Ñ.)...
Çàìåòèì, ÷òî ðå÷ü èäåò íå âîîáùå î êî÷åâíèêàõ, à èìåííî î ÷èíãèñèäàõ. Äàëåå àâòîð ïðèâîäèò àíîíèìíîå ñòèõîòâîðåíèå, íàïèñàííîå
÷èíîâíèêîì – ãîñóäàðñòâåííûì ñëóæàùèì, è ðàññóæäàåò:
Ãîðäèòñÿ ðóññêèé – â íåì òå÷åò,
Áûòü ìîæåò, êðîâü îò Ãðîçíîãî Èâàíà.
À ìíå, âîçìîæíî, è âåçåò,
×òî ïðîñòî ÿ – ïîòîìîê ×èíãèñõàíà
Íî âñå-òàêè, ïî÷åìó ìû âîñõèùàåìñÿ ÷èíãèñèäàìè, íàì íðàâèòñÿ
òîò âåëèêèé íàïîð, ýêñïðåññèÿ, ýíåðãèÿ, ñèëà è ìîùü? À âîò íà êàðòèíàõ àçèàòû ñåãîäíÿ – âïîëíå òèõèå, ìèðíûå, ñïîêîéíûå, î÷åíü ñêðîìíûå ëþäè  ýòîé ñâÿçè ïî÷åìó-òî âñïîìíèëàñü îäíàæäû âèäåííàÿ
ìíîþ êàðòèíà ìîñêîâñêîãî áóðÿòà Ïåòðà ßíäàíå. Ïî ñóòè, ýòî áûë àâòîïîðòðåò, íàçâàííûé “×èíãèñ-õàí”. Âðîäå îáû÷íîå ñêóëàñòîå àçèàòñêîå ëèöî ñ ðàñêîñûìè ãëàçàìè, êàêèõ ó íàñ ìíîãî, ðûæåâàòûå äî
ïëå÷ âîëîñû Íî, âãëÿäåâøèñü â êàðòèíó, óâèäåëà â çåëåíîâàòûõ õèùíûõ ãëàçàõ çîëîòûå ìàêîâêè êóïîëîâ öåðêâåé, îáúÿòûå îðàíæåâûì
ïëàìåíåì”.52
Îêòÿáðèíà Åøååâà. Ñóäüáà, îñâÿùåííàÿ òàëàíòîì // Áóðÿòèÿ. 2001. 24 ôåâðàëÿ.
Ñ. 6.
52
413
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
Çàâèñèìîñòü Ðîññèè îò Ìîíãîëèè (Ðîññèÿ – âîñïðèåìíèöà ìîíãîëüñêîé êóëüòóðû) îòìå÷àåòñÿ â ïóáëèêàöèÿõ Þðèÿ Óáååâà. Òàê, â îäíîé
èç íèõ ÷èòàåì:
Ôëàãè è ãåðáû â èçâåñòíîé ìåðå îòðàæàþò ñîñòîÿíèå îáùåñòâà, ãîñóäàðñòâà, à åñëè êîïíóòü ãëóáæå, òî ôàçó ýòíîãåíåçà èëè
ñòåïåíü ýòíè÷åñêîãî íàïðÿæåíèÿ. Âîçüìåì âðåìåíà ×èíãèñõàíà,
êîãäà 400-òûñÿ÷íûé íàðîä-ãîñóäàðñòâî, íàðîä-âîéñêî ïîêîðèë
ìèëëèîíû ëþäåé, èëè 80% íàñåëåíèÿ è òåððèòîðèè Åâðàçèè.
Ëèäåð ìîíãîëîâ áûë îäåðæèì èäååé ñîçäàíèÿ åäèíîãî öàðñòâà,
ãäå òîðæåñòâîâàëè áû çàêîí è ñïðàâåäëèâîñòü, ñâîáîäà ñîâåñòè è âåðîòåðïèìîñòü. Âèäèìî, ïîýòîìó öâåò çíàìåíè áûë áåëûé, ñèíòåòè÷åñêè âêëþ÷àâøèé âñå öâåòà ðàäóãè. Íà óðîâíå ãëóáèííîãî ïîäñîçíàíèÿ ýòî êîððåëèðóåò ñ ãðîìàäíûì ýòíè÷åñêèì
ðàçíîîáðàçèåì ñîçäàííîé ìîíãîëàìè èìïåðèè. Ðîññèÿ óíàñëåäîâàëà îò ìîíãîëîâ: áåëûé õàí – áåëûé öàðü, áåëàÿ ãâàðäèÿ, à òàêæå Ãýñýð – öåçàðü-öàðü (âûäåëåíî ìíîé, – Ò.Ñ.).53
 êîíòåêñòå ñîâðåìåííîãî ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî äèñêóðñà íàöèîíàëüíîêóëüòóðíîãî âîçðîæäåíèÿ, ãäå çàìåòíîå ìåñòî çàíèìàåò èäåÿ áóðÿòìîíãîëüñêîé îáùíîñòè, îñîáåííî îñòðî âñòàåò âîïðîñ îòíîøåíèÿ ê
Ðîññèè. Ñîâðåìåííûé áóðÿòñêèé ïîýò Åñóãýé Ñûíäóåâ (Åñóãýé – èìÿ
îòöà ×èíãèñ-õàíà, íàñòîÿùåå èìÿ ïîýòà – Ñåðãåé Áàòîðîâè÷) â ïðåäèñëîâèè ê ñâîåé ïîýìå “Ëþäè äëèííîé âîëè. Ëåãåíäà î õîíãîäîðàõ (îäíî
èç áóðÿòñêèõ ïëåìåí, – Ò.Ñ.)” íàïèñàë:
Âîò è ÞÍÅÑÊÎ, ñèìâîëè÷åñêè ïîäâîäÿ èòîãè ïîñëåäíèõ äåñÿòè âåêîâ öèâèëèçàöèè, íàçâàëî ×åëîâåêîì Òûñÿ÷åëåòèÿ íå êîãîòî, à Âåëèêîãî ñåâåðíîãî ìîíãîëà ×èíãèñõàíà. Òî åñòü ÷åëîâå÷åñòâî â ëèöå ÞÍÅÑÊÎ êîíñòàòèðóåò, ÷òî çà ìèíóâøóþ òûñÿ÷ó
ëåò âî âñåì ìèðå íè îäèí ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé, ïîëèòè÷åñêèé, âîåííûé, ðåëèãèîçíûé, íàó÷íûé èëè êóëüòóðíûé äåÿòåëü íå âíåñ â
ðàçâèòèå öèâèëèçàöèè áîëüøåãî âêëàäà, ÷åì ×èíãèñ-õàí. Ýòî
ôàêò. Ôàêò óæå áåññïîðíûé è ÷åëîâå÷åñòâîì îñîçíàííûé Àâòîð
ïðåêëîíÿåòñÿ ïåðåä íàó÷íûì è òâîð÷åñêèì ïîäâèæíè÷åñòâîì íàçâàííûõ èì Ëþäåé (Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ, Ñ. Ä. Áàáóåâ, À. À. Áàëüáóðîâ, – Ò.Ñ.). Êàê è ïåðåä ïîäâèæíè÷åñòâîì ìíîãèõ Ëþäåé Äëèííîé Âîëè, êòî, ïðîäèðàÿñü ñêâîçü çàïðåòû è ðîãàòêè, âûðûâàÿñü
èç ðàìîê ïðåäâçÿòîñòè è ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî çàêàçà, íåñåò ìèðó ïðàâäó îá èñòèííîé ðîëè è èñòèííîì ìåñòå ìîíãîëüñêîãî ýòíîñà â
53
Þðèé Óáååâ. Çíàêè ðåâîëþöèé // Ïðàâäà Áóðÿòèè. 2001. 18 ìàÿ. Ñ. 13.
414
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
èñòîðèè öèâèëèçàöèè. Íåñåò ïðàâäó î íàøèõ ïðåäêàõ. Î Ëþäÿõ
Äëèííîé Âîëè”.54
Êàê ýòî óæå îòìå÷àëîñü äëÿ ðàííèõ ýòàïîâ áóðÿòñêî-ðîññèéñêîé
èñòîðèè, îäèí óðîâåíü ëîÿëüíîñòè íå ýëèìèíèðóåò äðóãîé: ãîðäîñòü
çà èñòîðè÷åñêîå ïðîøëîå, ñâÿçàííîå ñ ìîíãîëàìè, óæèâàåòñÿ ñ îáîçíà÷åíèåì Ðîññèè “ìàòóøêîé”, ïðèïðàâëåííûì, ïðàâäà, ãîðå÷üþ íåñëîæèâøèõñÿ îòíîøåíèé ñ Ìîñêâîé, âåðîÿòíî, ëè÷íîãî õàðàêòåðà (ñòèõîòâîðåíèå “Ìàòóøêå-Ðîññèè”):
Ìàòü ëè, ìà÷åõà – Ðîññèÿ?
Òðåòèé Ðèì èëè Îðäà?
Íàä òîáîé íåóãàñèìà
Åâðàçèéñêàÿ çâåçäà.
Íî Ìîñêâå òâîÿ îïîðà,
Àçèàò, íåçâàíûé ãîñòü.
Òðåñíóâ, òðóäíî è íåñêîðî
Îòáîëèò, ñðàñòàÿñü, êîñòü.
Äëÿ òâîèõ Ìîñêâîé óïîðíî
Íåëþáèìûõ ñûíîâåé –
×òî íè äåëàé, áóäåò ñïîðíî
È áûëîãî íå íîâåé.
Âçáóíòîâàòüñÿ ëè?.. Ñìèðèòüñÿ?..
Ñïèòüñÿ ëè â ãëóøè ñòåïíîé?..
Èëè, ïëþíóâ, ðàñòâîðèòüñÿ
Çà Êèòàéñêîþ ñòåíîé?..
È çà÷àõíóòü â íîñòàëüãèè,
 èññóøàþùåé òîñêå,
È ïî ìàòóøêå-Ðîññèè,
È ïî ìà÷åõå-Ìîñêâå.55
Ïîçèòèâíûì îòíîøåíèåì ê Ðîññèè (ìàòóøêà, ïðàâèò ïîëóìèðîì,
äâóÿçû÷èå) îòëè÷àþòñÿ ñòèõè äðóãîãî ïîýòà – Ñåðãåÿ Òóìóðîâà, äëÿ
êîòîðîãî è äâóÿçû÷èå, íåãàòèâíî îöåíèâàåìîå òðàäèöèîíàëèñòàìè êàê
ôàêòîð, ñóæàþùèé ïîëå áóðÿòñêîãî ÿçûêà, – ñòèìóë ðîñòà: ïòåíåö ñòàíåò îðëîì.
Åñóãåé Ñûíäóåâ. Ëþäè Äëèííîé Âîëè. Ëåãåíäà î õîíãîäîðàõ. Äðàìàòè÷åñêàÿ
ïîýìà. Ðÿçàíü, 2000. Ñ.10.
55
Åñóãåé Ñûíäóåâ. Ìàòóøêå-Ðîññèè // Áóðÿòèÿ. 2001. 9 ñåíòÿáðÿ. Ñ. 6.
54
415
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
Ìàòóøêà
È ñâåòëîé òÿæåñòüþ
íàïîëíåíà Ðîññèÿ –
Åâðàçèåé
áåðåìåííà îíà.
È âäîõíîâåííî,
Ñàìîçàáâåííî âå÷íîñòü òðîãàÿ
Ðóêàìè ãîð è õîëîäîì ðàâíèí,
Ìàòóøêå
óãîäíî, ìåæäó äåëîì,
Ïðàâèòü
ïîëó-ìèðîì.
1.
416
Áèëèíãâèçì
(äâóÿçû÷èå)
È ñîçâó÷íî äâèæåíèþ
ãîð ñîïðåäåëüíûõ,
èç òÿæåñòè ñâåòà
çåìíîãî ÿäðà
ñêâîçü ñåðäöåâèíû
îãðîìíûõ ñîñåí
ìû
ïîäíèìàëèñü íå ãîä è íå äâà,
êîëüöà ñîìíåíèé
ðâàëè âåêà.
Íî ñòðàííîé ïðèõîòüþ
ïîçíàíèÿ èçíà÷àëüíîãî ëó÷à –
èç íåçíàíèÿ, èç ïå÷àëè
âîçíèêëî ìèðîçäàíèå
äâóãëàâîé ïòèöû –
äåðæàâíîãî îðëà.
 ðàâíîé ìåðå
ñâîèõ æåëàíèé,
â îïðàâå ñæàòûõ ïàëüöåâ
âåíöåíîñíîãî Êðåìëÿ
ìû – îáû÷íàÿ ñìîëà.
Íî ñ íàìè âûñâåðê
ñåðäöåâèíû âåêà –
ñîìíåíèé äîëãèõ
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ðâàíûå êðàÿ.
È ÷åðâü ñîìíåíèé íàøèõ
çà÷òåòñÿ íàì,
äà íå ïðîñòûì ðàçíóçäàííûì
âîïðîñîì â êàìíå,
à îñîáî äðàãîöåííûì ÿíòàðåì.
2. Î, äâóãëàâûå óðîäöû –
äâóÿçû÷íûå ïòåíöû
Åâðàçèè
È âñå-òàêè îðëû.56
(âûäåëåíî ìíîé. –Ò.Ñ.).
Åñëè äëÿ Åñóãåÿ Ñûíäóåâà Ìîñêâà – ìà÷åõà, òî Ñåðãåé Òóìóðîâ,
êàæåòñÿ, îöåíèâàåò Êðåìëü – ñåðäöå Ìîñêâû è ñèìâîë ðîññèéñêîé âëàñòè – êàê áóäòî òîæå íåãàòèâíî (“Ìû äëÿ Êðåìëÿ – îáû÷íàÿ ñìîëà”),
íî íåò, ñìîëà íà ñàìîì äåëå – äðàãîöåííûé ÿíòàðü.
Ñåãîäíÿ ñîâåðøåííî îïðåäåëåííî ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü îá îæèâëåíèè
ìèôîòâîð÷åñòâà èíòåëëåêòóàëüíûõ ýëèò Áóðÿòèè, ÷òî ñâÿçàíî ñ êðèçèñîì â ñîâðåìåííîì ðîññèéñêîì îáùåñòâå è âîçðàñòàíèåì ðîëè ýòíè÷íîñòè â îòâåò íà âíåøíèå óñëîâèÿ, êàê ýòî áûëî è â 20-30-å ãã. ÕÕ â. Âîçðàæäàþòñÿ ýòíîêóëüòóðíûå êîíñòàíòû, àêòóàëèçèðóÿ ýòíè÷åñêóþ (áóðÿòû, áóðÿò-ìîíãîëû) è öèâèëèçàöèîííóþ (áóääèéñêàÿ öèâèëèçàöèÿ) èäåíòè÷íîñòè, ñêëàäûâàåòñÿ íîâàÿ ìèôîëîãèÿ.  äàííîì ñëó÷àå ìèô, âûïîëíÿÿ àäàïòèâíóþ ôóíêöèþ, âûñòóïàåò â êà÷åñòâå çàùèòíîãî ìåõàíèçìà,
ñïîñîáñòâóÿ èíòåãðàöèè áóðÿò â åäèíîå ñîîáùåñòâî. Ìèô èñêàæàåò äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòü, ÷òî ïðåïÿòñòâóåò îáúåêòèâíîé îöåíêå ðåàëüíîñòè è âûðàáîòêå íàèáîëåå àäåêâàòíîãî ñïîñîáà äåéñòâèÿ âíóòðèýòíè÷åñêèõ ãðóïï
â ñîâðåìåííûõ óñëîâèÿõ. Íî ïîÿâëåíèå ìèôà – ïðîöåññ îáúåêòèâíûé,
âûçâàííûé íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ àäàïòàöèè ýòíè÷åñêîé êàðòèíû ìèðà ê èçìåíèâøèìñÿ óñëîâèÿì. Áóðÿòñêîìó ïîëèòè÷åñêîìó ìèôó ïðèñóùè âñå
òå ÷åðòû, êîòîðûå îòìå÷àþòñÿ äëÿ ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî ìèôà âîîáùå:
• îíè íå ïîÿâëÿþòñÿ ñïîíòàííî, à ñîçäàþòñÿ èñêóññòâåííî, ñîçíàòåëüíî è öåëåíàïðàâëåííî;
• îñíîâó èõ ñîñòàâëÿþò îñîçíàííûå è êóëüòèâèðóåìûå ïîëèòèêàìè êîëëåêòèâíûå ÷àÿíèÿ è íàäåæäû, óñâîåííûå ìàññîâûì ñîçíàíèåì;
• â íèõ ñîåäèíÿþòñÿ äâà ðàçíîðîäíûõ êà÷åñòâà: òðåçâûé ðàñ÷åò
è ôàíàòè÷åñêàÿ âåðà, ïîçâîëÿþùàÿ ïîëèòèêàì îñâîáîæäàòü ñåáÿ îò âñåõ
ìîðàëüíûõ ïðåãðàä;
56
Ñåðãåé Òóìóðîâ. Ìàòóøêà. Áèëèíãâèçì // Áóðÿòèÿ. 2001. 19 îêòÿáðÿ. Ñ. 6.
417
Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
• îíè íå ïîääàþòñÿ ðàçðóøåíèþ ñ ïîìîùüþ ðàöèîíàëüíûõ àðãóìåíòîâ è ïîòîìó âïîëíå ïðàâîìåðíà èõ îöåíêà êàê íåíàó÷íîãî çíàíèÿ. Ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ìèôû â ëó÷øåì ñëó÷àå – ïîëóïðàâäà;
• äëÿ íèõ õàðàêòåðíà íåïîñðåäñòâåííàÿ ñâÿçü ñ ïîëèòè÷åñêîé
ðåàëüíîñòüþ, îíè ïðèçâàíû îïðàâäûâàòü òîò èëè èíîé õîä ñîáûòèé,
îáåñïå÷èâàòü àáñîëþòíóþ óâåðåííîñòü ëþäåé â ïðàâîòå îñóùåñòâëÿåìûõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ àêöèé.57
Ðîññèéñêèé óðîâåíü áóðÿòñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè, íàðÿäó ñ ìîíãîëüñêèì, íàõîäèò âûðàæåíèå íå òîëüêî â ìèôîòâîð÷åñòâå, íî è â ãîñóäàðñòâåííîì çàêîíîäàòåëüñòâå. Òàê, â Êîíñòèòóöèè Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ
çàïèñàíî:
Ìû, ïîëíîìî÷íûå ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîãî íàðîäà Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ, îáúåäèíèâøåãî â õîäå èñòîðè÷åñêîãî
ðàçâèòèÿ áóðÿò, ðóññêèõ, ýâåíêîâ è ãðàæäàí äðóãèõ íàöèîíàëüíîñòåé, ñîçíàâàÿ èñòîðè÷åñêóþ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü çà åãî ñóäüáó,
ïðèçíàâàÿ ïðèîðèòåò îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ öåííîñòåé, ïðàâà íàðîäîâ íà ñàìîîïðåäåëåíèå, ïðàâ è ñâîáîä, çàêðåïëåííûõ âî Âñåîáùåé Äåêëàðàöèè ïðàâ ÷åëîâåêà, äðóãèõ ìåæäóíàðîäíî-ïðàâîâûõ
àêòàõ è â Êîíñòèòóöèè Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè, çàáîòÿñü î ñîõðàíåíèè è ñàìîáûòíîì ðàçâèòèè íàðîäîâ, ïðîæèâàþùèõ íà òåððèòîðèè ðåñïóáëèêè (ãîñóäàðñòâà), óâàæàÿ ñóâåðåííûå ïðàâà äðóãèõ íàðîäîâ, ïðîâîçãëàøàÿ ïðèíöèïû äåìîêðàòè÷åñêîãî, ïðàâîâîãî îáùåñòâà, ñ÷èòàÿ ðåñïóáëèêó íåîòúåìëåìîé ÷àñòüþ – ñóáúåêòîì Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè, ïðèíèìàåì íàñòîÿùóþ Êîíñòèòóöèþ.
...Ñòàòüÿ 1. Ðåñïóáëèêà Áóðÿòèÿ åñòü ñóâåðåííîå äåìîêðàòè÷åñêîå ïðàâîâîå ãîñóäàðñòâî â ñîñòàâå Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè.58
Îñîçíàíèå ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè ê Ðîññèè – ýòî íå òîëüêî ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ
äåêëàðàöèÿ, íî è èíäèâèäóàëüíûå îùóùåíèÿ áóðÿò. Òàê, æèòåëü ñåëà
Êèæèíãà Ï. Áàëäàíäîðæèéí, äåéñòâèòåëüíûé ÷ëåí Ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîãî
îáùåñòâà Ðîññèè, âåòåðàí âîéíû è òðóäà, ïèøåò â ãàçåòå “Áóðÿòèÿ” îò
14 ìàðòà 1997 ã.:
Íåêîòîðûå äóìàþò, ÷òî âîññòàíîâëåíèå íàçâàíèÿ ðåñïóáëèêè, ñóùåñòâîâàâøåãî äî èþëÿ 1958 ãîäà, ìîæåò ïîñëóæèòü ïîâîäîì äëÿ îáðàçîâàíèÿ íåçàâèñèìîãî îò Ðîññèè ãîñóäàðñòâà, ÷òî
Áóðÿòèÿ ìîæåò óéòè èç åå ñîñòàâà. Îãðàíè÷åííîñòü è ïðèìèòèâÈ. Ì. ×óäèíîâà. Ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ìèôû // Ñîöèàëüíî-ïîëèòè÷åñêèé æóðíàë. 1996.
¹ 6. Ñ. 123.
58
Êîíñòèòóöèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ // Áóðÿòèÿ. 1994. ¹ 43, 9 ìàðòà. Ñ.1.
57
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íîñòü äàííîãî ñóæäåíèÿ î÷åâèäíû. Ïîñëå âîññòàíîâëåíèÿ èñòîðè÷åñêîãî íàçâàíèÿ ðåñïóáëèêà ïðåâðàùàòüñÿ â îòäåëüíîå îò Ðîññèè ãîñóäàðñòâî íå ñîáèðàåòñÿ. Äà ñìîæåò ëè ïðàêòè÷åñêè ðåñïóáëèêà æèòü âíå Ðîññèè? Âðÿä ëè. ...ß ñ÷èòàþ, ïîðà äàòü îòïîð
òåì ëèöàì, êîòîðûå ñâîèì îøèáî÷íûì âçãëÿäîì íà âîïðîñû ôåäåðàòèâíîãî óñòðîéñòâà â ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíîé Ðîññèè íàíîñÿò
óðîí è óùåðá ñâîåé Ðîäèíå – Ðîññèè. Íàøà âåëèêàÿ Ðîññèÿ è òàê
íàõîäèòñÿ â òÿæåëîì ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì ïîëîæåíèè...59
Ýêñïðåññèâíàÿ ðåàêöèÿ Âèòàëèÿ Áîãäàíîâà íà ýòó ïóáëèêàöèþ áûëà
íàïå÷àòàíà ýòîé æå ãàçåòîé 17 àïðåëÿ 1997 ã.: “Ãðàæäàíàì íàøåé ðåñïóáëèêè äåëèòü íå÷åãî, ðîäèíà ó íàñ îäíà - âåëèêàÿ Ðîññèÿ, è åñëè â åå
ñîñòàâå áóäåò ñòàáèëüíàÿ Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëèÿ – ÷åñòü è õâàëà åé!”60
Èòàê, àìáèâàëåíòíîñòü îöåíêè ìåñòà è ðîëè Ðîññèè â ïðîöåññå èäåíòèôèêàöèîííîãî âûáîðà áóðÿò (êàê â èñòîðè÷åñêîì ïðîøëîì, òàê è â
ñîâðåìåííîì äèñêóðñå íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîãî âîçðîæäåíèÿ), îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ äâóìÿ ðàçíûìè îñíîâàíèÿìè ñàìîèäåíòèôèêàöèè. Òàì è òîãäà, êîãäà ïðåäïî÷òåíèå îòäàåòñÿ ýòíè÷åñêîìó è îáîñòðÿåòñÿ îçàáî÷åííîñòü ñîõðàíåíèåì íàöèîíàëüíîé ñàìîáûòíîñòè (ýòíîèäåíòèôèêàöèÿ),
âñòóïàåò â äåéñòâèå îïïîçèöèÿ “ìû – îíè” è Ðîññèÿ ïðèîáðåòàåò íåãàòèâíóþ îöåíêó, ê òîìó æå Ðîññèÿ è ðóññêàÿ êóëüòóðà àññîöèèðóþòñÿ ñ
ñîâðåìåííîé ìàññîâîé êóëüòóðîé, ñïîñîáñòâóþùåé íèâåëèðîâêå è ñòèðàíèþ ýòíè÷åñêîãî ñâîåîáðàçèÿ. Íî ýòî ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëåíèå íå íîñèò
äåñòðóêòèâíîãî õàðàêòåðà. Ïðîæèâàíèå áóðÿò â ãðàíèöàõ Ðîññèéñêîé
Ôåäåðàöèè, ïîíèìàíèå íåîáõîäèìîñòè è âîçìîæíîñòè âûæèâàíèÿ â
íàøåì íåïðîñòîì ìèðå òîëüêî âìåñòå ñ Ðîññèåé (âîçìîæíî, íå ïîñëåäíþþ ðîëü èãðàåò îñîçíàíèå ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé ñëàáîñòè Ìîíãîëèè è
ïîòîìó ðåàëüíîé íåâîçìîæíîñòè ñîçäàíèÿ åäèíîãî ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî,
õîçÿéñòâåííî-ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà è îðèåíòàöèè íà íàöèîíàëüíî-êóëüòóðíîå ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî ñ ìîíãîëàìè) ïðèâîäÿò ê òîìó, ÷òî
Ðîññèÿ âîñïðèíèìàåòñÿ êàê ñâîé ìèð, ò.å. äîëæíûì îáðàçîì îðãàíèçîâàííîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî, ïðèãîäíîå ê ïðîæèâàíèþ, – Äîì.
Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ýòíè÷åñêèå îáùíîñòè, ïðèçíàâàÿ ïðàâî (èñòîðè÷åñêè òåððèòîðèàëüíîå) áóðÿòñêîãî íàðîäà íà òèòóëüíîñòü â ðàìêàõ òàê
íàçûâàåìîé ñîâåòñêîé òåîðèè ýòíîñà, ñòðåìÿòñÿ ê âîçðîæäåíèþ, ñîçäàþò íàöèîíàëüíûå êóëüòóðíûå öåíòðû. Ýòíè÷åñêèå îáùíîñòè îáîçíà÷à“Áóðÿàä-Ìîíãîë” íýðûå hýðãýýõý. Âåðíóòü íàçâàíèå “Áóðÿò-Ìîíãîëèÿ” / Ñîñò.
Ø. Á. ×èìèòäîðæèåâ. Óëàí-Óäý, 1998. Ñ. 32.
60
Òàì æå. Ñ.33.
59
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Ò. Ñêðûííèêîâà, Ïîãðàíè÷íûå èäåíòè÷íîñòè...
þòñÿ òåðìèíîëîãè÷åñêè ðàçëè÷íî: íàöèÿ, íàöèîíàëüíîñòü, íàðîä, ïðè÷åì òâîð÷åñêàÿ ýëèòà ïðåäïî÷èòàåò ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ ïåðâûì â îòíîøåíèè
áóðÿòñêîãî ýòíîñà. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, íåëüçÿ íå îòìåòèòü ïðèçíàêîâ
ôîðìèðîâàíèÿ íàöèè êàê òåððèòîðèàëüíîãî è ìíîãîêóëüòóðíîãî ñîîáùåñòâà. Ó÷àñòèå â çíàêîâûõ ìåðîïðèÿòèÿõ: Äåíü ãîðîäà; 75-ëåòèå Ðåñïóáëèêè Áóðÿòèÿ; âûáîðû â Íàðîäíûé Õóðàë, êîòîðûå íå áîéêîòèðóåò
íè îäíà îáùåñòâåííàÿ îðãàíèçàöèÿ, ïàðòèÿ èëè ýòíè÷åñêàÿ ãðóïïà; ñóðõàðáàí, êîòîðûé ñòàë îáùåíàðîäíûì; è äàæå íåäîïóñòèìîå â òðàäèöèîííîé êóëüòóðå ó÷àñòèå ÷óæåçåìöåâ â øàìàíñêîì îáðÿäå – îñåííåì òàéëãàíå, – áåçóñëîâíî, ïðèîáðåòàåò âñå áîëüøåå çíà÷åíèå.
Ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü î òîì, ÷òî â Ðåñïóáëèêå Áóðÿòèÿ èìååò ïåðñïåêòèâû, êàê íàèáîëåå êîíñòðóêòèâíàÿ, èäåÿ îáðàçîâàíèÿ ïîëèêóëüòóðíîé
íàöèè íà îñíîâå äâîéíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè (êóëüòóðíî-ýòíè÷åñêîé è ãîñóäàðñòâåííî-ãðàæäàíñêîé), íå èñêëþ÷àþùåé îäíà äðóãóþ. Íåîáõîäèì ïåðåõîä îò èìåþùåé ñåé÷àñ øèðîêîå ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå èäåè ýòíîíàöèè ñ åå ïðèîðèòåòàìè (ïðàâî íà âëàñòü, äîñòóï ê ïðèðîäíûì ðåñóðñàì è ïðèâèëåãèÿì, êîíòðîëü çà êóëüòóðíî-èíôîðìàöèîííûì ïðîñòðàíñòâîì) ê èäåå ãðàæäàíñêîé èëè ïîëèòè÷åñêîé íàöèè ïðè ñîçíàòåëüíîì êîíñòðóèðîâàíèè îáùèõ èíòåðåñîâ, öåííîñòåé è ñèìâîëîâ.
Íî ýòî ïðîáëåìà äðóãîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ.
SUMMARY
Tatiana Skrynnikova’s article explores identity formation among the
Buryats. Skrynnikova begins with an historical survey of the Buryats’ construction of the image of Russia (the monarchy and the state), tracing the
history of Buryats contacts and coexistence with the Russian empire. Basing her conclusions on the analysis of chronicles and folkloristic sources,
the author traces the terms in which Buryats depicted the “White Tsar” and
accepted his rule. The author argues that identity formation among the Buryats was influenced by their historic position on the empire’s Far Eastern
borderland. On the one hand, there existed a cultural affinity with the Mongols living outside the territory of the Russian empire; yet, on the other
hand, there existed a political identification with Russia not least because
the empire’s protection of Buddhism from the Chinese was seen as beneficial to the religious community. Having surveyed the historical background
of Buryat identity formation through the early Soviet period, Skrynnikova
investigates cultural politics and the construction of the image of Byryatia
and Russia in the discourse of the contemporary Buryat intelligentsia.
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Êèìèòàêà ÌÀÖÓÇÀÒÎ
ÐÓÑÈÑÒÈÊÀ ÏÎÂÅÐÕ ÃÐÀÍÈÖ.
ÑËÀÂßÍÑÊÈÅ ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÍÈß ßÏÎÍÈÈ
È ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÛÅ ÍÀÓÊÈ ÐÎÑÑÈÈ: ÑÎÂÌÅÑÒÍÛÅ
ÏÎÈÑÊÈ ÂÛÕÎÄÀ ÈÇ ÈÇÎËßÖÈÈ*
1. Ïðè÷èíû èçîëÿöèè
Ìåíòàëèòåò, ïîâåäåíèå è äàæå ñèëüíûå è ñëàáûå ñòîðîíû ÿïîíñêèõ è ðîññèéñêèõ ðàáîòíèêîâ ãóìàíèòàðíûõ è ñîöèàëüíûõ íàóê (äàëåå
ÃÑÍ) èìåþò ìíîãî îáùåãî. Âî-ïåðâûõ, îáå ñòðàíû íàõîäÿòñÿ íà ïåðèôåðèè åâðîïåéñêîé öèâèëèçàöèè, ïîçäíî âñòóïèëè íà ïóòü ìîäåðíèçàöèè è êàïèòàëèñòè÷åñêîãî ðàçâèòèÿ (Ðîññèÿ – â 1861, ßïîíèÿ – â
1868 ã.), è êàæäàÿ ïîòåðïåëà ñîêðóøèòåëüíîå ïîðàæåíèå â ñîïåðíè÷åñòâå ñ “ìèðîâûì ÿäðîì” (ßïîíèÿ – â 1945, Ðîññèÿ – â 1991 ã.). Ïîýòîìó èíòåëëèãåíöèÿ îáåèõ ñòðàí âèäèò â ÑØÀ è Çàïàäíîé Åâðîïå îáðàçåö êàê íàó÷íîé ïàðàäèãìû, òàê è ãðàæäàíñêîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ.1 ×òî æå
*
Ñòàòüÿ íàïèñàíà íà îñíîâå äîêëàäà, ïðåäñòàâëåííîãî íà êîíôåðåíöèè,
îðãàíèçîâàííîé æóðíàëîì Ab Imperio è CEP: “‘Íîâûå çàïàäíèêè’ è ìîäåðíèçàöèÿ
ãóìàíèòàðíûõ è îáùåñòâåííûõ äèñöèïëèí â Ðîññèè”, Êàçàíü, 28-30 èþíÿ, 2002.
1
Ïðè ýòîì, åñëè çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü ÿïîíñêîé èíòåëëèãåíöèè â ïîñëåäíèå äâàäöàòü
ëåò ïåðåñòàëà ðàññìàòðèâàòü ÑØÀ è Çàïàäíóþ Åâðîïó êàê îáðàçåö ãðàæäàíñêîãî
ïîâåäåíèÿ (îáðàçöîì îñòàþòñÿ òîëüêî ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûå íàóêè), òî äëÿ
“ïðîãðåññèâíûõ” ó÷åíûõ èç ÑÍà âîîáðàæàåìûå ÑØÀ è Åâðîïà ïî-ïðåæíåìó
îñòàþòñÿ îáðàçöàìè êàê â ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé, òàê è â ãðàæäàíñêîé æèçíè.
421
Ê. Ìàöóçàòî, Ðóñèñòèêà ïîâåðõ ãðàíèö...
êàñàåòñÿ ñòðàíîâåäåíèÿ (area studies), òî â ÑÑÑÐ è ßïîíèè ñóùåñòâîâàëî ïîëèòè÷åñêîå ïðåïÿòñòâèå ê åãî ñâîáîäíîìó ðàçâèòèþ. Ïîëèòè÷åñêèé ðåæèì ÑÑÑÐ ïîçâîëÿë òîëüêî áëàãîíàäåæíûì ó÷åíûì çíàòü
èíîñòðàííûé ÿçûê è ïîëó÷àòü èíôîðìàöèþ èç-çà ðóáåæà, à ïîñëåâîåííàÿ ßïîíèÿ, íåñìîòðÿ íà åå ýêîíîìè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå, íå ñ÷èòàëà íóæíûì èìåòü ñîáñòâåííóþ âíåøíåïîëèòè÷åñêóþ ñòðàòåãèþ, îñòàâàÿñü
ëîÿëüíûì ñîþçíèêîì ÑØÀ. Ýòà ñèòóàöèÿ, ðàçóìååòñÿ, ñíèçèëà îáùåñòâåííûé èíòåðåñ ê ñòðàíîâåäåíèþ, îñíîâàííîìó íà ñîáñòâåííûõ
ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèÿõ (à íå íà êíèãàõ, íàïèñàííûõ àìåðèêàíöàìè è åâðîïåéöàìè). Áîëåå òîãî, èç-çà ïðîáëåìû Cåâåðíîé òåððèòîðèè è îòñóòñòâèÿ ìèðíîãî äîãîâîðà ìåæäó ÑÑÑÐ è ßïîíèåé ïîñëå
Âòîðîé ìèðîâîé âîéíû, ìåæäó äâóìÿ ñòðàíàìè íå ñóùåñòâîâàëî îáìåíà àñïèðàíòàìè è äîêòîðàíòàìè, ÷òî ÿâëÿëîñü ñåðüåçíîé ïîìåõîé
äëÿ ÿïîíñêèõ ó÷åíûõ â êîíêóðåíöèè ñ àìåðèêàíñêèìè è çàïàäíîåâðîïåéñêèìè êîëëåãàìè.2
Áëàãîäàðÿ óïîìÿíóòîìó îáñòîÿòåëüñòâó, ðàáîòíèêè ÃÑÍ êàê â Ðîññèè, òàê è ßïîíèè ñòðàäàþò îò íåäîñòàòî÷íîãî âëàäåíèÿ èíîñòðàííûìè ÿçûêàìè (äëÿ ÿïîíñêèõ ó÷åíûõ ýòî, â îñíîâíîì, – àêòèâíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ÿçûêîâ,3 â òî âðåìÿ êàê äëÿ èõ ðóññêèõ êîëëå㠖 è àêòèâíîå, è
ïàññèâíîå). Áîëåå òîãî, ÿïîíñêàÿ è ðóññêàÿ îáùåñòâåííàÿ íàóêà õàðàêòåðèçóþòñÿ ïîñòîÿííûì “ïðåâûøåíèåì èìïîðòà”. Ïðåæäå âñåãî ýòî
ñïðàâåäëèâî ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ÿïîíñêèì ó÷åíûì ñ èõ íåïëîõèì ïàññèâíûì çíàíèåì ÿçûêîâ: ìíîãèå èç íèõ ñ÷èòàþò ñâîèì îñíîâíûì çàíÿòèåì ââåäåíèå â îáîðîò è ïîïóëÿðèçàöèþ ïåðåäîâûõ çàïàäíûõ
íàó÷íûõ òåîðèé è ìåòîäîëîãèé – è, êîíå÷íî, ñîïðîâîæäàþò èõ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåé êðèòèêîé, íî êðèòèêîé èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî íà ÿïîíñêîì ÿçûêå.4 Åñëè ïåðåëèñòàòü ñòðàíèöû ò.í. ìèðîâûõ æóðíàëîâ, òàêèõ êàê
Èñòîðèêó, êîòîðûé äî ñîðîêà ëåò ðàáîòàë áåç èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ àðõèâíûõ èñòî÷íèêîâ, òðóäíî çàíîâî îñâàèâàòü ñïåöèôè÷åñêóþ òåõíîëîãèþ àðõèâíîãî ïîèñêà. Òî
æå ñàìîå ìîæíî ñêàçàòü ïðî îòíîøåíèå ïîëèòîëîãîâ ñòàðîé øêîëû ê ïîëåâûì
èññëåäîâàíèÿì.
3
Ïî âñåé âåðîÿòíîñòè, çàïàñ àíãëèéñêèõ ñëîâ ó ÿïîíñêèõ àáèòóðèåíòîâ, ïîñòóïàþùèõ â âóç – îäèí èç ñàìûõ áîãàòûõ â ìèðå. Òåì íå ìåíåå, äàæå èìåþùèå âûñøåå
îáðàçîâàíèå ÿïîíöû ãîâîðÿò ïî-àíãëèéñêè, êàê ïðàâèëî, î÷åíü ïëîõî.
4
Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, çàðóáåæíûì êîëëåãàì íåèçâåñòåí ñàì ôàêò òîãî, ÷òî íà îñòðîâàõ Äàëüíåãî Âîñòîêà èõ êòî-òî êðèòèêóåò. Ïðåâûøåíèå èìïîðòà â ÿïîíñêîé îáùåñòâåííîé íàóêå äîøëî äî àíåêäîòè÷åñêîãî óðîâíÿ: àìåðèêàíñêèå è çàïàäíîåâðîïåéñêèå ó÷åíûå ÷óâñòâóþò íåêîòîðóþ íåëîâêîñòü â îáùåíèè ñ ÿïîíñêèìè êîëëåãàìè, îñîçíàâàÿ, ÷òî ÷åëîâåê, î êîòîðîì îíè ïî÷òè íè÷åãî íå çíàþò, çíàåò èõ
î÷åíü õîðîøî.
2
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Russian Review, Slavic Review, ìîìåíòàëüíî áðîñèòñÿ â ãëàçà î÷åíü
íåçíà÷èòåëüíîå ÷èñëî ïóáëèêàöèé ÿïîíñêèõ ó÷åíûõ. Åñëè ÿïîíñêèå ôàìèëèè è âñòðå÷àþòñÿ â ýòèõ æóðíàëàõ, òî, êàê ïðàâèëî, ýòî ôàìèëèè
ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé äèàñïîðû, òàêèõ êàê Öóåøè Õàñåãàâà è Õèðîàêè Êóðîìèÿ.
Æåëåçíûé çàêîí íàðîäíîãî õîçÿéñòâà, ãëàñÿùèé, ÷òî ïîñòîÿííîå
ïðåâûøåíèå èìïîðòà íå ìîæåò ñîïðîâîæäàòüñÿ çäîðîâîé ãëîáàëèçàöèåé, îïðàâäûâàåò ñåáÿ è â íàóêå. ßïîíñêèå è ðóññêèå ó÷åíûå ÿâëÿþòñÿ, â ëó÷øåì ñëó÷àå, òîëüêî îáúåêòîì (à íå ñóáúåêòîì) ãëîáàëèçàöèè.
Èõ àêàäåìè÷åñêàÿ êóëüòóðà íå âûäåðæèâàåò èñïûòàíèÿ ìèðîâûì ñòàíäàðòîì. Èìåííî çäåñü ìû ñòàëêèâàåìñÿ ñ ñàìûì áåçðàäîñòíûì ñõîäñòâîì ÿïîíöåâ è ðîññèÿí: íà÷èíàÿ îò îðãàíèçàöèè íàó÷íûõ êîíôåðåíöèé è ñåìèíàðîâ áåç ïðåäâàðèòåëüíîãî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ ìàòåðèàëîâ
(papers), ïðåâàëèðîâàíèÿ óñòíûõ âûñòóïëåíèé áåç èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ âèçóàëüíûõ òåõíîëîãèé5 (ðàçóìååòñÿ, â ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè ýòî çàìå÷àíèå
êàñàåòñÿ ÿïîíöåâ), è çàêàí÷èâàÿ êóëüòóðîé àêàäåìè÷åñêîãî ñî÷èíåíèÿ
â äóõå “àâòîðû – êîðîëè, ÷èòàòåëè – ðàáû”.
Ïðîðàáîòàâ ðåäàêòîðîì ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî æóðíàëà Acta Slavica
Iaponica íåñêîëüêî ïîñëåäíèõ ëåò, ÿ ðèñêíó ïðèçíàòüñÿ, ÷òî ðóêîïèñè,
ïðèñûëàåìûå íàì èç ñòðàí ÑÍÃ, íåðåäêî ñòàíîâÿòñÿ ïðè÷èíîé ãîëîâíîé áîëè äëÿ ðåäàêöèè. Ðå÷ü íå èäåò îá “óðîâíå è êà÷åñòâå” ýòèõ ðóêîïèñåé ñ ýìïèðè÷åñêîé òî÷êè çðåíèÿ, à î ñàìîé êóëüòóðå ñî÷èíåíèÿ êîëëåã èç ÑÍÃ. Êàê ïðàâèëî, äàæå 50-ñòðàíè÷íûå ñòàòüè íå ðàçäåëåíû íà
ïàðàãðàôû, ÷àñòî îòñóòñòâóþò ââåäåíèå è çàêëþ÷åíèå. Áûâàåò, ÷òî â
ïðèìå÷àíèÿõ ñîäåðæàòñÿ ñíîñêè òîëüêî íà ðóññêîÿçû÷íóþ ëèòåðàòóðó! (Ïîäîáíîå öèòèðîâàíèå ëèøü îòå÷åñòâåííûõ ðàáîò áûëî âîçìîæíî òîëüêî â Ñîâåòñêîì Ñîþçå.) Èç-çà èãíîðèðîâàíèÿ ìèðîâîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè ñàì àâòîð ÷àñòî íå çíàåò, â ÷åì çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ íîâèçíà åãî ñîáñòâåííîé ðàáîòû, ñ êàêîé ïîçèöèåé îí ñïîðèò, ÷òî õî÷åò äîêàçàòü è
êàêîé àðãóìåíò ïåðåîñìûñëèòü. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ìû âûíóæäåíû ÷èòàòü ýòè ðóêîïèñè, êàê äåòåêòèâû, è åñëè áëèæå ê êîíöó íàì ïîñ÷àñòëèâèòñÿ óãàäàòü, ðàäè ÷åãî ïèñàëñÿ ýòîò òåêñò, ó íàñ âîçíèêàåò ÷óâñòâî
ïðèçíàòåëüíîñòè.
Ýòî ñâÿçàíî ñ òåì, ÷òî âûñòóïëåíèÿ ðàáîòíèêîâ ÃÑÍ ýòèõ ñòðàí ÷àñòî íîñÿò
óìîçðèòåëüíûé õàðàêòåð èëè, íàîáîðîò, ïðåäñòàâëÿþò ñîáîé ïðîñòî õðîíîëîãè÷åñêîå èçëîæåíèå ôàêòîâ.  òàêîì ñëó÷àå â ñàìîì äåëå íå íóæíî ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ íè
òàáëèöàìè, íè ñòàòèñòèêîé, íè ðèñóíêàìè, ïîìîãàþùèìè ñôîðìóëèðîâàòü èäåþ
äîêëàäà.
5
423
Ê. Ìàöóçàòî, Ðóñèñòèêà ïîâåðõ ãðàíèö...
Àêàäåìè÷åñêèå ñî÷èíåíèÿ ÿïîíöåâ ïî ôîðìå îòëè÷àþòñÿ îò ðîññèéñêèõ (â ÷àñòíîñòè, ñåðüåçíûì îòíîøåíèåì ÿïîíöåâ ê çàðóáåæíîé
èñòîðèîãðàôèè), íî, òåì íå ìåíåå, îíè ïîõîæè ïî äóõó. Åñëè íàó÷íûå
òðóäû ó÷åíûõ èç ÑÍà íàïîìèíàþò äåòåêòèâû, òî ñòàòüè, íàïèñàííûå
ÿïîíñêèìè ó÷åíûìè, ñîçäàþò âïå÷àòëåíèå àâòîðñêîãî ÷åðíîâèêà, ïîçâîëÿþùåãî ÷èòàòåëþ âèäåòü ëîãèêó ðàçâèòèÿ àâòîðñêîãî ìûøëåíèÿ.
È â ýòîì ñëó÷àå ìû òàêæå ïîíèìàåì öåëü è ñóòü (åñëè òàêîâûå âîîáùå
èìåþòñÿ) ñòàòüè áëèæå ê åå êîíöó. Ñèòóàöèÿ îñëîæíÿåòñÿ íàëè÷èåì â
ßïîíèè îãðîìíîãî êîëè÷åñòâà âóçîâñêèõ èëè äàæå ôàêóëüòåòñêèõ âåñòíèêîâ, êîòîðûå èçäàþòñÿ ðàäè èñêóññòâåííîãî óâåëè÷åíèÿ ÷èñëà ïóáëèêàöèé ñîòðóäíèêîâ äàííîãî âóçà èëè ôàêóëüòåòà. Ðàçóìååòñÿ, ïóáëèêàöèÿ â ýòèõ âåñòíèêàõ èäåò ïðàêòè÷åñêè áåç êîíêóðñà, áåç êðèòèêè
ðåöåíçåíòîâ è ðåäàêòîðîâ. Âåñüìà ñèìïòîìàòè÷íî, ÷òî ôàêóëüòåòñêèå
âåñòíèêè ïå÷àòàþò äèññåðòàöèè, íàïèñàííûå èõ ñîòðóäíèêàìè è çàùèùåííûå íà äàííîì ôàêóëüòåòå, ñåðèéíî (ò.å. ðàçäåëÿþò äèññåðòàöèþ íà ÷àñòè è ïóáëèêóþò åå â íåñêîëüêèõ âûïóñêàõ, ñ ïðîäîëæåíèåì).  ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ ìíîãèå ôàêóëüòåòû ÿïîíñêèõ âóçîâ íà÷àëè èçäàâàòü òàêèå âåñòíèêè ñïåöèàëüíî äëÿ ñâîèõ àñïèðàíòîâ, ÷òîáû óâåëè÷èòü ÷èñëî èõ ïóáëèêàöèé è òàêèì îáðàçîì ïîìî÷ü èì íàéòè ðàáî÷åå ìåñòî. Ôîðìèðóÿñü â ïîäîáíûõ “êîììóíèñòè÷åñêèõ òåïëèöàõ”,
ÿïîíñêèå ó÷åíûå, äàæå íàèáîëåå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûå è íåïëîõî âëàäåþùèå àíãëèéñêèì ÿçûêîì, íå çíàþò, êàê ïèñàòü, ÷òîáû ïîáåäèòü â êîíêóðñå ìèðîâûõ æóðíàëîâ è âûäåðæàòü êðèòèêó ñî ñòîðîíû ðåöåíçåíòîâ è ðåäàêòîðîâ. Âîò ïî÷åìó òàê ìàëî ÿïîíöåâ ïóáëèêóåòñÿ â ýòèõ
æóðíàëàõ. Íåîäíîêðàòíûå ïðèçûâû ÿïîíñêîãî ìèíèñòåðñòâà îáðàçîâàíèÿ ê íàó÷íûì ðàáîòíèêàì íå îòíîñèòüñÿ ñ îñîáûì óâàæåíèåì ê
ïóáëèêàöèÿì, íå ïðîøåäøèì ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûé êîíêóðñ, ïîêà íå óâåí÷àëèñü óñïåõîì.
2. Ðàñïàä ÑÑÑÐ è íîâàÿ òåíäåíöèÿ
Ðàñïàä ÑÑÑÐ äàë èìïóëüñ ñëàâÿíñêèì èññëåäîâàíèÿì â ßïîíèè è
ñîöèàëüíîé íàóêå â Ðîññèè äëÿ âûõîäà èç óïîìÿíóòîé èçîëÿöèè.
(1) Îòêðûëàñü íåìûñëèìàÿ ïðè ñîöèàëèçìå âîçìîæíîñòü ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé â ñòðàíàõ ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè. Èíîñòðàíöàì ðàçðåøèëè åçäèòü ïî ïðîâèíöèè; îòêðûëèñü ìåñòíûå àðõèâû; ñòàëî âîçìîæíûì áðàòü èíòåðâüþ ó ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ è õîçÿéñòâåííûõ ýëèò ðàçíûõ óðîâíåé. Ïðè ýòîì ñòðàíû ÑÍà äàæå ïåðåãíàëè ñòàðûå äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèå ñòðàíû ïî ïðåäîñòàâëÿåìûì âîçìîæíîñòÿì äëÿ
424
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ýìïèðè÷åñêîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ. Âî-ïåðâûõ, îíè îêàçàëèñü îòíîñèòåëüíî äåøåâûìè ñòðàíàìè, îñîáåííî äëÿ èíîñòðàíöåâ èç ðàçâèòûõ êàïñòðàí. Íà ãðàíò â $5.000 àìåðèêàíèñò èëè ãåðìàíèñò âðÿä ëè ñìîæåò ñäåëàòü ÷òî-òî çíà÷èòåëüíîå. Îí ñúåçäèò â ñòðàíó èññëåäîâàíèÿ, ïðîæèâåò íåñêîëüêî äíåé â ãîñòèíèöå è âåðíåòñÿ îáðàòíî. Íà òàêîé áþäæåò
íåâîçìîæíî íàíÿòü ìåñòíûõ ýêñïåðòîâ. Ñ òîé æå ñóììîé â $5.000 ñïåöèàëèñòû ïî ñòðàíàì ÑÍà ìîãóò ñäåëàòü î÷åíü ìíîãî.
Âî-âòîðûõ, ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ýëèòû ñòðàí ÑÍà íàìíîãî áîëåå îòçûâ÷èâû ê èíòåðâüþ, ÷åì çàïàäíûå ýëèòû. Íàðÿäó ñ îòêðîâåííîñòüþ è
ïðèðîäíûì ïðîñòîäóøèåì òóò ñêàçûâàåòñÿ è ïåðåñòðîå÷íûé êîìïëåêñ.
Ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ýëèòû ñòðàí ÑÍà íå çíàþò, ÷òî äåìîêðàòèÿ – ýòî èõ ïðàâî îòêàçàòüñÿ îò èíòåðâüþ, åñëè îíè â íåì íå çàèíòåðåñîâàíû. Íàîáîðîò, îíè ñ÷èòàþò, ÷òî îòêàç îò èíòåðâüþ ñîçäàñò èì ðåïóòàöèþ íåäåìîêðàòè÷åñêèõ ðóêîâîäèòåëåé. Áîëåå òîãî, èì î÷åíü õî÷åòñÿ îñòàâèòü ñâîè èìåíà â èñòîðèè. Èì ïðèÿòíî, åñëè èõ ôàìèëèè
ïîÿâëÿþòñÿ â èçâåñòíûõ çàïàäíûõ àêàäåìè÷åñêèõ æóðíàëàõ.
Áëàãîäàðÿ îòêðûòèþ âîçìîæíîñòè ýìïèðè÷åñêîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ
èíîñòðàííûå ó÷åíûå âïåðâûå ñòàëè ðàâíîïðàâíûìè ïàðòíåðàìè ñâîèõ êîëëåã èç ÑÍÃ. Çàïàäíûì ó÷åíûì óæå íåëüçÿ îïðàâäàòü íåõâàòêó
ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ äàííûõ “çàêðûòîñòüþ” îáúåêòà ñâîåãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ. Â
òî æå âðåìÿ êîëëåãè èç ðåãèîíà óæå íå ìîãóò ñ÷èòàòü ôàêò ñâîåãî ðîæäåíèÿ â ÑÍà íåêèì åñòåñòâåííûì ïðåèìóùåñòâîì. Íåòðóäíî ïåðå÷èñëèòü èìåíà èíîñòðàííûõ ñïåöèàëèñòîâ, êîòîðûå åæåãîäíî ïðîâîäÿò â
àðõèâàõ èëè “íà ìåñòíîñòè” â êà÷åñòâå ïîëåâîãî èññëåäîâàòåëÿ áîëüøå âðåìåíè, ÷åì îòå÷åñòâåííûå èññëåäîâàòåëè.
(2) Îòêðûëàñü óíèêàëüíàÿ âîçìîæíîñòü ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ìåæäó êîëëåãàìè èç ÑÍà è ðàçâèòûõ êàïñòðàí. Ñïóñòÿ äåñÿòü ëåò ïîñëå ðàñïàäà
ÑÑÑÐ íàêîïèëñÿ îãðîìíûé îïûò ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà â
ÃÑÍ. Êàê ýòî íè ïàðàäîêñàëüíî, ðàñøèðåíèþ ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ñïîñîáñòâîâàëà íå òîëüêî íàó÷íàÿ öåëåñîîáðàçíîñòü, íî è
ìàòåðèàëüíûå òðóäíîñòè, êîòîðûå èñïûòûâàëè ñïåöèàëèñòû èç ÑÍÃ:
ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî ñ çàðóáåæíûìè èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè ÷àñòî äàâàëî èì äîïîëíèòåëüíûå äîõîäû.
Áåçóñëîâíî, óäà÷íûì ïðèìåðîì ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ñëóæèò ïîÿâëåíèå
íîâîé íàó÷íîé äèñöèïëèíû – ò.í. ðåãèîíîëîãèè (â ÷àñòíîñòè, ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ðåãèîíîëîãèè). Ðîññèÿ ïîêðûòà ñåòüþ ìåñòíûõ ýêñïåðòîâ, êîòîðûå ïðîâîäÿò “ìîíèòîðèíãè” ñâîåãî ðåãèîíà ïî çàêàçàì ðàçíûõ çàïàäíûõ èíòåðíåòíûõ ôèðì. Ìíîãî÷èñëåííûå, ÷àñòî êðóïíîìàñøòàá425
Ê. Ìàöóçàòî, Ðóñèñòèêà ïîâåðõ ãðàíèö...
íûå, çàðóáåæíûå èññëåäîâàòåëüñêèå ïðîåêòû ïî ðîññèéñêèì ðåãèîíàì îñóùåñòâèëèñü ïóòåì ìîáèëèçàöèè èíòåëëåêòóàëüíûõ ëþäñêèõ
ðåñóðñîâ ÑÍÃ.6
(3) Èññëåäîâàíèÿ ñòðàí ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè îñâîáîäèëèñü îò èäåîëîãè÷åñêîãî êîíòåêñòà “èññëåäîâàíèé ñîöèàëèçìà”. Ñ èñ÷åçíîâåíèåì
íåîáõîäèìîñòè îáîñíîâûâàòü “ñâîåîáðàçèå” ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ è ýêîíîìè÷åñêèõ ðåæèìîâ ýòèõ ñòðàí îòêðûëèñü âîçìîæíîñòè äëÿ ñðàâíèòåëüíîãî èçó÷åíèÿ íå òîëüêî áûâøèõ ñîöñòðàí, íî è äëÿ ñðàâíåíèÿ ýòèõ
ñòðàí ñî ñòðàíàìè Çàïàäà è “òðåòüåãî ìèðà”. Ñòàëî âîçìîæíûì ïðèìåíåíèå çàïàäíûõ íàó÷íûõ êîíöåïöèé äëÿ îñìûñëåíèÿ ïðîöåññîâ â
ñòðàíàõ ÑÍÃ. Èíà÷å ãîâîðÿ, èçó÷åíèå ïîñòñîâåòñêîãî ðåãèîíà ìîæåò
òåïåðü ðàçâèâàòüñÿ íå òîëüêî â ðàìêàõ ñòðàíîâåäåíèÿ, íî ïðåâðàòèòüñÿ â ñîëèäíóþ íàó÷íóþ äèñöèïëèíó.
Îäíàêî ýòà âîçìîæíîñòü, â îòëè÷èå îò ðåàëèçîâàâøèõñÿ âîçìîæíîñòåé, îáîçíà÷åííûõ â ïóíêòàõ (1) è (2), îñòàåòñÿ ïîêà ëèøü ïîòåíöèàëüíîé. Ïðèìå÷àòåëüíî, ÷òî íîâàÿ ïîñòñîâåòñêàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ ïðàêòè÷åñêè àííóëèðîâàëà ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó ðàçëè÷íûìè çàïàäíûìè ñîâåòîëîãè÷åñêèìè øêîëàìè, àêòóàëüíûå äî 1980-õ ãîäîâ: ñîâåòîëîãè âî âñåõ ñòðàíàõ îêàçàëèñü íà îäíîé ñòàðòîâîé ëèíèè. Íàïðèìåð, èçó÷åíèå ïîëèòèêè ÑÑÑÐ â ßïîíèè íå îïèðàëîñü íà òàêóþ áîãàòóþ êðåìëèíîëîãè÷åñêóþ òðàäèöèþ, êîòîðîé ðàñïîëàãàëè ñîâåòîëîãè â ÑØÀ. Îäíàêî ïåðåä ëèöîì îòêðûâøèõñÿ â íà÷àëå 1990-õ ãã. âîçìîæíîñòåé äëÿ ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ ïîëèòè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé êðåìëèíîëîãèÿ âðåìåí õîëîäíîé
âîéíû âûãëÿäèò ïðîñòî ñìåøíî. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ïîëèòîëîãè–ñïåöèàëèñòû ïî ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêå èç ðàçíûõ ñòðàí îêàçàëèñü â ðàâíûõ ñòàðòîâûõ óñëîâèÿõ. Òî æå ñàìîå ìîæíî ñêàçàòü è ïî ïîâîäó óïîìÿíóòîãî
îòñóòñòâèÿ òðàäèöèè àðõèâíûõ èññëåäîâàíèé ñðåäè ÿïîíñêèõ ðóñèñòîâ. “Ñîöèàëèñòè÷åñêèå” ïðàâèëà äîñòóïà èíîñòðàííûõ ñïåöèàëèñòîâ
ê àðõèâíûì äîêóìåíòàì íåñðàâíèìû ñ òåìè, êîòîðûå íà÷àëè äåéñòâîâàòü ïîñëå 1990 ãîäà.  ðåçóëüòàòå ßïîíèÿ, ÷üÿ ðóñèñòèêà è ñîâåòîëîãèÿ äî 1980-õ ãã. áûëà îòíîñèòåëüíî îòñòàëîé, ïîëó÷èëà óíèêàëüíûé
øàíñ áûñòðî äîãíàòü ñòðàíû-ëèäåðû â ýòîé îáëàñòè.
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Ïðèìåðîì ýòîãî ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïóáëèêàöèÿ ñåðèè “Ðåãèîíû Ðîññèè: õðîíèêà è
ðóêîâîäèòåëè”, êîòîðàÿ èçäàåòñÿ ïîä ýãèäîé Öåíòðà ñëàâÿíñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé
Õîêêàéäñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà íà÷èíàÿ ñ 1997 ãîäà è íàñ÷èòûâàåò óæå ñåìü òîìîâ.
Äðóãèå ïðèìåðû êðóïíîìàñøòàáíûõ ïðîåêòîâ ïî ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ðåãèîíîëîãèè
Ðîññèè ïåðå÷èñëåíû âî ââåäåíèè ê êíèãå: Blair Ruble et al. (Eds.). Fragmented Space
in the Russian Federation. Washington D.C. - Baltimore - London, 2001. Pp. 5-9.
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Ðàçóìååòñÿ, áåç óñèëèÿ ñàìèõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé ëþáîé øàíñ îñòàåòñÿ
òîëüêî ïîòåíöèàëüíûì. Çäåñü ñëåäóåò óïîìÿíóòü î äåÿòåëüíîñòè Öåíòðà ñëàâÿíñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé (ÖÑÈ) Õîêêàéäñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà, ãäå
ÿ ðàáîòàþ. Ýòî åäèíñòâåííûé èíñòèòóò ñëàâÿíîâåäåíèÿ â ßïîíèè.
Èñïîëüçóÿ íîâûå âîçìîæíîñòè äëÿ îðãàíèçàöèè ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé â ñòðàíàõ ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè è êîîðäèíèðóÿ öåëûé ðÿä êðóïíîìàñøòàáíûõ ïðîåêòîâ,7 ìû âñåãäà íà ïåðâûé ïëàí âûäâèãàëè çàäà÷ó ïðåîäîëåíèÿ óïîìÿíóòûõ îòðèöàòåëüíûõ ÷åðò ÿïîíñêîé àêàäåìè÷åñêîé êóëüòóðû. Åùå äî ðàñïàäà ÑÑÑÐ â ÖÑÈ ñëîæèëàñü òðàäèöèÿ
àêêóðàòíîé îðãàíèçàöèè ìåæäóíàðîäíûõ íàó÷íûõ êîíôåðåíöèé è ñåìèíàðîâ (ýòî î÷åíü âàæíî ñåãîäíÿ, êîãäà äàæå â ÑØÀ ýòà áëàãîðîäíàÿ
òðàäèöèÿ òåðÿåòñÿ). Ìû ïðåîáðàçîâàëè íàøè âåñòíèêè (ÿïîíîÿçû÷íîå
Ñóëàâó êåíêþ /Ñëàâÿíñêèå èññëåäîâàíèÿ/ è ìåæäóíàðîäíîå Acta Slavica
Iaponica) â îáû÷íûå æóðíàëû ñ ðåöåíçèðîâàíèåì ïîñòóïàþùèõ ðóêîïèñåé (referees’ journals). Ïî ãëîáàëèçîâàííîñòè èññëåäîâàíèé è ïóáëèêàöèé ÿïîíñêîå ñëàâÿíîâåäåíèå áîëåå ïðîäâèíóòî, ÷åì, íàïðèìåð,
ÿïîíñêîå àìåðèêàíîâåäåíèå èëè ãåðìàíîâåäåíèå. Ýòî, ñìåþ ñêàçàòü, â
çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè – çàñëóãà ÖÑÈ.
Âìåñòå ñ ýòèì çàìåòíû ñòàëè íåêîòîðûå îòðèöàòåëüíûå òåíäåíöèè,
êîòîðûå ÿ íàçâàë áû “ïîáî÷íûì ýôôåêòîì” áûñòðîãî ðàñøèðåíèÿ ñôåðû ýìïèðè÷åñêèõ èññëåäîâàíèé. Âî-ïåðâûõ, ðàçâèâàëîñü, êàê ïðàâèëî, òîëüêî äâóñòîðîííåå ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî ìåæäó èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè ÑÍÃ
è çàðóáåæíûõ ñòðàí. Ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî è êîíòàêòû ìåæäó ñåâåðîàìåðèêàíñêèìè, åâðîïåéñêèìè è ÿïîíñêèìè ñïåöèàëèñòàìè ïî Ðîññèè è
Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïå, äîñòàòî÷íî èíòåíñèâíûå âî âðåìÿ õîëîäíîé âîéíû, çàìåòíî îñëàáëè. Âî-âòîðûõ, ñàìî äâóñòîðîííåå ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî
ìåæäó êîëëåãàìè èç ÑÍà è çàðóáåæíûõ ñòðàí ÷àñòî îêàçûâàëîñü íåðàâíîïðàâíûì. Èíîñòðàíöû ÷àñòî ñ÷èòàëè èññëåäîâàòåëåé èç ÑÍÃ
äåøåâûìè èíôîðìàòîðàìè, à íå ðàâíîïðàâíûìè ïàðòíåðàìè, ñïîñîáíûìè ê âçàèìíîìó êðèòè÷åñêîìó (ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêîìó è òåîðåòè÷åñÑëàâÿíñêèå èññëåäîâàíèÿ â ßïîíèè íå èñïûòàëè ñòîëü ðåçêîãî ñîêðàùåíèÿ áþäæåòà, êîòîðîå ïîòåðïåëè, íàïðèìåð, ñåâåðîàìåðèêàíñêèå êîëëåãè. Ïðè÷èíû òîìó
ðàçíûå: âî-ïåðâûõ, ñòàðîå ïîêîëåíèå ÿïîíñêèõ ñëàâÿíîâåäîâ è ñîâåòîëîãîâ âðåìåí õîëîäíîé âîéíû â äåëå ïðèîáðåòåíèÿ áþäæåòà íå ðóêîâîäñòâîâàëîñü óäîáíîé òîãäà ëîãèêîé, ïðåäïîëàãàâøåé íåîáõîäèìîñòü “çíàòü âðàãà”. Âî-âòîðûõ, ðàñïàä ñîöèàëèçìà ñîâïàë ñ ïåðèîäîì, êîãäà ÿïîíñêîå ïðàâèòåëüñòâî íà÷àëî ôîðìèðîâàòü áîëåå èëè ìåíåå ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíóþ âíåøíþþ ïîëèòèêó è, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî,
ïîíèìàòü çíà÷åíèå ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîãî ñòðàíîâåäåíèÿ.  ñàìîì äåëå, ÿïîíñêîå ïðàâèòåëüñòâî ïîíèìàëî çíà÷åíèå èíèöèàòèâû ÖÑÈ è ïîìîãàëî ôèíàíñàìè.
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Ê. Ìàöóçàòî, Ðóñèñòèêà ïîâåðõ ãðàíèö...
êîìó) îáìåíó. Îá ýòîì ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò, ê ñîæàëåíèþ, è òèï îðãàíèçàöèè íåêîòîðûõ ïðîåêòîâ â îáëàñòè ïîëèòè÷åñêîé ðåãèîíîëîãèè.
Â-òðåòüèõ, ïëîõî íàëàæåíî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî ìåæäó ñàìèìè èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè ñòðàí ÑÍÃ, ÷åì îãðàíè÷åí îäèí èç ñàìûõ ðåàëüíûõ èñòî÷íèêîâ òåîðåòè÷åñêîãî ñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ ÃÑÍ ýòèõ ñòðàí. Íàïðèìåð,
ìíå, ñïåöèàëèñòó ïî èñòîðèè çåìñêîãî ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ â äîðåâîëþöèîííîé Ðîññèè, âîîáùå íåïîíÿòíî, êàê èññëåäîâàòåëè çåìñòâ âåëèêîðîññèéñêèõ ãóáåðíèé ìîãóò äóìàòü, ÷òî ñïîñîáíû îáõîäèòüñÿ áåç
çíàíèé óêðàèíñêèõ çåìñòâ, òàêèõ êàê õàðüêîâñêîå, ïîëòàâñêîå è åêàòåðèíîñëàâñêîå, êîòîðûå òîãäà ïî àêòèâíîñòè íàõîäèëèñü â ïåðâûõ ðÿäàõ ñðåäè îáùåðîññèéñêèõ çåìñòâ. Òàêæå íåïîíÿòíî, ïî÷åìó ïîëèòîëîãè-ðåãèîíîëîãè â Ðîññèè íå ñòðåìÿòñÿ ïðèìåíèòü ïåðåäîâóþ ìåòîäîëîãèþ, ðàçðàáîòàííóþ â õîäå èññëåäîâàíèé ðîññèéñêèõ ðåãèîíîâ,
äëÿ èçó÷åíèÿ ðåãèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè äðóãèõ ñòðàí ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè. Ðèñêíó íàçâàòü èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé äåãðàäàöèåé ïîòåðþ ó âåëèêîðóññîâ ÷óâñòâà “ñòàðøåãî áðàòà” â íàó÷íîì ïðîñòðàíñòâå áûâøåãî
ÑÑÑÐ. Çàòî íåêîòîðûì èíîñòðàíöàì ïðèõîäèòñÿ ïåðåñêàêèâàòü èç Êèåâà â Âèëüíþñ, èç Âèëüíþñà – â Êàçàíü, ÷òîáû óñòàíîâèòü èëè âîññòàíîâèòü ñâÿçè ìåæäó ðåãèîíàëüíûìè àêàäåìè÷åñêèìè ñîîáùåñòâàìè.
Íóæíî ïîä÷åðêíóòü, ÷òî Ðîññèÿ ñëèøêîì ìàëà äëÿ óñïåøíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ íàóêè. Íåîáõîäèìî âîññòàíîâèòü åäèíîå íàó÷íîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî
áûâøåãî ÑÑÑÐ. Íåìàëîâàæíîå îòëè÷èå ýòîãî áóäóùåãî íàó÷íîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà îò ñóùåñòâîâàâøåãî ðàíåå çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî îíî âûíóæäåíî áóäåò îòêàçàòüñÿ îò ðóññêîÿçû÷èÿ â ïîëüçó ìíîãîÿçû÷èÿ, è íå
êàê ëîçóíãà, íî êàê ðåàëüíîñòè.
Ê âåëèêîìó ñîæàëåíèþ, íå âñå çàðóáåæíûå êîëëåãè ïîíèìàþò çíà÷åíèå ñðàâíèòåëüíîãî èçó÷åíèÿ ñòðàí ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè.  òå÷åíèå
90-õ ãîäîâ ÕÕ âåêà ìû íàáëþäàëè ïå÷àëüíóþ êàðòèíó, êîãäà áûâøàÿ
ñîâåòîëîãèÿ â çàðóáåæíûõ ñòðàíàõ ñâåëàñü ê èçó÷åíèþ ÐÔ. Ïðè÷èíà
òóò ïðîñòàÿ: ñ äîñòèæåíèåì îïðåäåëåííîãî âîçðàñòà ëþäè (äàæå ó÷åíûå) íå õîòÿò îñâàèâàòü íîâûé ÿçûê. Ñîáñòâåííî ãîâîðÿ, ñòàðûì ñîâåòîëîãàì, êîòîðûå ñìîòðåëè íà ÑÑÑÐ ÷åðåç ïðèçìó Ìîñêâû, ïåðåíîñ îáúåêòà èññëåäîâàíèÿ ñ ÑÑÑÐ íà Ðîññèþ íå ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ “ñîêðàùåíèåì”.  ðåçóëüòàòå Óêðàèíîé íà Çàïàäå ïî-ïðåæíåìó ïðîäîëæàëè çàíèìàòüñÿ óêðàèíîâåäû, èìåþùèå, êàê ïðàâèëî, óêðàèíñêèå
ýòíè÷åñêèå êîðíè.8 Íåñìîòðÿ íà âñå ìîå óâàæåíèå ê ýòèì ñïåöèàëèñÎòðàäíî, ÷òî â ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ çàìåòíà èíàÿ òåíäåíöèÿ: èññëåäîâàòåëè
íåóêðàèíñêîãî ïðîèñõîæäåíèÿ âëèâàþòñÿ â óêðàèíîâåäåíèå.
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òàì, íåëüçÿ íå îòìåòèòü, ÷òî îíè íå ãîòîâû èññëåäîâàòü ñîâðåìåííóþ Óêðàèíó ýìïèðè÷åñêè. Ñ ÷èñòî ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêîé òî÷êè çðåíèÿ
ïîíÿòíî, ÷òî ïðåäñòàâèòåëè óêðàèíñêîé äèàñïîðû íå â ñîñòîÿíèè
ñìîòðåòü â ëèöî ðåàëüíîñòè è ïðèçíàòü, ÷òî ñâîáîäíàÿ Óêðàèíà, ñáðîñèâøàÿ “ãíåò ìîñêàëåé”, ïðåâðàòèëàñü â ãèïåðêëàíîâîå, ïàòðèìîíèàëüíîå ãîñóäàðñòâî. ×òî æå êàñàåòñÿ èñòîðèè Óêðàèíû, òî íåïîïóëÿðíîñòü êîíñòðóêòèâèçìà â èññëåäîâàíèÿõ óêðàèíñêîé íàöèîíàëüíîé èñòîðèè – èñêëþ÷èòåëüíûé ôåíîìåí â çàïàäíîé èñòîðè÷åñêîé
íàóêå, êîòîðûé íåëüçÿ îáúÿñíèòü, èãíîðèðóÿ ìîíîïîëèçàöèþ óêðàèíîâåäåíèÿ äèàñïîðîé.
Èòàê, íåñìîòðÿ íà íåîáû÷àéíî øèðîêîå ïðîíèêíîâåíèå çàðóáåæíûõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé íà òåððèòîðèþ áûâøåãî ÑÑÑÐ, âîçíèêøåå ìåæäóíàðîäíîå ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî îêàçàëîñü îðãàíèçîâàíî ëó÷åîáðàçíî: ìàëûå ñåãìåíòû “ýêñïåðòî┠â ñòðàíàõ ÑÍà ñâÿçàíû òîëüêî ñ íåêèì îòäåëüíûì ìàëûì ñåãìåíòîì çàðóáåæíûõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé, ïðåäîñòàâëÿÿ
ïîñëåäíèì ÷èñòî ýìïèðè÷åñêèå äàííûå.
Ïðåäïðèíèìàëèñü ëè óñèëèÿ äëÿ ïðåîäîëåíèÿ òàêîé ñòðóêòóðû
ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ó÷åíûõ âî âòîðîé ïîëîâèíå 1990-õ ãã.?
Äà. Âî-ïåðâûõ, ïîÿâëÿåòñÿ âñå áîëüøå ïðîåêòîâ äâóñòîðîííåãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà èññëåäîâàòåëåé ÑÍà è çàðóáåæíûõ ñòðàí, íîñÿùèõ íå óçêî
ýìïèðè÷åñêèé, à òåîðåòè÷åñêèé õàðàêòåð (äàëåå íàçîâåì ýòî òåîðåòèçàöèåé ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà).  òî æå âðåìÿ íåìàëî ìîëîäûõ êîëëåã èç ÑÍÃ
áûñòðî îñâîèëî àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê, òåì ñàìûì ïðèîáðåòÿ äîñòóï â ìèðîâîå íàó÷íîå ñîîáùåñòâî.
 õîäå òåîðåòèçàöèè ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ñïåöèàëèñòîâ èç ÑÍà è çàðóáåæíûõ ñòðàí âàæíóþ ðîëü èãðàëè èíñòèòóòû, ïðè êîòîðûõ èìååòñÿ âîçìîæíîñòü êðàòêî- è ñðåäíåñðî÷íûõ ìåæäóíàðîäíûõ ñòàæèðîâîê, à òàêæå èíñòèòóòû, óìåþùèå èñïîëüçîâàòü ñïåöèàëèñòîâ, ïðîøåäøèõ ýòó ñòàæèðîâêó (alumni). Òðóäíî ïåðåîöåíèòü ðîëü ñèñòåìû
ñòàæèðîâêè Èíñòèòóòà Êåííàíà Öåíòðà Âóäðîó Óèëñîíà (ã. Âàøèíãòîí, ÑØÀ) â ìîäåðíèçàöèè ÃÑÍ â ñòðàíàõ ÑÍÃ, â ÷àñòíîñòè, â äåëå
âíåäðåíèÿ â ýòèõ ñòðàíàõ ïîëèòîëîãèè – íàó÷íîé äèñöèïëèíû, íå
ñóùåñòâîâàâøåé ïðè êîììóíèçìå. Â êíèãå, èçäàííîé ïîä ýãèäîé Èíñòèòóòà Êåííàíà â 2001 ã., Fragmented Space in the Russian Federation
(ñì. ïðèì. 6), ïðîâîäèòñÿ íå òîëüêî ôàêòîëîãè÷åñêèé, íî è ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêèé äèàëîã ìåæäó ðåãèîíîëîãàìè ÑØÀ, Ðîññèè è Âåëèêîáðèòàíèè. Äðóãèì ïðèìåðîì ðàâíîïðàâíîãî ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ïîëèòîëîãîâ Ðîññèè è Çàïàäà ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñåðèÿ áðîøþð
(Working Papers) “Regionalization of Russian Foreign and Security
429
Ê. Ìàöóçàòî, Ðóñèñòèêà ïîâåðõ ãðàíèö...
Policy”,9 èçäàííàÿ â 2001 ã. ïîä ýãèäîé Öåíòðà èññëåäîâàíèé áåçîïàñíîñòè è êîíôëèêòîâ (Öþðèõ), êîòîðûé òàêæå îïåðàòèâíî èñïîëüçîâàë
ñèñòåìó êðàòêîñðî÷íûõ ñòàæèðîâîê äëÿ ýòîãî ïðîåêòà. Ïîçâîëþ ñåáå
îçíàêîìèòü ÷èòàòåëåé ñ ðåçóëüòàòàìè íàøåé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ïî òåîðåòèçàöèè ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà èññëåäîâàòåëåé ÑÍà è çàðóáåæíûõ ñòðàí.10
Åñëè â äåëå èçìåíåíèÿ õàðàêòåðà äâóñòîðîííåãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ÑÍÃÇàïàä áûëè äîñòèãíóòû îïðåäåëåííûå óñïåõè, òî ïðîáëåìà ðàñøèðåíèÿ íàó÷íûõ êîíòàêòîâ ìåæäó èññëåäîâàòåëÿìè ñòðàí ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè ïëîõî îñîçíàåòñÿ êàê íà Çàïàäå, òàê è â ÑÍÃ. Íåìíîãî÷èñëåííûå
ïðèìåðû òàêîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ÿâëÿþòñÿ, ñêîðåå, èñêëþ÷åíèÿìè èç
ïðàâèëà: òàê, ñîòðóäíè÷àþò èñòîðèêè Ðîññèè è Áåëàðóñè, â ñôåðå ãóìàíèòàðíûõ íàóê ñîòðóäíè÷àþò òþðêîâåäû è ñëàâÿíîâåäû, ÷üÿ ñïåöèàëèçàöèÿ ïî îïðåäåëåíèþ òðåáóåò ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà â ìàñøòàáàõ ÑÍÃ. ×òî
êàñàåòñÿ ïîëèòîëîãèè, òî ÿ ïî÷òè åäèíñòâåííûé, ïî êðàéíåé ìåðå íà
Çàïàäå, ïðîïàãàíäèñò ñðàâíèòåëüíîãî àíàëèçà ñòðàí ÑÍÃ è Ïðèáàëòèêè.11 Ðàçóìååòñÿ, ñåðüåçíîé ïîìåõîé çäåñü ÿâëÿåòñÿ ÿçûêîâîé áàðüåð.
Ïåðå÷èñëþ ëèøü íåêîòîðûå òîìà: ¹ 3. 2001. Alexander A. Sergounin. External
Determinants of Russia’s Regionalization; ¹ 5. 2001. Oleg B. Alexandrov. The Role of
the Republic of Karelia in Russia’s Foreign and Security Policy; ¹ 6. 2001. Andrei S.
Makarychev. The Region and the World: The Case of Nizhnii Novgorod; ¹ 12. 2001.
Arbakhan K. Magomedov. Regional Ideologies in the Context of International Relations.
10
Ê. Ìàöóçàòî (Ðåä.). Òðåòüå çâåíî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî ñòðîèòåëüñòâà Ðîññèè:
ïîäãîòîâêà è ðåàëèçàöèÿ Ôåäåðàëüíîãî Çàêîíà îá îáùèõ ïðèíöèïàõ îðãàíèçàöèè
ìåñòíîãî ñàìîóïðàâëåíèÿ â Ðîññèéñêîé Ôåäåðàöèè (=Occasional Papers on Changes
in the Slavic-Eurasian World. No. 73). Ñàïïîðî, 1998; Îí æå (Ðåä.). Çåìñêèé ôåíîìåí:
ïîëèòîëîãè÷åñêèé ïîäõîä (=Occasional Papers on Regional / Subregional Politics in
Post-Communist Countries. No. 6). Åêàòåðèíáóðã, 2001; Îí æå (Ðåä.).
Ïðîñòðàíñòâåííûå ôàêòîðû â ôîðìèðîâàíèè ïàðòèéíûõ ñèñòåì: Äèàëîã
àìåðèêàíèñòîâ è ïîñòñîâåòîëîãîâ (=Occasional Papers on Regional / Subregional
Politics in Post-Communist Countries, No. 7). Åêàòåðèíáóðã, 2002.
11
Kimitaka Matsuzato. From Communist Boss Politics to Post-Communist Caciquismo –
the Meso-Elite and Meso-Governments in Post-Communist Countries // Communist
and Post-Communist Studies. 2001. Vol. 34. Pp.175-201; Idem. An Island of Democracy?
Local Reforms in Kyrgyzstan 1990-2000 // Central Asia and the Caucasus. 2001. Vol.
10. No.4. Pp.142-154; Idem. All Kuchma’s Men: The Reshuffling of Ukrainian Governors
and the Presidential Election of 1999 // Post-Soviet Geography and Economics. 2001.
Vol.42. No. 6. Pp. 416-439; Ê. Ìàöóçàòî (Ðåä.). Ðåã³îíè Óêðà¿íè: õðîí³êà òà êåð³âíèêè.
Òîì 2: Õàðê³âñüêà îáëàñòü (=Occasional Papers on Post-Communist Ukrainian Politics.
No. 1). C. 69-92; Idem. Ñîâðåìåííàÿ ïàòðèìîíèÿ è ôîðìèðîâàíèå îôèöèàëüíûõ
ïàðòèé â Óêðàèíå: Îäåññêàÿ, Çàêàðïàòñêàÿ, Äîíåöêàÿ, Äíåïðîïåòðîâñêàÿ îáëàñòè / /
K. Ìàöóçàòî (Påä.). Ïðîñòðàíñòâåííûå ôàêòîðû. Ñ. 61-100; Idem. Elite and the Party
System of Zakarpattia Oblast: Relations among the Levels of Party Systems in
9
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Ê ñîæàëåíèþ, íè ÿ ëè÷íî, íè ÖÑÈ, íè Èíñòèòóò Êåííàíà, íèêàêèå
äðóãèå ìèðîâûå èíñòèòóòû ïî ñòðàíàì ÑÍà íå ñìîãëè õîòÿ áû íåñêîëüêî èçìåíèòü òåíäåíöèþ îñëàáëåíèÿ ñâÿçåé ìåæäó àìåðèêàíñêèìè, çàïàäíîåâðîïåéñêèìè è âîñòî÷íîàçèàòñêèìè ñïåöèàëèñòàìè ïî
ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêå. Íàâåðíîå, ýòî ñòàíåò îäíîé èç ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ çàäà÷ ÖÑÈ â ñëåäóþùåì äåñÿòèëåòèè.
3. ×òî äåëàòü? Êî âòîðîìó ýòàïó ãëîáàëèçàöèè ÑëàâÿíîÅâðàçèéñêîãî ìèðà
Ëó÷åîáðàçíàÿ äâóñòîðîííÿÿ ñõåìà ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà
ñïåöèàëèñòîâ ïî ñòðàíàì ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè, îôîðìèâøàÿñÿ â íà÷àëå
1990-õ ãã., äîëæíà ñìåíèòüñÿ ìíîãîñòîðîííèìè ñåòÿìè (networks) èññëåäîâàòåëåé. Ñ ýòîé öåëüþ, êàê óæå áûëî ïîêàçàíî, íàðÿäó ñ òåîðåòèçàöèåé ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà, íóæíî óñòàíîâèòü êîíöåíòðè÷åñêèå ñâÿçè (ìåæäó ñòðàíàìè ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè; ìåæäó Ñåâåðíîé Àìåðèêîé, Çàïàäíîé Åâðîïîé è Âîñòî÷íîé Àçèåé).  ïåðâîå äåñÿòèëåòèå XXI âåêà êîíöåíòðè÷åñêèå ñâÿçè èññëåäîâàòåëåé âûéäóò íà ïåðâûé ïëàí. Ïî÷åìó?
 íà÷àëå íîâîãî âåêà Ñëàâÿíî-Åâðàçèéñêèé ìèð (ÑÅÌ)12 âñòóïèë âî
âòîðîé ýòàï ïåðåõîäíîãî ðàçâèòèÿ. Åñëè ïåðâûé ýòàï (1990-å ãîäû) õàðàêòåðèçîâàëñÿ ïîòðÿñåíèÿìè è èçìåíåíèÿìè, âûçâàííûìè ñìåíîé ðåæèìîâ, òî âòîðîé ýòàï õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ òåì, ÷òî áîëåå èëè ìåíåå ñòàáèëèçèðóþùèå ôàêòîðû èíêîðïîðèðóþò ýòè ñòðàíû åùå ãëóáæå â ìèðîâîé ïîðÿäîê. ÑÅÌ ïîäâåðãàåòñÿ âëèÿíèÿì îêðóæàþùèõ ðåãèîíîâ (èíòåãðàöèÿ Âîñòî÷íîé-Öåíòðàëüíîé Åâðîïû è Ïðèáàëòèêè â ÅÑ, èñëàìñêèé ôàêòîð â Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè, Êàâêàçå è Âîëãî-Óðàëüñêîì ðåãèîíå,
âëèÿíèå Àçèàòñêî-Òèõîîêåàíñêîãî ðåãèîíà íà Âîñòî÷íóþ Ñèáèðü è
Äàëüíèé Âîñòîê Ðîññèè è ò.ä. – öåíòðîáåæíûå ñèëû).  òî æå âðåìÿ, â
ýòèõ ñòðàíàõ ñîõðàíÿþò óñòîé÷èâîñòü îáùèå ÷åðòû, ñôîðìèðîâàííûå
âî âðåìÿ ñîöèàëèçìà (öåíòðîñòðåìèòåëüíàÿ ñèëà). Â ðåçóëüòàòå âçàèìîäåéñòâèé ýòèõ öåíòðîáåæíîé è öåíòðîñòðåìèòåëüíîé ñèë íåêîòîðûå
ìåçî-öèâèëèçàöèè, îòëè÷àþùèåñÿ äðóã îò äðóãà, ìåäëåííî èíòåãðèðóþòñÿ â ìåãà-öèâèëèçàöèþ â ëèöå ÑÅÌ (“ñëîæíàÿ öèâèëèçàöèÿ”).
Ukraine // Europe-Asia Studies (ãîòîâèòñÿ ê ïå÷àòè); Idem. The Last Bastion of
Unitarism? Local Institutions and Party Politics in Lithuania 1990-2001// Eurasian
Geography (ãîòîâèòñÿ ê ïå÷àòè).
12
Äàëåå ðå÷ü áóäåò èäòè íå òîëüêî î ñòðàíàõ ÑÍà è Ïðèáàëòèêè, íî áûâøèõ
ñîöñòðàíàõ â öåëîì. Àâòîð ïðåäïî÷èòàåò òåðìèí “ÑÅ̔ òåðìèíó “áûâøèå
ñîöñòðàíû”.
431
Ê. Ìàöóçàòî, Ðóñèñòèêà ïîâåðõ ãðàíèö...
Ñòðàíû ÑÅÌ ñåãîäíÿ âûñòóïàþò â ìèðå êàê ñëàáûå è óãíåòåííûå;
òåì íå ìåíåå, îíè (âêëþ÷àÿ òàêèå ãîñóäàðñòâà, êàê Áåëàðóñü è Òóðêìåíèñòàí) èùóò âîçìîæíîñòè âûæèâàíèÿ, àêòèâíî (íî, êîíå÷íî, ñâîåîáðàçíî) ðåàãèðóÿ íà ãëîáàëèçàöèþ, íî íå îáÿçàòåëüíî îäíîçíà÷íî åé
ñîïðîòèâëÿÿñü. Ýòèì ñòðàíû ÑÅÌ ñèëüíî îòëè÷àþòñÿ îò ðÿäà ñòðàí
“òðåòüåãî ìèðà”. Èíà÷å ãîâîðÿ, ïîñëå ðàñïàäà êîììóíèçìà ÑÅÌ ïåðåñòàë ïðåòåíäîâàòü íà ðîëü “àëüòåðíàòèâíîãî ÿäðà”, à íàøåë ñâîå ìåñòî
⠓ñåìè-ïåðèôåðèè” ìèðà.  ñàìîì äåëå, â îòëè÷èå îò 1990-õ ãîäîâ,
ÑÅÌ ñåãîäíÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ íå òîëüêî îáúåêòîì, íî è ñóáúåêòîì ãëîáàëèçàöèè. Îòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó ñòðàíàìè ÑÅÌ è îêðóæàþùèìè èõ ðåãèîíàìè
ÿâëÿþòñÿ âçàèìíûìè. Ðàñøèðåíèå ÅÑ íà âîñòîê íå ìîæåò íå èçìåíèòü
õàðàêòåð ñàìîãî ÅÑ. Ðîññèÿ ñíîâà íà÷àëà ïðîÿâëÿòü èíèöèàòèâó íà
ìåæäóíàðîäíîé àðåíå, ÷òî âèäíî íà ïðèìåðå òðàíñêàñïèéñêîãî íåôòåïðîâîäà è äåÿòåëüíîñòè Øàíõàéñêîé îðãàíèçàöèè.
Èëë. 1. Ïðîôåññîð Ìàöóçàòî âî âðåìÿ âûñòóïëåíèÿ ñ äîêëàäîì â îäíîé èç àóäèòîðèé Êàçàíñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà 29 èþíÿ 2002 ã.
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ÑÅÌ óñòóïàåò òîëüêî ñòðàíàì ÅÑ ïî óðîâíþ ðàçðóøèòåëüíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ ãëîáàëèçàöèè íà âíóòðåííèå ìåæïîëèòè÷åñêèå îòíîøåíèÿ
(ìåæäó öåíòðîì, ðåãèîíàìè è ñóáðåãèîíàìè), ò.å. ïî óðîâíþ ãëîêàëèçàöèè. Èíà÷å ãîâîðÿ, ãëîêàëèçàöèÿ â ñòðàíàõ ÑÅÌ íàìíîãî áîëåå ñåðüåçíà, ÷åì, íàïðèìåð, â ñòðàíàõ Àçèàòñêî-Òèõîîêåàíñêîãî ðåãèîíà.
×òîáû âñåñòîðîííå èññëåäîâàòü âòîðîé ýòàï ýòîãî ïåðåõîäíîãî ïåðèîäà, íåîáõîäèìî îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ êàê ìåæäó ìåçîñôåðàìè öèâèëèçàöèè âíóòðè ÑÅÌ, òàê è íà âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ìåæäó ýòèìè
ìåçîñôåðàìè è îêðóæàþùèìè ÑÅÌ ðåãèîíàìè. Ýòî òðåáóåò ñåðüåçíîãî
ìåæäóíàðîäíîãî ìíîãîñòîðîííåãî ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâà ó÷åíûõ ðàçíûõ ðåãèîíîâ ìèðà. Ïåðåä âñïëåñêîì ãëîêàëèçàöèè ìåòîäîëîãèè, êîíöåíòðèðóþùèåñÿ íà ñóâåðåííûõ ãîñóäàðñòâàõ, îêîí÷àòåëüíî óñòàðåëè. Íóæíî îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà ñóá- èëè òðàíñíàöèîíàëüíûå ñóáúåêòû (ðåãèîíû è ñóáðåãèîíû, ìíîãîíàöèîíàëüíûå êîðïîðàöèè, èëè òðàíñíàöèîíàëüíûå êëàíû, ýòíè÷åñêèå ìåíüøèíñòâà è ðåëèãèîçíûå ñîîáùåñòâà è.ò.ä.). Áîëåå òîãî,
ïîíèìàíèå “ñëîæíîé öèâèëèçàöèè” òðåáóåò î÷èñòèòü öèâèëèçàöèîííûé
ïîäõîä îò ñóáúåêòèâèçìà è öåííîñòíûõ ñóæäåíèé, ÷òî âîçìîæíî òîëüêî
ïðè ìåæäèñöèïëèíàðíîì ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâå ðàáîòíèêîâ ÃÑÍ.
Îáúåêòû èññëåäîâàíèÿ äèêòóþò ïîäõîä èññëåäîâàòåëÿ, à íå íàîáîðîò. Íåñìîòðÿ íà âñå òðóäíîñòè ïîñëåäíåãî äåñÿòèëåòèÿ, ñëàâÿíñêèå
èññëåäîâàíèÿ â ßïîíèè è ñîöèàëüíûå íàóêè Ðîññèè ïîñòåïåííî ãëîáàëèçèðîâàëèñü – íàñòîëüêî, íàñêîëüêî ìû èìåëè ìóæåñòâî îòâå÷àòü
íà âûçîâû ñî ñòîðîíû îáúåêòîâ íàøåãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ. Áóäåì íàäåÿòüñÿ, ÷òî òàê ìû áóäåì ïîñòóïàòü è â ñëåäóþùåì äåñÿòèëåòèè.
SUMMARY
The author addresses the situation in humanities and social sciences in the
former Soviet Union and Slavic studies in Japan. According to the author, in
both cases one can discern the impact of relative self-isolation of scholarly
communities. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union new vistas opened for
Slavic Studies in Japan due to new economic opportunities and political conditions in the former Soviet republics and a relatively equal starting positions of
different Slavic studies schools (especially in political sciences). At the same
time, contacts among scholars in the US, Japan and Western Europe have been
weakened; the same fate befell contacts among scholars in different CIS republics. As a result, only segments of the former USSR scholarly community
have ties with segments of international scholarly communities. The future,
according to the author, lies in the desirable and unavoidable emergence of
multipolar networks among researchers across national boundaries.
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ÎÒ ÐÅÄÀÊÖÈÈ
ÏÐÎÅÊÒ AI:
“ÈÑÊÓÑÑÒÂÎ ÍÀÏÈÑÀÍÈß ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ
ÈÌÏÅÐÈÈ È ÍÀÖÈȔ
 íàñòîÿùåì íîìåðå Ab Imperio ïðîäîëæàåò ïóáëèêàöèþ ìàòåðèàëîâ ïî ïðîáëåìå îñìûñëåíèÿ èìïåðèè è íàöèè â èñòîðèîãðàôèè è èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ èñòîðèè â ïóáëè÷íûõ äåáàòàõ î íàöèîíàëüíîé è ðåãèîíàëüíîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè. Ïîíÿòàÿ â ýòîì ñìûñëå, èñòîðèÿ ïðåäñòàåò êàê
áîãàòîå ïîëå äëÿ äèñêóðñèâíûõ è ìèôîëîãè÷åñêèõ ïîñòðîåíèé, âòîðãàþùèõñÿ â íàó÷íóþ è ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ æèçíü Öåíòðàëüíîé è Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïû.  ýòîì ðåãèîíå íåò íóæäû â èçîáðåòàòåëüíûõ ìåòîäàõ
çàïàäíîãî “íîâîãî ëèòåðàòóðíîãî èñòîðèçìà”, êîòîðûå ïðèçâàíû îáëåã÷èòü âîñïðèÿòèå “äàëåêîãî” ïðîøëîãî ïðåçåíòèñòñêè ìûñëÿùèìè
ñîâðåìåííèêàìè. Èñòîðèÿ æèâà â ïàìÿòè ëþäåé Öåíòðàëüíîé è Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïû è çðèìî ïðèñóòñòâóåò â äåáàòàõ î ïîñòñîâåòñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè, ãðàíèöàõ íîâîé ïîëèòè÷åñêîé êàðòû ðåãèîíà, ïðîáëåìå ïîëèòè÷åñêîãî íàñëåäèÿ è ñîñóùåñòâîâàíèÿ ñ ñîñåäíèìè íàöèÿìè è êóëüòóðàìè.
Ìû äàëåêè îò ìíåíèÿ, ÷òî ïðîôåññèîíàëüíàÿ èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ “êîðïîðàöèÿ” ìîæåò è äîëæíà êîíòðîëèðîâàòü èñïîëüçîâàíèå îáðàçîâ ïðîøëîãî â ñîâðåìåííûõ îáùåñòâåííûõ äåáàòàõ. Òåì íå ìåíåå, ìû âûñòóïàåì
çà ìàêñèìàëüíî íåçàâèñèìîå íàó÷íîå îáñóæäåíèå, ðåçóëüòàòû êîòîðîãî
íå áóäóò àâòîìàòè÷åñêè ïðî÷èòûâàòüñÿ êàê ïîäðûâ ñóùåñòâóþùèõ ìåæäóíàðîäíîé è âíóòðèïîëèòè÷åñêèõ ñèñòåì è êîòîðîå âíåñåò ñâîé âêëàä
â êîíöåïòóàëèçàöèþ àëüòåðíàòèâ ñîâðåìåííîé ïîëèòèêè.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Stefan TROEBST
“WE ARE TRANSNISTRIANS!”
POST-SOVIET IDENTITY MANAGEMENT
IN THE DNIESTER VALLEY*
“We are Transnistrians! One cannot deprive us of our
history, our name, our native tongue and national culture.
The TMR (Transnistrian Moldovan Republic) is the guarantor for this.”**
The Transnistrian Moldovan Republic (TMR, Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublika) is an authoritarian pseudo, quasi, or de facto state1 on
the territory of the Republic of Moldova. Its 4,000 square kilometers stretch
more than 200 kilometers down along the eastern banks of the Dniester
*
The author thanks Oleg M. Baev, Stepan I. Beril, Klemens Büscher, Alena Guboglo,
Gottfried Hanne, Pål Kolstø, Valeriu Moºneaga, Claus Neukirch, Randolf Oberschmidt,
Alla Skvorþova and Victoria Umaneþ for materials, advice and criticism. – Instead of
“Trans-Dniester”, “Transdniestria”, “Dniestria” and other anglicized Latin-Slavic forms
in the following the Latin “Transnistria” for the Russian “Pridnestrov’e” (meaning literally not Transnistria – the region “beyond river Nistru/Dniester” – but Cisnistria – the
region “on our side of the river”) is used.
**
My – pridnestrovtsy! Nas ne lishit’ istorii, imeni, rodnogo iazyka, natsional’noi kul’tury.
PMR tomu garantiia.Inscription in golden letters on red velvet in the Museum of History and Regional Geography of Bendery (Benderskii istoriko-kraevedcheskii muzei).
1
Scott Pegg. International Security and the De Facto State. Aldershot, 1998; Pål Kolstø.
Unrecognized States Vs. Quasi-States in International Relations. MS, January 2003;
437
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
river and are inhabited by some 660,000 people.2 In 1990, the TMR – then
still the Transnistrian Moldovan Socialist Soviet Republic – broke away
from the Moldovan Socialist Soviet Republic (MSSR), triggering an armed
conflict in the Dniester valley which now became a frontier between the
two parts of the country. In June 1992, the conflict culminated when the
Transnistrian side successfully defended the city of Bendery (Tighina3 ), a
bridge-head located on the right bank of the river vis-a-vis the TMR capital
Tiraspol’ (Tiraspol). Until today, the mini-republic of Transnistria – perceived by observers from the outside as a “museum of communism,”4 “Stalin’s last colony,”5 or the “Zombie Socialist Soviet Republic”6 – is not internationally recognized but exists nonetheless. Moreover, in socio-economic
terms the TMR seems to be better off than its right-bank neighbour, internationally recognized Moldova, “Europe’s poorest country.”7 In 2001, a Moldand Vladimir Kolossov, John O’Loughlin. Pseudo-States as Harbingers of a New
Geopolitics: The Example of the Transdniestr Moldovan Republik (TMR) // D. Newman
(Ed.). Boundaries, Territories and Postmodernity. London, 1999. Pp. 151-176. See also
Anne Nivat. We Have All the Attributes of a Normal State. [Interview with] the vice
president of the self-proclaimed Dniester Moldovan Republic, Aleksandr Karaman.
Tiraspol, 12 July // Transition. 1996. Vol. 2. No. 17, 23 August. P. 29.
2
On the TMR see Klemens Büscher. Separatismus in Transnistrien. Die “PMR” zwischen
Rußland und Moldova // Osteuropa. 1996. Bd. 46. S. 860-875; Frank-Dieter Grimm.
Transnistrien – ein postsowjetische Relikt mit ungewissen Perspektiven // Europa
Regional. 1997. Bd. 5. H. 2. S. 23-34; Pål Kolstø, Andrei Malgin. The Transnistrian
Republic: A Case of Politicized Regionalism // Nationalities Papers. 1998. Vol. 26. Pp.
103-127; Stuart J. Kaufman. Modern Hatreds. The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War.
Ithaca, NY, London, 2001. Pp. 129-163 and 241-247; Stefan Troebst. Frozen and
Forgotten: The Dniester Conflict, 1989-2002 // European Yearbook of Minority Issues.
2003. Vol. 2 (forthcoming); as well as the collection of documents Nepriznannaia
respublika. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika / Edited by V. F. Gryzlova i M. N. Guboglo.
5 volumes. Moscow, 1997-1999.
3
In the following, names of places under control of TMR authorities are given in their
Russian form, names of places under control of the Moldovan government in Moldovan/
Romanian form with the Russian or Moldovan/Romanian equivalent in brackets.
4
Oliver Hoischen. Transnistrien ist zu einer Grauzone zwischen Ost und West geworden //
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. No. 225. 28. September 1999. S. 3; Matthias Rüb. Das
kleine Königreich des kleinen Lenin. Ibid. 2001. No. 7. 9 January. S. 6.
5
Walter Mayr. Stalins letzte Kolonie // Der Spiegel. 2000. No. 40. 2 October. S. 223.
6
R. S. S. Mancurtã in the Moldovan/Romanian original alludes to Chingiz T. Aitmatov‘s
Kazakh legend of the Mankurts. See Nicolae Dabija. Moldova de peste Nistru – vechi
pãmînt strãmoºesc. Chiºinãu, 1990. P. 4.
7
Elfie Siegl. Der mühselige Weg der kleinen Moldau-Republik aus der Krise //
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2001. No. 281. 3 December. S. 18.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ovan expert characterized the TMR’s economy as “not self-sufficient, but
viable” and named barter trade with the Russian Federation, steel-dumping
on the US market, petty street trade and the TMR leadership’s criminal
economic activities (cigarette smuggling, arms trade, money laundering,
production of faked designer clothes, etc.) as the main components of Transnistria’s GNP.8 “The Trans-Dniester Republic,” according to a 2002 New
York Times article, “is unique... in its ability to turn a fast and often illegal
buck.”9
From the Transnistrian movement to the “Transnistrian revolution”
The TMR emerged as the result of a regional movement that in response
to the de-Sovietization, re-Romanization and pro-independence politics of
the pro-Romanian MSSR’s Moldovan People’s Front in 1989.10 The slogan
of the protest and strike movement of the Russian-speakers throughout
Moldova – “We don’t want to be Romanians!”11 – was answered by the
People’s Front with the rally cry “Suitcase – station – Russia!”12 While the
Russophones of right-bank cities like Bãlþi (Bel’tsy) or Chiºinãu followed
Baltic precendent and formed an movement called “Unity” to respond to
the Moldovans’ challenge by parliamentary means, the reaction of the Russian-speaking elite in the Dniester valley was much more radical. Citing
historical, demographic, cultural and other specific features of the region
they started to create administrative structures parallel to the ones of the
central government. The quest for parity by the so far “non-dominant”
Moldovan majority in general and their People’s Front lead to the politiciAnatolij Gudym. Evolution of the Transnistrian Economy: Critical Appraisal. Chiºinãu,
2001. http://www.cisr-md.org/reports/cont-transn.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003.).
For an official portrayal of TMR industry see A. Palamar’, N. Yelagin. Izgotovleno v
Pridnestrov’e. Reklamno-informacionnyi spravochnik. Tiraspol’, 2000.
9
Michael Wines. Trans-Dniester ‘Nation’ Resents Shady Reputation // The New York
Times. 2002. 5 March. P. 3. http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/statehood/
expment/2002/0305trans.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
10
Claus Neukirch. Die Republik Moldau. Nations- und Staatsbildung in Osteuropa.
Münster, 1996; and Charles King. The Moldovans. Romania, Russia, and the Politics of
Culture. Stanford, CA, 1999.
11
Nu vrem sã fim romani! Cf. N. V. Babilunga, S. I. Beril, B. G. Bomeshko, I. N. Galinskii, V. R. Okushko, P. M. Shornikov. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Tiraspol’, 2000. P. 152.
12
Chemodan – vokzal – Rossiia! Cf. I. F. Selivanova. Pridnestrovskii konflikt i problemy ego uregulirovaniia // Etnopoliticheskie konflikty v postkommunisticheskom mire.
Part II. Moskow, 1996. P. 4.
8
439
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
zation, mobilization, radicalization and ultimately the secession of the Russian-speakers in the urban centers of the Dniester valley, a process that has
aptly been labeled “reactive nationalism.”13 The main driving force of the
Transnistrian independence movement was the striving of the regional elite
to secure their privileged positions in the administration, industry, academia,
culture, and media acquired during the late Soviet period.
Considering their socioprofessional, linguistic, and ethnic as well as demographic structure this elite was in fact distinct from those of the predominantly rural right-bank Moldova (historically Bessarabia). Despite their
multiethnicity, the cities of the Dniester valley such as Tiraspol’, Bendery
or Rybnitsa (Rîbniþa) are almost completely Russophone because not only
their ethnic Russian inhabitants, but also their Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Jewish, Gagauz, Belarusian and Polish ones are heavily Russified and can be
considered Russian-speakers. The same goes for a considerable number of
ethnic Moldovans on the left bank, particulary for those living in urban
environments. During the hot phase of the conflict it became obvious that
the loyalty of most of them was much less with their co-nationals on the
right bank than with the separatist movement. The reason for this was the
priviledged positions Moldovans from Transnistria had acquired in all parts
of the MSSR due to the “advantage” of having had two additional decades
of Soviet-style “Moldovan-ness” (as opposed to the “Romanianness” of
William Crowther. The Politics of Ethno-National Mobilization: Nationalism and
Reform in Soviet Moldavia // The Russian Review. 1991. Vol. 50. P. 189. See also King.
The Moldovans. Pp. 178-208; Anatol Tsaranu. Pridnestrovskii konflikt v Respublike
Moldova: protivostoianie identichnostei? // Valeriu Moºneaga (Ed.). Moldova între Est
ºi Vest: Identitatea naþionalã ºi orientarea europeanã. Al II-lea simpozion ºtiinþific moldogerman. Republica Moldova, Chiºinãu, 28 October – 1 November 2001. Chiºinãu, 2001.
P. 255-273; Nikolai V. Babilunga, Boris G. Bomeshko. Pridnestrovskii konflikt:
Istoricheskie, demograficheskie, politicheskie aspekty. Tiraspol, 1998; Gottfried Hanne.
Der Transnistrien-Konflikt: Ursachen, Entwicklungsbedingungen und Perspektiven einer
Regulierung (Reihe “Berichte des Bundesinstitut für ostwissenschaftliche und
internationale Studien”. No. 42/1998). Köln, 1998. S. 3; Petr M. Shornikov. Pokushenie
na status. Etnopoliticheskie protsessy v Moldavii v gody krizisa 1988-1996. Kishinev,
1997; Airat R. Aklaev. Dynamics of the Moldova-Trans-Dniester Ethnic Conflict (Late
1980s to Early 1990s) // Kumar Rupesinghe and Valery A. Tishkov (Eds.). Ethnicity
and Power in the Contemporary World. Tokyo, 1996. Pp. 83-115; Pål Kolstø & Andrei
Edemsky with Natalya Kalashnikova. The Dniester Conflict. Between Irredentism and
Separatism // Europe-Asia Studies. 1993. Vol. 45. Pp. 973-1000; and Andrew Williams.
Conflict Resolution After the Cold War: The Case of Moldova // Review of International
Studies. 1999. Vol. 25. Pp. 71-87.
13
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Bessarabian western Moldova) as well as their overall “Sovietness.”14 As a
Moldovan proverb popular in Soviet times put it : “To become a minister
[in Soviet Moldova], you must be from beyond the Dniester!”15 Ethnic
Moldovans from the left bank figure prominently among today’s TMR leadership, such as the former chairman of the Union of Moldovans of Transnistria Vasilii N. Jakovlev16; the speaker of the TMR Supreme Soviet, Grigorii
S. Marakuca; or TMR Vice-President, Aleksandr A. Karaman.
The large state enterprises established in Dniester valley cities beginning in the 1950s belonged to the USSR’s huge military-industrial complex
and were administered directly to one of the numerous Union ministries in
Moscow and did not answer to republican ministries of the MSSR in
Chiºinãu. Accordingly, the Transnistrian regional elite of all ethnic backgrounds was distinctly “all-unionist” in a twofold sense of the word: they
identified with the empire’s center of power and the overwhelming majority of them had recently immigrated to the region from other parts of the
Soviet Union. In addition to excellent career chances and a rich educational
infrastructure, an abundance of housing as well as the favourable climatic
conditions made the eastern part of Soviet Moldova a particularly attractive
place to work and live. More than half of the Russian-speakers of the TMR
(who today constitute two thirds of all inhabitants – the other third being
Moldovans) came to the Dniester valley as skilled workers, engineers, managers, teachers, administrators, Party officials, army and air force officers
or NCOs, or were first-generation descendants of these Soviet immigrants.17
Alla I. Skvorþova. Transnistrian People - an Identity of Its Own? // Moldovan Academic
Review. 2002. Vol. 1. No. 1 (Special Topic Issue “Dniestria: From Past to Future”).
http://www.iatp.md/academicreview/1/en/article2.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
15
Pentru ca sã fii ministru, tre’ sã fii de peste Nistru! Quoted in Igor Munteanu. Social
Multipolarity and Political Violence // Pål Kolstø (Ed.). National Integration and Violent
Conflict in Post-Soviet Societies: The Cases of Estonia and Moldova. Boulder, CO,
2003 (forthcoming).
16
For the Soiuz Moldovan see V. N. Yakovlev. Ternistyi put’ k spravedlivosti. Tiraspol’,
1993. Yakovlev, in 1991 the founding rector of the TMR State University in Tiraspol’
and since the late 1990s a political émigré in the Russian Federation, probably qualifies
for another Moldovan proverb: Mama rus, tata rus, dar Ivan moldovan! (“Mom is Russian,
dad is Russian, yet little Ivan is a Moldovan!”). Cf. Silvia Matteucci. Identita nazionale
e conflitto in Moldavia: Questione etnica o politica? // Silvia Matteucci (a cura di). Il
nazionalismo. Culture politiche, mediazione e conflitto. (Series “Collana di studi sui
Balcani e l’Europa Centro-Orientale”. 12). Ravenna, 2000. P. 155
17
Vladimir Solonari, Vladimir Bruter. Russians in Moldova // Vladimir Shlapentokh,
Munir Sendich, Emil Payin (Eds.). The New Russian Diaspora. Russian Minorities in
the Former Soviet Republics. Armonk, NY, London, 1994. P. 76.
14
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S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
TMR president Igor’ N. Smirnov, in office since 1991, is the perfect prototype for this group. An ethnic Russian from the vicinity of Khabarovsk in
the Priamur’e region in the Russian Far East, Smirnov was educated as an
engineer in Chelyabinsk on the eastern slope of the Ural mountains, made
his career at a plant producing electric motors in southern Kherson in the
Ukraine, and finally moved to Tiraspol’ in November 1987, then the second-largest city of the MSSR, to become executive director of the city’s
biggest factory “Elektromash.”18
Klemens Büscher, a German expert on the TMR, has depicted the Transnistrian movement as “a complex combination of various cross-cutting and
interactive driving forces.”19 Among them he names the “nationalism of the
ethnic groups residing in Transnistria, Soviet patriotism, the beginnings of
a regionalist movement, ideologically driven actors, and economic and political motivations of old and new elites.”20 “Mighty clan-like structures
connecting the top echelons of the Party, town Soviets, state administration
and enterprises – all being tangled up with each other – emerged in Transnistria,” according to Büscher’s analysis of the movement’s leading figures, “in the surroundings of strategically important heavy industry and
arms industry.”21 Due to the frequent relocations involved in their work, a
high quota of interethnic marriages, and due its close ties with the central
authorities in Moscow, the group was unusually coherent in its identity,
considering itself decidedly Soviet and definitely not Moldovan-Republi18
T. G. Deinenko et al. Igor’ Nikolaevich Smirnov. Bibliograficheskii ukazatel’. Tiraspol’,
2001. Pp. 3-4. See also the “official” biography of Smirnov by Anna Z. Volkova. Lider.
Tiraspol’, 2001. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/soderjanie.htm (Last consulted March 25,
2003).
19
Klemens Büscher. Die ‘Staatlichkeit’ Transnistriens - ein Unfall der Geschichte?
Beitrag für das Projekt ‘Die zweite nationale Wiedergeburt’. Nationalismus, nationale
Bewegungen und Nationalstaatsbildungen in der spät- und postkommunistischen
Gesellschaft / MS., paper given at the conference at the University of Mannheim,
Germany, February 20-22, 1998. P. 2. See also Idem. Transnationale Beziehungen der
Russen in Moldova und der Ukraine. Ethnische Diaspora zwischen Residenz- und
Referenzstaat (Reihe “Gesellschaften und Staaten im Epochenwandel”. Bd. 10).
Frankfurt/M. etc., 2003 (forthcoming).
20
Büscher. Staatlichkeit. P. 2. See also Constantin Chiroºca. Ideologia Transnistreanã //
Arena Politicii. 1997. No. 10. Pp. 21-22.
21
Büscher. Staatlichkeit. P. 17. On the beginnings of industrialization, urbanization,
Sovietization and Russification of Transnistria in the period 1950-1967 as well as on
the emergence of an allochthone, multiethnic elite see the case study by Ronald J. Hill.
Soviet Political Elites. The Case of Tiraspol. London, 1977.
442
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
can.22 This self-perception was, among other things, based on a very concrete and until today highly visible factor – the former Fourteenth Soviet
Guard Army which is still stationed in and around Tiraspol’, currently with
reduced strength and under the name of an operative group of armed forces
of the Russian Federation. This Russian military presence also explains the
willingness as well as the capability of the Transnistrian movement to turn to
violence in securing its privileges and interests as seen in the conflict between Tiraspol’ and Chiºinãu starting in 1990 and culminating in June 1992
in a one-week war-like clash over the control of the center of Bendery that
resulted in up to 1,000 casualties, several thousands wounded combatants
and civilians, and displaced more than 130,000 people.23 With the silent support of the Fourteenth Army, Transnistrian guards succeeded in driving the
Army of Moldova out of the inner city. At the same time, it was the Fourteenth Army, now under its new commander Lieutenant General Aleksandr
I. Lebed’ which stopped the fighting and brought about an armistice.24
In at least three regards, the Transnistrian movement or – as its supporters prefer to call it – the “Transnistrian revolution”25 clearly differs from
22
Recently, Alla Svorþova has pointed to another specific feature of the TMR elite
during the hot phase of the conflict – their popularity and prestige with the population:
“The Dniester leadership was for the most part composed of people who had long
experience, such as directors of big enterprises, secretaries of Communist Party
committees, and high officials in local administration and small towns. People knew
their leaders not from newspapers or TV news but personally. They were used to listening
to them, trusted them, were familiar with their previous work, and regarded them as
seasoned leaders.” Cf. Alla Skvortsova. The Cultural and Social Makeup of Moldova:
A Bipolar or Dispersed Society? // Kolstø (Ed.). National Integration and Violent Conflict.
23
Valerii Moshniaga. Vooruzhennyi konflikt v Respublike Moldova i problema
peremeshchennych lits // Moldoscopie. Problemy politicheskogo analiza. Sbornik statei.
T. VII. Kishinev, 1995. Pp. 82-126.
24
On the fighting in Bendery see [Erika Daley]. Human Rights in Moldova. The Turbulent
Dniester. New York, NY, Washington, DC, 1993. Pp. 27-69; Neil V. Lamont. Territorial
Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict. The Moldovan Case, 1991 – March 1993 // The Journal
of Slavic Military Studies. 1993. Vol. 6. Pp. 576-612; Vladimir Socor. Russia’s Fourteenth
Army and the Insurgency in Eastern Moldova // Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
Research Report, 1992. Vol. 1. No. 36 (September 11, 1992). Pp. 41-48; and Doklad
pravozashchitnogo tsentra “Memorial”: Massovye i naibolee ser’eznye narusheniia prav
cheloveka i polozhenie v zone vooruzhennogo konflikta v g. Bendery za iiun’-iiul’
1992 g // Nezavisimaia gazeta. September 22, 1992. Pp. 4-5. The ultimate account of
the Bendery events of 1992 has, however, still to be written.
25
D. F. Kondratovich. Pridnestrovskaia revoliutsiia, 1989-1992 gg // Ezhegodnyi
istoricheskii almanakh Pridnestrov’ia. 1999. T. 3. Pp. 23-25.
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S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
other the mobilization of other groups of Russian-speakers in the former
Soviet Union, the so-called Russian near abroad:
• First, the escalation of the conflict between the central government and
the separatist authorities is – in David Laitin’s formulation – “the only exception to the absence of ethnic conflict directed at Russians in the union
republics.”26
• Second, the TMR is union-wide the only case of even an attempt of the
“beached” Russian minority outside the Russian Federation to form their
own state.
• And third, as late as the Perestroika period, Transnistria did not figure
in any scenario of late-Soviet or post-Soviet ethnopolitical conflict – in
marked contrast to northeastern Estonia, the Crimea, or northern Kazakhstan.27
The main pillars of the Transnistrian strive for state-building are:
(1) The unusually united political will of the regional elite;
(2) The economic potential of the region;
(3) The power provided by the Russian military presence as well as the
political support of Moscow;
(4) And the normative force of the TMR’s factual existence with its
impact on the everyday life of its inhabitants.
The latter point needs more explanation. While up to 1991, the frame of
reference of the Transnistrians was the Soviet empire as a whole and not
just the Moldovan SSR, this has changed profoundly. The tiny TMR is now
the social space of a once highly mobile population, with the non-adjacent
Russian Federation forming a distant and difficult to reach homeland. Of
course, this process of Transnistrization is perceived by most of the Transnistrians as narrowing their room for maneuver and is therefore not welcomed. Nonetheless, it is underway and shapes the worldview of the inhabitants of the TMR. Some of the effects of the new limitations are mitigated
by transterritorial family networks, spreading across the CIS, by the acquisition of multiple citizenship (Russian, Moldovan, Ukrainian, Belarusian,
26
David D. Laitin. Identity in Formation. The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near
Abroad. Ithaca, NY, London, 1998. P. 330. Cf. also Idem. Secessionist Rebellion in the
Former Soviet Union // Comparative Political Studies. 2001. Vol. 34. P. 841; and Louk
Hagendoorn, Hub Linssen, Sergej Tumanov. Intergroup Relations in the States of the
Former Soviet Union. The Perception of Russians. Philadelphia, PA, 2001. Pp. 70-72.
27
Uwe Halbach. Die Nationalitätenfrage: Kontinuität und Explosivität // Dietrich Geyer
(Hrsg.). Die Umwertung der sowjetischen Geschichte. Göttingen, 1991. S. 211.
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Bulgarian, Turkish, Israeli etc.) leading to the proliferation of a number of
different passports – TMR id’s are even tacitly recognized only by Moldova – or by the reactivation of former personal networks. An example of the
latter being Transnistrians who as former officers and NCOs of the Soviet
Army Western Group of Forces were stationed in the GDR and now use
their contacts and linguistic skills to act as brokers between TMR enterprises and firms in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Mecklenburg-Pomerania in eastern Germany.
In addition to the four main pillars identified above a fifth one is becoming increasingly important. Since the mid-1990s when a dramatic economic
and monetary crisis shook the TMR28 and Moscow started to make personnel reductions in the Fourteenth Army, the regime has embarked on a statedriven identity building project aimed at fostering a new regionalist pattern
of collective identity as the first step towards the creation of a “Transnistrian people.” The key to such a new identity was perceived to be a shared
history specific to Transnistria.
The politics of history: A terminological approach
“History is not restricted to the dimension of the past.” So the editors
began their recent collection of essays on Geschichtspolitik, “[History] can
also be a political factor of primary importance. Perceptions of history can
mobilize, legitimize, politicize and shape national identity, even trigger
bloody conflicts.”29 “The public construction of historical perceptions and
identities” as well as “the creation of identity via the interpretation of historical events”30 is what the politics of history are all about. According to
another definition, the transmission belts leading from the designers to the
recipients of this type of history-based identity politics are “the building of
public museums of history, exhibitions and monuments as well as the creation of university chairs, the licensing of textbooks and school curricula
but also public rituals of remembrance and commemoration.”31 One should
Dan Ionescu. Life in the Dniester ‘Black Hole’ // Transition. 1996. Vol. 2, No. 20
(October 4). Pp. 12-14.
29
Petra Bock, Edgar Wolfrum (Hrsg.). Umkämpfte Vergangenheit. Geschichtsbilder,
Erinnerung und Vergangenheitspolitik im internationalen Vergleich. Göttingen, 1999.
Back flap.
30
Petra Bock, Edgar Wolfrum. Einleitung // Ibid. S. 9.
31
Aleida Assmann, Ute Frevert. Geschichtsvergessenheit, Geschichtsversessenheit. Vom
Umgang mit deutschen Vergangenheiten nach 1945. Stuttgart, 1999. S. 312.
28
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S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
add that part of historical research which focuses on reaching out to a broader
public.
Methods for analyzing this type of identity management come in the
first instance from social anthropology. In a plea for an “ethnology-based
approach to the analysis of ‘politics of history,’” the social anthropologist
Wolfgang Kaschuba lists five “levels of practice:”
First, public discourse in the media on (one’s own) history; second, a
spatial and territorial concept of representation and symbolization, elaborated via lieux de mémoire and monuments; third, the symbolic fight for
symbols and interpretations of the ‘esthetics of commemoration;’ fourth,
the canon of ritual and esthetic practices of active remembrance; and fifth,
the set of forms and figures of tradition-like narratives, autobiographic series of recollections, memorial photographs, local and national history textbooks.32
While in Europe of the EU the politics of history are generally pursued
within the borders of a consolidated nation-state and thus aim primarily at an
increase of social integration, in Eastern Europe more often than not the very
borders and structure of the state are on the agenda in the place of nationstate integration.33 In doing so, a dissociation from former supra-national
federations like the USSR, the ÈSSR and Tito’s Yugoslavia has taken place.34
In a number of particularly conflict-prone cases, dissociation from the successor-states of these federations has also been witnessed as in the examples
Wolfgang Kaschuba. Geschichtspolitik und Identitätspolitik. Nationale und ethnische
Diskurse im Kulturvergleich // Beate Binder, Wolfgang Kaschuba, Peter Niedermüller
(Hrsg.). Die Inszenierung des Nationalen. Geschichte, Kultur und die Politik der
Identitäten am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts (Reihe Alltag & Kultur. Vol. 7). Cologne,
Weimar, Vienna, 2001. S. 24.
34
Beate Binder, Wolfgang Kaschuba, Peter Niedermüller. ‘Geschichtspolitik’: Zur
Aktualität nationaler Identitätsdiskurse in europäischen Gesellschaften // Hartmut
Kaelble, Jürgen Schreiner (Hrsg.). Gesellschaften im Vergleich. Forschungen aus Sozialund Geschichtswissenschaft. Frankfurt/M., 1998. S. 465-508.
34
For recent case studies see Wilfried Jilge. Historical Memory and National IdentityBuilding in Ukraine since 1991 // Attila Pók, Jörn Rüsen, Jutta Scherrer (Eds.). European
History: Challenge for a Common Future. Hamburg, 2002. Pp. 111-134; Hugh LeCaine
Agnew. New States, Old Identities? The Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Historical
Understandings of Statehood // Nationalities Papers. 2000. Vol. 28. Pp. 619-650;
Wolfgang Höpken. Vergangenheitspolitik im sozialistischen Vielvölkerstaat: Jugoslawien
1944-1991 // Bock, Wolfrum (Hrsg.). Op. cit. S. 210-243; and Stefan Troebst.
Geschichtspolitik und historische “Meistererzählungen” in Makedonien vor und nach
1991 // Österreichische Osthefte. 2002. Vol. 44. No. 1-2 (forthcoming).
32
446
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
of Kosovo (versus Serbia), Chechnya (versus the Russian Federation), Abkhazia (versus Georgia) and, not the least, the TMR versus Moldova.
The politics of history “po-pridnestrovski”
The TMR politics of history follow a concept developed between 1991
to 1993, which consists of four main components:
(1) A Greater Russian mental mapping based on geopolitics, language,
culture and religion;
(2) A historical master narrative still under development and with factual discontinuities being successively bridged by the results of ongoing
research, feverishly being conducted on the history of the Dniester valley
region;
(3) The politics of remembrance focusing on the dramatic early years
of the TMR from 1989 to 1992; and
(4) A genuinely Transnistrian cult of personality of TMR president Igor
Smirnov.
The prehistory of Transnistrian statehood, the period 1924-1940 when
the rayons which constitute today’s TMR as well as several others further to
the east possessed territorial autonomy within the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, plays interestingly enough no prominent role in this context.
The capital of this short-lived Moldovan Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (MASSR) to the east of river Dniester was initially Balta, now in the
Ukraine, then from 1929 on 1939 Tiraspol’.35 The reason for the ambivalent
relationship of the TMR leadership towards MASSR is the explicitly Moldovan, i.e., east Romance and not Slavic nation-building which Stalin had
decreed for the region as People’s Commissar of Nationalities. Another reason is the circumstances under which Stalin ordered the dissolution of the
MASSR and the merger of its western fringe with the new MSSR in 1940,
including a voluntary re-drawing of borders between the Moldovan and
Ukrainian Soviet Republics.36
Wim van Meurs. Carving a Moldovan Identity Out of History // Nationalities Papers.
1998. Vol. 26. Pp. 39-56; Charles King. Ethnicity and Institutional Reform: The Dynamics of ‘Indigenization’ in the Moldovan ASSR // Ibid. Pp. 57-72; Idem. The Moldovan ASSR on the Eve of the War: Cultural Policy in 1930s Transnistria // Kurt W.
Treptow (Ed.). Romania and World War II. Iaºi, 1996. Pp. 9-36; Oleg Galushchenko.
Naselenie Moldavskoi ASSR (1924-1940 gg.). Kishinev, 2001.
36
See Babilunga et al. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Pp. 35-72, as well as Wim van Meurs.
The Bessarabian Question in Communist Historiography: Nationalist and Communist
Politics and History-Writing. Boulder, CO, New York, NY, 1994.
35
447
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
The Cossack factor also forms an empty space in TMR politics of history, despite the fact that the Black Sea Cossack Army of Transnistria formed
an important link with the Russian Federation and to the Russian-speakers
in other CIS republics37 in the violent days of the early 1990s – and still
enjoys great visibility in Tiraspol’, Bendery, and other places. The reason
why the potentially important Cossack link to the Eastern Slav world outside the TMR is not a constituent part in Transnistrian identity management
is probably due to the vagueness of the Cossack movement in regard to
concepts like “state” or “nation.”38
New mental maps
“Since times immemorial, the Transnistrian lands held an extraordinarily
important position in the vast spaces of Eurasia.”39 Thus runs the first sentence of the official, two-volume “History of the Transnistrian Moldovan
Republic” compiled with the help of historians from Moscow and published
in Tiraspol’ in 2000. The reference to Eurasia invokes anti-Western currents
in Russian thought 40 and is further reinforced by a stress on supposed
“Skythian” traditions.41 “Looked upon through the eye of the high-flying
Kazachestvo. Nepriznannaia respublika. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika. T. 5:
Dokumenty obshchestvenno-politicheskich ob”edinenii Pridnestrov’ia // Edited by
V. F. Gryzlova i M. N. Guboglo. Moscow, 1994. Pp. 47-88. See also I. A. Antsupov.
Kazachestvo rossiiskoe mezhdu Bugom i Dunaem. Kishinev, 2000.
38
Cf. Peter Holquist. From Estate to Ethnos: The Changing Nature of Cossack Identity
in the Twentieth Century // Nurit Schliefman (Ed.). Russia at a Crossroads. History,
Memory and Political Practice. London, Portland, OR, 1998; and Brian J. Boeck. The
Kuban’ Cossack Revival (1989-1993): The Beginning of a Cossack National Movement
in the North Caucasus Region // Nationalities Papers. 1998. Vol. 26. Pp. 633-657.
39
V. Ia. Grosul, N. V. Babilunga, B. G. Bomeshko, M. N. Guboglo, G. A. Sanin,
A. Z. Volkova. Istoriia Pridnestrovskoi Moldavskoi Respubliki. T. 1. Tiraspol’, 2000. S.
5. Volume two, which keeps with Soviet tradition in covering the post-1917 period,
consists of two parts – before and after 1989. According to information from the coauthor Babilunga (May 9, 2001), advance copies of the two parts of volume two have
been printed, but due to lack of printing capacities, bookstores have not yet been supplied with copies. See, however, for a quintessence of volume two Babilunga et al.
Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Pp. 22-241.
40
Mark Bassin. Russia and Asia // Nicholas Rzhevsky (Ed.). Cambridge Companion to
Russian Culture. Cambridge. 1998. Pp. 57-84. See also Caroline Humphrey. “Eurasia:”
Ideology and The Political Imagination in Provincial Russia // C. M. Hann (Ed.).
Postsocialism. Ideals, Ideologies and Practices in Eurasia. London, New York, NY, 2002.
Pp. 258-276.
41
Grosul et al. Op. cit. Pp. 51-54.
37
448
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
eagle,” thus a textbook published in 1997 in Tiraspol’, “Transnistria – this
thin strip of land along the grey-haired river Dniester – resembled a Skythian
arc.”42 With reference to Aleksandr A. Blok’s famous poem “The Skythians”
(Skify), TMR identity management portrays Transnistria as a Slavic bulwark
at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. For example, a map on the TMR’s
geopolitical position in the official Atlas of the Dniester Moldavian Republic
represents the territory of the TMR as much more compact than it is in reality
and stresses a geopolitically crucial position between the East and West. In
doing so, this alleged “centrality” of the TMR refers to two constellations.
First, the TMR is portrayed as being located in the middle of the “brotherly
states” of Belarus’ and the Russian Federation on the one side and the equally “brotherly,” Orthodox countries of Bulgaria, Macedonia and Serbia on the
other. And second, it is depicted as being encircled by hostile NATO members Poland, Hungary, Greece and Turkey.43 Moldova, according to TMR
propaganda, is a hotbed of “Chiºinãu-style Nazism” and a stomping ground
of “Romanian cannibals,”44 and Ukraine – in Tiraspol’s perception notoriously unreliable regarding “Orthodox and eastern Slav” solidarity45 – are
42
N. V. Babilunga, B. G. Bomeshko. Stranitsy rodnoi istorii. Uchebnoe posobie po
istorii dlia 5 klassa srednei shkoly. Tiraspol’, 1997. Inside cover. For the context see
also Stefan Troebst. Wie ein skythischer Bogen. Transnistrien als slawisches Bollwerk
zwischen dem Orient und Europa // Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2002. No. 232.
October 7. S. 8.
43
Cf. the map Geopolitical Position // Dniester Moldavian Republic (Ed.). Atlas of the
Dniester Moldavian Republic. 2nd edition. Tiraspol’, 2000. P. 7. For the topoi of the
“middle” and “center” in geopolitical thought see Hans-Dietrich Schultz. Fantasies of
Mitte: Mittellage and Mitteleuropa in German Geographical Discussion of the 19th and
20th Centuries // Political Geography Quarterly. 1989. Vol. 8. Pp. 315-339, and on patterns
of mental mapping in Eastern Europe Stefan Troebst. ‘Intermarium’ und ‘Vermählung
mit dem Meer:’ Kognitive Karten und Geschichtspolitik in Ostmitteleuropa // Geschichte
und Gesellschaft. 2002. Vol. 28. S. 435-469.
44
For the term “kishinevskii natsizm” see Volkova. Op. cit. Vvedenie, and for the slander
“rumynskie liudoedy” a photograph dated June 1992 showing Transnistrian volunteers
on a truck whose tailboard carries the graffiti “Death to the Romanian cannibals!” (Smert’
rumynskim liudoedam!) in a brochure by Valerii Kruglikov, N. Vorob’eva. Bendery.
Leto-92. Voina (Fotoal‘bom). Bendery, 1995. P. 40.
45
The TMR’s relationship with neighboring Ukraine is ambivalent. On the one hand,
TMR diplomacy succeeded in securing Kiev’s participation as a co-mediator along with
Russia and the OSCE in the conflict between Tiraspol’ and Chiºinãu in 1995 and in
having Ukrainian peacekeeping troops deployed in order to safeguard, together with
Russian, Moldovan, and Transnistrian troops, the security zone established after the
armed clash over Bendery in July 1992 along the Dniester. On the other hand Smirnov’s
449
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
perceived as two sides of the same anti-Russian vice. However, according
to the self-perception of the TMR leadership, Transnistria is of primary
geostrategic importance for Moscow and its existence is consequently guaranteed by the Russian Federation. In this context, the Kaliningrad parallel is
frequently invoked by TMR officials, and this not only in military terms,
but also in terms of international status. The TMR – according to this argument – should be turned into a second Kaliningradskaia oblast’ and become a subject of the Russian Federation. The self-stylization of the TMR
as “a tiny bit of the Great Russian state,” to quite a 1995 speech that Smirnov
made in the Moscow City Duma,46 corresponds with another metaphor of
Transnistria being “Russia’s historical enclave on the doorsteps to the
Balkans.”47 Yet, this rhetoric should not be taken too seriously. Putin’s rise
to power weakened the pro-TMR faction in Moscow and other models are
now under discussion in Tiraspol’: the TMR as a sovereign CIS republic
and third partner to the anemic Belarusian-Russian Federation, or as a member of a new Ukrainian-Russian-Belarusian confederate state to be called
ZUBR,48 or even as part of a Bessarabian-Transnistrian confederation consisting of Moldova and the TMR. Moreover, with reference to economically prosperous Taiwan and, less prosperous, Northern Cyprus, the TMR leadership is considering the benefits of a prolongation of the status quo as an
unrecognized de facto state, as a promising perspective.
A new perception of history – from the laboratory
In March 1991, the TMR leadership founded of an “academic research
laboratory for the history of Transnistria” attached to the Taras G. Shevchenko
personal relationship with his eastern neighbor is seriously strained by the fact that in
September 1991 he was kidnapped in Kiev by the Moldovan secret service and brought
to Chiºinãu with the knowledge and obviously the consent of the Ukrainian authorities.
After several weeks in jail, he was released. Cf. Volkova. Op. cit. Ch. V.
46
I. Smirnov. Pridnestrov’e – chastichka velikogo rossiiskogo gosudarstva //
Dnestrovskaia pravda. 1995. September 23.
47
Babilunga et al. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Pp. 245. See also Nicholas Dima. Moldova
and the Transdnestr Republic. Russia’s Geopolitics toward the Balkans. Boulder, CO,
New York, NY, 2001.
48
ZUBR stands for Za Soiuz Ukrainy, Belorussii i Rossii (“For a Union of the Ukraine,
Belarus’ and Russia.”) Yet the Russian word zubr, meaning literally a European bison,
stands in a figurative sense also for an arch-reactionary. The “TMR People’s Movement
ZUBR,” founded in 2000 in Tiraspol’ by followers of the regime, claims to cooperate
closely with ZUBR organizations in Kiev, Minsk and Moscow. See http://
www.zubr.idknet.com and http://www.bhhrg.org/zubr.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
450
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
State University in Tiraspol’ and nominated the historian and former MEMORIAL activist from Chiºinãu, Nikolai V. Babilunga, as its head.49 Within a few years, Babilunga and his team of historians, ethnologists, experts
on “scientific Communism” and others came up with five core elements of
TMR identity: “self-sufficiency” (samobytnost’), “statehood” (gosudarstvennost’), “multiethnicity” (polietnichnost’), “eastern (orthodox) Slavic-Russian orientation” (vostochnyi [pravoslavnyi] slaviansko-rossiiskii vektor) and
“Moldovanism” (moldovenizm) – the latter not in the ethnic, East Romance
sense of the word, but in a historical and regional one using the early modern Moldovan Principality which was allied with Muscovy, and Soviet
Moldavia as points of reference. Whereas up to the mid-1990s “Moldovanism” and the “Slavic-Russian orientation” were perceived as a contradiction even to the Transnistrian leadership, the significant restriction of TMR
rhetoric to “Russia-ness” (rossiiskost’) – not to be confused with of “Russian-ness” (russkost’) – has eased this opposition.50 Here, the Russo-centric
core of Transnistrian self-perception is revealed, despite a permanent stress
on multi-ethnicity and trilingualism (besides Russian, Ukrainian and Moldovan are also official languages in the TMR). In line with a “new Russian
national idea” proclaimed in Moscow in 1997, the “communitarian whole of
all Russians” (sobornost’)51 is the Transnistrian framework of reference –
not the totality of “citizens of the Russian Federation” (rossiiane) of whatever ethnic origin invoked by Boris N. Yel’tsin’s liberal advisers in the first
Grosul et al. Op. cit. P. 8.
For example, TMR Minister of Defence Col. Shtefan F. Kitsak harshly criticized “the
complaisance of Russia with regard to the advance of NATO to the East” during the
May 1 celebrations of 2002 in Tiraspol’. Russia, according to the colonel, runs the risk
of “degenerat[ing] into a mere principality of Muscovy.” See Tat’iana Georgiu.
Pridnestrovtsy vystupaiut za samostoiatel’nost’ svoego gosudarstva // Ol’viia-Press.
Informatsionnoe agentstvo. May 1, 2002. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol03-05-02.htm
(Last consulted March 25, 2003).
51
Gurii V. Sudakov. Shest’ printsipov russkosti, ili Kogda v Rossii poiavitsia prazdnik
Datskogo korolevstva? // Rossiiskaia gazeta. September 17, 1999. P. 4. See also Gerhard Simon. Auf der Suche nach der ‘Idee für Rußland.’ // Osteuropa 1997. Vol. 47. S.
1169-1190; the documentation Rußland: Eine ‘nationale Idee’ per Preisausschreiben //
Ibid. S. A 483 – A 498; Christiane Uhlig. Nationale Identitätskonstruktionen für ein
postsowjetisches Rußland // Ibid. S. 1191-1206; and Jutta Scherrer. ‘Sehnsucht nach
Geschichte.’ Der Umgang mit der Vergangenheit im postsowjetischen Rußland // Christoph Conrad, Sebastian Conrad (Hrsg). Die Nation schreiben. Geschichtswissenschaft
im internationalen Vergleich. Göttingen, 2002. S. 165-206.
49
50
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S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
half of the 1990s.52 Accordingly, the five Transnistrian key terms are perfectly compatible with the “six principles of Rusianness:” patriotism, communitarianism, emotionality, morality, realism, and sociability.53
The Tiraspol’ laboratory of history has traced the core concepts of “selfsufficiency,” “statehood,” “multi-ethnicity,” “eastern (Orthodox) Slavic-Russian orientation,” and “Moldovanism” as far back as Kievan Rus’ and even
into the Stone Age. The main point made is that in the Dniester valley –
unnoticed by the outside world and by the inhabitants of the region themselves – a number of fundamental peculiarities developed that became visible only towards the end of the Soviet era. Currently, this message of “we
have always been different from the others” is being refined by Babilunga
and his colleagues into a new and genuinely Transnistrian historical master
narrative. In doing so, they apply methods of professional historiography,
yet the final result – the ultimate proof for the existence of a “Transnistrian
people” – is predetermined by political factors. 54 Accordingly, the new master
narrative is only partly disseminated in the customary form of academic
products like, such as the two-volume History of the TMR. Much more important transmission belts of the new Transnistrian identity are schools, textbooks, and mass media as well as museums, monuments, commemorative
ceremonies and, not the least, state symbols on banknotes, coins, stamps
and other official documents. Of particular importance are anniversaries
like the new TMR “Day of the Republic” on September 2 and other dates
connected with the dramatic years of 1990 to 1992 as well as Soviet holidays like May 1, May 9, June 22, or November 7.
The contents of the new TMR perception of history fall into three categories:
1. First, a set of selected historical events, processes, and periods is
considered to be constitutive for the history of the region and thus forms the
backbone of the new master narrative.
2. Second, two personality cults are cultivated, one of the General
Aleksandr V. Suvorov (1729-1800) who is glorified as the Tsarist Russian
Michael Thumann. Das Lied von der russischen Erde. Moskaus Ringen um Einheit
und Grösse. Stuttgart, 2002. S. 127-128. See also Valerii A. Tishkov. Rossiia kak
mnogonatsional’naia obshchnost’. Moskva, 1994.
53
Sudakov. Op. cit.
54
Vladimir Solonari. Creating ‘a People:’ a Case Study in (Post-) Soviet History Writing. A presentation to the Post-Communist Politics and Economy Workshop at the Davis
Center for Russian and European Studies of Harvard University. 8 May 2002. http://
www.fas.harvard.edu/~postcomm/papers/2001-02/solonari.pdf (Last consulted March
25, 2003).
52
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Ab Imperio, 1/2003
liberator of Transnistria from the Ottomans as well as the founder of Tiraspol’ (both events taking place in 1792) and Vladimir I. Lenin (1870-1924),
the founder of the Soviet Union.
3. Third, two mantras are repeated: multi-ethnicity, with official TMR
trilingualism as its public manifestation, and the “preservation of the Soviet
legacy.”
The Tiraspol’ research lab has characterized the following ten epochs,
periods, processes, personalities and events as being of primary importance
for the new master narrative:
(1) The early Paleolithic period when the eastern shore of river Dniester allegedly constituted “the cradle of mankind.”
(2) The Kievian Rus’ of the tenth and eleventh centuries when Transnistria was said to be a part of the first Russian state and a branch of the
famous “route from the Varangians to the Greeks” supposedly ran along the
Dniester.
(3) The centuries when the region was divided between the Ottoman
Empire and the Crimean Khanate on the one hand and Poland-Lithuania
and the Cossack State on the other, forming “a bridge between East and
West.”
(4) The frontier times following the Russian conquest of Transnistria
in 1792 to the conquest of Bessarabia in 1812 – two decades when the
Dniester was the border between the empires of the Sultans and the Tsars.
(5) Revolution and Civil War from 1917 to 1922 – a period depicted as
being particularly heroic with Transnistria becoming a part of Soviet Ukraine.
(6) The years of the existence of the MASSR from 1924 to 1940 within
the Ukrainian SSR.
(7) The Second World War which is said to have turned Transnistria
into a center of passive resistance to and active partisan warfare against
Romanian occupation; in addition, reference is made to the region’s heroic
losses in terms of Red Army soldiers who fell fighting Hitler’s Germany.
(8) The decades of forced industrialization from the late 1940s to the
1970s which were characterized by an expansion of the educational system,
the growth of urban centers, and a huge immigration from other parts of the
Soviet Union.
(9) The beginnings of the Transnistrian movement and the building of
the TMR, i.e., the years 1989 and 1990.
(10) The “Battle of Bendery” in 1992, which is depicted as being the
baptism of fire of the TMR and the “Transnistrian people.”
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S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
The cult of Suvorov is not a TMR invention, but part of its Soviet legacy. Already in the 1970s, an equestrian statue of the military leader was
erected in the center of Tiraspol’.55 Due to the general’s prominence, his
relationship to the region, his belligerence and Russianness as well as his
“anti-Westernness” – in 1799, Suvorov cleared Napoleon’s troops out of
northern Italy and crossed the Alps into Switzerland – the Transnistrian
movement picked him as its first and foremost political symbol. The earliest TMR attempts to visualize the new statehood focussed on Suvorov, not
the least because other historical symbols were either in short supply or
were perceived as not being specifically Transnistrian, which was the case
with Lenin. In 1991, the new TMR currency – officially called the coupon
ruble (kupon rubl’), yet colloquially named “Suvorovs” (suvorovki) – was
produced by putting a stamp with a portrait of Suvorov on regular Soviet
ruble bills. In 1992, the same was done with new Russian rubles. The first
printed series of TMR coupon ruble bills printed in 1993 and 1994 also
carried Suvorov’s portrait and a depiction of his equestrian statue.56 During
the years that followed, this statue took on a life of its own with its silhouette stylized to such a degree that outsiders would hardly recognize it as a
statue, not to mention as Suvorov. For example, the frontispiece of the official TMR daily Dnestrovskaia pravda carries a vignette with an extremely
simplified silhouette of the monument and an even more cryptic form can
be found in gold leaf marking the official business of the TMR cabinet
ministers. The image of Suvorovs plays an equally important role in marketing TMR products in the post-Soviet markets. For instance, the highest
quality of Transnistrian brandy – the 40-year-old brandy produced by the
monopolist “Kon’iaki, vina i napitki Tiraspol’ia” (KVINT) – is called “Suvorov.”57
55
Cf. Moldova Photo Gallery: Transnistria. Photographs “d00223-170.jpg” and
“Tiraspoly.jpg”. http://www.photo.md/photos/transnistria_2.html (Last consulted March
25, 2003).
56
The same applies to the series of one, five, ten and twenty-five ruble bills issued in
2000. Cf. the website of the Transnistrian Republican Bank at http://www.cbpmr.net/
ger/bnknt1.html. Also, a recent set of stamps shows Suvorov: V Pridnestrov’e
vypushchena novaia pochtovaia marka // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. June 28. http://
www.olvia.idknet.com/ol92-06-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
57
See the article by KVINT executive director Oleg M. Baev. Suvorovskaia simvolika
v produktsii zavoda ‘KVINT.’ // A. V. Suvorov glazami sovremennikov i potomkov.
Irina Blagodatskich et al. (Ed.). Seriia “Pridnestrovskie istoricheskie chteniia”. T. 1.
Tiraspol’, 2002, and the “Suvorov” section on the KVINT website at http://
www.kvint.com. In 2000, the Transnistrian Republican Bank has issued a five-ruble bill
454
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
The former Soviet Union, according to TMR rhetoric “the fatherland
where we were born,”58 still dominates everyday life in the Dniester valley.
The cult of Lenin is the most visible sign. Not only is the main north-south
street in Tiraspol’ named after Lenin,59 but so are the main streets in almost
every Transnistrian village and town. In front of the building housing the
president’s office, the government and the Supreme Soviet of the TMR, a
huge Lenin statue made of red marble by the well-known Soviet sculptor
Lev E. Kerbel’ is still standing.60 When asked in 2001 why the statue remained, TMR Minister of Foreign Affairs Valerii A. Litskai answered:
There are no other monuments beside the ones for Lenin and Suvorov... In earlier times, we had three Lenins in the main street – that
was too many so we removed one of them...61
Lenin is, however, banned from another, particularly prominent place.
Since 1993, all TMR banknotes feature the above mentioned-above government building without the Lenin statue in front of it. The same goes for
the 25 ruble commemorative coin issued in 2000 on the occasion of the
tenth anniversary of the founding of the TMR.62
Yet, not only is Lenin’s star is on the decline in Transnistria, the image of
the Soviet Union in general is slowly eroding. For instance, Minister Litskai answered a question concerning the role of the Soviet legacy hesitantly
the following way in 2001:
Our history and our culture is closely related to the Soviet period.
Industrialization in our region was Soviet in nature. We cannot dissociate ourselves from Soviet culture... Maybe Soviet culture is not a
good one, but we don’t have another one. We do not think that it was
a hundred-percent bad one.63
showing on the frontispiece a portrait of Suvorov and on the backside the building of
KVINT headquarters. See http://www.banknotes.com/TA35.JPG (Last consulted March
25, 2003).
58
Babilunga, Bomeshko. P. 3.
59
See the map of Tiraspol’ in the Lonely Planet travel guide by Nicola Williams. Romania
& Moldova. Hawthorne, Victoria, etc., 1998. P. 476.
60
Cf. Moldova Photo Gallery: Transnistria. Photograph ‘d00223-046.jpg’ http://
www.photo.md/photos/transnistria_1.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
61
Elfie Siegl. Drei Lenins in einer Straße waren einer zuviel // Frankfurter Allgemeine
Zeitung. 2001. No. 286. December 8. P. 3, and http://www.net.md/germanikuss/medien/
medienart/wahlen_pmr.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
62
See http://www.cbpmr.net/ger/coins25.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
63
Litskai in a conversation with a group of German, Moldovan, and Russian social
scientists on October 30, 2001, in Tiraspol’. Cf. Stefan Troebst. Moldova zwischen Ost
455
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
On the surface, however, the importance attributed to the “preservation
of the Soviet legacy” by the regime remains unchanged, as demonstrated by
official symbolic language and the TMR coat of arms. Here, hammer and
sickle as well as the red star and Soviet-style corn-ears figure prominently.
The large version of the coat of arms has the name of the state in the three
official languages Russian, Ukrainian, and Moldovan – the latter of course
in Cyrillic script64 – the small version has abbreviations, “PMR” for the
Russian and Ukrainian forms and “RMN” for the Moldovan one.
The Politics of Remembrance: The “Battle of Bendery” of June 1992
In the TMR, the recollection of the bloody events of 1992 are kept alive
by a large number of monuments, ceremonies, anniversaries, orders and
other decorations, veteran organizations, illustrated books and other means.65
Bendery, since the fighting of 1992 an ethnically cleansed and almost exclusively Russophone city, is the emotional focus of TMR politics of remembrance. Only the town of Dubossary (Dubãsari) where in March 1992
heavy fighting between Moldovan forces and TMR guards also took place66
and the capital Tiraspol’ with its combined memorial for the fallen of the
Soviet War in Afghanistan and those of the conflict with Moldova try to
und West: Nationale Identität und europäische Orientierung. Deutsch-moldauisches
Symposium, Chiºinãu, Tiraspol’, Comrat, Republik Moldau, 27. Oktober – 1. November 2001 // Südosteuropa-Mitteilungen. 2002. Vol. 42. Issue 3. S. 86.
64
In Russian “Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublika”, in Ukrainian “Pridnistrovs’ka
Moldavs’ka Respublika” and in Moldovan “Republika Moldoveniaskë Nistrianë” or
“Republika Moldovenesht’ Nistrene”.
65
Grigorii V. Volovoi. Krovavoe leto v Benderach. Khronika pridnestrovskoi tragedii.
Bendery, 1993; Kruglikov, Vorob’eva. Op. cit.; N. V. Babilunga, B. G. Bomeshko.
Bendery: rasstreliannye nepokorennye. Tiraspol’, 1993; Idem. Kniga pamiati zashchitnikov Pridnestrov’ia. A. A. Karaman (Ed.). Tiraspol’, 1995; Bendery 1408-1998 – proshloe, nastoiashchee, budushchee. Izdanie Gorodskogo Soveta narodnykh deputatov i
Gosadministratsii. Bendery, 1998.
66
Nikolai P. Rudenko. Dubossary – gorod zashchitnikov PMR. Dubossary, 1995; Viktor V. Diukarev. Dubossary 1989-1992 gg. Za kulisami politiki. Tiraspol’, 2000. Smirnov
used the tenth anniversary of the fighting in Dubossary on March 2, 2002, to deliver a
fierce anti-Chiºinãu speech and to stage an elaborate ceremony in the Dubossary memorial. Cf. Dubossary 10 let spustia // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. March 3. http://
www.olvia.idknet.com/ol12-03-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003). See the appeal of Smirnov to the inhabitants of the TMR: Obrashchenie k narodu prezidenta Pridnestrovskoi Moldavskoi Respubliki, 1 marta 2002 g // Ibid. 2002. March 1, http://
www.olvia.idknet.com/ol08-03-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
456
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
hold their ground against the forceful “myth of Bendery.” In 1996, Andrei
Safonov – a representative of the democratic wing of the Transnistrian movement – called Bendery “something like a sacral symbol” for the inhabitants
of the TMR67, and TMR Foreign Minister Litskai – a historian by training –
described Bendery aptly as “our West Berlin.”68 So it was not really a surprise when shortly before the tenth anniversary of the “Battle of Bendery”
the TMR leadership published a politically highly explosive plan to merge
the right-bank “city of heroes” Bendery and the present TMR capital of
Tiraspol’ on the left bank into a single “new capital of Transnistria.”69 Morevoer, it is not a promising development that in all multilateral mediation
efforts as well as bilateral talks the fundamental issue of the future status of
Bendery is deliberately not touched upon.70 To make things worse, the city
Andrei Safonov. Vzaimootnosheniia Moldovy i Pridnestrov’ia: Istoriia problemy i
perspektivy (osnovnye aspekty) // Valeriu Moºneaga (Ed.). Statul naþional ºi societatea
polietnicã: Moldova în anii 90. Materiale I simpozion moldo-german (Chiºinãu, 13-18
octombrie 1996). Chiºinãu, 1997. P. 153.
68
In a conversation during a Moldovan-Transnistrian conflict workshop on September
13, 1997, in Flensburg, Germany. At the workshop lead by Priit Järve. From Ethnopolitical
Conflict to Inter-Ethnic Accord in Moldova. Flensburg, Germany, and Bjerremark,
Denmark, September 12-17, 1997. ECMI Report, 1. Flensburg, 1998 http://www.ecmi.de/
doc/download/report_1.pdf (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
69
Novaia stolitsa Pridnestrov’ia (k voprosu ob”edineniia Tiraspolia i Bender) // Ol’viiaPress. 2002. May 29. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol72-05-02.htm (Last consulted March
25, 2003).
70
On the attempts to negotiate a solution to the conflict since 1993, see Adam Daniel
Rotfeld. In Search of a Political Settlement - The Case of Conflict in Moldova // Staffan
Carlsson (Ed.). The Challenge of Preventive Diplomacy. The Experience of the CSCE.
Stockholm, 1994. Pp. 100-137; Claus Neukirch. Transdniestria and Moldova: Cold Peace
at the Dniestr // Helsinki Monitor. 2001. Vol. 12. Pp. 122-135; Idem. Russia and the
OSCE—the Influence of Interested Third and Disinterested Fourth Parties on the
Conflicts in Estonia and Moldova // Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in
Europe. July 2001, http://www.ecmi.de/jemie/download/JEMIE07Neukirch11-07-01.pdf
(Last consulted March 25, 2003); Stefan Troebst. Der Transnistrienkonflikt und seine
Bearbeitung durch die OSZE // Günter Baechler, Arno Truger (Hrsg.). Friedensbericht
1998. Chur, Zürich, 1998. S. 347-379; Idem. Kein spektakulärer Erfolg, aber Spannungen
reduziert. Die OSZE in der Republik Moldova // Wissenschaft und Frieden. 1997. Vol.
15. No. 1. S. 23-27. http://www.uni-muenster.de/PeaCon/wuf/wf-97/9710205m.htm (Last
consulted March 25, 2003); Rolf Welberts. Der Einsatz der OSZE in Möglichkeiten und
Grenzen des OSZE-Konfliktmanagements in Moldova // Ethnos – Nation. 1995. Vol. 3.
No. 2. S. 71-84. For the most recent and again unsuccessful mediation initiatives of the
OSCE of July 2002 and the Russian Federation of December 2002, see Vladimir Socor.
Federalization Experiment in Moldova // Russia and Eurasia Review. 2002. Vol. 1. No.
4 (16 July). http://russia.jamestown.org/pubs/view/rer_001_004_001.htm (Last consulted
67
457
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
is also of first-rate economic and military importance for both conflict parties. The city’s importance for Moldova stems from the fact that it is the
main railway junction of the country. For the TMR the city’s importance is
due to the fact that the Transnistrian Army produces the multiple rocket
launch system “Grad” and other arms.
The most important memorial sites of the “Tragedy of Bendery” are the
city’s Museum of History and Regional Geography, the municipal cemetery
and a new monument complex near the bridge over river Dniester. This “Memorial of Remembrance and Mourning” consists of a wheeled tank with the
letters “PMR” and a TMR flag, several marble plates with the names of those
killed in the fighting on the Transnistrian side, a commemorative stone and a
bell-tower71 – the latter revealing the Christian cross as a new element in
TMR politics of remembrance. Those killed on the Moldovan side in 1992
are explicitly not remembered. To the contrary, they are labeled on the commemorative stone as “the nationalists of Moldova” against whom “the defenders of Bendery held the city.” Since the lavish celebrations of the tenth
anniversary of the military success of 1992 in 2002, this complex, also known
as “Memorial of Fame,” is the central site for the commemoration of the
“Battle of Bendery” and for TMR politics of remembrance in general. The
tank in front of the bell-tower is the symbol of resistance and victory, for the
new Transnistrian regional identity, and for the rejection of everything “Romance” and “Romanian,” or even “Western”.72 Accordingly, on June 19,
March 25, 2003); Bruno Coppieters, Michael Emerson. Conflict Resolution for Moldova and Transdniestria through Federalisation? / Centre for European Policy Studies
Policy Brief. No. 25. London, August 2002. http://www.ceps.be/Pubs/2002/
No25Moldova-Transdniestria.pdf (Last consulted March 25, 2003); Protokol zasedaniia “Postoiannogo soveshchaniia po politicheskim voprosam v ramkakh peregovornogo
protsessa po pridnestrovskomu uregulirovaniiu” (g. Moskva, 17-18 dekabria 2002 goda),
http://mfa-pmr.idknet.com/home/moskov181202.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
A Declaration of Intent to renew talks on the basis of the federalization scheme proposed by the mediators on December 5, 2002 had not been signed by the Moldovan
side. Cf. Moldova otvergaet predlozhenie mirovogo soobshchestva po uregulirovaniiu
pridnestrovskoi problemy // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. December 7. http://
www.olvia.idknet.com/ol21-12-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
71
Cf. Moldova Photo Gallery: Transnistria. Photographs ‘d00223-185.jpg’ and ‘d00223186.jpg’. http://www.photo.md/photos/transnistria_2.html (Last consulted March 25,
2003).
72
‘My pomnim vse...’ V Pridnestrov’e nachinaiutsia meropriiatiia k 10-letnei godovshchine Benderskoi tragedii // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. June 18. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/
ol51-06-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
458
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
2002, after a special “requiem meeting” of the Bendery city council in front
of the building – the site of the most serious fighting in 1992 – President
Smirnov led a procession of participants to the new memorial.73
Personality cult of president Smirnov
The cult of personality of President Smirnov started in the forefield of
the celebrations of the tenth anniversary of the proclamation of the TMR in
2000. It is true that there were previous attempts to “heroize” the engineer
from the Russian Far East, but they were grassroot initiatives and not official ones. This is true of the construction of a “historical” parallel between
Smirnov (whose first name is Igor’) and the twelve-century Russian heroic
poem “Lay of Igor’s Campaign.” While Igor’ Sviatoslavovich of Novgorod-Seversk fought the Cumans in the south Russian steppe in 1185, Igor’
Smirnov of Tiraspol’ was seen as defeating the Moldovans in Bendery in
1992.74 After having been awarded the titles of doctor, professor, and academician by Transnistrian and Russian institutions of higher education in 1999,
the year of 2001 was a peak for the new Smirnov cult. First, a bio-bibliography of the president containing not less than 83 items was published,75
then he was awarded the International Sholokhov Prize of the Union of
Writers of the Russian Federation for his book Living in Our Country76 –
joining the likes of Radovan Karadžiæ, Aliaksandr G. Lukashenka, and
Gennadii A. Zyuganov – and finally his policy adviser and political companion Anna Z. Volkova published a voluminous biography entitled The
Leader.77 This hagiographic portrayal of Smirnov as an honest and modest
democrat working day and night for the well-being of the citizens of the
TMR contrasts starkly with his widely known private economic activities
including the ownership of the monopolist “Sheriff” group of supermarkets, filling stations and other retail outlets, among them supposedly also
illegal ones. Hence Smirnov’s nickname “Mafistopheles” – a combination
of “mafioso” and “Mephistopheles.”
Pridnestrovtsy protivopostavili sile oruzhiia silu pravoty. I vystoiali // Ol’viia-Press.
2002. June 19. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol57-06-02.htm (Last consulted March 25,
2003).
74
I. Kozhuchar’. Slovo o polku Igoreve. Razdum’ia, naveiannye ocherednym
prochteniem unikal’nogo proizvedeniia russkoi literatury // Pridnestrov’e. October 2931 and November 1, 1996 (from the series “Lidery”).
75
Deinenko et al. Op. cit. Pp. 5-13.
76
Ibid. 4; N. Smirnov. Zhit’ na nashei zemle. Moskva, 2001.
77
Volkova. Op. cit.
73
459
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
Megalomania combined with minimalism and mnemonics were also the
trademark of Smirnov’s third election campaign president in the fall of 2001.
Among the campaign posters was one showing the horizontally striped redgreen-red TMR flag with two words on each stripe:
Integratsiia [Integration]
Igor’
Nezavisimost’ [Independence]
Nikolaevich
Stabilnost’ [Stability]
Smirnov.78
Another election poster related the personality cult of Smirnov to the topic of international recognition of the TMR, its further existence, and the politics of history. The slogan “They have recognized our leader – they will also
recognize our republic!”79 is illustrated with photographs showing Smirnov
shaking hands with his Russian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian colleagues
Vladimir V. Putin, Aliaksandr G. Lukashenka and Leonid D. Kuchma and
supplemented with a “rule of three” suggesting historical continuity:
Reka – Dnestr [The river (is the) Dniester]
gosudarstvo – PMR [the state (is the) TMR]
prezident – Smirnov [the president (is) Smirnov]80
An election result of almost 80 percent of the votes for Smirnov81 demonstrates that – intimidation and election fraud notwithstanding – the majority of the voters are susceptible for this type of personalized TMR identity management.
Twelve years TMR: An interim balance sheet
“Transnistria and the Transnistrians,” state TMR President Smirnov in
2000 “that is a peculiar region with an astonishing people that has selfsacrificingly fought for its statehood. Our state has become a reality and
that is the most important event of these last ten years.”82 What Smirnov
Cf. http://www.bhhrg.org/conclusion1.htm and http://www.bhhrg.org/
candidates_and_the_issues.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).
79
Priznali lidera – priznaiut i respubliku! Cf. http://www.bhhrg.org/zubr.htm (Last
consulted March 25, 2003).
80
Ibid.
81
Deutsche Presse-Agentur. Smirnov als Präsident der Dnjestr-Republik bestätigt //
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2001. No. 288. December 1. P. 1.
82
I. Smirnov. Dorogie chitateli! // Babilunga et al. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. P. 3.
78
460
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
here called “the truth about our small, but freedom-loving and viable state”83
cannot be rejected offhand. That is, the fact that this tiny state-like entity
still exists twelve years after its self-proclamation, has mastered a number
of internal problems and has survived considerable external pressure, and
even an armed conflict must be taken into consideration. Taking into account the shaky economic basis of the TMR during the 1990s, its uneasy
position between a hostile Moldova and an indifferent Ukraine, and with
the Russian Federation as protector state-to-be being far away, the statelet’s
situation in 2002 seems to have stabilized. This impression of stability is, of
course, partly due to massive repression of the remnants of political opposition in the TMR. But it is unlikely that this is the only reason. The fact that
Smirnov won the presidential elections three times in a row (in 1991, 1996,
and 2001, this time against at least one serious competitor, the pro-Putin
mayor of Bendery Tom M. Zenovich84 ) speaks for itself. The “Moscow
factor” does not fully explain this relative stability. For a number of years
already, Moscow has constantly reduced the number of Fourteenth Army
officers, NCOs and ranks as well as Russian peacekeepers in the quadrilateral force in the security zone,85 and transports arms, military material, and
ammunition from the garrisons in Transnistria to western Russia. Thus, the
assumption seems plausible that the stability of the TMR is at least partially
homemade and that history-based identity creation described above is one
of the key factors in this development.
One clue that supports this interpretation is an opinion poll on “National
processes, language relations, and identity” carried out in spring 1998 on behalf of the Carnegie Endowment by sociologists from Moldova, the TMR, the
Russian Federation, and the US. The main result of this poll, which incorporated 350 inhabitants of the TMR whose ethnic composition reflected the overall ethnic structure of the region, was the statement that the “processes of the
formation of a territorial socio-cultural identity of the Transnistrians”86 could
Ibid.
That Zenovich was perceived by Smirnov as a serious competitor is demonstrated by
the fact that he dismissed Zenovich as mayor of Bendery at the peak of the election
campaign. See Aleksandr Isaev. Liuboi tsenoi uderzhat’sia u vlasti. Smeshchen s
dolzhnosti glavnyi sopernik Smirnova na prezidentskich vyborakh v Pridnestrov’e //
Nezavisimaia Moldova. 2001. No. 206 (2649). November 1. P. 1.
85
Jeff Chinn. The Case of Transdniester (Moldova) // Lena Jonson, Clive Archer (Eds.).
Peacekeeping and the Role of Russia in Eurasia. Boulder, CO, Oxford, 1996. Pp.103-120.
86
N. V. Babilunga. Territorial’naia identichnost’ kak faktor politicheskoi stabil’nosti
Pridnestrov’ia // M. N. Guboglo (Ed.). Etnicheskaia mobilizatsiia i mezhetnicheskaia
integratsiia. Moscow, 1999. P. 192.
83
84
461
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
be proven. 83 percent of the participants in the poll opted for the preservation
of TMR statehood, and 44 percent showed themselves convinced that ‘a unique
unified community... of the Transnistrian people’ existed.”87 More recent
data is provided by another poll carried out in April 2000 on “Moldovan and
Transnistrian Identity” undertaken by the Moscow-based political scientist
Vladimir Kolossov.88 This time, 498 inhabitants of the TMR as well as 513
of right-bank Moldova were interviewed. Whereas on both sides of the river
the degree of political and territorial identification with the region and state
was almost the same, significant differences existed with regard to the perception of one’s standard of living compared to the other side’s. Transnistrians considered their own socio-economic situation in general as poor, but
much better than the situation in right bank Moldova.89 Also, the degree of
trust in the TMR leadership was considerably higher than figures in mainland Moldova: 45.2 percent of those interviewed trusted president Smirnov,
38.7 percent trusted the government, and 37.1 percent the Supreme Soviet.
The highest figures of trust, however, were achieved by two non-political yet
politicized institutions: the Orthodox church with 48.6 percent and, unrivalled number one, the armed forces of the TMR with 64.7 percent!90
Another piece of circumstantial evidence for the relative success of TMR
identity creation comes from the rudimentary civic society of the miniature
republic. In October 1997, when a compromise solution between the TMR
and Moldova seemed to be in reach, a fly-sheet was issued by a radical separatist organization called “The Defenders of Transnistria” was distributed
in the streets of Tiraspol’. In this flyer, President Smirnov was exhorted to
carefully obey the principles of “sovereignty and independence, security and
integrity of the state” according to paragraph 76 of the TMR constitution91 :
Ibid. See also M. N. Guboglo. Mezhnatsional’naia napriazhennost’ v real’nosti i v
predstavleniiach grazhdan // Ibid. Pp. 172-184; and N. V. Babilunga. Etnicheskaia
identichnost’ naseleniia Pridnestrov’ia // Etnicheskaia mobilizatsiia i mezhetnicheskaia
integratsiia: Istoriia. Faktory. Gorizonty. Nauchno-prakticheskaia konferentsiia.
September 29, 1998. Doklady i soobshcheniia. Chisinau, 1999. Pp. 30-32.
88
Vladimir Kolossov. A Small State vs. a Self-Proclaimed Republic: Nation-Building,
Territorial Identities and Prospects of Conflict Resolution (The Case of MoldovaTransdniestria) // Stefano Bianchini (Ed.). From the Adriatic to the Caucasus. The
Dynamics of (De)Stabilization. Ravenna, 2001. Pp. 98-104.
89
Ibid. Pp. 100-101.
90
Ibid. P. 101.
91
Cf. Konstitutsia Pridnestrovskoi Moldavskoi Respubliki, Tiraspol, January, 17 1996 //
Pridnestrov’e. Spetsial’nyi vypusk. No. 17 (287). January 31, 1996. P. 3. See also http://
www.olvia.idknet.com/constit.htm (Last consulted march 25, 2003).
87
462
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Igor’ Nikolaevich [Smirnov]! Do not forget that we are against:
Loosing the independence of our republic;
Becoming a province of Romania;
Living on our native soil as uprooted;
Loosing our language and having to be ashamed of our nationality;
Passing an exam in Romanian language that we do not know and
therefore loosing our jobs;
Repaying back the West for the Republic of Moldova’s many
billions in loans.
We trust that you remain faithful to your oath of allegiance to the
people of Transnistria!92
And in fact Smirnov has throughout all of the eight years of negotiations
with Chiºinãu remained uncompromising. While categorically declining
offers of territorial autonomy for Transnistria within Moldova as well as of
a federalization of the country, with Transnistria as a subject of an asymmetric federation, he insisted on the model of a “common state” (obshchee
gosudarstvo), a confederation of the TMR and the Republic of Moldova
with separate political systems, legislations, currencies, security apparatuses, and even separate armed forces.
As demonstrated, there is considerable evidence that the viewpoint of
the authors of the fly-sheet as well as that of Smirnov is shared by a relative
majority of the inhabitants of the TMR and that a “Transnistrian people” in
the sense of a demos exists. Whether this “people” has the potential to develop into an ethnos is for the time being an open question. In 1970, Mathias Bernath, a historian of Southeastern Europe, referred to the similar case
of post-1944 Macedonian nation-building, stating “that today the existence
of an almost full-fledged nationality in Vardar Macedonia is a hypothesis to
be taken seriously, and tomorrow it will be an irreversible fact provided that
within the next two generations no shifts in the territorial shape of Yugoslavia and Bulgaria occur.”93 In 1998, a Russian-US team of social scientists
92
Zashchitniki Pridnestrov’ia: Prochti i peredai drugomu! Dorogie Pridnestrovtsy! Brat’ia
i sestry! Tovarishchi i druz’ia! Uvazhaemyi Igor’ Nikolaevich! / Undated fly-sheet
collected on October 18, 1997 in downtown Tiraspol’. I thank Klemens Büscher for
providing me with a copy.
93
Mathias Bernath. Das mazedonische Problem in der Sicht der komparativen
Nationalismusforschung // Südost-Forschungen. 1970. Vol. 29. S. 244. For the decisive
decade of Macedonian nation-building see Stefan Troebst. Yugoslav Macedonia, 19431953: Building the Party, the State and the Nation // Melissa K. Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine,
Carol S. Lilly (Eds.). State-Society Relations in Yugoslavia, 1945-1992. New York,
NY, 1997. Pp. 243-266.
463
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
made a similar statement about Transnistria: “In the TMR, the visible signs
of a new national construction are evident and in less then a decade, a new
identity has taken shape.”94 So it seems as if after the successful state-building of the early 1990s the TMR leadership succeeded also in laying the
foundations for a successive nation-building process, thereby proving Miroslav Hroch’s view that while nations are invented by political entrepreneurs
without a hard core of previously existing allegiances – be they language,
region, faith, class, or other – it does not work..95 In this connection the fact
that the “Ruritanians” on the left bank previously belonged to the “Megalomanians” is not unusual. “Megalomanians can become Ruritanians,” as
David Laitin has demonstrated with examples from other post-Soviet cases.96 What in fact is unusual in the case of the TMR is that here the former
“Megalomanians” did not accept the inversion of their status to “Ruritanians” and did not acquiesce in the change of their status from dominant to
non-dominant elite group as did, for example, the Russian-speakers in the
Baltic states, in the Donbass or on the Crimea. In Transnistria, they founded
and even fought for a separate state.97
Whereas in international law as well as in international relations secession in general, and an unpeaceful one in particular, is perceived as being
part of the problem and not of the solution, the political scientist Ulrich
Schneckener recently came up with the formula of “secession as conflict
resolution.”98 His proposals for defusing the conflict between Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo by granting statehood to all three of them probably
apply also to the TMR and Moldova. The conflict potential inherent in any
John O’Loughlin, Vladimir Kolossov, Andrei Tchepalyga. National Construction,
Territorial Separatism, and Post-Soviet Geopolitics in the Transdniester Moldovan
Republic // Post-Soviet Geography and Economics. 1998. Vol. 39. Pp. 352. http://
www.colorado.edu/IBS/PEC/johno/pub/PsgeTMR.doc (Last consulted march 25, 2003).
See also M. N. Guboglo. Tiazhkoe bremia konkuriruiushchich identichnostei. Opyt
Pridnestrov’ia // Ezhegodnyi istoricheski almanach Pridnestrov’ia. 2000. T. 4. Pp. 1335.
95
See Miroslav Hroch. Real and Constructed: the Nature of the Nation // John A. Hall
(Ed.). The State of the Nation. Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism. Cambridge,
1998. Pp. 91-106.
96
Laitin. Identity. P. 260. On the Ruritanians-Megalomanians metaphor see Ernest Gellner.
Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca, NY, 1983. Pp. 58-62.
97
Laitin. Identity. P. 330.
98
Ulrich Schneckener. Sezession als Konfliktlösung – Unabhängigkeit für Montenegro
und Kosovo? // Leviathan. 2001. Bd. 29. S. 314-336. See also Idem. Auswege aus dem
Bürgerkrieg. Modelle zur Regulierung ethno-nationalistischer Konflikte in Europa.
Frankfurt am Main, 2002.
94
464
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
given de facto state is in most instances higher than the one of an internationally recognized – and thus legally bound – subject of international law.
This does, of course, not answer the question about what could be the future
status of the TMR. An indefinite prolongation of the volatile status quo?
An independent and diplomatically recognized mini-state squeezed between
Moldova and Ukraine? “Re”-unification with the distant Russian Federation? Or junior partner in a ZUBR-type Russian-Belarusian-Ukrainian confederation? Yet things become even more complicated when taking into
account the Republic of Moldova’s own serious crisis of identity and the
simultaneous economic crises that have resulted in mass poverty and mass
migration. Much as in the early 1990s, the option of Moldova’s reunification with Romania has strong support within the Moldovan-speaking majority of the country at the beginning of the twenty-first century.99 The closer Romania moves towards NATO and EU, the more attractive the reunification option becomes for impoverished Moldova. This development has a
twofold effect on policy and thinking in Tiraspol’. First, the old guard of
separatists around Smirnov and Volkova treats any rapprochement between
Bucharest and Chiºinãu as another justification for their deep mistrust against
the political class of the new Moldova, be they pro-Romanian nationalists
or, like the present Moldovan government, Russian-speaking communists.
Second and in contradiction of the first point, more flexible TMR politicians like Litskai or Zenovich and, in particular, the majority of Transnistrian entrepreneurs and businessmen favor a double-track policy combining
close relations with Moscow with a Transnistrian “road to Europe.” Not
coincidentally, in December 2002, shortly after Romania was officially
named a candidate to NATO and EU, an NGO called “For Europe, Mutual
Understanding and Cooperation” was founded in Tiraspol’ with the tacit
blessings of the regime.100 And since even policymakers in Tiraspol’ know
that Transnistria’s “road to Europe” leads inevitably via Chiºinãu, the “comTaras Kuzio. History, Memory and Nation Building in the Post-Soviet Colonial Space //
Nationalities Papers. 2002. Vol. 30, P. 257. For the zigzag course in the post-Soviet
continuation of Soviet-style Moldovan nation-building by indigenization see Charles
King. Moldovan Identity and the Politics of Pan-Romanianism // Slavic Review. 1994.
Vol. 53. Pp. 345-368; and Vladimir Solonari. Narrative, Identity, State: History Teaching in Moldova // East European Politics and Society. 2002. Vol. 16. Pp. 415-445.
100
Andrei Mospanov. Pridnestrov’e: Trudnyi put’ k Evrope // Ol’viia-Press. 2002.
December 25. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol109-12-02.htm (Last consulted march 25,
2003). The fact that this report was published by the official TMR press agency indicates
that Za Evropu. Vzaimoponimanie i sotrudnichestvo NGO led by the journalist Anatolii
Panin has considerable political support.
99
465
S. Troebst, “We Are Transnistrians!” Post-Soviet Identity Management...
mon state” option is relevant – hence the recent Transnistrian-Moldovan
talks facilitated by the Russian Federation, Ukraine, and OSCE in December 2002 in Moscow.101
To sum up: Due to the high volatility of political developments in the
southwestern corner of the CIS, a large number of scenarios for Transnistria
have to be taken into account. According to some of them, the TMR has a
fair chance to retain its status of a de facto state, maybe even to become
internationally recognized. The longer current status lasts, the higher is the
likelihood that TMR identity creation pushes its constituents across the point
of no return, triggering a Hrochian “Phase B” in the process of building a
“Transnistrian people”. For the time being, however, what has been constructed by Tiraspol’ does not yet seem to be irreversible.
SUMMARY
 ñâîåé ñòàòüå Ñòåôàí Òðåáñò êîíñòàòèðóåò, ÷òî ïðîâîçãëàøåííàÿ â
1990 ãîäó íà âîñòîêå Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà ñåïàðàòèñòñêàÿ Ïðèäíåñòðîâñêàÿ Ìîëäàâñêàÿ Ðåñïóáëèêà äåðæèòñÿ íà ñëåäóþùèõ îñíîâàíèÿõ: ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ âîëÿ ðåãèîíàëüíîé ýëèòû, ñòðåìÿùåéñÿ ê ñîõðàíåíèþ ñâîåé
âëàñòè è ïðèâèëåãèé; ýêîíîìè÷åñêèé ïîòåíöèàë ýòîãî âûñîêî èíäóñòðèàëüíîãî ðåãèîíà; âîîðóæåííûå ñèëû ñåïàðàòèñòñêîãî äâèæåíèÿ, ñîçäàííûå ñ ïîìîùüþ Ìîñêâû; ðÿä íîâûõ ñîöèàëüíûõ ôàêòîðîâ, ñôîðìèðîâàâøèõñÿ çà äâåíàäöàòü ëåò íåçàâèñèìîé ãîñóäàðñòâåííîñòè. Íà÷èíàÿ ñ
ñåðåäèíû 1990-õ ãã. ñòàëî î÷åâèäíûì íàëè÷èå åùå îäíîãî îñíîâàíèÿ –
íîâîé ïðèäíåñòðîâñêîé èäåíòè÷íîñòè, êîòîðàÿ âîçíèêëà â ðåçóëüòàòå ðåãèîíàëüíîé ïîëèòèêè èäåíòè÷íîñòè, íàïðàâëåííîé íà ñîçäàíèå “ïðèäíåñòðîâñêîãî íàðîäà”. Òðåáñò íàçûâàåò ýòó ïîëèòèêó “ïîëèòèêîé èñòîðèè”,
îñíîâíûå êàòåãîðèè êîòîðîé (ãåîïîëèòèêà, ÿçûê, êóëüòóðà è ðåëèãèÿ) âîñõîäÿò ê âåëèêîðóññêîìó èñòîðè÷åñêîìó íàððàòèâó. Ñîçäàâàåìûé íîâûé
ïðèäíåñòðîâñêèé èñòîðè÷åñêèé ìàñòåð-íàððàòèâ íà÷èíàåòñÿ ñ äðåâíåéøèõ âðåìåí, â òî âðåìÿ êàê êóëüòóðà èñòîðè÷åñêîé ïàìÿòè ôèêñèðóåòñÿ
íà “ãåðîè÷åñêèõ” ïåðâûõ ãîäàõ íåçàâèñèìîñòè, ïàðàëëåëüíî ñîçäàâàÿ êóëü
ëè÷íîñòè ïðåçèäåíòà Ïðèäíåñòðîâñêîé Ìîëäàâñêîé Ðåñïóáëèêè Èãîðÿ
Ñìèðíîâà. Ñòàòèñòè÷åñêèå îïðîñû íàñåëåíèÿ è ðåçóëüòàòû âûáîðîâ äåìîíñòðèðóþò, ÷òî îòíîñèòåëüíîå áîëüøèíñòâî íàñåëåíèÿ ðåñïóáëèêè
ðàññìàòðèâàåò ñåáÿ êàê ïðèäíåïðîâñêèé demos.
Protokol zasedaniia Postoiannogo soveshchaniia. See also Moskovskie itogi: Vsetaki na dogovornoi osnove // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. December 19. http://
www.olvia.idknet.com/ol84-12-02.htm (Last consulted march 25, 2003).
101
466
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Ñåðãåé ÌÓÑÒÅÀÖÝ
“ÌÛ – ÐÓÌÛÍÛ?”
ÏÐÅÏÎÄÀÂÀÍÈÅ ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ Â ÐÅÑÏÓÁËÈÊÅ
ÌÎËÄÎÂÀ Â ÏÎÑËÅÄÍÈÅ ÄÅÑßÒÜ ËÅÒ*
Ðàñïàä ÑÑÑÐ, àêòèâèçàöèÿ íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ è ïðîâîçãëàøåíèå íåçàâèñèìîñòè Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà âûçâàëè ðÿä èçìåíåíèé â
îáùåñòâå, â òîì ÷èñëå è â ñèñòåìå îáðàçîâàíèÿ. Ïðèíÿòèå Êîíñòèòóöèè, Äîêòðèíû ðàçâèòèÿ îáðàçîâàíèÿ, Çàêîíà îá îáðàçîâàíèè è Ãîñóäàðñòâåííîé ïðîãðàììû ðàçâèòèÿ îáðàçîâàíèÿ â ïåðâûå ãîäû íåçàâèñèìîñòè çàëîæèëè ïðàâîâóþ îñíîâó îáíîâëåíèÿ îáðàçîâàòåëüíîé ñèñòåìû.  ðàìêàõ ðåàëèçàöèè ýòèõ ïðàâîâûõ íîðì îñóùåñòâëÿëàñü ðàçðàáîòêà íîâûõ ó÷åáíûõ ïðîãðàìì è øêîëüíûõ ó÷åáíèêîâ. Íàñòîÿùàÿ
ñòàòüÿ íîñèò èíôîðìàöèîííûé õàðàêòåð è ïðèçâàíà ïîçíàêîìèòü ÷èòàòåëåé Ab Imperio ñ äèíàìèêîé îáíîâëåíèÿ ó÷åáíèêîâ â ïîñòñîâåòñêîé Ìîëäîâå, ñ èõ ñîäåðæàíèåì è îñíîâíûìè êîíöåïöèÿìè.
Îò íàöèîíàëüíîé èäåè ê íàöèîíàëüíîìó êóððèêóëóìó
Íà ôîíå ðàçâåðíóâøåãîñÿ íàöèîíàëüíîãî äâèæåíèÿ è äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèõ ïðåîáðàçîâàíèé â Ìîëäîâå, â 1990 ãîäó Ìèíèñòåðñòâî íàóêè è
îáðàçîâàíèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà ïðèíÿëî ïåðâóþ ïðîãðàììó ïî èñ*
Ïåðåâîä ñ ðóìûíñêîãî Àíäðåÿ Êóøêî è Âèêòîðà Òàêè.
467
Ñ. Ìóñòåàöý, Ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà...
òîðèè ðóìûí äëÿ îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíîé øêîëû.1 Íîâûé ïðåäìåò äëÿ
5 – 11 êëàññîâ çàìåíèë ñîáîé â øêîëüíûõ ïðîãðàììàõ èñòîðèþ ÑÑÑÐ
è èñòîðèþ Ìîëäàâñêîé ÑÑÐ (äàëåå ÌÑÑÐ). Íà÷èíàÿ ñ 5 êëàññà â íàöèîíàëüíîé øêîëå áûë ââåäåí ïðåäìåò “èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí”, ïðåñëåäóþùèé íåñêîëüêî öåëåé:
• ðàçâèòèå èíòåðåñà è ôîðìèðîâàíèå ïðåäñòàâëåíèé îá èñòîðèè
íàøèõ ïðåäêîâ;
• ïðîáóæäåíèå íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîñîçíàíèÿ è äîñòîèíñòâà;
• óêðåïëåíèå ãðàæäàíñêîãî ñîçíàíèÿ ÷åðåç ïðèâèâàíèå îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ öåííîñòåé.2
Ýòà ïðîãðàììà ïðåäëàãàëà íîâûé ïîäõîä ê èíòåðïðåòàöèè ðÿäà èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ñîáûòèé ðóìûíñêîé èñòîðèè â öåëîì. Ïðèíöèïèàëüíî
íîâûìè áûëè òàêèå òåìû, êàê ðóìûíñêèé ýòíîãåíåç, ïîëèòèêà öàðèçìà ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê ðóìûíñêèõ êíÿæåñòâàì, ïðèñîåäèíåíèå Áåññàðàáèè, íàöèîíàëüíî-îñâîáîäèòåëüíîå äâèæåíèå è ôîðìèðîâàíèå åäèíîãî ðóìûíñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà è ò. ä. Ó÷åáíàÿ ïðîãðàììà íîñèëà ïåðåõîäíûé õàðàêòåð è, íåñìîòðÿ íà îòñóòñòâèå äèäàêòè÷åñêîé áàçû, ïðåäñòàâëÿëà ñîáîé âàæíûé ýòàï â ïðîöåññå ðåôîðìèðîâàíèÿ èñòîðè÷åñêîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ è âîçâðàòà ê îáúåêòèâíîìó îáñóæäåíèþ íàöèîíàëüíîé èñòîðèè.
Èçëîæåíèå ïðîáëåìàòèêè ñòðóêòóðèðîâàëîñü õðîíîëîãè÷åñêè, íà÷èíàÿ ñ òàêèõ îáùèõ òåì, êàê ïðîèñõîæäåíèå è ïðåäêè ðóìûí, ôîðìèðîâàíèå ðóìûíñêîãî ýòíîñà è ÿçûêà, îñíîâàíèå ñðåäíåâåêîâûõ ðóìûíñêèõ ãîñóäàðñòâ, áîðüáà ñ Îñìàíñêîé èìïåðèåé, îáúåäèíåíèå ðóìûíñêèõ êíÿæåñòâ, ôîðìèðîâàíèå åäèíîãî ðóìûíñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà, âïëîòü
äî ñîáûòèé ÕÕ âåêà, â ÷àñòíîñòè, äâèæåíèÿ çà âîçâðàùåíèå ðóìûíñêîé ãðàôèêè (ëàòèíèöû) è ðóìûíñêîãî ÿçûêà. Àâòîðû ïðîãðàììû îãîâàðèâàëè åå ìåæäèñöèïëèíàðíîñòü, à òàêæå îñíîâíûå ïîíÿòèÿ è íàâûêè, ôîðìèðóåìûå â ïðîöåññå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ è îáó÷åíèÿ íà åå îñíîâå. Ìîæíî óâåðåííî ãîâîðèòü î òîì, ÷òî â óñëîâèÿõ 1990–1991 ãã. èìåííî ýòà ïðîãðàììà çàêëàäûâàëà îñíîâû èñòîðèè ðóìûí êàê øêîëüíîãî
ïðåäìåòà.
Êóðñ èñòîðèè ðóìûí äëÿ 5 êëàññà âêëþ÷àë â ñåáÿ îáçîð îñíîâíûõ
èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ñîáûòèé ñ äðåâíåéøèõ âðåìåí äî íàøèõ äíåé. ÏðîãðàìIstoria Românilor. Programã pentru ºcoala de culturã generalã. Clasele V-XI. Chiºinãu,
1991; Autori: V. Bîcu, Gh. Corovai, A. Morari, P. Parasca, Gh. Posticã, V. Haheu,
E. Moraru, Gh. Palade.
2
Ibid.
1
468
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
ìà äëÿ 6 è 7 êëàññîâ ïðåäóñìàòðèâàëà èçó÷åíèå íàöèîíàëüíîé èñòîðèè
â ðàìêàõ âñåîáùåé àíòè÷íîé èñòîðèè â êîëè÷åñòâå òðåõ3 è ÷åòûðåõ4
òåì ñîîòâåòñòâåííî. Êóðñ èñòîðèè ðóìûí äëÿ 8 êëàññà (68 ÷àñî⠖ ïî
2 ÷àñà â íåäåëþ) âêëþ÷àë àíòè÷íûé ïåðèîä (22 ÷àñà), ñðåäíåâåêîâüå
(40 ÷àñîâ) è 6 ÷àñîâ äëÿ îáîáùåíèÿ ïî êàæäîìó èç ýòèõ ïåðèîäîâ.
Íåñìîòðÿ íà òî, ÷òî çíà÷èòåëüíàÿ ÷àñòü òåì ïîâòîðÿëà óæå ïðîéäåííîå â 5 – 7 êëàññàõ, ïðîãðàììà 8 êëàññà ñîäåðæàëà ðàñøèðåííûé êðóã
ïîíÿòèé è òåðìèíîâ, ÷òî ñïîñîáñòâîâàëî ëó÷øåìó ïîíèìàíèþ èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ñîáûòèé è ïðîöåññîâ â äðåâíèé è ñðåäíåâåêîâûé ïåðèîä.
Ïðîãðàììà äëÿ 9 êëàññà â êîëè÷åñòâå 51 ÷àñà ñîñòîÿëà èç òåì ïî èñòîðèè ðóìûí íîâîãî âðåìåíè, íà÷èíàÿ ñ ðóññêîé ïîëèòèêè â Áåññàðàáñêîì âîïðîñå è çàêàí÷èâàÿ âîéíîé çà íåçàâèñèìîñòü â XIX â. è î÷åðêîì
ðóìûíñêîé êóëüòóðû òîãî âðåìåíè. Êóðñ äëÿ 10 êëàññà (34 ÷àñà – ïî 2
÷àñà â íåäåëþ) âî âòîðîì ñåìåñòðå áûë ïîñâÿùåí èñòîðèè ðóìûí ñ
1900 ïî 1940 ãã.5 Êóðñ èñòîðèè ðóìûí äëÿ 11 êëàññà â êîëè÷åñòâå 34
÷àñîâ ñîñòîÿë èç òðåõ îñíîâíûõ ðàçäåëîâ:
1. Áåññàðàáèÿ â ñîñòàâå ÑÑÑÐ.
2. Ðóìûíèÿ â ïåðèîä 1945 – 1989 ãã.
3. Ìîëäîâà íà ñîâðåìåííîì ýòàïå.
Õîòÿ ôîðìóëèðîâêà è âêëþ÷åíèå ðÿäà èñòîðè÷åñêèõ òåì â ýòó ïðîãðàììó â ñâîå âðåìÿ âûçâàëè îæèâëåííûå äåáàòû, íà äàííûé ìîìåíò
îíà â öåëîì óñòàðåëà. Îäíàêî ñ óâåðåííîñòüþ ìîæíî ñêàçàòü, ÷òî èíèöèàòèâà àâòîðîâ, ïîëîæèâøèõ íà÷àëî ýòîìó âàæíîìó äëÿ íàöèîíàëüíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ êóðñó, çàñëóæèâàåò âûñîêîé îöåíêè.
 1994 ãîäó â ðåçóëüòàòå âñåîáùèõ âûáîðîâ â ïàðëàìåíò Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà Àãðàðíî-Äåìîêðàòè÷åñêàÿ ïàðòèÿ çàâîåâàëà áîëüøèíñòâî
ìàíäàòîâ. Ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ýòîé ïàðòèè âîçðîäèëè øòàìïû ñîâåòñêîé
èñòîðèîãðàôèè â îòíîøåíèè ìîëäàâñêîãî ÿçûêà è íàöèè.6 Ïðàâèòåëü1. Ôðàêèéöû, èëëèðèéöû è êåëüòû (4 ÷àñà); 2. Èíòåãðàöèÿ ôðàêèéñêèõ ïëåìåí â
ãðå÷åñêóþ öèâèëèçàöèþ (6 ÷àñîâ); 3. Ðèìñêîå çàâîåâàíèå Äàêèè (6 ÷àñîâ).
4
1. Ñîõðàíåíèå îëìàíñêîãî ñóáñòðàòà â Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïå (2 ÷àñà); 2. Äðåâíåðóìûíñêàÿ êóëüòóðà (3 ÷àñà); 3. Ôîðìèðîâàíèå ðóìûíñêèõ ôåîäàëüíûõ êíÿæåñòâ è
èõ áîðüáà çà ñóùåñòâîâàíèå ðóìûíñêîãî íàðîäà è åãî íåçàâèñèìîñòü; 4. Ïîëèòè÷åñêîå îáúåäèíåíèå ðóìûíñêèõ êíÿæåñòâ ïîä ðóêîâîäñòâîì Ìèõàÿ Õðàáðîãî.
5
Igor Ojog, Galina Gavriliþã. Problema identitãþii naþionale în manualele de istorie din
Republica Moldova // Flavius Solomon, Alexandru Zub (Eds.). Basarabia. Dilemele
Identitãþii. Iaºi, 2001. P. 85.
6
N. Roibu. Primãvara demnitãþii noastre. Reportaje. Grevele din Basarabia din primãvara
anului 1995. Chiºinãu, 1997.
3
469
Ñ. Ìóñòåàöý, Ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà...
ñòâî ñîçäàëî ñïåöèàëüíóþ êîìèññèþ äëÿ ðàçðàáîòêè ðåøåíèÿ îá èçìåíåíèè êîíöåïöèè êóðñà èñòîðèè ðóìûí.  ìàðòå 1995 ã. Ìèíèñòåðñòâî îáðàçîâàíèÿ ïðèíÿëî ðåøåíèå î çàìåíå êóðñà “èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí”
êóðñîì “èñòîðèÿ Ìîëäîâû”, âûçâàâøåå ìàññîâûé ïðîòåñò.  Êèøèíåâå áûëà îðãàíèçîâàíà ìàññîâàÿ çàáàñòîâêà ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé øêîë è
ÂÓÇîâ, ñòóäåíòîâ è øêîëüíèêîâ, ïîëó÷èâøàÿ øèðîêóþ ïîääåðæêó ñî
ñòîðîíû ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ êîëëåêòèâîâ ïî âñåé ðåñïóáëèêå.7 Ïîñëå äâóõìåñÿ÷íûõ óëè÷íûõ äåìîíñòðàöèé ïðåçèäåíò èçäàë óêàç, íàëàãàâøèé
ìîðàòîðèé íà äèñêóññèè ïî ïðîáëåìå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ êóðñà èñòîðèè
ðóìûí â øêîëàõ.
 1995 ã. êîëëåãèÿ Ìèíèñòåðñòâà îáðàçîâàíèÿ ðåøåíèåì ¹ 15 îò 3
îêòÿáðÿ óòâåðäèëà ó÷åáíûå ïðîãðàììû äëÿ 5–9 êëàññîâ ïî ïðåäìåòàì
“èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí” è “âñåîáùàÿ èñòîðèÿ”. Ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ïðîãðàììîé
1990 ã., ñîäåðæàíèå íîâîé ïðîãðàììû áûëî îïðåäåëåíî ãîðàçäî áîëåå
ÿñíî è äåòàëüíî. Ïðåäìåòû è îòâîäèìûå íà íèõ ÷àñû áûëè ðàñïðåäåëåíû ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì:
Êëàññ
IV
V
VI
Ïðåäìåò
Ïåðèîä
Ââåäåíèå â
èñòîðèþ
ðóìûí
Èñòîðèÿ
Âñåîáùàÿ
èñòîðèÿ
ðóìûí
Èñòîðèÿ
Èñòîðèÿ
ðóìûí
ðóìûí
Âñåîáùàÿ Ñðåäíåâåêîâàÿ
èñòîðèÿ
Èñòîðèÿ
Ñðåäíåâåêîâàÿ
ðóìûí
Êîëè÷åñòâî ÷àñîâ
Ïðåïîäàâàíèå Ðåçåðâ
ó÷èòåëÿ
26
8
Âñåãî ÷àñîâ
34
44
2
46
20
2
22
35
1
36
30
2
32
Istoria Românilor. Istoria Universalã. Programe pentru clasele V-IX, Chiºinãu, 1995;
Autori: P. Cocîrlã, Gh. Corovai, C. Drahenberg, D. Dragnev, Gh. Gonþa, L. Moldovan,
A. Morari, E. Moraru, I. Niculiþã, E. Oltu, I. Ojog, Gh. Palade, P. Parasca, A. Petrencu,
V. Potlog, Gh. Posticã, I. ªarov.
7
470
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
VII
VIII
IX
Âñåîáùàÿ
èñòîðèÿ
Èñòîðèÿ
ðóìûí
Íîâîå âðåìÿ
(1640- 1848)
Íîâîå âðåìÿ
(êîíåö XVIII â.1848 ã.)
Íîâîå âðåìÿ
Âñåîáùàÿ
èñòîðèÿ
(1848- 1914)
Èñòîðèÿ
Íîâîå âðåìÿ
ðóìûí
(1848- 1918)
Âñåîáùàÿ èñò
Íîâåéøàÿ
îðèÿ
èñòîðèÿ
Èñòîðèÿ
Íîâåéøàÿ
ðóìûí
èñòîðèÿ
36
2
38
27
3
30
33
3
36
28
4
32
33
3
36
28
4
32
Òåì âðåìåíåì, â ðàìêàõ ðåôîðìû ñèñòåìû îáðàçîâàíèÿ â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà, íà îñíîâàíèè Çàêîíà îá îáðàçîâàíèè è Êîíöåïöèè îáðàçîâàíèÿ è ïðè ôèíàíñîâîé ïîääåðæêå Âñåìèðíîãî Áàíêà áûëà íà÷àòà ðàçðàáîòêà íàöèîíàëüíîãî êóððèêóëóìà.8 Êóððèêóëóì îïðåäåëèë
êëþ÷åûå ïîíÿòèÿ, îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíûå è ìåæäèñöèïëèíàðíûå öåëè,
à òàêæå öåëè êàæäîãî èç îáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ ýòàïîâ è çàäà÷è êàæäîé èç
äèñöèïëèí. Âîò êàê ýòî âûãëÿäåëî ïðèìåíèòåëüíî ê ïðåäìåòó èñòîðèè:
Çíàíèÿ
Ñïîñîáíîñòè
Öåííîñòè
Óñâîåíèå îñíîâíûõ
ïîíÿòèé, ñâÿçàííûõ ñ
âàæíåéøèìè ìîìåíòàìè
â ðàçâèòèè ÷åëîâå÷åñòâà
Î ðãàí è çîâ àí í îå è çëîæåíèå çíàíèé ïî îïðåäåëåííîé èñòîðè÷åñêîé
ïðîáëåìå
Î ñîçí àí è å ï ðè í àäëåæíîñòè ê îïðåäåëåííîé íàöèè è ÷åëîâå÷åñòâó â öåëîì
Îñâîåíèå îñíîâíûõ
ïîíÿòèé èñòîðèçìà
Âûáîð è àíàëèç ìàòåðèàëîâ ðàçíûõ èñòî÷íèêîâ
Óâàæåíèå îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ, ñîöèàëüíûõ è êóëüòóðíûõ
öåííîñòåé è óñâîåíèå ìîðàëüíûõ íîðì
è ïðèíöèïîâ
8
Curriculum de bazã. Documente reglatoare. Chiºinãu, 1996. Êóððèêóëóì áûë
ðàçðàáîòàí ïîä ýãèäîé Ìèíèñòåðñòâà Îáðàçîâàíèÿ, Íàöèîíàëüíîãî Ñîâåòà ïî
471
Ñ. Ìóñòåàöý, Ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà...
Çíàíèÿ
Ñïîñîáíîñòè
Öåííîñòè
Óñâîåíèå çàêîíîìåðíîñòåé ðàçâèòèÿ ÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî îáùåñòâà ñ
äðåâíåéøèõ âðåìåí
äî íàøèõ äíåé
Àíàëèç è ñòðóêòóðèðîâàíèå èñòîðè÷åñêèõ
ñèòóàöèé
Ïðèíÿòèå ýòíè÷åñêèõ
è êóëüòóðíûõ ðàçëè÷èé
Óñâîåíèå îñíîâíûõ
ïðèíöèïîâ îðãàíèçàöèè
è ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ
îáùåñòâà
Ðàçëè÷åíèå àëüòåðíàòèâíûõ èíòåðïðåòàöèé
äàííîãî ñîáûòèÿ
Ïîíèìàíèå íåîáõîäèìîñòè ó÷àñòèÿ â
äåìîêðàòè÷åñêîì
ïðîöåññå
Óñâîåíèå ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòè èñòîðè÷åñêîãî
ïðîöåññà
Ñâÿçûâàíèå èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ñîáûòèé ñ êîíòåêñòîì èçó÷àåìîé ýïîõè
Òåðïèìîñòü, ÷åñòíîñòü è âçâåøåííîñòü
ñóæäåíèé
Óñâîåíèå êàòåãîðèé
èñòîðè÷åñêîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, åãî îñîáåííîñòåé è åãî èíòåãðàöèÿ â
ðàçâèòèå ÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî
îáùåñòâà
Ñ ï î ñ î áí î ñ ò ü î ò ë è ÷ àò ü
äåéñòâ èÿ èñòîðè ÷åñêèõ
ïåðñîíàæåé è êîíôëèêòóþùèå ìíåíèÿ â ðàçëè÷íûõ èñòîðè÷åñêèõ
èíòåðïðåòàöèÿõ
Ñïîñîáñòâîâàíèå
â çà è ì î ï î í è ì à í è þ
íà ìåæäóíàðîäíîì
óðîâíå ìåæäó ðàçëè÷íûìè ñîîáùåñòâàìè
Óñâîåíèå èñòîðè÷åñêîé
òåðìèíîëîãèè â õîäå
ïðèîáðåòåíèÿ çíàíèé îá
èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ñîáûòèÿõ,
ëè÷íîñòÿõ è ïåðèîäàõ
Ïðàâèëüíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå èñòîðè÷åñêîé òåðìèíîëîãèè
Ñòðåìëåíèå ó÷àñòâ îâ àòü â ðàçëè ÷í ûõ
ïðîåêòàõ
Óñâîåíèå îñíîâíûõ òèïîâ èñòîðè÷åñêèõ èñòî÷íèêîâ ÷åðåç èõ óâÿçûâàíèå ñ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèìè
ýïîõàìè
Óñâîåíèå íàâûêîâ óñòíîãî è ïèñüìåííîãî èçëîæåíèÿ ñ èñïîëüçîâ àíèåì ðàçëè÷íûõ êàòåãîðèé èñòî÷íèêîâ
Ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèå äåìîêðàòè ÷åñêè õ ö åí íîñòåé è äóõà òåðïèìîñòè
Óñâîåíèå ïðè÷èí èñòîðè÷åñêèõ èçìåíåíèé è
ñïîñîáíîñòü èõ îáúÿñíÿòü
Îöåíêà ðàçëè÷íûõ òî÷åê
çðåíèÿ
Ïðîÿâëåíèå óâàæåíèÿ ê äðóãèì ðàñàì,
ðåëèãèÿì è æèçíåííûì óêëàäàì
êóððèêóëóìó è àòòåñòàöèè è Èíñòèòóòà ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ è ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèõ íàóê,
à òàêæå ýêñïåðòà îò Âñåìèðíîãî Áàíêà – äèðåêòîðà äåïàðòàìåíòà êóððèêóëóìà
ïðè Èíñòèòóòå ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ íàóê Ðóìûíèè, äîêòîðà Àëåêñàíäðó Êðèøàíà.
472
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
Çíàíèÿ
Ñïîñîáíîñòè
Óñâîåíèå ïîíÿòèÿ "öèâ
èëèçàöèÿ" âî âñåì åå ñîöèàëüíîì, ýêîíîìè÷åñêîì, òåõíè÷åñêîì, êóëüòóðíîì è èäåéíîì ìíîãîîáðàçèè
Îðèåíòàöèÿ â èñòîðè÷åñêîé õðîíîëîãèè ñ
èñïîëüçîâàíèåì óñëîâíûõ îáîçíà÷åíèé
Óñâ îåí è å ìåõàí è çìîâ ,
îï ðåäåëÿþùè õ îáùåñòâåííóþ ýâîëþöèþ (àäàïòàöèÿ, èçìåíåíèå, îáóñëîâëåííîñòü è ò. ä.)
Ñïîñîáíîñòü äàâàòü
ïðè÷èííî-ñëåäñòâåííûå
îáúÿñíåíèÿ
Öåííîñòè
Ïðîâ åäåí è å ñðàâ í åí è é
è óñòàíîâëåíèå îòíîøåíèé
Ïðîãíîçèðîâàíèå áóäóùèõ ñîáûòèé
Ïîñòðîåíèå ãèïîòåç
Îïåðèðîâàíèå ïðèíöèïàìè ðåëåâàíòíîñòè â
îáëàñòè ìíåíèé è îöåíîê
Ïðîÿâëåíèå èíòåðåñà ê
óðîâ í þ îáùåñòâ åí í îé
æèçíè, êîîïåðàöèè è
ñòàáèëüíîñòè
Êîíöåïöèÿ êóððèêóëóìà áûëà âàæíîé îïîðîé äëÿ øêîëüíûõ ó÷èòåëåé â ïðîöåññå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ, à òàêæå äëÿ àâòîðîâ êóððèêóëóìîâ ïî
êîíêðåòíûì ïðåäìåòàì, è ÿâëÿëàñü îòïðàâíûì ïóíêòîì â ïðîöåññå
ðàçðàáîòêè øêîëüíûõ ó÷åáíèêîâ.
Ðàçðàáîòêà íàöèîíàëüíîãî êóððèêóëóìà ïîçâîëèëà óæå â 1997 ãîäó
áîëåå òî÷íî îïðåäåëèòü äèäàêòè÷åñêóþ ñòðóêòóðó èñòîðè÷åñêîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà äëÿ 4-12 êëàññîâ è íà÷àòü îáñóæäåíèå ñîäåðæàíèÿ êóðñî⠓èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí” è “âñåîáùàÿ èñòîðèÿ”.  1997
ãîäó ïðåäëàãàþòñÿ ê îáñóæäåíèþ ïðîåêòû øêîëüíîãî êóððèêóëóìà ïî
473
Ñ. Ìóñòåàöý, Ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà...
èñòîðèè äëÿ 4-ãî9 è 5-ãî10 êëàññîâ. Ïðîåêòû ñîïðîâîæäàëèñü îïðîñíîé
àíêåòîé. Òåì íå ìåíåå, ðåàëüíîå âëèÿíèå ýòèõ ïðîåêòîâ íà îêîí÷àòåëüíîå îïðåäåëåíèå âàðèàíòîâ êóððèêóëóìà íåèçâåñòíî.
Ïðîåêò êóððèêóëóìà ñîäåðæàë ïîäãîòîâèòåëüíûé êóðñ äëÿ ó÷åíèêîâ 4 êëàññà, ïîñâÿùåííûé íåêîòîðûì ïðîáëåìàì èñòîðè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà. Ñòðóêòóðà êóðñà âêëþ÷àëà îáçîð èñòîðè÷åñêèõ èñòî÷íèêîâ,
èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ëè÷íîñòåé, òðàäèöèé, îáû÷àåâ è îáðàçîâ ðîäíîãî êðàÿ.
Êóððèêóëóì äëÿ 5 êëàññà ïðåäóñìàòðèâàë, â ðàìêàõ îòâåäåííîãî
êîëè÷åñòâà ÷àñîâ, ñèíõðîííîå ïðåïîäàâàíèå êóðñîâ âñåîáùåé èñòîðèè è èñòîðèè ðóìûí. Îíè ñîâìåùàëè ýëåìåíòû èñòîðèè ýêîíîìè÷åñêîãî ðàçâèòèÿ, âíåøíåé ïîëèòèêè, êóëüòóðû, ðåëèãèè è îáðàçà æèçíè
ëþäåé è ãîñóäàðñòâ àíòè÷íîãî ïåðèîäà. Îäíàêî ñîäåðæàòåëüíîå íàïîëíåíèå êàæäîãî ðàçäåëà áûëî ïðåäñòàâëåíî î÷åíü êðàòêî.
 1997 ãîäó, íà îñíîâàíèè êîíöåïöèè Âñåìèðíîãî áàíêà, áûëè ðàçðàáîòàíû íîâûå ó÷åáíûå ïðîãðàììû. Ó÷åáíûé ïëàí äëÿ íà÷àëüíîãî,
ãèìíàçè÷åñêîãî, ñðåäíå- îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíîãî è ëèöåéñêîãî óðîâíåé
íà 1997-1998 ãîäû11 áûë íàöåëåí íà ðåôîðìó îáðàçîâàíèÿ è ðåàëèçàöèþ çàäà÷ ïåðåõîäíîãî ïåðèîäà. Ýòè çàäà÷è ïðåäóñìàòðèâàëè: 1) ïîìåùåíèå ó÷åíèêà â öåíòð îáðàçîâàòåëüíîé ñèñòåìû, ÷òî îáåñïå÷èâàåò
ñëàæåííîñòü è ïðååìñòâåííîñòü îáó÷åíèÿ; 2) àêòóàëèçàöèþ ñîäåðæàíèÿ; 3) ïåðåõîä îò æåñòêî îïðåäåëåííîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ ê ñïåöèôè÷åñêîé àäàïòàöèè ñîäåðæàíèÿ íà êàæäîì óðîâíå îáó÷åíèÿ; 4) âíåäðåíèå
ïåðåäîâûõ ìåòîäîâ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ â îáó÷åíèå. Îêîí÷àòåëüíîå îïðåäåëåíèå êîíöåïöèè ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ èñòîðèè çàêðûëî âîïðîñ î ñòàòóñå ïðåäìåòî⠓âñåîáùàÿ èñòîðèÿ” è “èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí”. Ñîãëàñíî ïðîãðàììå,
íà ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè îòâîäèëîñü:12
Istoria. Curriculum ºcolar pentru clasa a IV-a. Proiect. Chiºinãu, 1997; Autori:
V. Haheu, Gh. Gonþa, P. Cerbuºcã, N. Chicuº, V. Cozma, E. Moraru, N. Petrovschi.
10
Istoria. Curriculum ºcolar pentru clasa a V-a. Proiect. Chiºinãu, 1997. Ïðîåêòû áûëè
ðàçðàáîòàíû ïîä ýãèäîé Íàöèîíàëüíîãî Ñîâåòà ïî êóððèêóëóìó è àòòåñòàöèè ïðè
Ìèíèñòåðñòâå îáðàçîâàíèÿ, ìîëîäåæè è ñïîðòà, â ðàìêàõ ïðîåêòà Âñåìèðíîãî
Áàíêà ïî ðàçâèòèþ êóððèêóëóìà, ÿâëÿþùåãîñÿ îñíîâíûì êîìïîíåíòîì ïðîåêòà
ãëîáàëüíîé ðåôîðìû îáðàçîâàíèÿ.
11
Ïëàí áûë óòâåðæäåí êîëëåãèåé ìèíèñòåðñòâà îáðàçîâàíèÿ 24 äåêàáðÿ 1996 ãîäà.
12
Êîëè÷åñòâî ÷àñîâ, îòâåäåííûõ äëÿ èñòîðèè âî âñåõ êëàññàõ, ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáùèì êàê
äëÿ ðóìûíîÿçû÷íûõ øêîë, òàê è äëÿ øêîë ñ ïðåïîäàâàíèåì íà óêðàèíñêîì, ðóññêîì,
áîëãàðñêîì è ãàãàóçñêîì ÿçûêàõ.
9
474
Ab Imperio, 1/2003
óðîâåíü
1
Íà÷àëüíàÿ øêîëà
2
Ãèìíàçèÿ
3
Îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíàÿ øêîëà
êëàññ
êîëè÷åñòâî ÷àñîâ â
íåäåëþ
4- é
1- 6
5 - 9- é
2
10 - 11- é
3
Ëèöåéñêèé óðîâåíü:
Ïðîôèëü
1 Ëèöåéñêèå êëàññû îáùåé
ïðîãðàììû
2 Ãóìàíèòàðíûé ïðîôèëü
Ôèëîëîãèÿ
Èíîñòðàííûå ÿçûêè
Èñòîðèÿ è îáùåñòâåííûå íàóêè
3 Ðåàëüíûé ïðîôèëü
Ôèçèêà - ìàòåìàòèêà
Èíôîðìàòèêà - ìàòåìàòèêà
Ýêîíîìèêà
Õèìèÿ - áèîëîãèÿ
10- é êëàññ 11- é êëàññ 12- é êëàññ
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 1998 ãîäó äëÿ îáñóæäåíèÿ áûë ïðåäëîæåí ïðîåêò øêîëüíîãî êóððèêóëóìà ïî èñòîðèè äëÿ øåñòîãî êëàññà. Ïðîåêò êóððèêóëóìà âêëþ÷àë â ñåáÿ ïàðàëëåëüíîå ïðåïîäàâàíèå êóðñîâ âñåîáùåé èñòîðèè è èñòîðèè ðóìûí, ñîâìåùàÿ ýëåìåíòû âíåøíåé ïîëèòèêè, ñîöèàëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé, êóëüòóðû, ðåëèãèè è îáðàçà æèçíè ëþäåé è ãîñóäàðñòâ â ñðåäíåâåêîâûé ïåðèîä (V – ñåðåäèíà XVII âåêà).
27 èþëÿ 1999 ãîäà ðåøåíèåì ¹ 13/1 Ìèíèñòåðñòâî íàóêè è îáðàçîâàíèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà óòâåðäèëî íàöèîíàëüíûé êóððèêóëóì ïî
èñòîðèè ëèöåéñêîãî óðîâíÿ, ïîñðåäñòâîì êîòîðîãî ïëàíèðîâàëñÿ ïîñòåïåííûé ïåðåõîä ê äèíàìè÷åñêîé, ãèáêîé è ðåàëèñòè÷íîé ìîäåëè,
àäåêâàòíîé ïîòðåáíîñòÿì ñîâðåìåííîãî îáùåñòâà.
Êóðñ âñåîáùåé èñòîðèè è èñòîðèè ðóìûí äëÿ 10-ãî, 11-ãî è 12-ãî
êëàññîâ ñòðîèëñÿ ïî õðîíîëîãè÷åñêîìó ïðèíöèïó.  êà÷åñòâå çàäà÷
ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ âûäâèãàëîñü ðàçâèòèå òåðïèìîñòè ê ðàçíîîáðàçèþ ìíå475
Ñ. Ìóñòåàöý, Ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà...
íèé ïðè àíàëèçå èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ôàêòîâ, âîçðîæäåíèå íàöèîíàëüíîãî ñàìîñîçíàíèÿ è ÷óâñòâà ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè ê åâðîïåéñêîé è ìèðîâîé öèâèëèçàöèè.  ñëåäóþùåì ãîäó ãðóïïà øêîëüíûõ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé èñòîðèè, ÿâëÿâøèõñÿ àâòîðàìè êóððèêóëóìà, îïóáëèêîâàëà ìåòîäè÷åñêîå
ïîñîáèå ïî ïðåïîäàâàíèþ êóððèêóëóìà, êîòîðîå èñïîëüçóåòñÿ è ïî ñåé
äåíü è îêàçûâàåò ðåàëüíóþ ïîìîùü â îðãàíèçàöèè ïðîöåññà ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ è îáó÷åíèÿ ïî ïðåäìåòàì “èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí”13 è “âñåîáùàÿ èñòîðèÿ”.
 2000 ãîäó êîëëåãèÿ Ìèíèñòåðñòâà îáðàçîâàíèÿ è íàóêè ðåøåíèåì ¹ 17/2 îò 8 ôåâðàëÿ óòâåðäèëà øêîëüíûé êóððèêóëóì äëÿ 5–9 êëàññîâ, â òîì ÷èñëå è ïî èñòîðèè.14 Ýòîò äîêóìåíò ïðàêòè÷åñêè çàâåðøèë
ýòàï ðàçðàáîòêè êóððèêóëóìà íà óðîâíå ãèìíàçèè è îêîí÷àòåëüíî îïðåäåëèë êîíöåïöèþ, îñíîâíûå öåëè, çàäà÷è è ïðèíöèïû èñòîðè÷åñêîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ â 5–9 êëàññàõ. Ñóùåñòâåííûõ èçìåíåíèé ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ïåðâîíà÷àëüíûìè ïðîåêòàìè ñîäåðæàíèÿ êóððèêóëóìà â íåì íå
íàáëþäàëîñü, çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì íåêîòîðûõ âòîðîñòåïåííûõ è ñòèëèñòè÷åñêèõ ïîïðàâîê.
Òàê, â òå÷åíèå äåñÿòèëåòèÿ íåçàâèñèìîñòè Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà,
ïîñðåäñòâîì íàöèîíàëüíîãî êóððèêóëóìà â ïðîãðàììó øêîëüíîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà áûëè ââåäåíû äâà îòäåëüíûõ êóðñà –
“èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí” è “âñåîáùàÿ èñòîðèÿ”, êîòîðûå îáåñïå÷èâàþò ãëóáîêîå óñâîåíèå íàöèîíàëüíîé è âñåîáùåé èñòîðèè.  òî æå âðåìÿ, ïðèíÿòèå íàöèîíàëüíîãî êóððèêóëóìà ïîçâîëèëî ïðèñòóïèòü ê ðàçðàáîòêå íàöèîíàëüíûõ ó÷åáíèêîâ ïî èñòîðèè.
Îäíàêî ïðèõîä ê âëàñòè êîììóíèñòè÷åñêîé ïàðòèè â ðåçóëüòàòå
äîñðî÷íûõ ïàðëàìåíòñêèõ âûáîðîâ â ôåâðàëå 2001 ã. âîçîáíîâèë äèñêóññèþ î ïðåïîäàâàíèè èñòîðèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà. Íûíåøíåå
ïðàâèòåëüñòâî íàñòîé÷èâî ïûòàåòñÿ çàìåíèòü êóðñ “èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí”
êóðñîì “èñòîðèÿ Ìîëäîâû”. Ñ íåäàâíåãî âðåìåíè (ïîñëå ïîñâÿùåííîãî ýòîé òåìå ñåìèíàðà, îðãàíèçîâàííîãî Ìèíèñòåðñòâîì îáðàçîâàíèÿ
ïðè ñîäåéñòâèè Ñîâåòà Åâðîïû â ôåâðàëå 2003 ã.) ïðîïàãàíäèðóåòñÿ
èäåÿ êóðñà èíòåãðèðîâàííîé èñòîðèè.15 Ïîëèòè÷åñêàÿ íåñòàáèëüíîñòü
Àâòîðû: prof. Univ. Dr. hab. Gheorghe Gonþa (coorodnator al grupului de lucru), Dr.
Pavel Cerbuºcã, conf. univ. dr. Nicolae Chicuº, conf. univ. dr. Valeria Cozma, conf.
univ. dr. Nina Petrovschi.
14
Êîîðäèíàòîðîì ðàáî÷åé ãðóïïû íà óðîâíå äèñöèïëèí áûëà Âàëåíòèíà Õàõåó, à
ïðåäñòàâèòåëåì ýêñïåðòíîé êîìèññèè – Ãàëèíà Ãàâðèëèöà.
15
Èäåÿ êóðñà èíòåãðèðîâàííîé èñòîðèè íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ íîâîé â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà.
 1994 ã. Âàëåíòèíà è Âàñèëèå Õàêåó îïóáëèêîâàëè â Êèøèíåâå ó÷åáíèê ïî
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â ñòðàíå è áåñêîìïðîìèññíàÿ ïîçèöèÿ ïðàâèòåëüñòâà êîììóíèñòîâ ïî
ïðîáëåìå èñòîðè÷åñêîãî îáðàçîâàíèÿ ñòàâÿò ïîä óãðîçó ïðàâèëüíóþ
ýâîëþöèþ îáðàçîâàòåëüíîãî ïðîöåññà, ðåàëèçàöèþ ïðèíöèïîâ êóððèêóëóìà è ðàçðàáîòêó ñîâðåìåííûõ ó÷åáíèêîâ ïî èñòîðèè.
Îò ïóáëèöèñòè÷åñêèõ ñòàòåé ê øêîëüíîìó ó÷åáíèêó ïî
èñòîðèè
Âîïðîñ îá ó÷åáíîé ëèòåðàòóðå ïî èñòîðèè ðóìûí â øêîëàõ Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà ðåøàëñÿ ïîñòåïåííî êàê ïîñðåäñòâîì ìåñòíûõ ïóáëèêàöèé, òàê è áëàãîäàðÿ ìíîãî÷èñëåííûì ïîñòàâêàì èñòîðè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðû èç Ðóìûíèè. Ïî íåêîòîðûì äàííûì, èç áîëåå ÷åì ÷åòûðåõ
òûñÿ÷ ó÷àùèõñÿ 5–11-ãî êëàññîâ â ïåðèîä 1990-1996 ãîäîâ òîëüêî 2030% áûëè îáåñïå÷åíû íåîáõîäèìûìè ó÷åáíûìè ìàòåðèàëàìè.16 Íåäîñòàòîê ó÷åáíûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ ÷àñòè÷íî âîñïîëíÿëñÿ óñèëèÿìè ìîëäàâñêèõ èñòîðèêîâ, ïîäãîòîâèâøèõ ñåðèþ ñòàòåé íà èñòîðè÷åñêèå
ñþæåòû äëÿ ïåðèîäè÷åñêîé ïå÷àòè (íàïð., äëÿ ñïåöèàëèçèðîâàííîãî
æóðíàëà “Êóæýòó” (“Ìûñëü”)), à òàêæå áëàãîäàðÿ ïîâòîðíîé ïóáëèêàöèè ó÷åáíèêà Ï. Ï. Ïàíàèòåñêó “Èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí”,17 êîòîðûé â ïåðâûå
ãîäû íåçàâèñèìîñòè ñòàë ñàìûì ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûì ïîñîáèåì ïî èñòîðèè.  1991 ã. ïîä ýãèäîé Ìèíèñòåðñòâà íàóêè è îáðàçîâàíèÿ, Íèêîëàåì Äîáèæà è Àóðåëèàíó Ñèëüâåñòðó áûëà îïóáëèêîâàíà êíèãà “Äà÷åàäà”, öåëüþ êîòîðîé ÿâëÿëîñü îçíàêîìëåíèå ó÷àùèõñÿ íà÷àëüíûõ
êëàññîâ ñ èñòîðèåé Ðîäèíû. Â äàëüíåéøåì, â 1993 ãîäó, ýòà êíèãà áûëà
ðåêîìåíäîâàíà êîìèññèåé ýêñïåðòîâ Ìèíèñòåðñòâà íàóêè è îáðàçîâàíèÿ â êà÷åñòâå êíèãè äëÿ ÷òåíèÿ âî 2 êëàññå. Êíèãà ñîäåðæèò èñòîðè÷åñêèå ðàññêàçû íà ðàçíûå òåìû, â òîì ÷èñëå î “ïðåäêàõ” (Áóðåáèñòû
è Äåöèáàëà) è íàöèîíàëüíûõ ãåðîÿõ (Øòåôàí Âåëèêèé, Ìèõàé Õðàáðûé, Âàñèëèé Ëóïó è Äìèòðèé Êàíòåìèð). Õîòÿ ýòà ðàáîòà íå ñòàëà
àíòè÷íîé “èíòåãðèðîâàííîé èñòîðèè” äëÿ 5 êëàññà, êîòîðûé ñîäåðæàë ìíîæåñòâî
êîíöåïòóàëüíûõ, íàó÷íûõ è ìåòîäîëîãè÷åñêèõ îøèáîê, çà ÷òî è áûë ðàñêðèòèêîâàí.
Ïîìèìî òîãî, ÷òî ýòîò ó÷åáíèê ÿâëÿëñÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè ïëàãèàòîì äðóãèõ
ó÷åáíèêîâ ïî èñòîðèè, â íåì óäåëÿëîñü âñåãî íåñêîëüêî ñòðàíèö àíòè÷íîé èñòîðèè
ñàìîãî ìîëäàâñêîãî ðåãèîíà. Áîëåå ïîäðîáíî îá ýòîì ñì.: â ãàçåòå “Literatura ºi
Arta” è â æóðíàëå “Cugetul” çà 1994 ã.
16
Igor Ojog, Galina Gavriliþã. Problema identitãþii naþionale în manualele de istorie din
Republica Moldova // Basarabia. Dilemele Identitãþii. P. 87.
17
P. P. Panaitescu. Istoria Românilor. Manual pentru clasa a VIII-a secundarã. Ediþia a
VI-a. Craiova, 1943.
477
Ñ. Ìóñòåàöý, Ïðåïîäàâàíèå èñòîðèè â Ðåñïóáëèêå Ìîëäîâà...
øêîëüíûì ó÷åáíèêîì, ïî ñîäåðæàíèþ è îôîðìëåíèþ îíà ïðåäñòàâëÿåò
õîðîøèé îáðàçåö êíèãè äëÿ íà÷àëüíîé øêîëû.  ïåðèîä 1991-1992 ãã.
ÿññêèå èñòîðèêè ðàçðàáîòàëè êðàòêèé êóðñ èñòîðèè ðóìûí â 4-õ êíèãàõ
äëÿ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé, ñòóäåíòîâ è ó÷åíèêîâ ñòàðøèõ êëàññîâ.18 Ðàáîòà
áûëà óòâåðæäåíà ê ïå÷àòè áîëüøèì òèðàæîì êèøèíåâñêèìè âëàñòÿìè
è âïîñëåäñòâèè ðàñïðîñòðàíåíà âî âñåõ îáùåîáðàçîâàòåëüíûõ ó÷ðåæäåíèÿõ ðåñïóáëèêè äîóíèâåðñèòåòñêîãî è óíèâåðñèòåòñêîãî óðîâíåé. Â
1992 ãîäó Èíñòèòóò èñòîðèè Àêàäåìèè Íàóê Ìîëäîâû îïóáëèêîâàë îáîáùàþùóþ ðàáîòó19 ïî íåêîòîðûì ïðîáëåìàì äðåâíåé è ñðåäíåâåêîâîé
èñòîðèè Ìîëäîâû, ðàññìîòðåííûì â îáùåðóìûíñêîì êîíòåêñòå. Ýòà
ðàáîòà áûëà àäðåñîâàíà øèðîêîìó êðóãó ÷èòàòåëåé, âêëþ÷àÿ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé, ó÷åíèêîâ è ñòóäåíòîâ.  òîì æå ãîäó È. Îæåã è È. Øàðîâ ïóáëèêóþò ðàáîòó “Êóðñ ëåêöèé ïî èñòîðèè ðóìûí”,20 êîòîðàÿ, ïðè îòñóòñòâèè èñòîðè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðû, ïîñòåïåííî ñòàëà ñàìîé ïîïóëÿðíîé
è øèðîêî èçâåñòíîé ñðåäè øêîëüíèêîâ è ñòóäåíòîâ.
 1993 ãîäó, â öåëÿõ îáëåã÷åíèÿ ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ íîâåéøåé èñòîðèè ðóìûí, â Êèøèíåâå áûë íàïå÷àòàí ñáîðíèê äîêóìåíòîâ ïî ïåðèîäó 1917 –
1992 ãîäîâ.21 ×åðåç ãîä èñòîðèêè È. Îæåã è È. Øàðîâ ïóáëèêóþò ïëàíêîíñïåêò ïî èñòîðèè ðóìûí, êîòîðûé ñòàë îïîðíûì ó÷åáíî-ïðàêòè÷åñêèì ìàòåðèàëîì äëÿ ó÷àùèõñÿ ñòàðøèõ êëàññîâ è äàæå äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ.22
Âïîñëåäñòâèè ïëàí-êîíñïåêò áûë ïåðåâåäåí íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê.
 1996 ãîäó èçâåñòíûé èñòîðèê Àíàòîë Ïåòðåíêó ðàçðàáîòàë êóðñ
ëåêöèé ïî âñåîáùåé èñòîðèè,23 àäðåñîâàííûé â îñíîâíîì ñòóäåíòàì
èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ôàêóëüòåòîâ, íî øèðîêî èñïîëüçóåìûé òàêæå øêîëüíûìè ó÷èòåëÿìè.
Istoria Românilor. Anticã. Iaºi-Chiºinãu, 1991; I. Toderaºcu, V. Neamþu, Gh. Pungã,
I. Caproºu. Istoria Românilor. Medievalã. Iaºi-Chiºinãu, 1992; Gh. Platon. Istoria
Românilor. Epoca modernã. Chiºinãu-Galaþi, 1992; I. Agrigoroaiei, D. D. Rusu. Istoria
Românilor. Epoca contemporanã. Chiºinãu-Galaþi, 1992.
19
V. Dergaciov, I. Niculiþã, D. Dragnev, L. Polevoi, Gh. Gonþa, I. Eremia, V. Tcaci, V.
Mischevca, A. Eºanu . Istoria Moldovei din cele mai vechi timpuri pînã în epoca modernã
(aspecte din viaþa politicã, socialã ºi a culturii). Chiºinãu, 1992.
20
I. Ojog, I. ªarov. Curs rezumativ de lecþii la Istoria Românilor. Partea I-IV. Chiºinãu,
1992.
21
M. Cernenco, A. Petrnco, I. ªiºcanu (Eds.). Crestomaþie la istoria românilor 19171992. Chiºinãu, 1993.
22
I. Ojog, I. ªarov. Plan-conspect la Istoria Românilor. Partea I, Epoca anticã ºi medievalã;
Partea a II-a, Epoca modernã ºi contemporanã. Chiºinãu, 1994.
23
Anatol Petrencu. Istorie Universalã. Epoca Contemporanã 1939-1995 (Europa, SUA,
Canda). Prelegeri. Ediþia a II-a, completatã. Chiºinãu, 1995. Êíèãà âûäåðæàëà
íåñêîëüêî èçäàíèé.
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 1995-1996 ãîäàõ ïîä ýãèäîé Èíñòèòóòà ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèõ è ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèõ íàóê Ìèíèñòåðñòâà íàóêè è îáðàçîâàíèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà âûõîäÿò áðîøþðû ïîä íàçâàíèåì “Âñåîáùàÿ èñòîðèÿ Íîâîãî âðåìåíè, ÷àñòü ïåðâàÿ (1640 – 1815 ãã.)”24 è “Èñòîðèÿ Ðóìûí. ×àñòü ïåðâàÿ (ñåðåäèíà 16 – íà÷àëî 19 âåêà)”,25 êîòîðûå áûëè ðåêîìåíäîâàíû â
êà÷åñòâå ýêñïåðèìåíòàëüíûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ äëÿ 7 êëàññà.
 1995 ãîäó êîìèññèÿ ýêñïåðòîâ Ìèíèñòåðñòâà îáðàçîâàíèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà óòâåðæäàåò â êà÷åñòâå ó÷åáíèêà äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ èñòîðè÷åñêèõ ôàêóëüòåòîâ è ïîñîáèÿ äëÿ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé äîóíèâåðñèòåòñêîãî óðîâíÿ êíèãó “Íîâàÿ èñòîðèÿ Åâðîïû è Àìåðèêè”.26  òîì æå
ãîäó íà îñíîâàíèè ïðîãðàììû èçó÷åíèÿ èñòîðèè ðóìûí, óòâåðæäåííîé Ìèíèñòåðñòâîì îáðàçîâàíèÿ Ðåñïóáëèêè Ìîëäîâà, ïóáëèêóåòñÿ
êíèãà “Èñòîðèÿ ðóìûí. Áåññàðàáèÿ è Ïðèäíåñòðîâüå. 1912 – 1993 ãã.”,
àäðåñîâàííàÿ â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü ó÷åíèêàì ñòàðøèõ êëàññîâ, èçó÷àþùèõ èñòîðèþ íîâîãî è íîâåéøåãî âðåìåíè.27
 1997 ãîäó êîìèññèÿ ýêñïåðòîâ Ìèíèñòåðñòâ