Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования “Томский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет” Л.П. Даниленко, Ю.Ю. Сильман TECHNICAL ENGLISH FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS AND STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS Учебное пособие по английскому языку для студентов старших курсов строительного и архитектурного факультетов Томск Издательство ТГАСУ 2016 УДК 378.69:811.111(075.8) ББК 74.58 : 81.2я7 Д 17 Даниленко, Л.П. Technical English for Engineers and Struсtural Designers [Текст]: учебное пособие / Л.П. Даниленко, Ю.Ю. Сильман. – Томск : Изд-во Том. гос. архит. строит. ун-та. – 2016. –183 с. ISBN 978-5-93057-696-2 Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов строительного и архитектурного факультетов. Цель учебного пособия – совершенствование у студентов практических умений и навыков чтения и перевода оригинальных технических текстов по специальности, а также развитие навыков устной речи в профессиональной сфере общения. УДК 378.69:811.111(075.8) ББК 74.58 : 81.2я7 Рецензенты: О.М. Овчинникова, канд. пед. наук, доцент кафедры педагогики НИ ТПУ Э.Н. Гончарова, ст. преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков ТГАСУ ISBN 978-5-93057-696-2 © Томский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет, 2016 © Даниленко Л.П., Сильман Ю.Ю., 2016 CONTENTS Введение PART I STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Text 1. Civil engineering Text 2. Structural engineering Text 2a. Need for and use of structures Text 3. Structural designer’s work Text 4. Conceptual design, innovation and planning Text 5. Aims and factors considered in designing Text 6. Integration of cost, quality and time Text 7. 3D-modelling and designing buildings Text 8. Automation and robotics in construction Text 9. Building robots Test for self-examination ROLE PLAYING “Build your city” 5 7 9 14 17 20 23 26 28 30 34 37 43 47 PART II BUILDING MATERIALS Text 1. Building materials Text 2. Timber Text 3. Cement and concrete Text 3a. Durability, workability, and waterproofness Text 4. Metals Text 5. Building stone Text 6. Brick Text 7. Glass Text 8. Plastics Text 9. The options of using timber, concrete and steel Test for self-examination 49 51 53 56 63 65 70 72 76 77 80 84 3 PART III PARTS AND ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING Text 1. Types of structures Text 2. Steel frames Text 2a. The use of steel frame structures Text 3. Tall buildings Text 4. Constructing a skyscraper Text 5. Shell and wide span structures Text 6. Parts and elements of a building Text 7. Foundations Text 7a. Classification of foundations Text 8. Floor systems Text 8a. Basic floor types Text 9. Exterior walls Text 10. An external wall insulation Text 11. Finishing of exterior walls Text 12. Roof design Text 13. Shape of roofs Text 14. Roof materials Text 15. Shell roof Test for self-examination ROLE PLAYING “My new home” 88 90 94 98 101 105 108 112 114 117 120 122 125 129 131 140 143 147 149 154 157 ADDITIONAL READING Text 1. Eiffel Tower Text 2. The Highest Skyscraper in the World Text 3. New York’s Empire State Building Text 4. Housing in Britain and the USA Text 5. Housing in Russia 160 162 163 165 168 VOCABULARY 174 4 ВВЕДЕНИЕ Данное учебное пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов строительного и архитектурного факультетов, а также для студентов, получающих дополнительную квалификацию “Переводчик в сфере профессиональной коммуникации”. Пособие может использоваться как для проведения практических занятий под руководством преподавателя, так и для самостоятельной работы теми, кто хочет научиться читать и переводить научно-техническую литературу. Основной целью пособия является развитие навыков чтения и понимания оригинальной литературы по специальности на английском языке, расширение словарного запаса, необходимого студентам для профессионального общения. В пособии использован современный материал, тексты отобраны из английских и американских источников с учетом их информативности и соответствия научно-техническим достижениям. Предлагаемый аутентичный материал способствует развитию навыков различных видов чтения (изучающее, просмотровое, ознакомительное, поисковое) и навыков работы со словарем. Выпускник, освоивший программу бакалавриата, должен обладать следующими общекультурными компетенциями: ОК-5: способностью к коммуникации в устной и письменной формах на русском и иностранном языках для решения задач межличностного и межкультурного взаимодействия; ОК-6: способностью работать в коллективе, толерантно воспринимать социальные, этнические, конфессиональные и культурные различия. Общепрофессиональными компетенциями: ОПК-9: владением одним из иностранных языков на уровне профессионального общения и письменного перевода. В результате освоения дисциплины обучаемый должен: Знать: лексический минимум в объеме 4000 учебных 5 лексических единиц общего и терминологического характера, необходимого для возможности получения информации из зарубежных источников. Уметь: читать литературу по специальности с целью поиска информации без словаря, переводить тексты по специальности со словарем. Владеть: приемами работы с терминологическими словарями (в том числе электронными). Учебное пособие состоит из трех разделов (Part I – Civil Engineering, Part II – Building Materials, Part III – Parts and Elements of a Building), дополнительных текстов, англо-русского словаря, в который включены все слова и словосочетания, встречающиеся в текстах и упражнениях. Каждый раздел начинается с введения активной лексики и упражнений после каждого текста, которые содержат в основном активную лексику и позволяют детально проработать каждую тему. Неоднократное повторение лексики способствует интенсивному овладению активным и пассивным словарем. Тексты сопровождаются комментариями и вопросами для самоконтроля. Тесты, которые служат для контроля усвоения студентами лексических аспектов урока, представлены в конце каждого раздела. Большое количество текстов и заданий к ним дают возможность преподавателю варьировать работу в зависимости от уровня подготовки группы и давать индивидуальные задания студентам. Задачами деловых игр являются активизация лексики по изучаемой теме, совершенствование профессиональной компетенции студентов и вовлечение их в коммуникативную деятельность. Участие в деловой игре предполагает принятие самостоятельных решений. Дополнительные тексты по тематике и лексике связаны с основными текстами и предназначены для самостоятельной и индивидуальной работы. 6 PART I STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Words to be remembered: structure – конструкция, сооружение construction – строительство, сооружение, конструкция design – проект, чертеж, дизайн engineering – конструирование, инженерное искусство civil engineering – гражданское строительство structural engineering – проектирование зданий и сооружений material engineering – материаловедение residential structure – жилое сооружение housing – жилищное строительство technique – технические приемы/методы water supply system – система водоснабжения 7 sewerage – канализация, водоотведение manufacture – производство, изготовление construction site – строительная площадка frame – каркас; рама maintenance – техническое обслуживание, осуществление профилактического ремонта installation – установка, монтаж demolition – демонтаж или снос здания (сооружения) storey (floor) – этаж draft – чертеж, эскиз drawing – чертеж, рисунок computer simulation – компьютерное моделирование masonry – каменная или кирпичная кладка requirement (demand) – требование, потребность strength – прочность durability – прочность, долговечность safety – безопасность responsibility – ответственность corrosion – коррозия, ржавление fire protection – противопожарная защита availability – наличие, пригодность tender documents – тендерная документация bill of quantities – предварительная смета строительных работ structural engineer – инженер-проектировщик customer – покупатель, заказчик client – клиент, заказчик contractor – подрядчик advantage – преимущество, выгода disadvantage – недостаток automation – автоматизация 8 robotics – робототехника casting – отливание; литье металла welding – сварка convenient – удобный to assemble – собирать, монтировать to disassemble – разбирать, демонтировать to finish – отделывать, заканчивать, обрабатывать to equip – оборудовать to transfer – передавать/переносить (нагрузку) to carry out – выполнять to make decision – принимать решение to take into consideration (account) – принимать во внимание, учитывать to estimate load – рассчитывать нагрузку Task. Read and translate the text, do the exercises given below. TEXT 1. CIVIL ENGINEERING Civil engineering describes the profession of designing and executing structural works helping to make our world a better place to live. As the technological revolution expands, as the world’s population increases, and as problems with environment are multiplied, civil engineering skills will be needed throughout the world. This branch of engineering covers different areas including the design and construction of buildings and houses, dams, tunnels, bridges, canals, sanitation systems, also the stationary parts of transportation systems – highways, airports, port facilities, and roadbeds for railroads. 9 It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including architectural engineering, environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water supply and sewerage engineering, material engineering, offshore engineering*, aerospace engineering, construction surveying, and some others. Each of these areas involves different duties and different uses of engineers’ knowledge and experience. Environmental Engineering. The skills of environmental engineers have become increasingly important as we protect our natural resources. Environmental engineers transform physical, chemical and biological processes into systems to destroy toxic substances, remove pollutants from water, reduce nonhazardous solid waste volumes, eliminate pollutants* from the air and develop groundwater supplies. Geotechnical Engineering is required in all aspects of civil engineering because most projects are supported by the ground. A geotechnical engineer may develop projects below the ground, such as tunnels, foundations and offshore platforms. They analyse the properties of soil and rock that support and influence the behaviour of these structures. They evaluate potential settlement of buildings, the stability of slopes and fills, the effects of earthquakes. They also take part in the design and construction of dams, embankments and other structures. Transportation engineering. The quality of a community is directly related to the quality of its transportation system. Transportation engineers work to move people, goods and materials safely and efficiently. They find ways to meet our ever10 increasing travel needs on land, air and sea. They design, construct and maintain all types of transportation facilities, including airports, highways, railroads, mass transit systems and ports. Civil engineers have one of the world’s most important jobs: they build our quality of life. With creativity and technical skills, civil engineers plan, design, construct and operate the facilities essential to modern life, ranging from bridges and highway systems to water treatment plants and energy-efficient buildings. Civil engineers solve the problems, concerned with pollution, traffic jams, drinking water, energy needs, urban redevelopment and community planning. They may work in research, construction supervision, maintenance or even in sales or management. Research is one of the most important aspects of scientific and engineering practice. Many civil engineers, among them the top people in the field, work in designing. As we have seen, civil engineers work on many different kinds of structures, so it is normal practice for an engineer to specialize in just one kind. In designing buildings, engineers often work as consultants of architectural or construction firms. Becoming a civil engineer is a lot of work but if you like the idea of being a part of a big complex projects to improve people’s lives, it could be just the profession for you. 11 Notes: offshore engineering – сооружения на расстоянии от берега pollutants – загрязнители EXERCISES Ex. 1. Read the following international words and give their Russian equivalents. Engineer, engineering, design, designer, designing, project, architecture, architect, structure, construction, profession, qualification, practice, industry, management, mechanics, technique, specialist, specialize, protection, consultant, material, metal, ceramics, polymer, laboratory, aspect, control, hydraulic, transport, airport, tunnel, canal, sanitation, energy, company, firm. Ex. 2. Match English and Russian equivalents. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Engineer Designer Construction Architect Civil engineering Material engineering Structural engineering 8. Project 9. Management 10. Industry 12 a) проект b) проектировщик c) управление d) исследователь e) промышленность f) инженер g) гражданское строительство h) исследование i) механика j) материаловедение 11. Research 12. Researcher 13. Mechanics 14. Profession k) сооружение l) профессия m) проектирование зданий n) архитектор Ex. 3. Analyze the information from the text and match each type of engineering with its scope. TYPE OF ENGINEERING 1. Civil engineering is … SCOPE a) purification, water supply, control of different fluids and sewage 2. Structural engineering is … b) studying, creating and testing building materials and their composites 3. Water supply and sewage engineering is … c) designing and constructing buildings, roads, bridges 4. Material engineering is … d) constructing permanent structures like houses, hospitals, schools Ex. 4. Find correct answers for the questions. 1. What is engineering? 2. What areas of activity does civil engineering cover? 3. What are the main subdivisions of civil engineering? 13 4. Where can civil engineers work? 5. What’s the most proper place of work for the engineer who is interested in science? 6. Which profession of civil engineering is the most prestigious, demanded and well-paid in modern society in your opinion? 7. What kind of engineering would you like to specialize in? Task. Read and translate the text using the dictionary. TEXT 2. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Structural engineering covers the conception*, planning, designing, drawings and construction for all types of structures, that support their own weight and the loads they carry, and that resist extreme forces from wind, earthquakes, temperature and others. Bridges, buildings, and many kinds of projects are included with this speciality. Structural engineers develop appropriate combinations of steel, concrete, timber, plastic and new exotic materials. They also plan and design, and visit projects sites to make sure work is done properly. Professional engineers work as a team at any given project under the overall control of an architect for a building structure. Don’t think that structural engineers’ work is mechanical or 14 routine in nature; it is useful to consider his/her position in building construction where the parties involved are: the client (or owning organization), who has a need for a given building and will finance the project; the architect, who produces proposals* in the form of building plans and models (or a computer simulation) to meet the client's requirements, who controls the project and who engages consultants to bring the proposals into being. consultants (structural, mechanical, electrical, heating and ventilating etc.), who carry out the detail design, prepare working drawings and tender documents and supervise construction; contractors, who carry out fabrication and erection of the structural framework, floors, walls, finishes and installation of equipment and services. The structural engineers work as the members of a team, and to operate successfully it is necessary to have knowledge, experience and the ability to do their work with great responsibility. Their role may be summarized as planning, design preparation of drawings and tender documents and supervision of construction. They make decisions about materials, structural form and design methods to be used. They are responsible for safety and must ensure that the consequences of failure* due to accidental causes are limited. 15 Notes: conception – концепция, понятие proposal – предложение consequences of failure – последствия разрушения EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the Russian for: Conception, fabrication, erection, planning, client, walls, computer simulation, heating, ventilating, structural framework, floors. Ex. 2. Give the English for: Рабочие чертежи, работа в команде, рутинная работа, ответственная работа, финансировать проект, подрядчик, соответствовать требованиям заказчика, консультант, тендерная документация, отделочные работы, руководить строительством, установка оборудования, отвечать за безопасность, сократить последствия разрушения. Ex. 3. Match the terms with their definitions. 1. An architect is … a) a person who needs a structure and who finances the project 2. An engineer is … b) a person who works out the plan for some kind of structural work (for example a house, a bridge, a heating system etc.) 16 3. A structural designer is … c) an occupation which requires a specialized education and training 4. A client is … d) a specialist who carries out fabrication and erection of a structure 5. A consultant is … e) a member of engineering profession, a specialist with higher or special education 6. A contractor is… f) a specialist who prepares tender documents and supervises construction 7. A profession is … g) a qualified specialist who carries out architectural designing and interior solutions Task. Read and translate the text, do the exercises given below. TEXT 2a. NEED FOR AND USE OF STRUCTURES Structures are one of mankind’s basic needs next to food and clothing, and they are a feature of civilization. The main purpose of structures is to carry loads and transfer them to the ground. Structures may be classified according to use and need. A general classification is: 17 residential – houses, apartments; commercial – offices, banks, department stores, shopping centres; educational – schools, universities; social – exhibition halls, theatres, museums, art galleries, leisure centres, sports stadiums, etc.; industrial – factories, plants, warehouses*, power stations, aircraft hangars* etc. Speaking of residential construction we must say that the apartment houses are mostly built to suit urban conditions. Mass housing* provides home for many families and is at once public and private. The techniques of construction or the methods by which structures are formed from particular materials are influenced not only by the availability and character of materials but also the total technological development of a society. Presentdays designs for residential construction include all modern conveniences for a dwelling*; they advocate larger, better built and better equipped flats and houses. There is a marked improvement in the heating and ventilating systems as well as in hot-water supply, kitchen and sanitary fittings*. Industrial buildings comprise another significant type of construction. Modern industrial buildings have demonstrated the advantages of reinforced concrete arches, metal frames, and glass walls. Other important engineering structures are: bridges; towers – water towers*, pylons*, lighting towers* etc.; special structures – offshore structures, car parks, radio telescopes, mining structures etc. 18 Notes: warehouses – склады aircraft hangars – ангары для самолетов mass housing – массовое жилищное строительство или застройка facilities – оборудование dwelling – жильё, жилище sanitary fittings – сантехника water towers – водонапорные башни pylons – опоры lighting towers – маяки EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the English for: Характеристика цивилизации, основная потребность человечества, переносить нагрузку, жилые сооружения, образовательные и общественные сооружения, городские условия, коммерческие и промышленные сооружения, атомная станция, склад, мост, башня, парковка, жилище, современные удобства, технология строительства, горячее водоснабжение, отопление и вентиляция, сантехника. Ex. 2. Match two columns and make up 6 sentences. Model: An institute is an example of an educational structure. Bank Mine College industrial commercial social 19 Power station Cinema hall Apartment residential educational special Ex. 3. Say if the sentences given below are true or false. 1. Constructing buildings is one of the principle features of civilization. 2. People’s main needs are food, clothes and dwelling. 3. Technological progress doesn’t influence the techniques of construction. 4. The systems of heating, ventilating, water supply and sanitary fittings are getting better and better. 5. The example of a social structure is a swimming pool. 6. Stores, offices and banks are the examples of industrial structures. Task. Look through the text and give a short summary. TEXT 3. STRUCTURAL DESIGNER’S WORK The aim of a structural designer is to produce designs and drawings for a safe and economical structure that fulfils its intended purpose. The designing process includes the following steps: 1. Preliminary design* and planning. This involves selecting the most economical structural form and materials to be used. 2. Detailed design* for a given type and arrangement* of a structure, which includes: 20 estimation of loading; analysis for the various load cases and combinations of loads and identification of the most severe design actions; design of the foundations, structural frames, elements and connections; preparation of the final arrangement and detail drawings. The materials list, bill of quantities and specification covering welding, fabrication, erection, corrosion and fire protection may then be prepared. Finally the estimation and tender documents can be finalized for submission* to contractors. Structural designers use knowledge of structural mechanics and design, computer science, materials, geotechnics, and combine it with their practical experience to produce a satisfactory design. The structural designers take advice from specialists, handbooks and computer software to help them making decisions and to carry out a complex analysis and design calculations. Notes: preliminary design – подготовительный/черновой проект detailed design – подробный/детальный проект arrangement – расположение, размещение submission – предоставление 21 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the English for: Знания по информатике, математике и строительной механике; проектировщик; выполнение сложных расчетов; безопасное и экономичное сооружение; подготовительный проект; подробный (детальный) план; выбор строительных материалов; расчет нагрузки; фундамент и каркас здания; предварительная смета строительных работ; оценка тендерной документации; принятие важных решений. Ex. 2. Fill in the gaps to complete the following sentences. 1. Structural designers’ main duty is to prepare the design and drawings for a … and … structure. 2. The first step in the designing process is … 3. The estimation and tender documents at the final step are submitted to… 4. To produce a proper design a structural engineer needs practical… and knowledge in… 5. … help structural designers to make correct decisions and carry out complex analysis and calculations. Ex. 3. Without consulting the text 3 write down: the role of a structural engineer in the construction process main steps of a designing process 4 parts of a detailed design. 22 Task. Read and translate the text using the dictionary. TEXT 4. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN, INNOVATION AND PLANNING Conceptual design* in the structural engineering sense* is the function of choosing a suitable form or a system to bring the architectural solution* into being. Ideally, conceptual design should result from a team effort, where architects, structural engineers and service engineers contribute to the final solution. Modern architectural practices take this multidisciplinary approach. The architectural decisions are based on functional, aesthetic, environmental and economic considerations. For example, for an industrial plant it is the functional requirement*, whereas for an exhibition building it is the aesthetic aspect. Novelty and innovation are always desirable. Architects, engineers and builders always use existing forms of construction, available materials and the state of knowledge at the time. Often it is not a new solution that is required, but the correct choice and use of a well proved existing structural system that gives the best answer. Planning may be described as the practical expression of conceptual design. The various proposals must be transformed from ideas and stretches* into drawings consisting of plans and to give a realistic impression of the finished structure. 23 Computer drafting software is now available to make this work much quicker than the older manual methods. Threedimensional computer simulation (3D-simulation) with views possible from all directions gives great assistance in the decision-making* process. A scale model of the complete project is often made to show clearly the finished form. The preparation and presentation of planning proposals are very important because the final approval for a scheme is often given by non-technical people such as financiers. The engineer must also consider construction in any of the major materials – masonry, concrete, steel or timber, or again in some combination of these materials for structures, and then make the appropriate selection. A list of factors that should be considered at the conceptual and planning stage includes: location of the structure and environmental conditions; site and foundation conditions; weather conditions during construction; availability of materials; transport of materials and fabricated elements to a site; availability and quality of labour for construction; degree of supervision needed for construction; measures needed to give protection against corrosion and fire; possibility of accidental damage; maintenance required after completion; possibility of demolition in the future. The final decision on the form and type of structure and construction method depends on many factors and cost must be taken into consideration as well, because cost often remains the most important. 24 conceptual design – предварительный проект sense – смысл, понятие, значение decision-making – принятие решения solution – решение functional requirement – требование функциональности stretch – набросок (зд.) EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match English and Russian equivalents. 1. 3D-simulation 2. Multidisciplinary approach 3. Conceptual design 4. Innovation 5. Detailed plan 6. Demolition 7. Aesthetic aspect 8. Novelty 9. Corrosion protection 10. Available material 11. Fire protection a) новшество, новизна b) междисциплинарный подход c) эстетический аспект d) снос здания e) подробный план f) доступный материал g) противопожарная защита h) трехмерное компьютерное моделирование i) нововведение, инновация j) предварительный проект k) антикоррозийная защита Ex. 2. Answer the following questions. 1. What does the term “conceptual design” mean? 2. What specialists should be involved in the process of producing the ideal design? 25 3. Is multidisciplinary approach used in modern practice? 4. Is innovation in construction always necessary? 5. What innovation has come to replace designers’ manual work? Does it improve this work, making it easier and faster? 6. What factors should be considered by designers at the stage of planning? 7. Does the cost of construction play an important role? Task. Give the written translation of the text. TEXT 5. AIMS AND FACTORS CONSIDERED IN DESIGNING The aim of the design choice is to find the most economical solution that meets the requirements for the given structure. Factors to be taken into account include: materials to be used; manufacture and type of joining*; method of erection of the framework* to be used; type of floors, walls, cladding* and finishes; installation of ventilating/heating facilities*, lifts, water supply systems, electrical wiring etc.; corrosion and fire protection required; operating and maintenance* costs. Aesthetic considerations are important in many cases and the choice of design may not always be based on cost alone. Each of the structures can be erected using a variety of materials, structural forms or systems. Materials are discussed 26 first and then a general classification of structures is set out. All steel structures must rest on concrete foundations and concrete shear walls* are commonly used to stabilize multi-storey buildings. Notes: framework – опалубка cladding – облицовка facilities – оборудование maintenance – техническое обслуживание, профилактический ремонт joining – соединение, сборка, монтаж shear wall – стена жесткости EXERCISES Ex. 1. Look through the text and express its main idea. Ex. 2. Give the definitions of the following terms: framework erection cladding • • • corrosion protection fire protection multi-storey building Ex. 3. Comment in English on the following issues: the essence of choice when designing a structure; the factors to be considered when choosing a design; the importance of cost and aesthetic aspect. 27 Task. Read and translate the text using the dictionary. TEXT 6. INTEGRATION OF COST, QUALITY AND TIME Building system integration* is the act of creating a whole functioning building which contains and includes building systems in various combinations. The various criteria including energy conservation, functional suitability, strength and stability, durability, fire safety, weather conditions, visual /acoustical comfort, economic efficiency, quality and time of erection should be integrated when designing and erecting a building. The triangle involves cost, quality and time and this is the client who defines the priority depending on his purposes. For buildings related to commerce such as shopping complexes time is usually the top priority to start construction before certain seasons, or in certain cases, to reduce financing bills, etc. With a limited budget, cost may be the top priority. Quality may be emphasized in cases where the building itself is monumental in terms of height, architecture and appearance. It is important that economic buildings do not necessarily mean unsafe buildings. Through proper design, management and execution, an economic building can provide the required standard at the lowest cost. With buildings getting taller, integration between various aspects in physiology, psychology, sociology, economics, as well as the available technology is needed. A building needs to perform* the functions of building enclosure* against environmental degradation because of moisture, temperature, air movement, radiation, chemical and biological attack or environmental disasters such as fire or flood. It also needs to 28 provide interior requirements and the elemental parameters of comfort for people. To achieve good results it is necessary to combine all participants involved in the building process from architects, designers, engineers, building professionals, manufactures to workmen on the site. Notes: integration – объединение, интеграция, целостность to perform – выполнять enclosure – ограждение EXERCISES Ex. 1. Make up the sentences using the words given below. 1. Time, and, involves, cost, the, quality, triangle. 2. Priority, commercial, such as, centers, the, sometimes, top, buildings, for, shopping, is, time. 3. Budget, the, limited, becomes, top, with, a, cost, priority. 4. Important, for, quality, very, buildings, is, monumental. 5. Management, proper, when, required, execution, an, meets, and, design, are, economic, standards, building. 6. Natural, safe, should, temperature, a, protect, and, building, from, disasters, radiation. Ex. 2. Ask your group-mates the following questions. 1. How can you define the term “Building system integration”? 2. What are the main criteria considered when designing and erecting a building? 29 3. What are the three major factors involved in the triangle? 4. Can quality become the top priority? Give an example of such structure. 5. Can cost play the main role? 6. Is time involved in the combination of the main factors? When time is the top priority? 7. Are low-cost constructions always unsafe? 8. What requirements should be considered to make a building cheap but safe? 9. What specialists are responsible for the safety and quality of a construction? 10. What natural negative factors and disasters should a safe building be protected from? Task. Scan the text to get the full idea of it. TEXT 7. 3D-MODELING AND DESIGNING BUILDINGS 3-dimensional graphics (from English “3 Dimensions of an image”) is the section of computer graphics, a set of methods 30 and tools (both software* and hardware*) designed to image volumetric objects. 3D-modeling* is the process of creating a three-dimensional model of an object. Recent development in high technology has reached the point where 3D-modeling is no longer just an abstract picture and the service of visualization of projects has become an ordinary thing. Working with visual material is easier and more convenient not only for the customer, but also for designers and architects. Three-dimensional modeling allows to describe the real territory, the objects and their position towards each other, it also helps when planning changes in the external appearance* of a city, placing utilities*, roads and buildings. Today, no one serious project is done without 3D- modeling. It allows to see how a building will look at the design stage. Nothing can be compared with the opportunity to look at your dream even before the beginning of its implementation*. Three-dimensional modeling helps correct mistakes and shortcomings* easily at the design stage that certainly pays off when constructing a building. 3D-visualization improves understanding, and information is perceived* easier and faster, it reduces the process of making responsible decisions. It allows to calculate and evaluate possible effects of man-made and natural disasters such as floods, fires and earthquakes. Modern 3D-modeling and visualization are possible thanks to up-to-date* software. It allows not only “draw pictures” and combine different components and spare parts on them but also calculate their size and other parameters. In other words, now you can effectively use professional software instead of doing 31 everything by hands (drawing, applying the colour, the texture and lighting features). The designing work, depending on its complexity practically always takes a long time, because engineers of different specialities are involved in this process. The use of modern, powerful computers and special software leads to a significant reduction* in time spent on design work and as a result reduces the complexity of this work. Using computer-aided design (CAD)* allows virtual testing of designed objects, which also reduces the cost of prototyping*. AUTODESK is one of the leading and the most stable companies producing high quality software for a long time. Computer-aided design AutoCad was developed in the1980s, and still has not lost its significance. Moreover, the company is constantly developing and improving new versions of its legendary product. Notes: 3D-modeling – трехмерное моделирование software – программное обеспечение hardware – аппаратное обеспечение appearance – внешний вид/облик implementation – ввод в эксплуатацию to perceive – воспринимать, понимать up-to-date – современный reduction – сокращение, уменьшение utilities – коммунальные сооружения shortcoming – дефект, недостаток CAD – система автоматизированного проектирования prototyping – изготовление опытных образцов 32 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match Russian and English equivalents. 1. Software 2. Computer graphics 3. High technologies 4. Service of visualization 5. Design stage 6. Drawings 7. Applying the colour 8. Hardware 9. Prototyping 10. 3D-modeling a) аппаратное обеспечение b) изготовление опытных образцов c) стадия проектирования d) чертежи e) нанесение цвета f) услуга визуализации g) программное обеспечение h) трехмерное моделирование i) высокие технологии j) компьютерная графика Ex. 2. Complete the following sentences and translate them into Russian. 1. 3-D graphics is … a) easier, more pleasant and convenient 2. 3-D visualization makes ... b) virtual testing of desired objects 3. Modern 3D-modeling is possible thanks to… c) produced by the world’s famous company Autodesk 4. Computer-aided design allows … 5. AutoCAD is a high quality software … d) up-to-date software e) the section of computer graphics 33 Ex. 3. Agree or disagree with the following statements. 1. The term “3D-modeling” comes from English “3 dimensions” and means “three measurements of an object”. 2. 3D-modeling is still a wonder and only the largest designing companies can provide such service. 3. The cost for this service is too high and it doesn’t pay off when constructing. 4. Computer-aided design reduces the cost of prototyping. 5. Manual drawings, applying the light, colour and the texture have replaced computer simulation and have made engineers’ work faster and easier. 6. AUTODESK Company is constantly improving its production and every new version is getting more perfect. Task. Look through the text and render it. TEXT 8. AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS IN CONSTRUCTION Construction is one of the most creative and hardest industries. It can’t excuse the lack* of progress, technology and engineering knowhow*. The need for construction industry in automation and robotics is doubtless. The first large-scale experiments in the field of robotics in construction industry started in the early 1990s. The casting, erection, joining and finishing of building components require a high level of skilled manual 34 work on a site. The problem with the shortage of skilled personnel and the need to increase productivity in the industry has prompted research and development into robotics in the construction industry. Innovations in IT (Information Technologies)*, simulation, engineering and management software, and object-oriented programming are opening new possibilities for engineers and designers. Automation and robotics are referred to the new technologies that have come to improve the efficiency of work, make it easier and also to speed up production. For example, in Japan the leading position of civil engineering today is primarily explained by entirely automated and computer-controlled process though workers are still involved in overseeing operations. The process of construction begins with the installation of speed platform for covering the upper floor. Further robots, equipped with computer controlled systems, accurately install all modules, and automatic machines weld beams and columns according to the draft. After installation of intermediate floors integrated stepped platforms are raised* hydraulically to the next level, and the whole cycle repeats. The automated system allows not only to reduce day and night time of constructing, but also to minimize labor costs (on average, by 30 %) and it practically eliminates* injuries. Accuracy* for complex technical projects is a guarantee for predictable* behavior of buildings during earthquakes, strong wind loads and other tests of strength and stability. Future of building robots The ideal situation in future construction world looks like a space where people and robots co-work and interact with one 35 another. Large volume structures will be built widely with preassembled components. Intelligent* robots will work to assemble predominantly heavy components. Each robot will be able to communicate easily with people. Notes: lack – недостаток know-how – секрет производства, умения, навыки IT – информационные технологии to raise – сооружать, возводить, поднимать to eliminate – устранять, ликвидировать accuracy – точность, правильность predictable – предсказуемый intelligent – интеллектуальный, мыслящий EXERCISES Ex. 1. Say which part of text 8 gives the answer for the following questions. 1. Which country takes the leading position in civil engineering and why? 2. What new technologies contribute to construction industry? 3. What’s the image of the ideal future construction world? 4. Why is there an acute need of construction in automation and robotics? Ex. 2. Give synonyms for: Heavy industry, shortage of progress, drawing, erection, cladding, automatic machine, professional labour, scope of 36 construction, development, new opportunities, 3D-modeling, robotics, to set modulus, to co-work with people, to reduce cost. Ex. 3. Give antonyms for: Easy project, ground floor, low level, light breeze, fragility of material, stagnation in progress, ancient technique, past of construction industry, destruction, unpredictable behaviour, automated work, routine work, doubtful, to disassemble components, to reduce productivity, to increase injuries. Ex. 4. Try to imagine an ideal situation in construction world in the near future. How does it differ from the present one? Are robots able to perform all the work without people’s control and help? Is the world of robots safe or dangerous in your opinion? Would you like to work at such design office or construction site? Why? Why not? Speak about all advantages and disadvantages of this world. Task. Look through the text and give a short summary. TEXT 9. BUILDING ROBOTS What do we mean by the word “robot”? The word itself was introduced by the Czech play-writer Karel Capek in the early part of the last century, having been taken from the Czech word 37 “robota” meaning forced work or slavery. In Capek's play the robots were humanoid machines. Most robots used in the construction industry are not humanoids in their configuration. They often look like a huge arm. Sometimes, that’s the only thing the robot is made of. This increases its efficiency. Building robots face* with different demands: they must move around the site, because buildings are stationary* and of a large size. They require engines, batteries or motors and drive themselves. Building robots also face with changing site conditions and must be reprogrammed with each new condition. They must be able to function under unfavourable* weather conditions including variations in humidity* and temperature. The robot is governed by an AI (Artificial Intelligence)* that makes certain decisions, and guides the robot to perform certain tasks in construction industry. Notes: to face (with) – сталкиваться с … stationary – неподвижный unfavourable – неблагоприятный humidity – влажность AI – искусственный интеллект What Building Robots Can Do Building robots have components that go into almost any other complex machine. Robots are extremely smart these days. They carry out a complex sequence* of operations, but they can also control their performance. Depending on AI building robots can carry out different tasks from the simplest repetitive actions to complex analytical ones. 38 There are some that can create complex patterns, some that can do heavy lifting, some that perform high-speed tasks on small items, some that perform simple assembly. Not all robots are created equally. The level of AI is what determines the way construction tasks are carried out. An example is Obayashi’s “Super Construction Factory” which integrates the concepts of factory automation into the building site for steel structures. Building components and materials are delivered* to the floor under construction through elevators and are lifted to the exact location of the floor by cranes. Welding and fastening are then carried out by robots. Upon completion of one floor, the factory is jacked up* through an internal climbing system to start work on the next floor. The other famous system for reinforced concrete building named “Big Canopy”* integrates technologies of climbing canopy, prefabricated components, automated assembly and computerized management systems. Independent tower crane* posts* are used as four columns supporting the canopy. The rise of the canopy is performed by the climbing equipment* of tower crane. Vertical movement of materials to and from the working storey is performed with the use of lifts and horizontal movement by hoists*. The movement of the hoists is entirely automated to improve work efficiency. 39 The main components for constructing a robot: AI (Artificial Intelligence). This is the most important part of a robot, and the part that makes it think. Having no a clear set of instructions, the robot will not be able to perform any task without human assistance. Structure. It goes without saying that a robot needs a body to move. Typically the structure is a series of joints and arms that increases the mobility. Muscle System. The muscle system is usually made up of various hydraulics, suspensions and an electronic system to get it all moving. This allows the AI to dictate what it wants the body to do, and then translates that signal to the “muscles” for a reaction. It works very similarly as a human body. Power. A power cell is another important element which makes the robot to work. There is no electrical stimulation without power that makes the muscles or the AI work. Senses. Most robots need to receive ordered data for the AI to make an evaluation and decision of the product that they are constructing. This is why it is important to have a series of data receivers that essentially act like eyes, ears, touch, and even taste. Combined with the other elements of the robot, this allows it to make the most accurate and efficient construction decisions. Notes: sequence – последовательность to deliver – подавать, доставлять to jack up – поднимать домкратом canopy – навес tower crane – башенный кран 40 climbing equipment – подъёмное оборудование posts – стойки, опоры hoist – лебёдка EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match the terms with their definitions. 1. IT 2. AI 3. A robot a) artificial intelligence b) a series of arms and joints c) a series of hydraulics, suspensions, electronic elements 4. An engine d) people’s supervision and overseeing 5. A data receiver e) a complex computerized machine 6. A construction elevator f) information technologies 7. A component g) a motor that allows a machine to move and act 8. A robot’s structure h) a part or an element to construct or assemble something 9. A robot’s muscle system i) a climbing equipment 10. A human assistance j) an element that allows a machine to see, hear, taste, smell Ex. 2. Find the phrase in text 9 to complete the following sentences. 1. 2. 3. 4. These days robots are extremely… Robots can carry out complex operations but they can also… The level of AI determines… The world’s famous system of reinforced concrete building is called… 41 5. The most important component to create a robot is… 6. Robots’ muscle system is made of … 7. Robots’ data receivers act like … Ex. 3. Answer the following questions. 1. What language did the term “robot” come from? What does it mean? 2. Who invented this word? 3. Do modern building robots still look like humanoids? How do they look like? 4. What are the specific requirements for robots used in construction industry? 5. What sort of work can building robots do? 6. What are robots governed by? 7. Are robots really intelligent now days? Give an example to prove your answer. 8. What elements does a robot consist of? Ex. 4. Translate the sentences into English. 1. Первые роботы появились в начале прошлого века в пьесе чешского драматурга Карела Чапека. Книга посвящена взаимоотношениям человека и созданной им машины. 2. В чешском языке слово “робот” означает “каторга, тяжелая физическая работа”. 3. Современные строительные роботы не похожи на человека-машину, обычно они состоят из одной огромной “руки”, что повышает эффективность их работы. 42 4. Роботы состоят из тех же элементов, что и любая сложная машина. 5. Современные роботы могут выполнять самые разнообразные задания, начиная с простейших (подъем грузов, сборка) и заканчивая сложными аналитическими заданиями. 6. Современные роботы имеют целый набор передатчиков информации, которые позволяют машине видеть, слышать, осязать, и даже ощущать вкус и запахи. FOR SELF-EXAMINATION TEST (part I) 1. Structural engineering is a branch of a) material engineering b) civil engineering 2. Structural engineering covers a) planning, designing, constructing different kinds of buildings b) studying structural materials, water supply, air pollution 3. Structural engineers’ work is a) routine and mechanical b) creative and responsible 4. Art galleries, museums, cafes are referred to 43 a) social structures b) residential structures 5. Aesthetic aspect is more important for a) exhibition halls and galleries b) factories and plants 6. When making a project a structural engineer a) works alone b) works in a team and needs advice and assistance of different specialists (architects, consultants, contractors) 7. Quality of construction, architecture and appearance are the top priority for a) monumental buildings b) warehouses 8. Functional requirement is the top priority for a) a theatre b) a hospital 9. Design of a foundation, frame structure, estimation of loads are discussed at the stage of a) detailed designing b) preliminary designing 10. In construction industry novelty is a) always desirable b) forbidden 11. Computer simulation a) gives great assistance in designing process b) prevents from making correct decisions 12.The matter of demolition of a building in the future a) isn’t mentioned at the planning stage b) is always taken into account 13. “A safe building” means a structure that 44 a) gives comfort and cosiness b) protects from radiation, high or low temperature and natural disasters 14. While constructing weather and environmental conditions a) should be always considered b) don’t influence the final result 15. From English the term “3D” means a) three dimensions of an object b) three directions of the movement 16. In modern designing 3D-visualization is a) an ordinary, widely used service b) an exclusive, very expensive service. 17. Working with visual material is easier and more convenient a) only for designers b) both for engineers and customers 18. 3D-modeling a) simplifies calculations, reduces work time, improves understanding b) complicates calculations, makes the cost of prototyping higher 19. Computer-aided design AutoCad was developed a) at the beginning of the 21-st century b) in 1980s 20. First large scale experiments in robotics started in a) 1990s b) 1960s 21. Development in automation and robotics in construction industry was prompted by the shortage of a) skilled personnel and big volume of hard work b) hard physical work and the surplus of qualified staff 45 22. Automation and robotics in construction are opening new opportunities a) only for engineers and designers b) both for specialists in construction and customers 23. The need for construction industry in automation is a) doubtful b) doubtless 24. The leading position of Japan in civil engineering is explained by a) entirely automated and computer-controlled constructing b) favorable climate and geological conditions 25. Automation a) minimizes labour cost and eliminates injuries. b) increases time of construction and causes tragic accidents 26. In modern construction robots look like a) a huge arm b) a humanoid machine 27. Robots are governed by a) a power cell b) artificial intelligence 28. Up-to-date computerized machines can a) perform simple repetitive actions b) carry out complex analytical tasks 29. The muscle system of robots works similarly as a) a human body b) a computer 30. The element stimulating a robot the stimulation to move is a) a power cell b) a data receiver 46 ROLE PLAYING Build your city. The first stage. Give the name to your new city. The group is divided into teams of 4-6 students. The aim for each team is to “build” a new logically-organized modern city. At this stage groups choose names for their cities. The second stage. Urban project. The team members should develop the project of building the city using spatial layouts or drawing paper and pencils and agree among themselves which objects are to be built in the 47 city. The project should meet all the requirements applied to urban development in the XXI century. The third stage. My city. After the city was built, each team member tries to formulate the logic of urban development and tells what objects are erected in the city explaining their position towards each other. The fourth stage. The arbitrator calls the best project. The arbiter, selected in advance, valuates all the submitted projects and calls the best one. When making a decision, the arbiter should take into consideration: the overall impression of the city project (0 –5 points); the best city’s name (0 – 2 points); the expediency of various facilities construction (0 – 3 points); the logic of urban development (0 – 4 points); the presence of such important objects of a city infrastructure like a highway, an airport, a railway station, a prison, a city dump and others (1 point for each object). 48 PART II BUILDING MATERIALS Words to be remembered: brick – кирпич stone – камень crushed stone – щебень sand – песок sandstone – песчаник lime – известь limestone – известняк clay – глина cement – цемент concrete – бетон reinforcement – арматура reinforced concrete – железобетон prestressed concrete – предварительно напряженный бетон prefabricated concrete – бетон заводского изготовления 49 timber – древесина; пиломатериал laminate – ламинат, многослойный материал plastics – пластмасса, пластик ceramics – керамика, керамические изделия gravel – гравий granite – гранит steel – сталь marble – мрамор glass – стекло glass brick – стеклоблок, стеклянный строительный кирпич aggregate / filler – заполнитель alloy – сплав mixture – смесь mortar – строительный раствор density – плотность property – свойство ductility – пластичность; вязкость heat insulation – теплоизоляция sound insulation – звукоизоляция porosity – пористость watertight – водонепроницаемый artificial – искусственный fire-resistant – жароупорный, несгораемый, огнестойкий flexible – гибкий, эластичный, упругий binding – вяжущий (материал) curing – выдерживание/вызревание бетона bearing structure – несущая конструкция hardness – твердость, прочность to fasten – скреплять, закреплять to decay – гнить, разрушаться to harden – твердеть 50 to compress – сжимать, сдавливать to subject to smth. – подвергать воздействию to reinforce – усиливать, укреплять, армировать to collapse – разрушиться, рухнуть Task. Read and translate the text, do the exercises given below. TEXT 1. BUILDING MATERIALS Building materials are materials used for different purposes in construction. They have certain advantages and disadvantages, which are taken into account when designing a structure. They should meet several requirements. In most cases it is important that they should be hard, durable, fire-resistant and easily fastened together. The most commonly used materials are steel, concrete, stone, timber, brick, metal, glass and plastics. They differ in hardness, durability, fire-resistance, weight, strength, and cost. Wood, stone, sand, lime, clay are the examples of natural materials. Cement, concrete, brick, glass, plastics are referred to artificial i.e. man-made materials. All building materials are divided into three groups. 1. Main building materials used for bearing structures, such as timber, rock, artificial stones, different metals. 2. Cementing i.e. binding materials used for joining different planes such as lime, gypsum and cement. 3. Secondary i.e. auxiliary materials used for the interior finish of the structure such as glass, plastics, laminate, ceramics. 51 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Answer the following questions. 1. What are the most popular building materials? 2. What are the main requirements for building materials? 3. What properties of building materials should be taken into account when designing a structure? 4. What groups are building materials divided into? 5. Is concrete an example of a natural building material? 6. Is glass an example of a man-made building material? 7. What building materials are used for bearing structures? 8. What materials are used for joining different planes? 9. Can plastics be referred to secondary building materials? 10. What building materials are usually used for decorative purposes? Ex. 2. Classify the materials listed below into natural or artificial. Natural: Artificial: Stone, steel, brick, concrete, gold, gravel, wood, glass, sand, ceramics, iron, clay, plastics, cement, silver. 52 Ex. 3. Classify the properties of building materials listed below as advantageous and disadvantageous. Advantages: Disadvantages: High cost, low water-resistance, heat-insulation, fire-resistance, light weight, durability, low strength, hardness, low cost, corrosion-resistance, heavy weight, softness, high strength, nonfire-resistance, sound insulation. Ex. 4. Choose from the block the antonyms for the following adjectives: Natural, light, exterior, cheap, disadvantages, weak, primary, combustible, unstable, main, soft. advantageous – artificial – auxiliary – interior – hard – durable – heavy – strong – fire-proof – expensive – Task. Look through the text and tell about timber. TEXT 2. TIMBER Timber is the most ancient structural material. On the one hand if we compare steel and timber, the latter is lighter, cheaper, easier to work and its mechanical properties are good. On the 53 other hand timber has certain disadvantages. Firstly, it burns and is therefore unsuitable for fireproof building. Secondly, it decays. Timber is a name applied to the cut material derived from trees. Timber used for building purposes is divided into two groups: softwoods* and hardwoods*. Hardwoods are chiefly used for decorative purposes, as for paneling*, veneering in furniture*, and some of them are selected for structural use because of their high strength and durability. In modern construction timber is often used for window and door frames, flooring, fences and gates, wall plates, for temporary buildings* and unpainted internal woodwork. Timber cannot be used for work immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap* which it contains. Most of this moisture must be removed; otherwise the timber will shrink* excessively, causing defects in the work and a strong tendency to decay. Elimination of moisture increases the strength*, durability and elasticity of timber. Notes: softwoods – древесина мягких пород, хвойная древесина hardwoods – твердая древесина, древесина твердых пород paneling – обшивка панелями veneering in furniture – облицовка мебели temporary building – временная постройка sap – сок to shrink – давать усадку strength – прочность 54 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Ask your group-mates the following questions. 1. Is timber a very ancient structural material? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of timber in comparison with steel? 3. What two groups is timber used for building purposes divided into? 4. What purposes is timber often used in modern construction for? 5. Why cannot timber be used immediately it has been felled? 6. What increases strength, durability and elasticity of timber? Ex. 2. Say if the sentences given below are true or false. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Timber is a comparatively new material. Timber as a building material has no one disadvantage. Mechanical properties of timber are good. Softwoods are mainly used for decorative purposes. Hardwoods are characterized by durability and high strength. 6. Builders can use timber in their work just after trees have been felled. Ex. 3. Complete the following sentences. 1. Timber is lighter, cheaper, easier in work than… 2. Timber has two disadvantages, they include… 3. Timber is a name we apply to the cut material derived from… 4. In modern construction timber is widely used for … 55 5. Before starting work with wood one should remove the moisture which trees contain because… 6. For paneling and veneering in furniture builders often use … Task. Revise active vocabulary and translate the text without using the dictionary. TEXT 3. CEMENT AND CONCRETE Cement and concrete are among the most important building materials. Cement is a fine, grey powder. It is mixed with water and materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone to make concrete. The cement and water form a paste that binds* the other materials together when the concrete hardens. Nearly all the cement used today is Portland cement, which is hydraulic cement or one that hardens under water. This cement was named Portland because it has the same texture as the natural stone quarried on the Isle of Portland, a peninsula on the south of Great Britain. Concrete goes into the making of many things today – house foundations, wall blocks, ceiling slabs and entire prefabricated units. The material falls into several classes: very heavy, heavy, light and very light and they differ in density, mechanical strength, fillers, etc. However, they all have one property in common such as heat insulating capacity. This property is controlled by the coefficient of thermal resistance: the higher it is, the less heat escapes from the room and the lower the heating costs run up by the owner. 56 Concrete is fireproof, watertight, comparatively cheap, and easy to make. When first mixed, concrete can be moulded* into almost any shape. It quickly hardens into an extremely strong material keeps the strength for a long time, and requires little care. Uses of cement and concrete Nearly all skyscrapers, factories and many houses stand on concrete foundations. These buildings may also have concrete frames, walls, floors, and roofs. Concrete is used to build dams to store water and bridges to span rivers. Cars and trucks travel on concrete roads and airplanes land on concrete runways. Concrete tunnels run through mountains and under rivers. Concrete pipes distribute water, carry away sewage*, drain farmland, and protect underground telephone wires and electricpower lines. Kinds of concrete • ordinary concrete – обычный бетон • dense concrete – плотный бетон • heavy concrete – тяжелый бетон • prefabricated concrete – бетон заводского изготовления • ready-mixed concrete – готовый бетон • cast-in-situ concrete – монолитный бетон • prestressed concrete – предварительнонапряженный бетон • reinforced concrete – железобетон • precast concrete – сборный бетон • lightweight concrete – легкий бетон 57 • aerated concrete – ячеистый бетон • high-early-strength concrete – бетон быстрого твердения • foam concrete – пенобетон Reinforced concrete is made by casting concrete around steel rods* or bars*, and steel strengthens concrete. Almost all large structures require this extra-strong type of concrete. Prestressed concrete usually is made by casting concrete around steel cables* stretched by hydraulic jacks*. After concrete hardens, the jacks are released* and the cables compress concrete. Concrete becomes the strongest when it is compressed. Steel cables can also be bent* into an arc, so that they develop a force in any desired direction, such as upward* elements in a bridge. Prestressed concrete beams*, roofs, floors are often cheaper for some uses than those made of reinforced concrete. Precast concrete is cast and it hardens before being used for construction. Precasting firms make concrete sewer pipes*, floor and roof units, wall panels, beams, and girders*, and transport them to the construction sites. Sometimes builders make such pieces at the construction site and hoist them into place after they hardened. Precasting makes possible the production of concrete building elements. Aerated concrete contains tiny air bubbles*. These bubbles are formed by adding half brick* like resinous* or fatty* materials to the cement, or to the concrete when it is mixed. The bubbles give the water in concrete enough space to expand as it freezes. The bubbles also protect the surface of the 58 concrete from chemicals used to melt ice. Such qualities make aerated concrete a good material for roads and airport runways. High-early-strength concrete is chiefly used in cold weather. Concrete is made with high-early-strength Portland cement, and it hardens much more quickly than ordinary concrete. High-early-strength concrete is often cheaper to use, because it cuts the amount of time necessary for its hardening. Lightweight concrete weighs less than other kinds of concrete. Builders make it in two ways. They may use lightweight shale*, clay, pumice*, or other materials instead of sand, gravel, and crushed stone. Or they may add chemicals which foam and produce air spaces in the concrete when it hardens. These air spaces are much larger than the air spaces in aerated concrete. Foam concrete is one of the lightest varieties of the mineral. Various processes are used to make it. One of them relies on natural porous fillers (gravel and crushed stone) and their artificial substitutes (expanded clay aggregate). Notes: to bind – связывать; крепить to mould – формовать; отливать в форму sewage – сточные воды rod – арматурный стержень bar – арматурный пруток/стержень steel cable – стальной трос hydraulic jacks – гидравлический домкрат to release – расцеплять, отсоединять to bend – гнуть, изгибать upward – поднимающийся вверх, восходящий beam – балка 59 half brick – кирпич-половняк resinous material – смолистый материал fatty material – смазочный материал sewer pipe – сточная труба, коллектор girder – балочная ферма, балка bubbles – пузыри (воздуха или газа) shale – сланец pumice – пемза EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match the words and word-combinations with their definitions. 1. Cement is … a) a kind of concrete casting around steel cables stretched by hydraulic jacks 2. Concrete is … b) a kind of concrete casting around steel rods or bars 3. Reinforced concrete is … c) a fine grey powder for making concrete 4. Prestressed concrete is ... d) a cast and hardened kind of concrete 5. Precast concrete is … e) a mixture of cement, sand, water and gravel 60 Ex. 2. Give the English for: Механическая прочность, дробленый камень, бетонные фундаменты, водонепроницаемый, огнестойкий, стены, пол, крыша, не требовать особого ухода, заливать бетон, быстро застывать (схватываться), обычный бетон, легкий бетон, железобетон, тяжелый бетон, готовый бетон. Ex. 3. Give the Russian for: Density, heat insulating capacity, a fine powder, a ceiling slab, dense concrete, prefabricated concrete, foam concrete, aerated concrete, precast concrete, prestressed concrete, high-earlystrength concrete. Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences. 1. To make concrete one should… a) light, very light, heavy, very heavy 2. Concrete as a building material can be divided into four classes… b) heat escapes from the building 3. The higher is thermal resistance, the less… c) an extremely strong and durable mass d) mix cement, water, sand and gravel 4. Concrete quickly hardens into… 5. Almost all the cement used nowadays is… e) Portland cement 61 6. Cars and lorries travel on concrete … f) reinforced concrete structures 7. Airplanes land on concrete… g) roads 8. Concrete pipes distribute… h) it is compressed 9. To strengthen concrete we use… i) runways 10. Concrete becomes stronger when… j) water to our houses 11. Prestessed constructions are often k) high-early strength cheaper than… concrete 12. A cheaper kind of concrete which l) steel fastens quicker than ordinary one is called… Ex. 5. Fill in the gaps with a missing word(s). 1. 2. 3. 4. Concrete is water-proof, fire-resistant and comparatively… Heat insulating capacity is controlled by the coefficient of… … is hydraulic cement which can harden under water. Almost all houses, factories, skyscrapers stand on concrete … 5. …protect underground telephone wires and electric power lines. 6. …makes possible the production of concrete building materials. 7. The kind of concrete with the least weight is called … 62 Task. Read and translate the text using the dictionary. TEXT 3a. DURABILITY, WORKABILITY, AND WATERPROOFNESS Durability of any material is that property which indicates whether the material will remain the same or not, even though it may be subjected to loads sufficient to destroy it. Durability of concrete is affected by: alternate wetting and drying; freezing and thawing (промерзание и оттаивание); heating and cooling (нагревание и охлаждение); capillary water; the dissolving of the cement by certain acids (кислоты); chemical reaction between certain constituents of aggregates and the alkalies (щелочь) in high-alkali Portland cement. Workability (обрабатываемость) is that property of freshly mixed concrete which is measured in terms of (с точки зрения) convenience of placing, handling, and finishing. The degree of necessary workability will depend on the nature of the work being done. There are a number of factors affecting workability: cement water aggregate mixing admixtures 63 Waterproofing (водонепроницаемость) of concrete is desirable in order to increase the durability of it. Concrete that absorbs water is easily subjected to disintegration (распад, разрушение), owing to the wetting and drying action or to freezing and thawing while wet. Waterproofing of concrete may be accomplished at any of the following ways: special waterproof cement; admixtures; richer mixtures and careful gradation of the aggregate; small amounts of mixing water; proper curing; application of bituminous coatings to the surface. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the definitions for the following terms. Durability Waterproofing Workability Ex. 2. Look through the text 3a and give the answer. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 64 What factors influence the durability of concrete? What factors affect workability of building material? How can builders make waterproofing of concrete? Is water an enemy of concrete? Why? Are acids dangerous for concrete? Task. Translate the text using the dictionary at the end of the book. TEXT 4. METALS There are many types of metals used for building. Metals began to be used as building materials not so long ago. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metals, especially in the large amounts needed for the building industry. Before the beginning of the 19th century metals played little structural role in the process of construction. They served mostly for joining parts of buildings. The ancient Greeks and Romans used bronze for joining slabs of stone. It was only in the 18th century when the first all-metal structure was built in Europe. It was a cast-iron (чугун) bridge across the river Severn, and two centuries after its construction it still carries heavy modern traffic. In the first half of the 19th century cast iron and wrought iron (ковкий чугун) were introduced for industrial construction in Europe and North America. The famous Eiffel Tower in Paris was constructed of wrought iron in 1889. By that period several steel frame skyscrapers had already been built in the United States. That was the beginning of a new era; a new highly useful and popular construction material had been born and introduced into building industry. All metals, except mercury (ртуть), are hard and fire resistant. They have some common properties: metals can be pulled 65 (вытягивать), forged (ковать), and melted (плавить). They are also good conductors of electricity. Metals are divided into two groups: ferrous (черный металл) and non-ferrous (цветной металл). Iron, steel and their various alloys belong to the group of ferrous metals, while the main component of non-ferrous metals is not iron. Ferrous metals are commonly used for construction as supporting members. Steel and other ferrous metals serve as reinforcement. Steel has come into general use with the development of industry. Its manufacture requires special equipment and skilled labour. Structural steel is alloys of iron, with carefully controlled amounts of carbon (углерод) and various other metals such as manganese, chromium (хром), aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum, and copper. The alloying elements control grain size and hence steel properties giving high strength, increased ductility and fracture toughness (прочность на разрыв). Highcarbon steel is used to manufacture hard drawn wires (тянутая проволока) for cables and tendons (трос, канат). Steel is the best material for reinforcing concrete. Steel reinforcement is a steel bar or mesh (сетка) of steel wires used as a tension element in reinforced concrete structures to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. It’s impossible to imagine modern construction without steel reinforcement. It is widely used for many different types of structures and components of structures including slabs, girders, beams, columns, frames, foundations etc. Copper is a valued building material because of its advantageous properties: corrosion resistance, durability, low thermal movement, light weight, recyclability and wide range of 66 finishes. Copper is included into roofing, domes, spires (шпиль), vaults (свод), wall cladding, joints and indoor design elements. Aluminium is a considerably new building material. For a long period it was considered to be rather expensive since its production required the use of electric power. Because of its relatively high cost, aluminium was not very popular as a building material till the middle of the twentieth century. But now the situation is absolutely different. Aluminium and aluminium-based alloys are extremely popular and are widely used in various forms for construction purposes. The advantages of aluminium, compared with other popular metals, are its high strength combined with lightness. Highpurity aluminium (about 99 % pure) is soft and ductile but its great disadvantage is that it is not strong enough. At the same time it has high corrosion resistance and it is used in construction of buildings as bright foil (фольга) for heat insulation, roofing, exterior and interior architectural ornamentation. Other metals used for structural purposes include chrome, gold, silver, and titanium. Their disadvantages are: high cost, not enough tensile strength and hardness. Therefore they are mostly used for decoration. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Complete the following sentences. 1. Metals as a new building material were introduced in construction in… 2. The only metal which isn’t hard and fire-resistant is… 67 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The two main groups of metals are… The example of a ferrous metal is… The example of a non-ferrous metal is… Structural steel is made of… Steel reinforcement is… The advantages of copper as a building material are… The production of aluminium was expensive for a long period of time because… 10. The disadvantages of aluminium are… Ex. 2. Choose the correct variant. 1. Metal is… a) the most ancient building material b) a rather new building material 2. Producing metals … a) is an easy process b) requires qualified labor and special equipment 3. The first all-metal structure was built in… a) ancient Greece b) in Europe in the 18th century 4. The Eiffel Tower in Paris was built of… a) wrought iron b) steel 5. Metals are… a) good conductors of electricity b) bad conductors of electricity 6. The main component of all ferrous metals is… a) bronze b) iron 7. The best metal to reinforce concrete is… 68 a) аluminium b) steel 8. Strength and hardness are the structural properties of… a) gold and silver b) steel and iron Ex. 3. Make up sentences using the words given below. 1. Bronze, slabs, Greeks, joining, of, Romans, stone, the, used, and, ancient, for. 2. Fire-resistant, metals, mercury, hard, all, are, and, except. 3. Light-weight, are, corrosion-resistance, main, copper, durability, of, advantages, the. 4. Popular, a, was, the, century, its, material, 20th, high, aluminium, not, building, until, because of, cost, the, middle of. 5. Titanium, mainly, decoration, gold, for, used, silver, are, chrome. Ex. 4. Ask your group-mates the following questions. 1. Why did metals play little structural role in building industry before the 19th century? 2. What was the first all-metal structure and what kind of metal was used for its construction? Does it exist now? 3. When and where did the mass production of iron start? 4. What are the common properties of metals? 5. What are the main groups of metals? What are they used in construction for? 69 6. Where is steel used in modern construction? 7. Why is copper considered to be a valuable building material? 8. What are the advantages of aluminium and its alloys and the sphere of their applying in construction? Task. Look through the text and give a short summary. TEXT 5. BUILDING STONE Stone belongs to one of the oldest building materials used by man. Almost all famous buildings of classic times, of the medieval and Renaissance (Ренессанс, эпоха Возрождения) periods and of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were erected of stone. The art of making any structure in stone is called stone masonry*. It is characterised by many properties. It has mechanical strength, compactness, porosity, sound and heat insulation and fire-resistance. Building stone ranks in importance with steel as a building material. Stone is used for the foundations, walls, and steps of buildings, for the supports of piers* and bridges, and for finishing and decorating all types of structures. Crushed stone* is mainly used as an aggregate of concrete and in road construction. Crushed stone is quarried stone crushed into small pieces suitable for such uses as the surfacing of roads and industrial construction. Dimension stone* is stone in natural blocks or slabs cut in definite shapes and sizes. Builders expect good dimension stone to last at least a hundred years. The best dimension stone has 70 the fewest pores* of air cells, making it able to resist the wearing* effects of weather. Dimension stone includes granite, limestone, sandstone, and marble. Granite is one of the strongest of all the building stones. It is used particularly for basements, columns and steps and for entire facades. Its colour may be grey, yellow, pink or deep red. It is used extensively in the construction of public buildings. Limestone is a hard building stone that can be cut easily and shaped with saws, and even lathes*. These dark yellow or grey stones are sometimes placed over the rough stonework of a building to make an attractive surface. Limestone is also used for sills*, floors, steps, and cladding*. Sandstone is easy to work and is used for the same purposes as limestone. Sandstone that is well-cemented with silica* is probably more durable and weather resistant than most other building stones. The durability of sandstones depends largely on cementing material. Marble is the most elegant building stone. Pure marble is white with black, grey, green, pink, red, and yellow veins. Builders use marble to make monuments and tombstones, and to decorate stairways, fire-places, floors, and paneling. Notes: stone masonry – кладка из природного камня pier – столб, опора, пилон сrushed stone – щебень dimension stone – штучный камень, точно-обработанный камень 71 pores – поры wear – физическое изнашивание, износ lathes – пила и токарный станок sill – подоконник cladding – отделка silica – кремнезем, кварц Task. Give the written translation of the text. TEXT 6. BRICK Types of brick Brick was known many thousands of years ago. It is an example of artificial building material. Brick is divided into two general groups: (1) building brick (обыкновенный кирпич), and (2) refractory brick (огнеупорный кирпич). Building brick can differ in size, though individual countries set their own standard measurements. For example, the majority of building bricks in the British Isles measure 6.5 cm thick, 10.25 cm wide and 21.5 cm long. In Russia the sizes of a standard brick are: thickness – 6.5 cm, width – 12 cm and length – 25 cm. Refractory brick varies widely in size, but is usually slightly larger than building brick. 72 Building brick is subdivided into face brick (облицовочный кирпич) and common brick. The highest quality and most attractive building brick is called face brick. This brick is used in highly visible areas of structures, such as the interior or exterior walls of houses. Face brick comes in a variety of colours and surface textures, and it is extremely uniform in shape and size. Most of it is made from high-grade fire clay (высококачественная и огнеупорная глина). Off-colour and slightly defective brick is called common brick. Common brick is used in less visible places than face brick. Refractory brick, also called refractories, can withstand temperatures between 1100°С and 2200°С. It is also highly resistant to chemical damage, physical wear and thermal cycling (rapid changes in temperature). Refractories are used in a wide variety of structures, including fire-places and industrial furnaces (производственные печи). Refractories differ in composition according to their use. The main types are made from such raw materials as alumina (окись алюминия), carbon, chrome ore (хромовая руда), dolomite, fire clay, magnesite (магнезит), silica (кварц), and zircon. Stucco Stucco (стукко, прочная цементно-известковая штукатурка) is a plaster-like material applied to outside walls. It forms a hard protective covering. Stucco usually consists of sand, water and a cementing mixture. Workers usually apply three coats, using trowels (мастерок). Stucco can be applied in many finishes and colours. 73 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match English and Russian equivalents. 1. Stone masonry a) облицовочный кирпич 2. Face brick b) щебень 3. Crushed stone c) известняк 4. Granite d) штукатурка, гипс 5. Sandstone e) кладка из природного камня 6. Refractory brick f) мрамор 7. Dimension stone g) штучный камень 8. Marble i) гранит 9. Limestone j) обыкновенный кирпич 10. Stucco k) огнеупорный кирпич 11. Building brick l) песчаник Ex. 2. Find the word with the most common meaning in each line. Try to remember its Russian equivalents. 1. Face brick, refractory brick, common brick, brick, building brick. 2. Marble, sandstone, stone, granite, limestone, crushed stone, dimension stone. 74 3. Silver, steel, wrought iron, titanium, cast iron, mercury, metal, copper, chrome, aluminium. Ex. 3. Say if the sentences given below are true or false. 1. Stone as well as wood is one of the most ancient building materials. 2. Crushed stone is considered to be more valuable than dimension stone. 3. Limestone, granite, marble, sandstone are all the examples of dimension stones. 4. Builders use one coat of stucco to finish outside walls. 5. The most attractive and the highest quality building brick is called refractory brick. 6. Clay is the main component for producing bricks. Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences. 1. Almost all famous buildings of classic times, the Renaissance, the 18th and the 19th centuries were built of… 2. The advantages of stone as a building material are… 3. The examples of dimension stone are… 4. The most elegant building stone is… 5. Brick is made of… 6. The two main groups of brick are… 7. The size of a building brick in the UK is… 8. Refractory brick can withstand the temperature of… 9. The special instrument builders use to put stucco is called… 75 Ex. 5. Translate the following sentences into English. 1. Искусство создания сооружений из камня называется каменной кладкой. 2. Основные характеристики камня – это механическая прочность, компактность, пористость, звукоизоляция, теплоизоляция и огнеупорность. 3. В современном строительстве камень широко используется для фундаментов, стен, полов, лестниц, опорных сооружений, отделки и декорирования зданий. 4. Люди используют кирпич как строительный материал уже много тысяч лет. 5. Штукатурку готовят из песка, воды, цементирующей смеси и широко используют для внутренней и внешней отделки стен. Task. Look through the text and speak about glass manufacture. TEXT 7. GLASS Glassmaking is considered an art form as well as an industrial process. Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. Glass panes (панель, оконное стекло) provided humans with the 76 ability to both let light into rooms and to keep from rainy weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates in a very hot fire stove called a kiln (обжиговая печь), and it is very brittle (хрупкий). The use of glass in architectural buildings has become very popular in modern culture. Glass “curtain walls” (наружная стеклянная стена) can be used to cover the entire façade of a building, or it can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a “space frame”. Glass brick was invented in the early of the 20th century. Task. Read and translate the text, do the exercises given below. TEXT 8. PLASTIC Plastic is usually organic polymer with high molecular mass derived from petrochemicals (нефтехимические вещества), but there is plastic which is partially natural. Plastic is a building material consisting of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organics that can be moulded into solid objects of diverse shapes. Plasticity is the general property of this material. Plastic has appeared comparatively recently but, owing to its valuable and diverse properties, has found a wide application in construction and many other industries (machine-building, aviation, textile industry, etc.). Plastic combines all the fine characteristics of a building material with good insulating 77 properties. It is no wonder that architects and engineers have turned to it to add beauty to modern houses and offices. Application of plastic in the building field widens from year to year. With respect to physical and mechanical properties at a normal temperature of 20 °С all plastics are divided into rigid (жесткий), semi-rigid, soft and plastic. As to the number of constituents plastics may be classified as simple and complex. In the building field we usually deal with complex plastics, e.g. plastics consisting of a polymer and other components. Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, large assortment, and water-resistance, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. In some fields they have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, leather, metal, glass, and ceramics. The world’s first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite (бакелит, жесткая пластмасса) invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who introduced the term “plastic”. Many chemists contributed to the materials science of plastic, including Nobel winner Herman Staudinger who has been called “the father of polymer physics”. The main properties of plastic are: durability; cost effectiveness; recycling; energy saving; safety; ease of installation and maintenance. 78 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the Russian for: Glassmaking, clear window, glass pane, glass roof, safety of plastics, organic polymer, high molecular mass, relatively low cost, piping, bakelite, synthetic and semi-synthetic organics, partially natural, petrochemicals. Ex. 2. Give the English for: Смесь песка и различных силикатов, хрупкий материал, обжиговая печь, изобретение стекла, стеклянный строительный кирпич, пропускать свет, простота при установке и в уходе, пластик, пластичный, пластичность, водонепроницаемый материал. Ex. 3. Answer the following questions. A 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Is glass a new building material? What is glass made of? What sort of equipment is necessary for producing glass? When was glass brick invented? Where is glass used in modern construction? B 1. What is plastic and what is this material usually derived from? 79 2. What is the most common property for all types of plastics? 3. Where are plastics applied in modern construction? 4. What are the main advantages of plastics as a building material? 5. Can plastic displace traditional building materials in future? How can you prove your opinion? Task. Translate the text without using the dictionary. TEXT 9. THE OPTIONS OF USING TIMBER, CONCRETE AND STEEL There are three of the most common building materials in the world: steel, concrete, timber. STEEL Steel products are ones of the most widely used building materials in construction today, mainly because they are diverse, durable, and available, and no matter what kind of project you are working at. Steel as a structural material has a high strength/weight proportion; the dead weight (собственный вес) of steel structures is relatively small. This property makes steel a very attractive structural material for: high-rise buildings; long-span bridges; structures located on soft ground. 80 Ductility. Steel can undergo large plastic deformation before failure, thus providing a large reserve strength. This property is referred to as ductility. Properly designed steel structures can have high ductility, which is an important characteristic for resisting shock loading such as blasts (взрыв) or earthquakes. A ductile structure has energy-absorbing capacity and it will not be suddenly collapsed. It usually shows large visible deflections (прогиб, отклонение) before failure or collapse. Properties of steel can be predicted with a high degree of certainty. Steel in fact shows elastic behavior up to a relatively high and usually well-defined stress level. Steel properties do not change considerably with time. Advantages of steel. Steel structures can be erected quite rapidly. Steel structures in general can be repaired quickly and easily. Steel is highly suitable for prefabrication and mass production. Steel can be reused after a structure is disassembled. Steel buildings can be easily expanded by adding new bays or wings. Steel bridges may be widened. Steel structures have relatively good fatigue (усталость) strength. Disadvantages of steel in certain cases. Steel structures may be more costly than other types of structures. 81 The strength of steel is reduced when heated at temperatures commonly observed in building fires. Also, steel conducts and transmits heat from a burning part of the building quite fast. Consequently, steel frames in buildings must have adequate fireproofing. Steel structures are subjected to air, water and corrosion and should be painted regularly. Application of weathering and corrosion-resistant steel may eliminate this problem. Steel members are in general more subjected to deformation than reinforced concrete compression members. TIMBER The building industry is increasingly recognising the potential results available from working with environmentally focused products i.e. timber, that combine clean aesthetics and structural properties. Advantages of timber. Timber is an excellent insulator: brick-built houses are also known to have outstanding insulating properties, but timber surpasses them. Timber is an elastic material: in comparison with brick or concrete walls, timber walls don’t have to be very thick. A 20 cm wall, for example, is strong enough to protect against the winter cold, if it has a proper treatment. Timber houses are very attractive; they don’t need special decorative finishes. 82 Disadvantages of timber. Timber is vulnerable (уязвимый) to vital forces like termites (термиты), woodworms (личинки древоточца) or wood ants (муравьи). Natural forces like the sun, fire, water and etc. can have unfavorable effect on timber. Timber is subjected to shrinking (усадка) and swelling (набухание, вспучивание). Timber has a natural ability to absorb water which is also known as hygroscopy. CONCRETE Concrete is an artificial stone-like material used for various structural purposes. It is made by mixing a binding material as cement and various aggregates i.e. inert materials, such as sand, crushed stone, pebbles (галька, мелкий булыжник), gravel, shale, etc with water and allowing the mixture to harden by hydration (гидратация – присоединение воды к ...). Advantages of concrete. Concrete is economical when ingredients are readily available. Long life of concrete and relatively low maintenance requirements increase its economic benefits. It is not subjected to corrosion or decay as other building materials. Concrete has the ability to be moulded or cast into almost any desired shape. Concrete is non-combustible material which makes it fire-safe and able to withstand high temperatures. 83 It is resistant to wind, water, and insects. Therefore, concrete is often used for storm shelters. Disadvantages of concrete. Concrete has a relatively low tensile strength compared to other building materials. Low ductility. Low strength-to-weight ratio. Concrete is subjected to cracking (трещинообразованию). FOR SELF EXAMINATION TEST (part II) 1. The properties of building materials a) aren’t very important when designing a structure b) should be always taken into consideration 2 Cement, brick and concrete are the examples of a) artificial building materials b) natural building materials 3. High cost and low fire-resistance are a) advantages of main building materials b) disadvantages of main building materials 4. The only renewable natural building material is a) wood b) clay 84 5. Durability, strength and heat-insulation are the properties of a) stone b) timber 6. The drier is the cut wood a) the greater is its strength b) the less is its strength 7. Hardwoods are usually used for a) bearing structures b) decoration and veneering 8. In cut trees water content is a) constantly increasing b) constantly decreasing 9. Aluminium is a) a poor conductor of electricity b) a great conductor of electricity 10. Russia is a) extremely rich in timber, clay, metals and rock b) very poor in these resources 11. The components for producing bricks are a) sand and water b) clay and mortar 12. The building material used for foundations is a) stone b) laminate 13. Plastics are a. modern building material b. ancient building material 85 14. In modern construction the variants of plastics are a) extremely wide b) very limited 15. Cement and lime are referred to a) binding building material b) secondary building material 16. The most popular type of cement nowadays is a) Pozzolanic cement b) Portland cement 17. When concrete is compressed it becomes a) weaker b) stronger 18. The kind of concrete chiefly used in severe climate is a) high-early-strength concrete b) foam concrete 19. The famous Eiffel Tower in Paris was constructed of a) wrought iron b) cast iron 20. Corrosion is the prime enemy of a) metals b) bricks 21. The best material for reinforcing concrete is a) steel b) iron 22. Aluminium wasn’t popular in construction till the middle of the 20-th century because of a) its lightness b) its high cost 86 23. A kiln is used when producing a) glass b) plastics 24. The building material derived from petrochemicals is a) cement b) plastics 25. Marble, granite, limestone are the examples of a) dimension stone b) crushed stone 26. The most attractive and the highest quality brick is called a) refractory bricks b) face bricks 27. The auxiliary building material made of sand, water and cementing mixtures, applied for interior and exterior finishes is a) clay b) stucco 28. In ancient times bricks were made by a) burning in a kiln b) drying in the sun 29. Iron and steel belong to a) ferrous metals b) non-ferrous metals 30. The building material never used for fireproof structures is a) artificial stone b) timber 87 PART III PARTS AND ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING Words to be remembered: girder – ферма, главная балка truss – ферма, стержневая несущая конструкция slab – плита beam – балка pillar – столб, колонна span – пролет, расстояние между опорами foundation – фундамент basement – цоколь, подвальное помещение floor – межэтажное перекрытие, этаж exterior wall – внешняя стена roof – крыша partition – перегородка, ненесущая внутренняя стена ceiling – потолок support – опора, несущая конструкция column – колонна 88 shape – форма, вид formwork – опалубка substructure – подземная часть сооружения superstructure – надземная часть сооружения, надстройка premises – помещение flexibility – гибкость, упругость, эластичность plasticity – пластичность cladding – облицовка, наружная обшивка joist – прогон arrangement – размещение, расстановка crack – трещина, раскол damage – повреждение, разрушение failure – разрушение skyscraper – небоскреб bar – стержень, арматурный пруток dead load – постоянная нагрузка (собственный вес) live load – временная нагрузка gravity load – нагрузка от собственного веса settlement of foundation – оседание фундамента heaving – вспучивание, выталкивание пласта породы или конструкции из грунта freezing – промерзание thawing – оттаивание pitch – скат, уклон to bend – изгибать, гнуть to transmit – передавать (нагрузку) to increase – увеличивать(ся), повышать to reduce – уменьшать, понижать to separate – разделять to cover – накрывать, покрывать 89 Task. Read and translate the text, do the exercises given below. TEXT 1. TYPES OF STRUCTURES In structural engineering structures are classified by the way they resist loads: masonry structures* – load bearing walls resist loads transmitted to them by floor slabs; framed structures* – a steel or concrete skeleton collects loads from plate elements and delivers them to the foundation; shell structures*– a curved surface* covers space and сarries loads; tension structures* – cables are stretched between anchor structures* membranes; pneumatic structures* – a membrane tightened to the ground is supported by internal air pressure. by the material used: concrete and reinforced concrete structures, steel structures, masonry structures, wooden/timber structures. concrete frame structures 90 steel frame structures load bearing masonry wooden framed structures Concrete and reinforced concrete structures are the most common ones (both by volume and by application). In modern construction industrial prefabricated concrete elements are used for erection of residential, public and industrial buildings, and many civil engineering projects. Reinforced concrete is widely used in construction of waterworks*, road and airport paving, foundations for industrial equipment, tanks*, towers, silos* etc. Steel structures are mainly used for frame-span buildings and structures for shops with heavy crane equipment, high-capacity storage tanks, bridges, towers and others. Application of steel and concrete structures in some cases is similar. A significant advantage of steel structures compared with reinforced concrete ones is their smaller mass. This determines their use in areas of high seismic activity, inaccessible areas* of the Far North, desert and mountainous areas, etc. The main applications of masonry structures are walls and partitions. Buildings made of brick, natural stone, small blocks, etc. satisfy the requirements of industrial construction less than the large-size structures. Therefore, their share in the total 91 volume of construction is gradually reduced. However, the use of high-strength brick, reinforced masonry i.e. masonry structures reinforced with steel bars or concrete elements can significantly increase the carrying capacity of buildings with stone walls. The use of brick masonry and ceramic prefabricated panels greatly increases the degree of industrialization of construction and reduces the complexity of the construction of buildings from stone materials. The main direction in the development of modern timber structures includes the construction of buildings from the glulam i.e. – laminated timber*. Possibility of industrial manufacturing and obtaining the necessary dimensions of structural components by gluing* determine their advantages compared to other wooden structures. Carrying and protecting glued structures are widely used in agricultural construction. Notes: masonry structure – каменная конструкция framed structure – рамная/решетчатая конструкция shell structure – оболочковая конструкция tension structure – натяжная конструкция pneumatic structure – пневматическая/надувная конструкция curved surface – изогнутая/искривленная поверхность anchor structure – анкерная опора waterworks – водопроводная станция; фонтан tanks – резервуар silos – бункер inaccessible areas – труднодоступные территории laminated timber – клееная древесина to glue – склеивать 92 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match English and Russian equivalents, defining the types of structures. Shell structure Tension structure Pneumatic structure Masonry structure Framed structure Concrete structure Reinforced concrete structure Timber structure Steel structure пневматическая железобетонная стальная деревянная натяжная оболочковая рамная каменная бетонная Ex. 2. Give the English for: Плита перекрытия, каменные стены и перегородки, анкерная опора, нагрузка от собственного веса, дорожное покрытие, значительное преимущество, гористая местность, территории с высокой сейсмической активностью, труднодоступные территории, конструкции из клееной древесины, высокопрочный кирпич, общий объем строительства, укрепить стальными прутьями, снизить трудоемкость, увеличить несущую мощность, использовать в сельскохозяйственном секторе. Ex. 3. Give the answers to these questions. 1. What does the classification of structures in engineering depend on? 93 2. How are all the structures divided according to the way of resisting loads? 3. What are types of structures according to the material used for their construction? 4. Which of them are mostly used in modern construction? 5. What is the main advantage of steel structures compared with reinforced concrete structures? 6. What are the advantages of glulam-laminated timber structures compared to ordinary wooden structures? 7. Does the use of masonry structures increase? 8. What structures are advisable to build in mountainous, desert and seismically dangerous areas? Why? Task. Read and translate the text using the dictionary. TEXT 2. STEEL FRAMES Steel framing is a construction technique that uses steel supports to form the basic shape, or “skeleton” of a building. The steel frame provides structural support for other building elements, including siding, roof, floors, walls, and the weight of occupants. Steel framing is an alternative to other construction methods, including wood framing. The development of this technique made the construction of skyscrapers possible. A steel frame is comprised of vertical members, known as columns, as well as horizontal members, or girders. Both columns and girders are typically made from I-beams*, which are steel beams shaped like the capitalized letter “I”. The shape 94 of an I-beam provides superior strength and structural support for the other elements of the building. Building elements that are not subjected to high loads may be formed from steel pipes or tubes, which weigh less than I-beams. Because of their high strength steel joists, or trusses are often used to build roof supports. These elements are joined together using bolts, rivets* or welding techniques to ensure a strong connection. Steel structure Most steel structures are done with a type of steel called mild steel*. Mild steel is a material that is extremely strong. This huge strength is of great advantage to buildings. The other important feature of steel framing is its flexibility. It can bend without cracking, which is another great advantage, as a steel building can flex when it is pushed them from side to side by wind, or an earthquake. The third characteristic of steel is its plasticity or ductility. This means that when subjected to great 95 force, it will not suddenly crack like glass, but slowly bend out of shape. This property allows steel buildings to bend out of shape, or deform, thus giving warning to inhabitants to escape. Failure in steel frames is not sudden – a steel structure rarely collapses. Thanks to these properties steel in most cases performs far better in earthquake than most other materials. However one important property of steel is that it quickly loses its strength in a fire. At 500 °С (930° F), mild steel can lose almost half of its strength. This is what happened at the collapse of the World Trade Towers in 2001 (New York). Therefore, steel in buildings must be protected from fire or high temperature; this is usually done by wrapping it with boards or spray-on material called fire protection. The frame needs to be protected from fire because steel softens at high temperature and this can cause the building to partial collapse. The columns are usually encased* by masonry, concrete or plasterboard*. The beams may be encased by concrete, plasterboard or sprayed with a coating to insulate them from the heat of the fire. Bricks, stone, reinforced concrete, architectural glass, sheet metal and simply paint are used to cover the frame in order to protect the steel from bad weather. Notes: I-beams – двутавровая балка rivets – заклепки mild steel – строительная сталь to encase – полностью закрывать, обрамлять, вставлять plasterboard – сухая штукатурка 96 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the definitions for the terms: steel framing skeleton of a building skyscraper column girder I-beam rivet mild steel deformation crack collapse Ex. 2. Choose the phrase in the text to complete the sentences below. 1. A construction technique which uses steel supports to make a skeleton of a structure is called… 2. Vertical members comprised in steel framing are known as… 3. Horizontal members comprised in steel framing are called… 4. Steel can be protected from bad weather by… 5. Steel can be protected from fire by… 6. Flexibility of steel structures means… 7. Ductility of steel structures means… 97 Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences into English. 1. Строительство небоскребов стало возможным благодаря применению стальных каркасов. 2. Колонны и фермы обычно делают из стальных двутавровых балок. 3. Для большей части стальных конструкций используется исключительно прочный материал – строительная сталь. 4. Сталь не выносит высоких температур, поэтому стальные конструкции должны иметь надежную противопожарную защиту. 5. При температуре выше 500º даже сверхнадежная сталь теряет до половины своей прочности. 6. Каменная кладка, бетон, сухая штукатурка обычно служат изолирующим средством, защищая стальные конструкции от пожара. Task. Give the written translation of the text. TEXT 2a. THE USE OF STEEL FRAME STRUCTURES ͯ Let us consider a single-storey building with 5×8 m. in dimension. Let us first build the structure with four columns at the corners, beams spanning between the columns, and a 150 mm ͯthick concrete slab at the top using concrete. Such structure would weigh about 800 kg/m², or 32 tons i.e. 32.000 kg in total. If we built the same structure using steel instead of concrete, with a sloping roof covered with corrugated metal sheeting (обшивка из рифленого металла) with insulation, it would 98 weigh only about 65 kg/m². The steel framed building will weigh only 2.6 tons i.e. 2.600 kg. So the concrete building is over 12 times heavier! This example is given for single-storey structures. In multi-storey structures, the difference will be less, as the floors in multi-storey steel buildings are built of concrete slabs for economy – but the difference is still significant. This low weight of steel frame buildings means that they have to be firmly bolted to the foundations to resist wind forces; otherwise they could be blown away like deck (терраса, большая лоджия) umbrellas! Steel construction is mostly often used in: high rise buildings because of its strength, low weight, and speed of construction; industrial and warehouse buildings because of its ability to create large span spaces at low cost; residential buildings in a technique called light steel construction; temporary structures as these are quick to set up and remove. Advantages of steel structures: they are super-quick to build at site, as a lot of work can be pre-fabricated at the factory; they are flexible, that makes them very good at resisting dynamic (changing) forces such as wind or earthquake forces; a wide range of ready-made structural sections are available, such as I, C, and angle sections; 99 they can be made to take any kind of shape, and used with any type of material; a wide range of joining methods is available, such as bolting, welding, and riveting (заклёпочные работы). Disadvantages of steel structures: they lose strength at high temperatures, and are subjected to fire; they are subjected to corrosion in humid or marine environment. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Make a list of advantages of steel frame structures. Ex. 2. Make a list of their main disadvantages. Ex. 3. List the types of buildings where steel framing is used. Ex. 4. Say if the sentences given below are true or false. 1. Steel frame construction is fast and rather cheap. 2. A steel structure is many times heavier than a concrete structure. 3. Prefabrication makes construction super-quick. 4. Flexibility of steel structures prevents them to resist earthquakes and high winds. 5. Steel structures are not subjected to fire and corrosion. 6. There are different techniques of assembling steel structures. 100 Task. Look through the text and give a short summary. TEXT 3. TALL BUILDINGS In Russia the term “tall building” describes the structure with more than 50 meters height (14 floors and more). In the structural engineering sense, the multi-storey building may be defined as “tall” when the horizontal loading due to wind or seismic effects becomes the most important consideration in design. The first high-rise buildings appeared in Russia in 1950s. Thousands of very tall buildings scrape the sky in all big cities of the country. From economic point of view, the construction of skyscrapers is certainly beneficial, especially in the areas with shortage of land. However there are some minuses and they are rather essential: maintenance of high-rise buildings costs twice higher than ordinary buildings; high-rise buildings are negative for human health; the load on engineering communication is much bigger and if a crack happens in such structure the risk of its collapse increases greatly. Tall building There are also problems with parking place and proper system of fire protection and evacuation. Three modern achievements have contributed to making tall buildings safe and successful: 101 the design of efficient lateral load-resisting systems which are essential elements of all such structures to resist wind and seismic loads, and reduce damp vibration*; the modern methods of computer analysis including modeling the structure for static and dynamic analysis, coupled with model testing in wind tunnels* and on shaking tables* so that behaviour can be accurately predicted*; the development of rapid construction methods in concrete, prefabrication techniques, drainage work* etc. One tall building can replace a large area of low-rise buildings, and it can give chance for other constructions such as community centers, sport centers. Tall buildings are used for offices, hotels, apartment houses, hospitals, department stores etc. and often for combined use, e.g. offices/apartments. Architects and engineers planning a tall building need to consider the following general restrictions on design: building regulations and planning laws for the city – sometimes the maximum building height is limited; intended occupancy – this influences the floor loading; the transport of people is primarily vertical, requiring a central core*. The design of tall buildings was only possible following the invention of the electric lift; fire protection of the structural frame in steel buildings is provided with sprinklers* and they have an easy and speedy evacuation system; heating or air conditioning is essential. This requires space between floor slabs and suspended ceilings*; services (lighting, electricity supply, telephone, computer networks, water, and waste disposal) form an 102 important part of design and must be considered at the planning stage. Services can be set in prefabricated wall and floor units during their manufacture. The foundation of tall buildings can be expensive depending on site conditions because heavy loads are delivered onto small areas. Cellular rafts* or multi-storey basement foundations are commonly used where the space under building provides car parking. The foundations may be placed directly on the soil or be supported on piles or on caissons* under thick slabs. Very often the erection of the tall structure has to be carried out on a restricted site. This influences the design and limits the size of components to be fabricated. Low- to medium-rise buildings can be erected with independent tower cranes located around the area. For tall buildings, erection must make use of the structure itself. Notes: damp vibration – затухающее колебание wind tunnel – аэродинамическая труба shaking table – вибрационный стол, виброплощадка to predict – предсказывать drainage work – работа по осушению central core design – конструкция здания с центральной секцией, в которой размещены шахты лифтов и коммуникации sprinkler – огнетушитель suspended ceiling – подвесной потолок cellular raft – сплошной плавающий фундамент caisson – кессон, свая большого диаметра и глубокого заложения 103 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the Russian for: Prefabrication, rapid construction technique, tall building, multi-storey structure, multi-storey basement foundation, cellular raft, caisson, wind tunnel, shaking table, vertical loading, maximum building height, planning laws, building regulations, central core, sprinkler, easy and speedy evacuation, heating and air conditioning, suspended ceiling, to reduce damp vibration, to predict accurately. Ex. 2. Match two columns to complete the following sentences. 1. When designing a tall building, engineers and architects should… a) the most important consideration in design is horizontal loading because of high winds and seismic effects 2. The maximum building height is sometimes limited by… b) planning laws of a city and building regulations 3. A building is called “tall” when… c) cellular rafts or multi-storey basement foundations 4. To provide a car parking under the building, it’s better to use… d) can be set in prefabricated walls or floor units 5. Such services as lighting, electricity supply, computer networks… e) consider some general restrictions 104 Ex. 3. Agree or disagree with the following statements. 1. Rapid construction techniques, prefabrication, computer modeling have greatly contributed to safe and successful erection of tall buildings. 2. Tall buildings are usually erected for such structures as schools and kindergartens, theatres and libraries. 3. Concrete framed structures and masonry are the most popular for tall buildings. 4. The invention of electric lifts gave the start to the construction of tall buildings. 5. Piles and caissons, being the basic elements of a tall building are used to support a roof. Task. Give the written translation of the text. TEXT 4. CONSTRUCTING A SKYSCRAPER In Russia the term “skyscraper” describes a very tall building with a steel frame higher than 100 meters (more than 25 floors). New methods in the design and construction of skyscrapers have been closely related to the development of computers. Engineers use computers to solve complex problems involved in such construction projects. Skyscraper 105 Computers do this work quickly by breaking the design down into a limited number of pre-calculated elements. Before construction begins, engineers determine the strength of the soils that will be under a new building. Using this information they can design a foundation properly. Mobile diggers (землеройные машины) begin excavating soil after the building site is cleared, leveled, and drained of water. When the excavation is finished a footing (a base) and a superstructure are built. Most steel elements used in the superstructure, such as beams, girders, and columns are brought to the site prefabricated. The first reinforced concrete skyscraper in the world was built in 1902–1903 in Cincinnati, Ohio (the USA). It was the first time when a 16-storey structure demonstrated safety and economy of reinforced concrete frames for high-rise construction. Concrete was chosen as a structural material chiefly for economics. It offered the equivalent of steel frames in load bearing capacity and other physical properties and it was rather cheaper. Engineers all over the world watched with great interest as construction proceeded successfully along its 16storey route. Today this building is recognized by engineers as having revolutionized the building industry. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Translate the following words (word combinations) into English. Проектирование и строительство небоскребов, стальные балки, фермы, колонны, железобетонный каркас для высот106 ного здания, экономичность и безопасность строительства, определить твердость почвы, рассчитать нагрузку на фундамент, расчистить строительную площадку, использовать землеройные машины, начать революцию в строительной промышленности. Ex. 2. Put these questions to your group-mates. 1. What kind of a building can be considered as “a skyscraper”? 2. When and where was the first skyscraper built? How many floors did it have? 3. What is the role of computer technologies in designing skyscrapers? 4. What did the first reinforced concrete skyscraper demonstrate? 5. What building materials are used for erecting skyscrapers? 6. What does the process of erecting skyscrapers include? 7. Which skyscraper is the tallest building in the world by the moment? What country is it situated in? 8. Is the number of storeys in skyscrapers limited? 9. Would you like to have an apartment in a skyscraper? What floor would you prefer to live on? Why? 10. Do skyscrapers make our cities’ image uglier or nicer? 107 Task. Scan the text to get the full idea of it. TEXT 5. SHELL AND WIDE-SPAN STRUCTURES (оболочковые и большепролетные конструкции) Shell structures A shell structure is a thin curved membrane or a slab usually made of reinforced concrete that functions both as a structure and a covering. The term “shell” is used to describe the structures which possess strength and rigidity due to their thin, natural and curved form such as a shell of an egg. Shells may be round, elliptic or parabolic in cross section. Owing to the easiness of their manufacture the first type is used more frequently. Shell structure Cylindrical shells may be subdivided into: 108 single-span shells supported on two diaphragms; multi-span shells supported on more than two diaphragms; single-barrel shells (одноцилиндровая оболочка); multi-barrel shells consisting of several single-barrel shells; plain (гладкая) shells, and ribbed (ребристая) shells. The most popular diaphragms are trusses, solid beams, bowstring arches (раскосые арки) and frames. The material which suits mostly for construction of a shell is concrete because it is a highly plastic material. When mixed with water it can take up any shape on centering or inside formwork. Small sections of reinforcing bars can readily be bent to follow the curvature of shells. Once cement has set and concrete has hardened, a membrane or a slab acts as a strong, rigid shell which serves as a structure and a covering to the building. Advantages of shells: very light form of construction, for a span of 30 m. required shell thickness is 60 mm.; dead load can be reduced thus economizing foundation and supports material; esthetically it looks better over other forms of construction. Disadvantages of shells: problem of shuttering (опалубка); greater accuracy in formwork is required; skilled labour and supervision is necessary. 109 Wide-Span structures Wide-span buildings and structures are ones that cover area using long-span components of 36 m. and more meters. Theaters, concert halls and sports halls, exhibition halls, garages, hangars, shipbuilding factories, aircraft manufacturing and other constructions with spans of basic load bearing components of 50 meters or more belong to wide-span structures. Beam systems, trusses, frames, arches, hinged (навесной) and other building elements are used for these structures. Wide-span structure Advantages of wide-span structures: strength and durability of structures; easiness of construction. Disadvantages of wide-span structures: high cost compared with alternative structure systems; problems with the number and complexity of joints; problems of fire protection. 110 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Translate these word-combinations into Russian. Curved form, elliptic in cross section, long-span components, complexity of joints, trusses, frames, arches, hinged elements, supporting system, beam systems, problems of shuttering, structural efficiency, esthetically attractive building. Ex. 2. Give a definition of the following word combinations “a shell structure” and “a wide-span structure”. Ex. 3. Make a list of advantages and disadvantages of shell structures and wide-span structures. Ex. 4. Answer the questions given below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What two functions does a shell structure perform? Why is it called “a shell”? What are the main shapes of shell structures? Which of them is the most widely used? Why? What building material is the most suitable for constructing a shell? Why? 6. What kinds of buildings are usually erected by the method of wide-span construction? 7. What special constructive elements are applied for widespan structures? 111 Task. Give the written translation of the text. TEXT 6. PARTS AND ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING Despite the significant difference between the buildings for different purposes, both in appearance and in the internal structure, they consist of some interrelated architectural and structural elements performing very specific functions. A building has two main parts: the substructure i.e. the part below ground and the superstructure i.e. the part above ground. The substructure is usually called a foundation. It includes the basement walls, even though these may extend above the ground. Both the substructure and the superstructure help to support the load i.e. weight of the building. The dead load of a building is the total weight of all its parts. The live load is the weight of furniture, equipment, stored material of a building, and occupants who live there. In some regions, the wind load of a building is important if the structure has to withstand (выдерживать) storms. Basic elements of a building can be subdivided into the following groups: the bearing elements, that receive basic loads arising in a building; non-load-bearing elements, which divide premises, and protect them from atmosphere influence and keep a certain temperature in a building; elements which combine both bearing, and non-loadbearing functions. 112 The main elements of a building: a foundation walls floorings a roof partitions stairs windows doors Construction elements of a building: 1 – foundation; 2 – walls (external and internal); 3 – basement floor; 4 – flooring; 5 – partition; 6 – open roof; 7 – the roof; 8 – staircase; 9 – windows; 10 – door 113 EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the definitions to the terms below. Substructure of a building Superstructure of a building Live load Dead load Wind load Bearing element Non-load-bearing element Flooring Partition Ex. 2. Make a list of all the basic elements of a civil building. Ex. 3. Check your answers to ex. 2 and using the text show these elements in Fig. “Construction elements of a building” Task. Translate the text using the dictionary. TEXT 7. FOUNDATIONS Foundation (fundamentum) being a part of a building is a building load-bearing structure*. This main element receives all loads from overlying designs and distributes them on the base*. As a rule, it is made of concrete, stone or wood. Foundations are put below the level of freezing the ground to prevent their 114 heaving. Spread foundations (the foundation which is above level of freezing the ground) are applied on unheaving grounds for constructing easy wooden structures. Such type of a foundation is applied basically for small garden houses, summer baths and economic constructions. Foundations are the chief means of supporting a building and transmitting the loads from a building structure to the ground. They carry both dead and live loads. Building loads can be vertical or horizontal and cause overturning, and the foundation must resist bearing and uplift loads*. The correct choice and design of foundations is essential. In case a foundation is not accurately calculated, differential settlement may occur*. This can cause structural failure or damage and even collapse of the whole building. The type of a foundation to be used depends on the ground conditions and the type of structure adopted. Strip*, socket*, pier*, pile* and slab* foundations are applied in building industry. They are precast, monolithic and precastmonolithic ones. The foundation choice depends on seismicity of a district, the ground and architectural decisions. Manufacturing of concrete foundations is possible at temperature above 5°С that imposes essential restrictions on seasonal performance of work. Work at lower temperatures is possible with the use of electrowarming up technology. There are three main types of foundations: Spread foundations are long slabs of reinforced concrete that extend beyond the outer edges of a building. Such foundations are not as firm as those based on a solid rock. The footing areas in contact with the soil must be of sufficient size to spread the load safely over soil and to avoid excessive 115 settlement of foundations. Any such settlement would cause walls to crack. Pier foundations are heavy concrete columns that go down through free topsoil to a bed of a firm rock. This bed may also be sand, gravel, or firm clay. Pile foundations are columns of steel, concrete, or wood. Machines that are called pile drivers* hammer* columns down as deep as 60 meters to a layer of a solid soil or rock. These columns transmit* the building load to a supporting soil. Most skyscrapers are supported by rock foundations. 1 2 3 4 Constructions of foundations 1 – slab foundation; 2 – strip foundation; 3 – pier foundation; 4 – pile foundation Notes: bearing load – рабочая (несущая) нагрузка base – основание bearing foundation – несущий фундамент uplift load – подъёмная нагрузка to occur – происходить, случаться spread/shallow foundation – фундамент мелкого заложения 116 strip foundation – ленточный фундамент socket foundation –фундамент стаканного типа pier foundation – фундамент на столбах, пилонный фундамент pile foundation – свайный фундамент slab foundation – плитный фундамент pile drivers – копер для забивания свай hammer – молот для забивания свай; забивать сваи transmit – передавать нагрузку Task. Translate the text and do the exercises given below. TEXT 7a. CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS The choice of the type of a foundation depends on: 1) purposes Bearing foundation. Combined (комбинированный) foundation that is capable to carry out functions of seismic protection, in addition to bearing functions. Spread/shallow foundation. Deep foundation. Special foundation: for example, antiseismic foundations. 2) material used Stone foundation: Reinforced-concrete foundation: 117 precast; monolithic. Wooden foundation Aerated foundation (ячеистобетонный) Classification of foundation 1 – block foundation; 2 – monolithic foudation; 3 – brick foundation; 4 – foundation made of concrete blocks; 5 – foundation on heaving grounds; 6 – foundation on unheaving grounds. 3) a basis of design 118 Pier foundation (concrete, brick or masonry) Foundation of a “socket” type Strip foundation (precast or monolithic) Deep foundation (заглубленный) Shallow foundation (малозаглубленный) Pile foundation (precast or monolithic) Pile-and-beam foundation (свайный фундамент с ростверком) Slab foundation Continual (континуальный) foundation is like a circle or a square. Usually they serve as supports for bridges, silos, storage bins (бункер для хранения материалов) etc. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match English and Russian equivalents. Socket foundation Pier foundation Pile foundation Shallow foundation Deep foundation Strip foundation Slab foundation Combined foundation Continual foundation Bearing foundation свайный фундамент континуальный фундамент комбинированный фундамент ленточный фундамент заглубленный фундамент фундамент мелкого заложения фундамент стаканного типа пилонный фундамент плитный фундамент несущий фундамент Ex. 2. Complete the following sentences. 1. A part of a building which takes loads and transfers them to the base is called… 2. For light and economic construction on unheaving grounds it’s possible to use… 119 3. Seismic and ground conditions, architectural decisions and the type of a structure influence the choice of… 4. Use of electro-warming up technology helps to… 5. To hammer piles down workers use… 6. Most tall buildings stand on… 7. Combined foundations carry out two functions: loadbearing and… Ex. 3. Find the answers for the following questions in the text. 1. 2. 3. 4. What is the principal function of any foundation? What materials are used for foundations? What kind of loads does a foundation carry out? Why is it so important to design and build a proper foundation? 5. What types of foundations are mostly used for construction industry? 6. What factors influence the foundation choice? 7. What does the classification of all foundations depend on? Task. Read and translate the text for getting specific information. TEXT 8. FLOOR SYSTEMS Flooring is a horizontal internal protective structure which divides a building into storeys. As a rule, it is a load-bearing structure. 120 The floor system generally serves two purposes. Primarily the floor carries vertical dead and imposed load* and transmits these loads through beams to the columns/walls. The floor also has to act as a horizontal diaphragm that ties the building together, stabilizes the walls and columns, and transmits horizontal wind load to rigid frames or shear walls. The aims in design of the floor system are: to deliver the main vertical loads safely by the most direct and efficient route to the columns/walls without excessive deflection or vibration; to have the necessary horizontal strength/rigidity; to achieve a homogeneous arrangement and spacing of beams, that will reduce costs; to accommodate necessary services while constructing – this reduces overall building costs; to have adequate resistance to or protection against fire for all components. The layout of the floor depends on the shape and structural system used for a building. In steel-framed structures the column defines the flooring divisions. Primary beams* are put between the columns and may form the part of the main vertical structural frames. As to spans, secondary beams* may be provided to subdivide the intercolumn areas. Column spacing* normally varies from 4 to 8 m. in rectangular-shaped buildings and it can be much greater. Secondary beams are normally spaced at 3 to 4 m. 121 Notes: imposed load – приложенная/временная нагрузка to accommodate necessary service – размещать необходимые коммуникации column spacing – расстояние между колоннами primary beam – первичная балка secondary beam – промежуточная или второстепенная балка Task. Read and translate the text using the dictionary. TEXT 8a. BASIC FLOOR TYPES Intermediate floor (типовое/междуэтажное перекрытие) Basement floor (надподвальное перекрытие) The attic floor (чердачное перекрытие) Intermediate floor separates residential floors from each other. Intermediate floor is an important choice of the floor structure. You may need extra load-bearing walls or pillars under the ceiling for reducing the span or the load. The most important requirement is also soundproofing. Waterproofing is sometimes also needed. Floorings are subdivided into: ribbed flooring; precast flooring; the monolithic reinforced-concrete flooring; 122 precast-monolithic flooring; caisson flooring (кессонное перекрытие). Types of flooring Types of floorings widely applied now are the following: prefabricated panels; prefabricated reinforced concrete beams, metal and wood beams; monolithic reinforced concrete, precast-monolithic slabs. Materials for flooring The flooring may be of stone, brick, reinforced concrete. Wooden floorings are seldom used now and basically when erecting single-storey buildings. Reinforced-concrete floorings are widely used in the form of precast structures, monolithic and precast-monolithic ones. 123 Requirements to flooring Flooring designs should meet the following standard requirements: durability, fire resistance, sound insulation and thermal protection. Protection against moisture penetrating into internal designs of flooring in damp premises (lavatories) is provided with embedding of a special waterproofing layer. EXERCISES Ex.1. Answer the questions to the text. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. What is flooring? Are floors considered to be load-bearing structures? What are the functions of floors in a building? What does the layout of the floor framing depend on? How can floor types be classified? What building materials are used for flooring? What are the main requirements of flooring? Ex. 2. Choose the correct variant to complete the following sentences. 1. Flooring is a) vertical external protective design of a building b) a horizontal internal protective design of a building 2. Floors protect all the components of a building from a) fire b) rain 3. To subdivide the inter-column areas, builders use a) primary beams b) secondary beams 124 4. The attic floor is the space between a) the last storey and the roof b) the basement and the first storey 5. One of the most important requirements for floors is a) soundproofing b) waterproofing 6. The layout of the floor depends on a) the shape and structural system used for a building b) homogeneous arrangement and spacing of beams, that will reduce costs 7. Wooden floorings are suitable for a) single-storey buildings b) high-rise building Task. Look through the text and give a short summary. TEXT 9. EXTERIOR WALLS Typical exterior walls have one face to outside the house (exterior elements) and one face to inside the house. Not all exterior walls are load bearing, but in most cases they serve as a definite structural function like supporting the roof. There are different types of exterior walls and they are assembled using various construction methods. Load-bearing walls and columns of a house transfer in turn live and dead loads from the roof to the foundation, which in its turn transfers these loads to the ground. Resistance is also needed to lateral forces from wind and seismic occurrences, which can 125 cause deformation and displace buildings from their foundations. These loads are taken into account in the design of buildings. Designs of exterior walls of civil and industrial buildings are classified according to: static function, material used, the constructive decision. 1. Static function a) bearing walls; b) self-bearing walls; c) not bearing walls. Bearing external walls take a dead load and loads from adjacent structures of a building (floorings, parting (смежные) walls, roofs, etc.) and transfer them to the foundations. At the same time they carry out bearing and protective functions. Self-bearing external walls take a vertical load only from a dead load (including load from balconies, bay windows (эркер), and other wall elements) and transfer them to the foundations through intermediate supporting structures and simultaneously they carry out bearing and protective functions. Not bearing external walls on each floor (or through some floors) rest on adjacent supporting structures of a building – floorings, a frame or walls. Thus, these walls carry out only protective function. 126 Bearing and not bearing external walls are applied in buildings with any number of floors. Self-bearing walls rest on their own foundations; their height is limited because of possible mutual deformation of external walls and internal structures of a building. The higher the building, the more difference in vertical deformation, therefore, in panel houses self-bearing walls are applied at height of a building no more than 5 floors. 2. Material used: stone walls are made of brick (clay or silicate) or stone being the oldest, long-lasting, and most universal materials. They are applied in buildings with any number of floors. Brick is a predominant building material because of its low maintenance, non-combustibility, availability, moisture resistance, and aesthetic appearance. Stone blocks are made of a natural stone (limestone, a tuff (туф), etc.) or artificial materials (concrete, a lightweight-aggregate concrete – бетон на легких заполнителях). concrete walls are made of the concrete of high specific weight of class В15 and higher, or the lightweight-aggregate concrete of classes В5 ÷ В15. When erecting not bearing external walls the foam concrete, the porous concrete class В2 ÷ В5 are also used. Concrete walls are applied in buildings with any number of floors. wooden walls are applied in low-rise buildings. For their erection pine timbers in diameter 180 ÷ 240 mm or bars with cross-section 150×150 mm or 180×180 mm, as well as board or plywood (фанера) panels with thickness of 150 ÷ 200 mm are used. 127 3. The constructive decision: a) single layer walls; b) two-layer walls; c) three-layer walls. The quantity of layers of external walls in a building is defined by the results of thermo-technical calculation. In order to meet modern standards on a heat preserving it is necessary in the majority of regions of Russia to project three-layer structures of external walls with an effective heater. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Give the English for: Внешняя стена, несущая стена, смежная стена, пенобетон, фанера, внутренняя обшивка, различные методы сборки, универсальный, долговечный строительный материал, передавать нагрузку на фундамент, вызывать деформацию и смещение здания с фундамента. Ex. 2. Give the Russian for: Live load, dead load, flooring, a concrete wall, a wooden wall, a single-storey building, a low rise building, for a building with any number of floors, moisture resistance, to support a roof, a noncombustible material. Ex. 3. Find the correct answers for these questions. 1. Are all exterior walls considered to be load bearing? 128 2. What are the major factors to be considered when designing exterior walls? 3. What does static function include? 4. How is stability of self-bearing external walls provided? 5. What building materials are usually used for exterior walls? 6. How is the quantity of layers in external walls defined? 7. How many layers should be applied for the best effect of heat resistance? Task. Look through the text and tell about wall insulation. TEXT 10. AN EXTERNAL WALL INSULATION An external wall insulation system is a thermally insulated, protective, decorative exterior cladding (облицовка, покрытие) procedure involving the use of expanded polystyrene (полистирол), mineral wool (силиконовая шерсть, шлаковата), polyurethane foam (пенополиуритан) or polystyrene foam (пенополистирол), topped off with reinforced cement, mineral or synthetic finish and plaster (штукатурка). The thickness of thermal insulation depends on the type required in order to create a partition with a heat transmission factor. When calculating the actual insulation requirements, consideration must be given to current Building Regulation Standards. Consideration must also be given to possible risks. Special attention is paid to concrete beams or lintels 129 (перемычки) which act as thermal bridges (тепловой мостик) being poor insulation. External wall insulation systems generally comprise: an insulation layer (an element which helps to achieve the requisite thermal performance); a protected weatherproof finish (usually a render – штукатурка), although tiles, and decorative boards can also be used. Insulating render can also be an advantage in certain locations. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match Russian and English equivalents. Insulation system Thermal insulation Poor insulation Decorative cladding Partition Mineral wool Polyurethane foam Plaster Waterproof finish штукатурка декоративная облицовка водоотталкивающее покрытие пенополиуретан термоизоляция система изоляции плохая изоляция шлаковата перегородка Ex. 2. Complete the following sentences. Try to do it without consulting the text. 1. An external wall insulation system is… 130 2. The thickness of thermal insulation depends on… 3. Building Regulation Standards should be taken into account when… 4. Possible risks should be also… 5. Concrete beams or lintels serve as… 6. An insulation layer helps to… 7. For waterproof finish builders usually use… Task. Read and translate the text without the dictionary. TEXT 11. FINISHING OF EXTERIOR WALLS The façade of any building is very important thing. It is an architecturally-style element of the house we always pay attention to. The important task is to create an image of the house, using elements of an architectural decor. Finishing of facades is an external shape of a building. Now at the market of building materials advanced technologies and modern kinds of facing materials are more often applied. Certainly, modern buildings should be durable and beautiful, cosy and warm, fireproof, strong and original. The facade can be faced with plaster, putty (замазка, шпаклевка), painted or finished with various siding elements. The choice of various finishing materials for facades depends on intended purpose of the building. For example, a salon can be glassed, an office – finished with siding, a plant – just painted. 131 Siding. The word “siding” is borrowed from the American English language. Siding is not only a material (as many people consider), it is also a system, a modern technology of facing the façade by different or a certain covering materials. Finishing by siding allows considerably to improve the appearance of a building thanks to processing of panels (обработка панелей) by various paints and vanish coverings. Siding Siding is very modern, new building material. For the first time siding was used in the USA at the end of 1950s. Very soon this material has become very popular at the building markets of America and Canada, and than in Europe. In Russia siding appeared in the 1990s and its popularity is constantly growing. Siding carries out not only protective function from atmosphere influence, but also makes a building harmonious and attractive. Siding Siding is easy to work with. It helps to hide large defects on a building. Neither sunlight, nor humidity, neither wind, nor snow with rain, influence the siding; this material is capable to withstand temperatures from –50°С to +50°С. Siding is much cheaper, than other finishing materials for facades of buildings. 132 Siding basic elements are panels which are usually fastened on house walls. In the bottom the panel is fixed by a special strip invisible even in a ready house. Joints from the face side hold panels. Windows and doors are usually faced with special verge boards (фронтальная доска) which are also referred to siding. Various facing materials are used for an ornament of facades; the most popular being natural and artificial stone, ceramic granite, a decorative brick, a ceramic tile, marble, clapboard, a facing brick, paint, vanish materials and others. • • • • • A vinyl siding A metal siding A natural and artificial stone A ceramic granite A decorative brick • • • • • A ceramic tile Marble A clapboard A facing brick Paint and varnish materials Vinyl siding One of the most economic, aesthetically attractive and effective kinds of finishing materials for facing the facades of buildings is a vinyl siding. This material is functional, simple in installation, and it is produced in a wide range of colours. Besides a traditional vinyl siding, a metal siding is applied to facades of buildings. Vinyl siding 133 The vinyl siding is an excellent material for finishing of facades of the house. It is popular because of its excellent unique quality. Thanks to various mixes the given material resists various climatic changes. Vinyl (plastic) siding is plastic wall panels with the thickness of 1 mm. The surface of this material, which is also called clapboard, reminds a tree structure. The vinyl siding does not undergo the influence of solar rays and does not decay. Advantages of vinyl siding. The siding is nontoxic and incombustible, resistant to the various atmosphere phenomena and chemicals. The siding does not change its colour, does not subject to corrosion and does not break under the influence of low temperature. The siding is easy to work. Dirty panels of siding need to be washed out from a hose (шланг) and the house will look as a new one. Thanks to simplicity of installation, the light weight, convenient transportation the siding can be fixed at any season of the year. Metal siding The metal siding is also very widely used. As a finishing material it possesses excellent properties which allow to keep the house in the ideal state for a long time. A metal siding is made of steel which at first is processed at low temperature, and then galvanized at high temperature. After these procedures the steel is covered with special polymers. 134 Metal siding is one of the simplest ways to improve a facade of the whole building, thanks to high speed technology of installation. It has a lot of advantages. Metal siding is: friendly to environment; strong; saving colour for a long time; durable; not combustible; resistant to temperature changes. A natural stone Natural stone is a beautiful, durable, strong and harmless building material. Besides, a stone building becomes not only graceful, but also strong enough. The important indicator of a natural stone is its wear resistance. It resists various corrosive elements of environment, such as salts or acids. Stone is advisable for erecting constructions in cities, where the atmosphere is saturated with salts and acids. Except physical properties, a natural stone has aesthetic appearance which defines the exterior of the buildings erected. Granite and marble belong to a natural stone. Thanks to their good qualities: strength, hardness, density, very low water-saturation, these stones are widely used for facing the buildings. A ceramic tile Now the ceramic tile is also considered to be really attractive, like a royal building material, as it helps to decorate any house. 135 The ceramic tile mixture is very simple: the quartz (кварц) sand which gives hardness to a material, clay which does a material plastic enough, and other materials. The types of ceramic tile are so different that it is very difficult to find an identical tile. A decorative brick Certainly, the decorative brick has a considerable quantity of various colour shades. So you may have opportunities to choose certain colour for your own house. It is possible to draw beautiful drawings on such brick if you desire. Besides, this brick has very good reliability. Decorative brick will remain the same for many years. It is covered with a special mix and the moisture doesn’t destroy it. Marble Marble is used both for interior, and for exterior finishing work. Marble is durable, resistant to temperature changes and moisture content. Marble, practically, is eternal (вечный), though requires protection against harmful environment. For this purpose the use of special means is desirable: the stone impregnations (пропитка), clearing mixtures, mastics, even ordinary beeswax. Window sills, steps, pavement tile are made of marble. Marble columns and the walls faced with a noble stone underline the importance of a construction and its high status. Clapboard (вагонка) The most widespread facing material now, especially at a finishing work in wooden houses, is such unique material, as clapboard. Actually, clapboard occupies a special place among facing materials. 136 Wooden clapboard is a decorative board which is intended for a sheet work of walls and doors. Wooden clapboard is a nonpolluting material made of timber. Keeping all useful properties of timber, clapboard is not only decorative element, but it also gives a beautiful appearance. A facing brick Now brick is used not only to erect strong houses, but also to finish buildings outside. The brick used for facing can have any colour. The facing brick can resist very low temperature, even in the conditions of the extreme north. Besides, it perfectly absorbs moisture. The facing brick can be slightly roundish, and can be in the form of usual rectangles. Paint and varnish materials (лако -красочные материалы) Paint and varnish materials are multi-compound mixtures (liquid, paste or powder mix). These materials are subdivided into varnishes (лаки), first coats, putties, paints (including enamels – эмаль). EXERCISES Ex.1. Match the terms with their definitions. Exterior wall is … a) a multi-compound mixture used for facing a façade Façade is … b) a natural material used for decorative purposes mostly in wooden houses 137 Siding is … c) a slab with one face to outside and another one to inside of the house Varnish material is … d) a modern building material and technology of finishing a façade Wooden clapboard is … e) the front architecturallystyle element of a building Ex. 2. Put the following questions to your group-mates. 1. Is it important to pay special attention when designing a façade of a building? Why? 2. What facing materials do you know? 3. What can you say about their properties? 4. Which of them would you prefer for finishing your own house or office? 5. What does the term “siding” mean? What language does it come from? 6. What does the choice of facing materials depend on? 7. Does siding really help to improve the architectural image of a building? 8. What are the most popular building materials used for siding? 9. Can you list the main advantages of siding? 10. Does it have any disadvantages? What are they? 138 Ex. 3. Match two columns to complete the sentences. 1. It’s very important to create a) panels which are fastened an attractive image to the front on walls, windows and side of a building because… doors of a building 2. Siding appeared in the middle of the last century and… b) a façade is the first thing everybody pays attention to 3. This material gives a building beauty, harmony but it also… c) this material becomes more and more popular 4. Siding is economic, functional, and easy-to-work and it also helps to… d) hide large defects on a building 5. The basic elements of siding are… e) protects it from atmosphere influence 6. Siding isn’t afraid of high and low temperature so it… f) can be installed in any season 7. Siding is considered to be a very durable and long-lasting material because it… g) resists chemicals, fire, moisture, doesn’t decay and doesn’t lose its colour 139 Task. Look through the text and give a short summary. TEXT 12. ROOF DESIGN Roof is a building envelope, which provides protection from weather, notably snow, rain, as well heat, wind and sunlight. The performance of a roof is a key to the integrity of the structure, the comfort and well being of the occupants. Roof failures can occur from earthquakes, fire, snowstorms. Damage is also caused by saturation from ice damming (ледяной затор) and wind-blown moisture into attic space (чердачное помещение). There are many roof styles that can be used for a house. In fact, it's quite common to combine several styles on one house. The roof makes up the basic personality of the house whether it is made of tile, metal, slate or wood. Based on the roof you can usually get a general idea how the house will look like. The characteristics of a roof depend on the purpose of the building that the roof covers, the available roofing materials, the local traditions of construction, wider concepts of architectural design and practice, and may also be governed by local or national legislation. In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain. A verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory (оранжерея, зимний сад) protects plants from cold, wind and rain but admits light. Design elements The elements of a roof design are: the material; the construction; the durability. 140 The material of a roof may range from banana leaves, wheaten straw (солома) or sea grass to laminated glass, copper, aluminium sheeting and precast concrete. In many parts of the world ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and whether the roof is pitched or not. The pitch (скат, уклон) is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point. Most domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has sloped, or pitched roofs. Although modern construction elements such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch; roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition and aesthetics. So a pitch partly depends upon stylistic factors, and is partially connected with practical function. Some types of roofing, for example thatch roof (тростниковая крыша), require a steep (крутой) pitch in order to be waterproof and durable. Other types of roofing, e.g. pantile roof (кровля из желобчатой или голландской черепицы), are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather protection at a relatively low angle. Pantile roof Pantile roof 141 In regions where there is little rain, a flat roof with a slight runoff (сток) provides adequate protection against an occasional heavy rain (ливень). Drainpipes also remove the need for a sloping roof. The durability of a roof is a matter of concern because the roof is often the least accessible part of a building for repair and renewal, while its damage or destruction can have serious effects. Parts of a roof There are two parts of a roof: its supporting structure and its outer skin (внешний слой/обшивка) or upper weatherproof layer. In some buildings the outer layer is also a self-supporting structure. The roof structure is generally supported upon walls. Roof Styles Throughout the history and especially throughout the past couple of hundred years the styles of roofs vary from area to area. There are different designs, styles and shapes of roofs. They should correspond to structure to be covered. Some of the most primary needs that a structure demands from a roof are protection from the weather, general design suitability with the existing structure, and placing the internal elements such as piping, electrical wiring, ventilation, insulation. 142 Task. Read the text and give a short summary of it. TEXT 13. SHAPE OF ROOFS Shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region. The main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering. The basic shapes of roofs are flat (плоская), gable (двускатная), hip or hipped (четырехскатная), arched (арочная) and domed (купольная). There are many variations of these types. Roofs constructed of flat sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs (скатные крыши), generally, if the angle exceeds 10 degrees. Pitched roofs, including gabled and hipped roofs, make up the greatest number of domestic roofs. Some roofs follow organic shapes, either by architectural design or because of a flexible material used in the construction. Illustrations of common roof shapes Flat roof Shed roof Pitched roof 143 Gable or saddle roof Tented or pavilion roof Gambrel roof Hip (hipped) roof Half-hip roof Saw-tooth roof Rhombic roof Rainbow roof Barrel roof 144 Conical roof Spire Onion dome Welsh spire Flat Roof. Flat roofs are common especially for commercial buildings. Flat roofs are definitely the simplest roofs to build because they have a little pitch. Waterproofing is very important for flat roofs. Shed Roof (односкатная крыша). A shed roof is basically a flat roof but has more pitch. It is frequently used for additions on houses. Gable Roof (двускатная крыша). Gable roof design is one of the more simple styles of roofs. The gable roof style looks like an inverted /upside down V. Gable roofs are not ideal for areas with high wind because they can easily catch the wind like a sail would. Gabled roofs also offer larger space for an attic. Hip (hipped) Roof (четырехскатная, вальмовая или шатровая крыша) is a widespread and popular type of roof. It 145 creates a solid and attractive profile when combined with a low and stretched structure. A hipped roof has four sides and a gentle slope. Hipped roofs are a common residential style roof. This type of roof is more difficult to construct when compared to flat and gable roofs because it has a more complicated truss and rafter (стропила) structure. Hipped roofs can be both square and rectangular. Half-Hipped Roof (полувальмовая крыша) Mansard Roof (мансардная крыша). A mansard roof is a French design and is more difficult to construct than the hipped or gable roof. A mansard roof is a “historic” variation of a hipped roof. These types of roofs are unusual, but offer plenty of interior space for an attic. A-Frame Roof (крыша А-образной формы): This type of roof is very popular for churches, cottages, homes, and other structures. The roof acts as both the roof and the walls for a structure. Shed roof (шедовая крыша). A shed roof is similar to a flat roof, but uses a steeper pitch which allows for better drainage. Shed roofs offer lots of design options. Arched roof (арочная крыша). Arched roofs offer excellent structural strength, an unusual and eye-catching design. Nowadays, arched roofs are typically made of curved steel. Domed roof (купольная крыша). Circular roofs can take many shapes – either flat or pitched, or even domed. Domed roofs are strong, unusual and may be expensive and complicated to construct. 146 Saw-tooth roof (пильчатая крыша). Saw-tooth roofs were traditionally an industrial/warehouse type of roof. They are now increasingly popular in houses, thanks to the amount of daylight they allow. Curved roof (криволинейная крыша). Curved roofs, most commonly made of steel in modern designs, offer the opportunity to add organic curves and a softer, rounder look to the house. Task. Translate the text using the dictionary at the end of the book. TEXT 14. ROOF MATERIALS The choice of material is an important aspect in roof construction. Some materials are more common in certain areas and some materials are ideal for different types of roof pitches/slopes while others are not good for definite roof slopes. The three main roof slopes that determine the material used are flat roofs (no slope or a very slight slope), low slope, and steep slope (крутой наклон). The most widely used materials for roof construction. Asphalt Shingles (битумная кровельная плитка) are the most common steep-slope residential roofing material used for roofs. Asphalt shingles vary in quality and price. 147 Metal Metal is a very common material used for roofs. There are many different types of metal roofing (металлическая кровля) systems. The types of used metal vary from zinc to steel, copper, aluminium, and tin. Tile (черепица): Tile is one of the most expensive materials used for roofs. Although the traditional clay tile is probably the most well known tile material it is not the only one. Other materials that are used to create tile products are metal, concrete, slate (шифер), and various synthetic compositions. In the recent past steep-sloped residential roofing selection was relatively simple: the choice was between asphalt shingles, cedar shingles (доска обшивки из кедра), clay and possibly concrete roofing tiles, or, rarely slate. Today, these basic choices are available, but these materials have developed considerably, particularly laminated asphalt shingles, new tile shapes and colours, and new protective shingles treatment. In addition, a whole new set of materials has come into use including metal shingles, tiles, fiber-cement and plastic profiles that imitate wood and slate. Low-slope roofing systems have also developed with the increased use of modified bitumen membranes (покрытие строительным битумом) and singleply roofing (однослойное кровельное покрытие) systems. Roofing tile is differentiated by its shape and composition. Its other important characteristics are breaking strength, absorption or porosity, resistance to freeze-thaw, joining methods, and installation details. The porosity of roof tiles is very important 148 in climate with a repetitive freeze-thaw cycle. The more porous a roof tile is, the more water it will absorb. Water that freezes in a roof tile can cause the material crack. The roof installation method should be based upon roof slope, type of roof deck, climate, seismic considerations, local building codes, and manufacturer’s recommendations. Task. Scan the text to get the full idea of it. TEXT 15. SHELL ROOF (покрытие или крыша в виде свода-оболочки) A shell roof is a common type of a roof that is made from thin material. The roof is curved and it is used to cover large, onestorey buildings. As it is usually aesthetically pleasing, a shell roof is commonly used in public buildings. Shell roofs are useful when the inside of the building is open and does not contain walls or pillars that could support a flat or pitched roof. The shell roofs are especially advantageous in industrial and civil buildings where large unoccupied areas of about 30×30 m or more are to be roofed over without intermediate supports. Shell roofs economize materials and have a smaller self-weight in comparison with roofs made of such structures as roof slabs, trusses, beams, arches and secondary roof trusses. Shell roofs are expensive architecturally. Thin shell roofs are commonly cast in-situ. The floor space under a shell roof can be made much larger than the floor space below another type of roof. This is because 149 the curve in the roof adds additional structural support, allowing the roof to be heavier and larger. It is an ideal roof structure for office buildings and public buildings, such as libraries, theaters and recreation centers. These roofs have interesting aesthetics and can be used to beautify a building. The Sydney Opera House in Australia is the most famous example of a building with a shell roof. Sydney Opera House It is good practice to use prestressed structures in shell roofs. Shell areas subjected to biaxial (двуосное) compression should be checked for stability, cracking-resistance under loads, and also for strength. Prefabricated members should be checked for strength under loads at manufacturing and transporting. Though the shell roofs have many advantages, they are quite costly to build. The slope of the roof and the curve of the arch must be carefully designed to keep the building stable. A shell roof does not work well on buildings with many levels, as the entire structure of the roof must be built on a single level. 150 There are also problems with lighting and ventilation in these types of roofs because they do not let skylight into the structure and it is difficult to install overhead (верхняя, подвесная) ventilation. This type of roof is difficult to design and it is expensive. A shell roof is relatively thin and does not require support beams. The cost of materials for this type of roof can be considerably lower than the materials required for either a flat or a pitched roof. EXERCISES Ex. 1. Match Russian and English equivalents. Roof designing Verandah Shell roof A-frame roof Half-hipped roof Saw-tooth roof Curved roof Domed roof Mansard roof Flat roof Gabled roof Pitched roof Hipped roof Shed roof Arched roof Conservatory оранжерея плоская крыша А-образная крыша полу-вальмовая крыша пильчатая крыша криволинейная крыша сводчатая крыша мансардная крыша арочная крыша купольная крыша односкатная крыша проектирование крыши двускатная крыша четырехскатная крыша скатная крыша веранда 151 Ex. 2. Choose the correct variant and put it down. 1. Roof failures can be caused by a) sun, hot and cold temperature b) fire, storm, earthquake 2. The pitch is a) the angle of a slope b) the material for finishing roofs 3. Flat roofs are usual in the regions with a) much rain b) little rain 4. Gabled roofs look like a) inverted A-frame b) inverted V-frame 5. A hipped roof has a) 4 sides and a gentle slope b) 2 sides and no slope 6. A mansard roof was designed in a) Spain b) France 7. The porosity of roof tiles is very important in a) hot climate areas b) cold climate areas Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences into English. 1. Во многих странах мира черепицу веками используют для кровли крыш. 2. Крыша оранжереи должна защищать растения от ветра, дождя, холода, но хорошо пропускать свет. 152 3. Арочные и купольные крыши выглядят красиво, необычно и всегда привлекают внимание. 4. Построить мансардную крышу гораздо сложнее, чем шатровую. 5. В коттеджах и церквях часто делают крыши А-образной формы. 6. Самый подходящий материал для строительства оболочковой крыши это бетон. 7. Проектирование и строительство оболочковых конструкций – это один из самых сложных и дорогостоящих процессов. 8. При строительстве оболочковых конструкций часто возникают проблемы с электрической проводкой и надземной вентиляцией. Ex. 4. Say if the sentences given below are true or false. 1. Metal, tile, slate and wood are the main material for roof designing. 2. There are two main parts of a roof: a supporting structure and an outer skin. 3. Available materials and climate are the major factors which influence the choice of a roof shape. 4. The simplest roof for designing and constructing is a domed roof. 5. Gabled roofs are ideal for the areas with high winds. 6. Asphalt shingles are the most expensive building material for roofs. 7. Shell roofs are ideal for concert halls, theatres and libraries. 153 FOR SELF- EXAMINATION TEST (part III) 1. Reinforced-concrete structures are rather a) lighter than steel structures b) heavier than steel structures 2. The carrying capacity of a building increases significantly by a) insulating system b) reinforcing masonry 3. The construction of skyscrapers became possible thanks to the technique of a) steel framing b) suspended ceilings 4. Most steel structures are made of special type of steel called a) strong steel b) mild steel 5. Flexibility and plasticity are the properties of a) glass b) steel 6. Ductility is the property that doesn’t allow a steel structure to a) collapse b) withstand winds 7. Steel structures can be protected from fire by a) plastics and glass b) plasterboard and concrete 8. Temporary structures are the buildings that are 154 a) set up and removed quickly b) erected for centuries 9. Steel structures lose strength at a) very low temperature b) very high temperature 10. A structure is considered as “a tall building” when the number of floors exceeds a) seven b) fourteen 11. It became possible to construct skyscrapers thanks to the invention of a) steel reinforcement b) electric elevator 12 Mobile diggers are the building machines used for a) excavation of soil b) assembling parts of a building 13. The first skyscraper in the world was built in a) the USA at the beginning of the 20th century b) Europe in the middle of the 20th century 14. “A shell structure” has received its name because it reminds the shape of a) an egg b) a square 15. The most suitable building material for shells is a) concrete b) iron 16. The technique of wide-span construction is often used for such structures as a) sport halls and garages b) residential buildings 17. The substructure of a building is its 155 a) roof b) foundation 18. The superstructure of a building is its part a) above the ground b) under the ground 19. The weight of furniture, equipment and occupants is called a) live load b) dead load 20. Skyscrapers usually stand on a) spread foundations b) deep foundations 21. Intermediate floors are the slabs which separate a) residential floors from each other b) internal floor space 22. Floors in multi-storey buildings are usually made of a) reinforced concrete b) wood 23. The main purpose for external bearing wall is a) decoration and aesthetics b) protective and transferring loads 24. The most universal materials for external walls are a) aluminium sheeting and laminate b) stone and concrete 25. “Exterior cladding” of a façade is a) renovation or repairing of inside space b) facing outside walls with decorative and protective materials 26. Siding is a) a ground at the back side of a building b) a building material and the technology of facing buildings 156 27. Siding first appeared in a) Canada in 1980s b) the USA in 1950s 28. A roof can be defined as a) an exterior protective envelope of a building b) a basement of a building 29. A pitched roof is a) a damaged roof b) a slopped roof 30. The most widely used roofing materials are a) concrete, cement and stucco b) ceramic tile, metal sheeting and slates ROLE PLAYING My new home 157 Activity A Your students are going to buy a new house, ask them to list off their priorities. For example: It must be made of brick (concrete, timber). (Why?) It must have … floors. (Why?) My flat must be on the ground (first, last) floor. (Why?) It must face the South (Why?) It must have a lot of natural light It should have a nice view/nice location It must be near the countryside I prefer a house to a flat (Why?) It must have amenities nearby (parks, mountains, culture centres, sports centres ) I want to get much privacy I would like to live in a tough area (Why not?) My flat has to be in the city centre (Why?) After having made the comments on each requirement for a new house ask a student to rate them in importance. Debate the needs/priorities of single people as opposed to married couples with children. Each phrase of a student must be supported by explanation. No short answers. Activity B Let students make a list of their priorities inside the house. For example: the most important things for me are: A balcony (Why?) Two bathrooms! 158 A big TV An enormous bed A really comfortable sofa Book shelves A space kitchen A fire place (Why?) Distribution of the house (the lay-out), having the bedroom far from the kitchen or living room (Why?) Activity C Ask students to name two or three amenities they consider essential for them. For example: Sports centre Public transport Mountains Open country Shopping centre 159 ADDITIONAL READING TEXT 1. Eiffel Tower The Eiffel Tower is one of the world’s most iconic monuments, with millions of visitors coming to admire it every year. The Eiffel Tower is a Parisian landmark and technological masterpiece (шедевр) in construction history. When the French government was organizing the centennial (столетие) exposition of 1889 to commemorate the French Revolution, a competition was held for a suitable monument. More than 100 projects were presented and the centennial committee accepted a project of the noted bridge engineer Gustave Eiffel. It was a 984 feet (300 meters) tower of open-lattice wrought iron (сварочное железо с открытой решеткой), which exited interest. Such structure had never been built. At the time of its construction, the Eiffel Tower was the tallest building in the world. It was twice as high as the dome of St. Peters’s in Rome or the Great Pyramid of Giza. In contrast to such older monuments Eiffel’s tower was raised in two years, two months 160 and five days with a small labour force and at low cost. Using advanced knowledge of the behaviour of metal arch and metal truss forms under loading and including wind forces, the structure made a revolution in civil engineering and architectural design. Parisian residents originally hated the Eiffel Tower calling it an eyesore. Despite long-continued protests it ultimately proved itself aesthetically. The tower base of four semicircular arches dictated partially by engineering construction and also by Eiffel’s artistic sense, required elevators to lift on a curve. The glass-cage machines designed by Otis Elvator Company of the United States became one of the principal features of the building, establishing it as one of the world’s prime tourist attractions. Interesting facts about the Eiffel Tower. It weighs 7,000 tons. There are 1,710 steps to reach the top. The tower is not painted one uniform colour; every seven years 50 – 60 tons of paint are applied to protect the tower from corrosion. The Eiffel Tower was only meant to stand for 20 years, but the French military and government began using it for radio communication and later for telecommunication. It’s not just a tourist attraction. The Eiffel Tower has housed a newspaper office, a post office, scientific laboratories, a theatre, and the first level becomes an ice rink every year. Now it is a symbol of Paris and offers a wonderful view of the city. 161 TEXT 2. The Highest Skyscraper in the World (Tower of Dubai) The highest skyscraper in the world “Burj Dubai” (Tower of Dubai) was built in the United Arab Emirates. The official height of the famous tower is 828 meters. The total construction costs $ 1, 5 billion. Inside the complex there is available place for luxury apartments, offices, and shopping centers. The majority of the area is given for office space. The basic premises of the skyscraper were handed over to offices, but there are hotels, restaurants, viewing platforms, and pools in the tower. The designer of the tower was the American architect Adrian Smith, whose main task was to mix Islamic traditions and contemporary Western solutions. Construction proceeded at a speed of 1–2 floors per week. The skyscraper stands on foundation; its thickness being 50 meters and weight – 110 tons. Special grade (марка) of the concrete that can withstand temperatures up to +50 C has been developed. It was poured only at night, and ice was added to the solution. 230,000 cubic meters of concrete, 39 tons of steel, 142 thousand square meters of glass were required for the construction of the building. The tower itself can generate electricity: it uses a turbine, rotated both by the wind and by solar panels. In addition, the 162 building is equipped with special protection from the sun and reflective glass panels, which reduce the heat inside the premises. There are 49 high-speed elevators and eight escalators for the convenience of residents, staff of many offices and visitors. For example, one of the main elevators lifts passengers to a height of just 504 meters at speed of 9 meters per second. TEXT 3. New York’s Empire State Building. The World’s Famous “Cathedral of the Skies” New York City is situated at the mouse of the Hudson River on the East coast of the USA. The heart of the city is the island of Manhattan, where, in the Midtown and Downtown districts, the buildings “scrape” the sky. One of these skyscrapers is the Empire State Building. Like the Statue of Liberty and Brooklyn Bridge, it is instantly recognized as a symbol of New York – a symbol which demonstrates the power, energy and excitement of one of the world’s most-loved and most-hated cities. When the 102-storey structure was built in 1932, it was the tallest building in the world (1,454 feet – 443 meters). From the top, on a clear day, you can see over a 50-mile radius. Its towering 163 height and distinctive Art Deco style made the Empire State Building an instant success with the public. This building remains uniquely fascinating. It’s an internationally known landmark in New York City. It offers inspiring views around the horizon to visitors from around the world, night and day, in wet or dry weather. There are two floor observatories: on the 86th and 102nd floors. The 86th floor observatory, 1,050 feet (320 meters) has a glassenclosed area, which is heated in winter and cooled in summer. High powered binoculars are available on the promenades for the convenience of visitors at a minimal cost. A snack bar, food and drink vending machines and souvenir counters are also located in the 86th floor observatory. Standing on the 102nd floor, 1,250 feet i.e. 381 meters above the streets below, visitors can see the surrounding countryside for distances up to 80 miles on clear days. Interesting facts about the Empire State Building. 164 It is the world’s greatest TV tower – 1, 454 feet. Visibility 80 miles on a clear day. Ships can be seen 40 miles at sea. 73 elevators operate at speed ranging from 600 ft. to 1,200 ft. a minute inside 7 miles of shafts (шахта лифта или вентиляции). 1,860 steps on stairs from street level to 102nd floor. 6,500 windows. One of the world’s eight wonders (the only one built in the 20th Century). Volume of the building is 37,000,000 cubic feet. 2,000,248 square feet of rentable area. Almost 2 million visitors from every state in the United States and nearly every foreign country visit the “top of the Empire State” each year. TEXT 4. Housing in Britain and the USA In Britain families like to live in houses rather than in flats or apartments (“apartment” is American English word). 78 % of people live in houses and only 21 % live in flats. Most houses are made of brick. Most people live in two storey semidetached houses (жилой дом на две семьи). Sometimes when people get older they move to a bungalow (бунгало, одноэтажная дача с верандой) which is a house with only one storey. A country cottage made of stone or a mansion (большой дом, особняк) is only a dream for a lot of people. Almost everybody in Britain dreams of living in a detached house (отдельный дом); that is, a house which is a separate building. The saying “An English-man’s home is his castle” is well-known. It illustrates the importance of ownership and the desire for privacy. Houses, not flats A large, detached house ensures not only privacy. It is a status symbol. Such a house is an unrealistic dream for a lot of people. But even a small detached house, surrounded by garden, gives the required suggestion of rural life (жить в сельской местности) which is dear to the hearts of many British people. 165 Most people try to avoid living in blocks of flats (what the Americans call “apartment blocks”). Flats, they feel, provide the least amount of privacy. With a few exceptions, mostly in certain locations in central London, flats are the cheapest kind of home. The people living there are those who cannot afford to live anywhere else. The dislike of living in flats is very strong. In the 1950s millions of poorer people lived in old, cold, uncomfortable houses of nineteenth century, often with only an outside toilet and no bathroom. During the next twenty years many of them were given smart new “high rise” blocks of flats with central heating and bathrooms, were much more comfortable and were surrounded by grassy open space. But people hated their new homes. They said they felt cut off from the world. British house British house In other countries millions of people live reasonably happily in flats. But in Britain these high-rise blocks (also known as “tower blocks”) could not have been a success, because they do not suit British attitude. At the present only 4 % of the population lives in high-rise blocks. And only 20 % of the country’s households (семья, домочадцы) live in flats of any kind. 166 American homes American homes are among the biggest and the best ones in the world. Many of them have a garage for one or two cars, a big modern kitchen, a living room, and a playroom for children. Upstairs there are two bathrooms and three or four bedrooms. Some families have two homes. They have one house or apartment in the city or suburbs. They live and work there. But they have another home near the sea or in the mountains. They go to their second home on weekend and for vacations. American house Americans who live in the towns and cities often move. A family stays in one house for four or five years, and then they move again. Some people move because they want a bigger or a smaller home. In American suburbs, families come and leave all the time. American house American house 167 Americans are always trying to make their homes better. They take a lot of time to buy furniture and make their home beautiful. They buy books and magazines about houses and furniture. They work hard on their homes in the evenings and on weekends. TEXT 5. Housing in Russia The construction sector is one of the most important sectors of the economy, which accounts for about 3% of Russia's Gross National Product. Housing is one of the leading branches of the construction industry in Russia, especially in densely populated and rapidly developing regions. In the Soviet Union, nearly all the housing stock of urban areas was owned by the state. Private property was prohibited in urban areas, and in rural areas the size of private houses was strictly limited. Local authorities were responsible for renting apartments. Rental payment was extremely low and, in most 168 cases, was not enough to pay maintenance costs. Housing destruction was very rapid. Privatization started in the 1990s, and by the middle of 1990s more than half of Russia’s housing was privately owned. Living conditions of people considerably improved. The floor space of homes per person steadily increased. Private housing also contributed to construction boom. For example, the construction of private housing tripled in urban areas and nearly doubled in the rural areas. Most Russians (74%) live in cities. What are the urban homes like? Are these apartments or private houses? Do people prefer to live in the center or in the suburbs? Let’s explore. Downtown or Suburbs? Cities’ historical centers are usually cozy and beautiful. Living in the historical center is considered to be prestigious and more convenient because you needn’t spend hours in traffic jams getting to work and home. But there are certainly some minuses such as the poor quality of air, the traffic situation and high prices for apartments. Moreover downtowns can’t provide homes for a lot of people. Any city always needs more residential housing: buildings that could fit as many inhabitants as possible, standing close to each other with a basic infrastructure such as a 169 kindergarten, a school, a medical center, a couple of stores, a playground for kids and maybe a park (if you are lucky). As a result “sleeping districts” are growing in cities and towns. 99 % of Russian citizens live in apartments, not private houses. How about living in the suburbs? Some people have a cottage. The Russian equivalent for the American “country house” is the word “dacha” People in Russia do not move to suburbs when they start families and want to raise kids as in American way of life. People just want to have an apartment in the city as the permanent home and a dacha as a summer-house for weekends. They also have a good opportunity to grow trees and flowers, fruit and vegetables on their own ground. And those people, who live outside of the city, but work in the center are heavily penalized for the opportunity to have fresh air by sitting in traffic jams on their way to and from work for many hours every day. 170 What is the typical apartment like? The way one describes apartments in Russia differs from the US way of describing apartments. We do not count bedrooms, we count rooms. So, we have one, two or three room apartments. In the rare case there are 4 or 5 room apartments. The notion of a “studio” has appeared recently. Usually one room is a living or a dining room, and one or two ones are bedrooms. Most standard apartments have one or two balconies, one bathroom, 2 bathrooms are considered to be chic. Types of apartment buildings. “Stalin buildings” (built during Stalin’s time) are apartments with thick brick walls and floorings, good heat-and- sound insulation, big isolated rooms, high ceilings and high ground floor. These buildings can’t be considered as “typical” because of great diversity of planning and designs. But these buildings have not only pluses; all of them are very old and need serious renovation. 5 storey – buildings or “pyatietazhki”, built in the 50s – 70s are super small – the goal of the government at that time was to get 171 rid of “communal housing” (several families, sharing one apartment.) These apartment buildings are named “khruschevki” after Nikita Khruschev, who ruled the country at that time. The buildings were erected to serve for 25 years but in many cities and towns they are still used even without reconstruction. Though a part of these buildings have been demolished and their former residents got apartments in new modern buildings. The next level up is “devyatietazhka” – a nine-storey building, also made of large building blocks. Typical 9-storey building of the 60s-80s has 1-3 room apartments and these apartments are bigger than in the earlier version. However, they are still very small – a 3-room apartment could be around 60 square meters. More modern residential housing may have up to 21 floors, but they are also built of panels (the house is assembled quickly, like Lego blocks). Apartments in such houses are bigger but in general they are not that much different from the earlier versions. People strongly prefer to live in brick houses (they are still considered the buildings of improved comfort) or houses built under more modern technology, called “monolith” (when the 172 skeleton of the house is filled with concrete. New modern buildings are rather expensive, some of them are nice, have individual non-standard apartment planning, gyms in the building and indoor garages and parking, private security and other benefits. Rent or Property? Every family decides this problem in their own way: sharing one apartment with several generations of a family, buying or renting a flat or a house. If you want to buy, so there are two options – either to buy a “second-hand” apartment, that is much cheaper and do the renovation it needs, or buy an apartment in a new building and be ready to see only grey concrete walls. No floors, no papers on the walls, no electricity, no bath and of course – no kitchen. Also be ready to look for a team of construction workers to install all the wires, smooth the concrete walls, do the concrete floors and later do all the renovation – from floors to ceilings. And one more problem: a super overpriced mortgage (15 – 20 % interest rate!) that you’ll be able to pay back in 20 – 30 years. A lot of families dream about their own home and extra-high interest of mortgage does not stop people from buying a flat. Most people rent apartments and prices vary by the city and the district within the city, and the price is relatively high, compared to the average salaries. Renting apartments is not a good business for landlords as well because there are no laws which protect them from tenants destroying the apartment and there are no fixed prices for this service. 173 VOCABULARY admixture – примесь, добавка abutment – опорная стена accommodate (v) – размещать accuracy – точность; правильность advantage – преимущество, выгода aerated concrete – ячеистый бетон aggregate – заполнитель alkali – щелочь alloy – сплав anchor structure – анкерная опора appearance – внешний вид applied load – внешняя нагрузка arch – арка arrangement – расположение; размещение; устройство artificial – искусственный assemble (v) – собирать, монтировать attic space – чердачное помещение automation – автоматизация available – имеющийся в наличии, доступный basement – цоколь, подвал bar – стержень, арматурный пруток beam – балка T-beam – тавровая (железобетонная) балка bearing load – рабочая (несущая) нагрузка bearing wall – несущая стена bearing foundation – несущий фундамент bend (v) – изгибать, гнуть bending strength – прочность на изгиб bill of quantities – предварительная смета строительных работ binding – вяжущий (материал) blast-furnace slag – шлак доменной печи brick – кирпич 174 bridge – мост brittle – хрупкий bubbles – пузыри (воздуха или газа) canopy – навес cantilever – консоль carry out (v) – выполнять; осуществлять cast (v) – отливать (металл) cast-in-situ concrete – монолитный бетон cast iron – чугун cement – цемент central core design – конструкция здания с центральной секцией, в которой размещены шахты лифтов и коммуникации ceramics – керамика choose (v) – выбирать civil engineering – гражданское строительство cladding – облицовка, наружная обшивка clapboard – вагонка clay – глина client – клиент, заказчик climbing equipment – подъёмное оборудование coarse aggregate – крупный заполнитель collapse – обрушение (здания) column – колонна compress (v) – сжимать, сдавливать compressive strength – прочность на сжатие computer simulation – компьютерное моделирование conceptual design – предварительный проект concrete – бетон consequence – последствие construction – строительство, сооружение, конструкция construction site – строительная площадка contractor – подрядчик contribute to (v) – способствовать ч.-л.; внести вклад в… 175 convenience – удобство; устройство; приспособление corrosion – коррозия; ржавление cost – цена, стоимость; затраты cover (v) – покрывать crack – трещина, раскол creative – творческий crushed stone – щебень curing – выдерживание/вызревание бетона curtain wall – навесная наружная стена curved surface – изогнутая/искривленная поверхность customer – клиент, покупатель, заказчик damage – повреждение; разрушение; ущерб damp vibration – затухающее колебание dense concrete – плотный бетон dead load – постоянная нагрузка (собственный вес) decay (v) – гнить deliver (v) – подавать, доставлять, demand (v) – требовать demolition – снос, демонтаж (сооружения) density – плотность design – проект, чертеж, дизайн design load – проектная нагрузка detailed design – подробный/детальный проект dimension stone – штучный камень; точно – обработанный камень disassemble (v) – разбирать, демонтировать disadvantage – недостаток dissolve (v) – растворять(ся) draft – проект; эскиз drainage work – работа по осушению drawing – рисунок; чертёж ductility – пластичность; вязкость durability – прочность, долговечность dwelling – жильё, жилище 3-D modeling – трехмерное моделирование 176 elasticity – упругость eliminate (v) – устранять, ликвидировать encase (v) – полностью закрывать, обрамлять, вставлять enclosure – ограждение engineering – конструирование, инженерное искусство environmental disaster – экологическая катастрофа equip (v) – оборудовать erect (v) – возводить; сооружать estimate (v) load – рассчитывать нагрузку face (v) – сталкиваться с…. face brick – облицовочный кирпич facilities – оборудование failure – разрушение, повреждение fastening – закрепление/скрепление ferrous metal – черный металл filler – наполнитель; заполняющий материал fine aggregate – мелкий заполнитель finish (v) – отделывать, заканчивать, обрабатывать fireproof – огнестойкий, огнеупорный fire protection – защита от огня, огнестойкая отделка fire-resistance – огнестойкость fire safety – противопожарная безопасность flexibility – гибкость, упругость, эластичность floor – этаж, межэтажное перекрытие foam concrete – пенобетон formwork – опалубка foundation – фундамент frame – каркас; рама framed structure – рамная/решетчатая конструкция framework – каркас; рамная конструкция freezing – промерзание functional requirement – требование функциональности girder –главная балка, балочная ферма glass – стекло 177 glass brick – стеклоблок, стеклянный строительный кирпич glue (v) – склеивать granite – гранит gravel – гравий gravity load – нагрузка от собственного веса grid – сетка, решетка hammer – молот для забивки свай, забивать сваи harden (v) – твердеть hardware – аппаратное обеспечение hardwoods – твердая порода древесины heat insulation – теплоизоляция heaving – вспучивание heavy concrete – тяжелый бетон high-early-strength concrete – бетон быстрого твердения highway system – автомагистральная система hoist – лебёдка housing – жилищное строительство humidity – влажность implementation – выполнение, ввод в эксплуатацию incombustible – огнестойкий, невоспламеняющийся increase (v) – увеличивать(ся), повышать installation – установка, монтаж insulation – изоляция intermediate floor – межэтажное перекрытие jack up (v) – поднимать домкратом joining – соединение joist – прогон know-how – секрет производства, умения, опыт lack – недостаток; отсутствие laminate – ламинат, многослойный материал lateral load – поперечная нагрузка lime – известь limestone – известняк lightweight concrete – легкий бетон 178 live load – временная нагрузка load – нагрузка maintenance – техническое обслуживание, профилактический ремонт make decision (v) – принимать решение management – управление, руководство manufacture – производство, изготовление marble – мрамор masonry – каменная или кирпичная кладка material engineering – материаловедение mercury – ртуть mesh – сетка metal – металл metal frame – металлическая рама/каркас mixer – бетономешалка mixture – смесь moisture – влага, влажность mоrtar – строительный раствор mould (v) – формовать occur (v) – происходить, случаться opportunity – благоприятная возможность ordinary concrete – обычный бетон paint (v) – красить, окрашивать partition – перегородка, ненесущая внутренняя стена perceive – постигать, понимать performance – выполнение, производительность pier – пирс, столб, опора pier foundation – фундамент на столбах, пилонный фундамент pillar – стойка, колонна pile – свая pile foundation – свайный фундамент pitch – скат, уклон plastics – пластмасса, пластик plasticity – пластичность 179 plywood – фанера pneumatic structure – пневматическая/надувная конструкция pollution – загрязнение pores – поры porosity – пористость precast concrete – сборный бетон predictable – предсказуемый prefabricated concrete – бетон заводского изготовления preliminary design – предварительный/черновой проект premises – помещение prestressed concrete – предварительно напряженный бетон primary design – первичный, основной проект prompt (v) – подсказывать, побуждать property – свойство proposal – предложение quarry (v) – добывать камень из карьера raise (v) – возводить, сооружать; поднимать ready-mixed concrete – готовый бетон reduction – понижение; ослабление; уменьшение refractory brick – огнеупорный кирпич reinforce (v) – армировать, усиливать reinforced concrete – железобетон reinforcing bars (rods) – арматурные стержни reinforcement – арматура release – расцеплять, отсоединять render – штукатурка require (v) – требовать residential structure – жилое сооружение resistance – сопротивление, стойкость responsibility – ответственность robotics – робототехника rod – стержень roof – крыша secondary beam – промежуточная или второстепенная балка 180 safety – безопасность sand – песок sandstone – песчаник sanitary fittings – сантехника sense – смысл, понятие, значение separate (v) – разделять, отделять sequence – последовательность settlement of foundation – оседание фундамента sewer pipe – канализационная труба sewerage system – система канализации shaking table – вибрационный стол, виброплощадка shale – сланец shape – форма, вид shear – сдвиг shear stress – скалывающее (сдвигающее, срезывающее) напряжение shear wall – стена жесткости sheet – лист (напр. стекла, металла) shell structure – оболочковая конструкция shingle – дранка, кровельный элемент, тонкая доска обшивки shortage – нехватка, недостаток shortcoming – недостаток; дефект shrink (v) – давать усадку shuttering – опалубка siding – сайдинг, обшивка, облицовка sill – подоконник skyscraper – небоскреб slab – плита slab foundation – плитный фундамент slag – шлак slate – шифер smart – сообразительный, умный socket foundation – стаканный фундамент software – программное обеспечение 181 softwood – древесина мягкой породы solution – решение; раствор sound insulation – звукоизоляция span – пролет spread/shallow foundation – фундамент мелкого заложения sprinkler – огнетушитель steel – сталь steel cable – стальной трос/канат stone – камень stone masonry – каменная кладка storey (floor) – этаж stretch (v) – растягивать(ся), тянуть(ся); набросок, чертеж strength – прочность stress – напряжение, усилие strip foundation – ленточный фундамент structure – конструкция, сооружение, structural engineering – проектирование зданий и сооружений structural engineer – инженер-проектировщик stucco – стукко, прочная цементно-известковая штукатурка для наружного применения subject to (v) – подвергать(ся) воздействию substructure – подземная часть сооружения superstructure – надземная часть сооружения, надстройка support – опора supporting structure – несущая конструкция suitability – пригодность, возможность применения submission – предоставление suspended ceiling – подвесной потолок take into consideration/account – принимать во внимание, учитывать technique – технические приемы/методы temporary building – временная здание/постройка tender documents – тендерная документация tensile strength – прочность на растяжение tension structure – натяжная конструкция 182 timber – древесина; пиломатериал thawing – оттаивание torsion – кручение, вращение tower crane – башенный кран transfer (v) – передавать (напр. нагрузку), переносить transmit (v) – передавать truss – ферма uplift load – подъёмная нагрузка ultimate load – предельная (разрушающая) нагрузка up-to-date – современный upward – поднимающийся вверх, восходящий utilities – коммунальные сооружения varnish – лак water-cement ratio – водоцементное отношение water content – содержание воды waterproof – водонепроницаемость, водонепроницаемый water supply – водоснабжение watertight – водонепроницаемый wearing – изнашивание; износ welding – сварка wind tunnel – аэродинамическая труба withstand (v) – выдерживать, противостоять workability – обрабатываемость working stress – допускаемое напряжение wrought iron – ковкий чугун 183 Учебное издание Людмила Петровна Даниленко Юлия Юрьевна Сильман TECHNICAL ENGLISH FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS AND STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS Учебное пособие Редактор: Е.Ю. Глотова Оригинал-макет подготовлен авторами Подписано в печать 12.01.16. Формат 60х84/16. Бумага офсет. Гарнитура Таймс. Усл. печ. л. 10.69. Уч.-изд. л. 9.68. Тираж 300. Заказ № 1. Изд-во ТГАСУ, 634003, г. Томск, пл. Соляная, 2. Отпечатано с оригинал-макета в ООП ТГАСУ. 634003, г. Томск, ул. Партизанская, 15. 184
