ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ЖЕЛЕЗНОДОРОЖНОГО ТРАНСПОРТА
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего образования
«Иркутский государственный университет путей сообщения»
(ФГБОУ ВО ИрГУПС)
INSTRUMENTATION.
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ДЛЯ ПРИБОРОСТРОИТЕЛЕЙ
Учебное пособие
Иркутск 2023
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2Англ
E 56
Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом ИрГУПС
Рецензенты:
Н.Р. Кириченко, к.филол.н., доцент, ИО зав кафедрой иностранных языков
№2 ИРНИТУ;
С.В. Пахомов, к.т.н., доцент, заведующая кафедрой «Физика, механика и
приборостроение» ИрГУПС
Составители:
Н.Ю. Бережных, Е.Э. Былина, Т.В. Яхно
Е 56
Instrumentation. Английский для приборостроителей: учеб. пособие / Н.Ю.
Бережных, Е.Э. Былина, Т.В. Яхно. – Иркутск: ИрГУПС, 2023. – 89 с.
Цель учебного пособия – развитие навыков перевода и устной речи
для практического использования в сфере профессиональной деятельности.
Учебное пособие содержит аутентичные тексты и упражнения, направленные на расширение словарного запаса студентов по профессиональной тематике.
Предназначено для студентов первого и второго курсов направления
подготовки высшего образования 12.03.01 «Приборостроение».
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2Англ
© Иркутский государственный университет
путей сообщения, 2023
2
ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
UNIT 1. WHAT IS ENGINEERING
UNIT 2. FAMOUS SCIENTISTS AND INVENTORS
UNIT 3. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
UNIT 4. MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
UNIT 5. ELECTRICITY
UNIT 6. AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS
UNIT 7. MODERN COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES
СПИСОК ТЕРМИНОВ И СОКРАЩЕНИЙ
БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК
3
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Учебное пособие «Instrumentation. Английский для приборостроителей» предназначено для обучения английскому языку студентов первого и
второго курсов высших учебных заведений очной и заочной форм обучения, направления подготовки 12.03.01 Приборостроение.
Цель пособия – развитие иноязычной коммуникативной компетенции, совершенствование навыков чтения и перевода английских технических текстов, совершенствование навыков устного и письменного общения.
Предлагаемый для обучения материал состоит из 7 разделов, каждый
из которых включает тексты, словарный минимум для усвоения и ряд
упражнений, направленных на работу с текстом, работу с вокабуляром,
расширение и закрепление лексического минимума по каждому разделу,
проверку понимания прочитанного текста, развития навыков устной и
письменной речи. Задания, размещенные в каждом из разделов, объединены единой темой и общностью информации, которую учащиеся извлекают
из текстов для чтения.
Учебное пособие «Instrumentation Engineering» содержит тексты из
различных областей инженерии: приборостроение, электричество, робототехника и компьютерные технологии. Включает список терминов и сокращений, используемых в приборостроении.
Текстовый материал способствует закреплению знаний и расширяет
кругозор студентов. Запоминание и усвоение образцов речи помогает обучающимся выражать свои мысли на английском языке, что и является, в
конечном счете, целью обучения иностранным языкам для повседневного
и профессионального общения.
При работе с текстами основное внимание уделяется таким видам
работ, как вычленение определенных фактов; организация полученной информации (группировка, систематизация и т. д.); выполнение задания в соответствии с данной инструкцией; ответ на определенный вопрос; удержание в памяти каких-либо фактов; последующее воспроизведение содержания в устной форме; перевод.
Логическое построение структурных элементов пособия позволяет
варьировать задания и формы работы в зависимости от уровня подготовки
студентов, а также от определенных дидактических задач.
Комплекс заданий, предложенных в учебном пособии, дает возможность переходить от аудиторной работы студентов к самостоятельной и
обеспечивает формирование коммуникативной компетенции обучающихся.
4
UNIT 1. WHAT IS ENGINEERING
Text 1
Engineering
Engineering is largely a practical activity. It is about putting ideas into action. Engineers use theory (ideas about engineering) to produce practical answers. There are lots of different types of engineering. The one thing they have
in common is that they all use Math and Science to improve industry and manufacturing. The whole science of engineering can be broadly divided into three
main areas: civil engineering, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering.
Civil engineering is concerned with making buildings, bridges, roads,
airports, etc. Mechanical engineering deals with a design and manufacture of
tools and machines. Electrical engineering is about the generation and distribution of electricity and its many applications. Electronic engineering is concerned
with developing components and equipment for communications, computing,
and so on. Mining and medical engineering belong partly to mechanical and
partly to electrical engineering.
Almost everything in modern life is made by engineers. Transport: cars,
trains, ships and planes are all products of mechanical engineering. Mechanical
engineers are also involved in support services such as roads, rail roads, harbors
and bridges.
Food processing: Mechanical engineers design, develop, and make the
machines and the processing equipment for harvesting, preparing and preserving
the foods and drinks that fill the supermarkets.
Medical engineering: Body scanners, X-ray machines, life-support systems, and other high-tech equipment result from mechanical and electrical engineers combining with medical experts to convert ideas into life-saving.
Building services: Electrical engineers provide all the services we need in
our homes and places of work, including lighting, heating, ventilation, airconditioning, refrigeration and lifts.
Energy and power: Electrical engineers are concerned with the production
and distribution of electricity to homes, offices, industry, hospitals, colleges and
schools, and the installation and maintenance of the equipment involved in these
processes.
Vocabulary
engineering – инженерия
have something in common (with
smth.) – иметь что-то общее (с чемто)
improve – улучшать совершенство-
equipment – оборудование
mining – разработка месторождения
be involved in – быть вовлеченным,
задействованным в
harbor – гавань, порт
5
вать
manufacturing – производство
area – область, сфера деятельности
be concerned with – быть связанным
с чем-либо
civil engineering – гражданское
строительство
mechanical engineering –
машиностроение
electrical engineering электротехника
generation – генерирование, выработка (электроэнергии)
distribution – распределение
application – применение,
использование
food processing – пищевая промышленность
X-ray machine – рентгеновский аппарат
result from – происходить из
convert into – преобразовывать в
building services – обслуживание
зданий
provide – обеспечивать, предоставлять
energy and power – энергетика
installation – установка
maintenance – поддержание,
сохранение
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) practical activity
a) может быть разделен на
2) putting ideas into action
b) вспомогательные услуги
3) have smth. in common with
c) производство и распределение
4) can be divided into
d) высокотехнологичное
оборудование
5) tools and machines
e) практическая деятельность
6) be made by smb.
f) технологическое оборудование,
оборудование для обработки
7) support services
g) иметь что-то общее с
8) processing equipment
h) воплощать идеи в жизнь
9) high-tech equipment
i) сделано кем-то
10) production and distribution
j) инструменты и машины
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Давать практические ответы; использовать математику и естественные науки; основные направления; проектирование и производство; и так
далее; медицинская инженерия; такие как; проектировать, изготавливать и
разрабатывать; приготовление и сохранение пищевых продуктов и напитков; сканеры тела; системы жизнеобеспечения; место работы; освещение,
отопление, вентиляция, кондиционирование воздуха, охлаждение.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
6
1) distribution
a) the activity of applying scientific
knowledge to the design
2) generation
b) the business or industry of producing goods in large quantities in factories
3) engineering
c) a particular subject or activity, or an
aspect of it
4) application
d) to have the same features, characteristics, etc.
5) equipment
e) to make something better than before
6) have something in common (with f) the production of something, espesomething)
cially electricity, heat, etc.
7) manufacturing
g) the practical use of something
8) improve
h) the act of giving or sharing something out among a number of people
9) area
i) the things that are needed for a particular purpose or activity
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
a) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
Practice, differ, electricity, medicine, science, industry, activity.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Produce, improve, generate, distribute, apply, develop, communicate, equip,
heat, ventilate, refrigerate, install, maintain.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What is engineering?
2. What main areas can the whole science of engineering be divided into?
3. What is civil engineering concerned with?
4. What does mechanical engineering deal with?
5. What is electrical engineering?
6. What is electronic engineering concerned with?
7. What equipment do mechanical and electrical engineers produce combining
with medical experts?
8. What services do electrical engineers provide?
9. What do electrical engineers install and maintain?
7
Text 2
Technology
Technology ("science of craft", from Greek techne, "art, skill, cunning of
hand"; and -logia) is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes
used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, etc. or it can be embedded in machines, computers, devices
and factories, which can be operated by individuals without detailed knowledge
of the workings of such things.
The human species' use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistoric discovery of how to control fire
and the later Neolithic Revolution increased the available sources of food and
the invention of the wheel helped humans to travel in and control their environment. Developments in historic times, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and
allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. The steady progress of military technology has brought weapons of ever-increasing destructive power, from
clubs to nuclear weapons.
Technology has many effects. It has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure
class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as
pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of Earth's environment.
Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and
new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of
the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens
it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar reactionary movements criticize the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, arguing that it harms
the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as
beneficial to society and the human condition.
Until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but 21st century scientific studies indicate that
other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools
and passed their knowledge to other generations.
Vocabulary
сraft – ремесло, промысел
skill – навык, умение
cunning – ловкость, хитрость
environment – окружающая среда
development – разработка
lessen – уменьшить, сократить
8
technique – метод, способ
goods – товары
objective – цель
embed – внедрять
working – работа, функционирование
operate – работать, управлять
species – вид, род
conversion – превращение, переход,
преобразование
tool – инструмент, орудие
increase – увеличивать, нарастать
detriment – ущерб
efficiency – эффективность
сhallenge – вызов
arise over – возникать относительно
чего-л.
worsen – ухудшать
argue – спорить
restrict to – ограничивать, сужать до
harm – наносить ущерб, причинять
вред
pass – передавать
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) on a global scale
a) доступные источники
2) in terms of
b) устойчивое развитие
3) pervasiveness of technology
c) свободно взаимодействовать
4) lessen barriers
d) ущерб окружающей среде
5) various implementation
e) в глобальном масштабе
6) available sources
f) с точки зрения
7) alienate people
g) сократить препятствия
8) steady progress
h) отчуждать людей
9) detriment of the environment
i) распространённость технологий
10) interact freely
j) различные проявления
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Передавать знания другим поколениям; порождать побочные продукты;
разрушительная сила; поднимать этические вопросы; достигать цели;
управляться людьми; известный как; подробные знания; истощать, исчерпывать ресурсы; ядерное оружие; полезный для общества; до недавнего
времени; развитая экономика.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) science
a) the act of transferring information from one
place or person to another
2) investigation
b) advanced scientific knowledge used for practical purposes, especially in industry
3) engineering
c) the process of designing or creating something
new
4) environment
d) the study and knowledge of the physical world
9
5) communication
6) technology
7) invention
8) to increase
9) influence
and its behavior that is based on experiments and
proven facts and is organized into a system
e) to become larger in amount or size
f) detailed or careful examination
g) the activity of designing things such as roads,
railways, bridges, or machines
h) the process of producing effects on the actions,
behavior, opinions of another or others
i) the air, land and water where people, animals
and plants live
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
a) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
availability, efficiency, productivity, nature, benefice, harm, environment,
origin, use
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
globalize, deplete, restrict, investigate, invent, produce, accomplish, begin, interact, apply, disagree, accomplish
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Technology is a method of doing something using a special skill that you
have developed.
2. People in a primitive society used advanced tools.
3. During the Neolithic period humans began to make stone tools, grow their
food, and live in permanent communities.
4. Constant development of military technologies has made the world more secure to live in.
5. Modern technology causes great harm to the environment.
6. Techniques are advanced scientific knowledge used for practical purposes,
especially in industry.
7. Technology brings about controversial argues about its usefulness.
Упражнение 6. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What does the term technology stand for?
2. When was the first technology developed? In what field?
3. What technologies do you think radically have changed mankind’s life?
4. In what way have cutting edge technologies affected the values of the world
community?
5. What animals have learned to develop technology?
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Text 3
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is the development and use of precise measuring equipment. Although the sensory organs of the human body can be extremely sensitive and responsive, modern science and technology rely on the development of
much more precise measuring and analytical tools for studying, monitoring, or
controlling all kinds of phenomena.
Some of the earliest instruments of measurement were used in astronomy
and navigation. The armillary sphere* is the oldest known astronomical instrument. The armillary sphere was known in ancient China. The ancient Greeks
were also familiar with it and modified it to produce the astrolabe*, which
could tell the time or length of day or night as well as measure solar and lunar
altitudes. The compass, the earliest instrument for direction finding that did not
make reference to the stars, was a striking advance in instrumentation made
about the 11th century. The telescope, the primary astronomical instrument, was
invented about 1608 by the Dutch optician Hans Lippershey and first used extensively by Galileo.
Instrumentation involves both measurement and control functions. An early
instrumental control system was the thermostatic furnace developed by the
Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1634), in which a thermometer controlled the temperature of a furnace by a system of rods and levers. Devices to
measure and regulate steam pressure inside a boiler appeared at about the same
time. In 1788 the Scotsman James Watt invented a centrifugal governor to maintain the speed of a steam engine at a predetermined rate.
Instrumentation developed at a rapid pace in the Industrial Revolution of
the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in the areas of dimensional measurement, electrical measurement, and physical analysis. Manufacturing processes of
the time required instruments capable of achieving new standards of linear precision. The industrial application of electricity required instruments to measure
current, voltage, and resistance. Analytical methods, using such instruments as
the microscope and the spectroscope*, became increasingly important.
In the 20th century the growth of modern industry, the introduction of
computerization, and the space exploration spurred still greater development of
instrumentation, particularly of electronic devices. The introduction of the electronic computer in the 1950s, with its great capacity for information processing
and storage, revolutionized methods of instrumentation. Computers allowed the
simultaneous comparison and analysis of large amounts of information.
Most manufacturing processes rely on instrumentation for monitoring
chemical, physical, and environmental properties, as well as the performance of
production lines. Instruments to monitor chemical properties include the refractometer, infrared analyzers, chromatographs, and pH sensors. A refractometer
measures the bending of a beam of light as it passes from one material to anoth11
er. Such instruments are used, for instance, to determine the composition of sugar solutions or the concentration of tomato paste in ketchup. Infrared analyzers
can identify substances by the wavelength and amount of infrared radiation that
they emit or reflect. Chromatography, a sensitive and swift method of chemical
analysis used on extremely tiny samples of a substance, relies on the different
rates at which a material will adsorb different types of molecules. The acidity or
alkalinity of a solution can be measured by pH sensors.
Instruments are also used to measure physical properties of a substance,
such as its turbidity, or amount of particulate matter in a solution. Water purification and petroleum-refining processes are monitored by a turbidimeter. The
density of a liquid substance is determined by a hydrometer. The flow rate of a
substance is measured by a turbine flowmeter.
Instruments are also wide used in medicine and biomedical research.
Relatively simple medical instruments measure temperature, blood pressure or
lung capacity. More complex instruments include the familiar X-ray machines
and electroencephalographs and electrocardiographs, which detect electrical signals generated by the brain or heart.
armillary sphere* – армиллярная сфера (от лат. armilla – браслет, кольцо) –
астрономический
инструмент,
использовавшийся
для
определения экваториальных или эклиптических координат небесных светил. Впоследствии армиллярная сфера использовалась также как наглядное учебное пособие – в качестве
модели небесной сферы.
astrolabe* – астролябия (др.-греч. астролабон, «берущий звезды») – один из старейших астрономических инструментов, служивший для измерения горизонтальных углов
и определения широт и долгот небесных тел.
spectroscope* – спектроскоп – оптический прибор для визуального наблюдения спектра излучения.
Vocabulary
instrumentation – приборостроение
precise – точный
sensory organs – органы чувств
rely on – полагаться на
tools – инструменты
phenomena – явление
measurement – измерение
modify – модифицировать
altitude – высота
direction – направление
primary – основной
invent – изобретать
voltage – напряжение
current - ток
thermostatic furnace – термостатическая печь
rod – стержень
lever – рычаг
device – устройство
pressure – давление
boiler – котел
centrifugal governor – центробежный регулятор
predetermined rate – заданная
скорость
capable of – способный
require – требовать
wavelength – длинна волны
12
resistance – сопротивление
capacity – способность
simultaneous – одновременный
comparison – сравнение
analysis – анализ
performance – производительность
production lines – производственные
линии
refractometer – рефрактометр
infrared analyzer – инфракрасный
анализатор
chromatograph – хроматограф
pH sensor – датчик pH
beam – луч
determine – определять
composition – состав
identify – идентифицировать, определять
substance – вещество
dimensional measurement – измерение размеров
emit – излучать
reflect – отражать
sensitive – чувствительный
acidity – кислотность
alkalinity – щелочность
solution – раствор
turbidity – мутность
particulate matters – твердые
частицы
purification – очистка
turbidimeter – турбидиметр
density – плотность
hydrometer – ареометр
turbine flowmeter – турбинный
расходомер
biometrical research –
биометрические исследования
detect – обнаруживать
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) measuring equipment
a) производственный процесс
2) familiar with
b) функции измерения и контроля
3) analytical tools
c) инфракрасное излучение
4) direction finding
d) паровой двигатель
5) measurement and control functions
e) определение направления
6) steam engine
f) процесс переработки нефти
7) manufacturing process
g) химические, физические и экологические свойства
8) infrared radiation
h) аналитические инструменты
9) chemical, physical, and environmen- i) знакомый с
tal properties
10) petroleum-refining process
j) измерительное оборудование
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Разработка и использование; человеческое тело; изучение, мониторинг или контроль; древний Китай; древние греки; показывать время; поразительное достижение; система контроля; в быстром темпе; индустриальная революция; промышленное применение электричества; аналитиче13
ские методы; современная промышленность; освоение космоса; обработка
и хранение; луч света; на пример; сахарный раствор; жидкое вещество;
кровяное давление; объем легких; электрические сигналы; измерение размеров.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) measurement
a) the detailed study or examination of
something in order to understand more
about it
2) modify
b) the process of comparing two or
more people or things
3) be capable of
c) main; most important; basic
4) detect
d) to change something slightly, especially in order to make it more suitable
for a particular purpose
5) analysis
e) the act or the process of finding the
size, quantity or degree of something
6) comparison
f) having the ability or qualities necessary for doing something
7) sensitive
g) an instrument such as a hammerthat
you hold in your hand and use for making things, repairing things, etc.
8) primary
h) reacting quickly or more than usual
to something
9) tool
i) to discover or notice something, especially something that is not easy to
see, hear, etc.
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
a) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
Humanity, sense, response, analysis, astronomy, Greece, industry, dimension,
electricity, precision, direction, importance, environment, differ,
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Develop, equip, measure, navigate, refer, invent, boil, apply, introduce, computerize, explore, inform, compare, perform, produce, analyze, compose, concentrate, purify,
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Instrumentation is concerned with the development and use of precise measuring equipment.
14
2. Modern science and technology rely on the sensory organs of the human body
which can be extremely sensitive and responsive.
3. The ancient Chinese and Greeks were not familiar with the earliest instruments of measurement which were used in astronomy and navigation.
4. The armillary sphere was the earliest instrument for direction finding that did
not make reference to the stars.
5. The main functions of Instrumentation are measurement and control.
6. The Industrial Revolution stimulated the development of Instrumentation.
7. The industrial application of electricity required instruments for dimensional
measurement.
8. The greater development of Instrumentation in the 20th century was spurred
by the growth of modern industry, the introduction of computerization, and the
space exploration.
9. Instrumentation is very important for the most manufacturing processes.
10. It is difficult to imagine modern medicine without the use of instruments.
Text 4
The Metric System
Physics measures such physical quantities as time, length, mass, density,
velocity, area, volume, temperature and energy. Nearly all of them are interrelated. Nowadays, three main systems of measurement are widely used: the British system of unity, the metric system of units and the International system of
units (SI).
With а few exceptions, all the nations of the world use the metric system.
It is so easy that anyone who knows arithmetic can learn it quickly. Before the
introduction of the metric system (metre-kilogram-second), the British footpound-second system was widely used. But the latter system (which is still in
use in Great Britain and the USA) was very complicated and caused serious difficulties in the intemationa1 trade. For example, in the British system 1 mile is
equal to 1760 yards, 1 yard – 3 to feet and 1 foot – to 12 inches. This means that
it's very difficult to convert units. But in the metric system each unit is а multiple of the following lower unit by ten. Therefore, the conversion to а higher
quantity is done by moving the decimal point to the right to the required number
of places, and vice versa.
The idea of decimal system was realised only at the end of the 18 th century. In 1791, the French Academy of Science decided that the standard of length
should be one ten-millionth part of the distance from the Equator to the North
Pole. The two French scientists charged with the task took this distance on а line
running through Paris and divided it into 10 000 000 equal parts. They called
one of the parts а metre ('measure'), which became the main unit. Metre was also
used to measure area and volume. Thus а square metre and а cubic metre appeared.
15
The main advantage of the system is that for shorter measurements the
metre is divided by ten, so а decimal system was used. Shorter units had Latin
prefixes and longer ones - Greek prefixes. So, 'millimetre' is Latin for 'а thousandth part of а metre' and 'kilometre' is Greek for 'а thousand metres'.
As for the unit of mass, it was defined as the mass of а cubic centimetre of
water at the temperature of 4С (the temperature of its maximum density). As we
know, the name of this unit is gramme.
The SI units is derived from the metric system and was internationally accepted in 1960. Besides metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s), its basic units
are Kelwin (К), ampere (а), mole (mol), and candle (cd). This system was introduced in our country in the 1960s and every day we measure things by the units
from this system.
Vocabulary
physical quantities – физические величины
velocity – скорость
volume – объем
area – площадь
interrelated – взаимосвязанный
cause - служить причиной
centimetre – сантиметр
complicated – сложный
convert – переводить (единицы)
cubic – кубический
decimal point – десятичная запятая
appeare – появляться
standard – эталон
define – определять
density – плотность
derive – выводить; происходить
distance – расстояние
equal – равный
gram(me) – грамм
inch – дюйм
length – длина
mass – масса
mole – моль
candle – кандела (единица измерения света)
measure – мера
multiply – умножать
pound – фунт
prefix – (лингв.) приставка, префикс
quantity – количество
realize – зд. реализовать
require – требовать
second – секунда
square – квадрат, квадратный
ten-millionth – десятимиллионный
therefore – поэтому, следовательно
unit – единица
unity – единство
vice versa – лат. наоборот
уагd – ярд
line – линия
equator – экватор
exception – исключение
Kelwin – Кельвин
ampere – ампер
introduce – вводить
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
16
1) the British system of unity
a) физические величины
2) the metric system of units
b) международная торговля
3) the International system of units (SI) c) преобразовать в большее количество
4) physical quantities
d) одна десятимиллионная часть
5) intemationa1 trade
e) десятичная система
6) convert to а higher quantity
f) основное преимущество
7) decimal system
g) метрическая система единиц
8) one ten-millionth part
h) основные единицы
9) main advantage
i) Британская система единиц измерения
10) basic units
j) Международная система единиц
СИ
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных слов и словосочетаний.
Почти все; сегодня; основные системы измерения; с небольшими исключениями; все еще; серьезные трудности; преобразовывать единицы, следовательно; на необходимое количество знаков; наоборот; французская академия наук; экватор; сереный полюс; равные части; таким образом; латинская приставка; греческая приставка; одна тысячная; как известно, кроме
того.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) complicated
a) to make something available for use,
for the first time
2) equal
b) the amount of space covered by a
flat surface or piece of land, described
as a measurement
3) velocity
c) the same in size, quantity, value,
etc. as something else
4) quantity
d) to change or make something
change from one system to another
5) volume
e) the quantity of material that something contains
6) introduce
f) an amount or a number of something
7) area
g) made of many different things or
parts that are connected; difficult to
understand
8) mass
h) the amount of space that an object or
a substance fills; the amount of space
17
that a container has
i) the speed of something in a particular direction
9) convert
Упражнение 4. Переведите, обращая внимание на суффиксы, и
скажите, от какой части речи образованы эти слова.
Density, different, nearly, measurement, widely, metric, quickly, introduction,
conversion, scientist, internationally.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What physical quantities does physics measure?
2. Are different units of length and mass interrelated?
3. How many main systems of measurement are used nowadays?
4. What system was used before the introduction of the metric system?
5. Why did the British foot-pound- second system was replaced by the metric
system?
6. What is the equivalent of a meter?
7. What is the main advantage of the metric system?
8. How was the unit of mass defined?
9. When did the SI units was internationally accepted?
10. What basic SI units do you know?
18
UNIT 2. FAMOUS SCIENTISTS AND INVENTORS
Text 1
Andre Marie Ampere
Andre Marie Ampere was a French physicist and one of the founders of
electrodynamics (electromagnetism). The unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere – unit of measurement named after him in recognition of his
contribution to the creation of modern electrical science – was established as a
standard unit of electrical measurement at an international convention signed in
1881.
Ampere was born in 1775 in the family a prosperous businessman. It was
the height of the French Enlightenment and he had the fortune of growing up in
an intellectually stimulating atmosphere. The France of his youth was marked by
wide-spread developments in sciences and arts.
As a child, Ampere was very curious and developed and he has an insatiable thirst for knowledge. He became a voracious reader under the guidance of
his father and read books on mathematics, history, travels, poetry, philosophy,
and the natural sciences. He was particularly fascinated by mathematics and began studying the subject seriously when he was 13. During this time Andre also
began studying physics.
Ampere started working as a private mathematics tutor in Lyon in 1797.
He proved to be an excellent teacher and students began flocking to him for
guidance in no time. He found a regular job as a mathematics teacher in 1799.
Within a few years, he was appointed a professor of physics and chemistry at the
École Centrale in Bourg-en-Bresse in 1802.
He obtained a teaching position at the recently opened École Polytechnique in 1804. He was much successful in this position, and was appointed a
professor of mathematics at the school in 1809 despite his lack of formal qualifications. Ampere was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1814. A
brilliant man with in-depth knowledge in various subjects, he also taught philosophy and astronomy at the University of Paris in 1819-20.
Along with his academic career, Ampere also engaged in scientific experiments in diverse fields, and was particularly intrigued by the works of Hans
Christian Oersted who had discovered a link between electricity and magnetism.
Extending Oersted’s experimental work, Ampere made several more discoveries.
Ampere died in the city of Marseilles on 10 June 1836, after pneumonia.
His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. He is considered
the first person to discover electromagnetism. One of his major contributions to
classical electromagnetism was Ampere’s circuital law, which relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing
through the loop.
19
Vocabulary
physicist – физик
founder – основатель
electrodynamics – электродинамика
unit – единица измерения
ampere – ампер
recognition – признание
contribution – вклад
creation – создание
French Enlightenment –
Французское просвещение
fortune – зд. удача, счастье, везение
wide-spread – широко распространенный
development – зд. Разработка
curious – серьезный
field – область, сфера
intrigued by – интересоваться чем-л.
discover – обнаруживать, открывать
link – связь
several – несколько
inscribed – вписанный
consider – считать, полагать
insatiable – ненасытный
voracious – прожорливый
fascinated – очарованный
private tutor – частный репетитор
flock to – стекаться к
guidance – руководство
appoint – назначать
obtain – получать
position – должность
despite – несмотря на
lack of – отсутствие чего-л.
in-depth – глубокий
various – различный
engage in – заниматься чем-л.
diverse – разнообразный
major – главный, основной
Ampere’s circuital law – закон полного тока, закон Ампера
relate – относиться, иметь отношение
integrated – интегрированный
closed loop – замкнутая цепь
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) unit of measurement
a) естественные науки
2) named after
b) научная деятельность
3) standard unit
c) магнитное поле
4) international convention
d) постоянная работа
5) natural sciences
e) под руководством
6) regular job
f) единица измерения
7) formal qualifications
g) стандартная единица измерения
8) academic career
h) диплом об образовании
9) under the guidance of
i) международная конвенция
10) magnetic field
j) названный в честь
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Основатель электродинамики; единица измерения; электрический
ток; электрические измерения; пик французского возрождения; науки и
искусства; ненасытный читатель; в течение этого времени; учитель мате20
матики; академия наук; глубокие знания; различные предметы; наряду с;
научные эксперименты; экспериментальная работа; умер от пневмонии;
основной вклад; закон Ампера.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) physicist
a) an action or a service that helps to
cause or increase something, usually
something good or valuable
2) loop
b) an act or the process of finding
somebody/something, or learning about
something that was not known about
before
3) unit
c) an area around a magnet or magnetic object, where there is a force that
will attract some metals towards it
4) contribution
d) a complete circuit for electrical current
5) guidance
e) an official agreement between countries or leaders
6) discovery
f) a scientific test that is done in order
to study what happens and to gain new
knowledge
7) convention
g) a scientist who studies physics
8) magnetic field
h) help or advice that is given to somebody, especially by somebody older or
with more experience
9) experiment
i) a fixed quantity, etc. that is used as a
standard measurement
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
b) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Value, magnet, electricity, lead, science, nature, academy, circuit, experiment,
success.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Found, discover, guide, contribute, act, attract, agree, know, measure, qualify,
develop, recognize, appoint, teach, create.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What standard unit of electrical measurement was established at an international convention in 1881?
2. Why was the ampere – unit of measurement named after Andre Marie Ampere?
3. When and where was Ampere born?
21
4. What books did Ampere read as a child?
5. What subjects did he study seriously when he was 13?
6. How did Ampere start his trenching career?
7. What subjects did he teach?
8. In what field did Ampere conduct his scientific experiments?
9. What was Ampere’s major contributions to science?
Text 2
Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen
Wilhelm Rontgen was an eminent German physicist who won the first
Nobel Prize in Physics, for the discovery of X-rays. Though many scientists had
detected the X-rays even before Rontgen, he was the first person who discovered and systematically studied the X-rays. These rays could pass through
clothes, skin and flesh - and cast the shadow of the bones themselves on a photographic plate.
Wilhelm Rontgen was born into a family of cloth merchants. He was neither brilliant nor an attentive student in his childhood; rather he was keenly interested in nature during his younger years. After being expelled from the
school, he became an irregular student and it was only after he came under the
guidance of Professor Kundt, he discovered his passion and true talent. Rontgen
served as a professor of physics at many universities before discovering the
Rontgen rays which later became known as “X-rays”.
One day Roentgen was working in his laboratory with a Crookes tube.
Crookes had discovered that if he put two electric wires in a glass tube, pumped
air out of it and connected the wires to opposite electric poles, a stream of electric particles would emerge out of the cathode. Roentgen was interested in the
fact that these cathode rays made certain chemicals glow in the dark. He put his
Crookes tube in a box made of thin black cardboard and switched on the current
to the tube. The black box was lightproof, but Roentgen noticed a strange glow
at the far corner of his laboratory bench. He drew back the curtains of his laboratory window and found that the glow had come from a small screen. Roentgen
knew that the cathode rays could make the screen glow. But he also knew that
cathode rays could not penetrate the box. If the effect was not due to the cathode
rays, what mysterious new rays were causing it? He did not know, so he called
them X-rays. Roentgen placed all sorts of opaque materials between the source
of his X-rays and the screen. He found that these rays passed through wood, thin
sheets of aluminium, the flesh of his own hand; but they were completely
stopped by thin lead plates and partially stopped by the bones of his hand. Testing their effect on photographic plate he found that they were darkened on exposure to X-rays.
Through his discovery, he revolutionized the entire medical profession
22
and set the foundation for diagnostic radiology. Today, he is considered the father of diagnostic radiology, the medical field which uses imaging to diagnose
disease.
In 1896, the American inventor Thomas A. Edison made the fluoroscope
so it could be used to view X-ray images. During the next 17 years, various scientists and inventors refined the X-ray tube. In 1913, the American physicist
William D. Coolidge devised a way to make a more efficient X-ray tube. Modern X-ray tubes are similar to the type developed by Coolidge.
Vocabulary
X-rays – рентгеновские лучи
pass through – проникать сквозь
photographic plate – фотографическая пластинка
keenly – сильно
expel from – исключать из
irregular student – вольнослушатель
Crookes tube – трубка Крукса
electric wire – электрический провод
emerge out – выходить из чего-л.
cathode – катод (отрицательный
полюс электролитической системы)
cardboard – картон
laboratory bench – лабораторный
стол
screen – экран
penetrate – проникать
effect – воздействие, эффект
due to – из-за, благодаря
fluoroscope – флюроскоп, рентгеноскопический аппарат
view – рассматривать, просматривать
mysterious – таинственный, загадочный
cause – вызывать
place – размещать
opaque material – непрозрачный материал
source – источник
flesh – тело, ткани
completely – полностью
lead – свинец
partially – частично
bone – кость
darken – затемнять
– при воздействии
entire – целый
set the foundation – заложить основу
imaging – рентгеновское исследование
X-ray image – рентгеновский снимок, рентгенограмма
refine – улучшать
X-ray tube – рентгеновская трубка
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) new kind of invisible rays
a) отбрасывать тень на что-л.
2) pass through clothes, skin and flesh b) подключить ток к чему-л.
3) to cast the shadow of smth.
c) источник рентгеновских лучей
4) to connect the wires to opposite
d) новый тип невидимых лучей
electric poles
5) a stream of electric particles
e) проверять воздействие на что-л.
6) to make certain chemicals glow
f) вызывать что-л.
23
g) поток электрических частиц
h) вызывать свечение некоторых материалов
i) подсоединить провода к противоположным электрическим полюсам
7) to switch on the current to smth.
8) to cause smth.
9) the source of X-rays
j) проникать сквозь ткань, кожу и
тело
10) to test an effect on smth.
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Выдающийся немецкий физик; нобелевская премия по физике; хотя;
рожден в семье; торговцы тканями; исключать из школы; под руководством; рентгеновские лучи; однажды; стеклянная трубка; катодные лучи;
светонепроницаемый; листы из алюминия; свинцовые пластины; под воздействием рентгеновских лучей; благодаря своему открытию; основатель
диагностической радиологии.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) cathode
a) a principle, an idea or a fact that
something is based on and that it grows
from
2) screen
b) difficult to understand or explain;
strange
3) penetrate
c) the large flat surface that films or
pictures are shown on
4) effect
d) whole
5) mysterious
e) thing that causes or provides something
6) source
f) famous and respected, especially in
a particular profession
7) entire
g) the negative electrode in an
electrolytic cell and the positive
electrode in a battery
8) foundation
h) a change that smb/smth causes in
smb/smth else; a result
9) eminent
i) to go into or through something
Упражнение 4. Переведите, обращая внимание на суффиксы, и
скажите от какой части речи образованы эти слова.
24
Physicist, discovery, scientist, systematically, photographic, attentive, childhood, electric, chemical, mysterious, completely, partially, medical, foundation,
diagnostic, various, inventor, American.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. Who won the first Nobel Prize in Physics? And why?
2. Wilhelm Rontgen was one of the best students at school, wasn’t he?
3. Where did Rontgen work before discovering the Rontgen rays?
4. What experiment was Roentgen making when he discovered a new type of
rays?
5. How did he discover the rays?
6. What qualities do the X-rays possess?
7. How did Roentgen revolutionize the entire medical profession?
8.Who improved the fluoroscope so it could be used to view X-ray images?
9. Are modern X-ray tubes almost the same as those developed by Coolidge?
10. In what ways are the X-rays used at present?
Text 3
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev
Mendeleev was born in 1834 in the small Siberian town of Tobolsk as the
last of 14 surviving children. Dmitri’s father became blind in the year of
Dmitri’s birth and died in 1847. In 1848 Dmitri’s mother took Dmitri to St. Petersburg, where he enrolled in the Main Pedagogical Institute.
Mendeleev graduated in 1855 and got his first teaching position
at Simferopol in Crimea. He stayed there only two months and decided to go
back to St. Petersburg to continue his education. He received a master’s degree in 1856 and began to conduct research in organic chemistry. Financed by a
government, he went to study abroad for two years at the University of Heidelberg.
In 1861 Mendeleev returned to St. Petersburg, where he obtained a professorship at the Technological Institute in 1864. After the defense of his doctoral dissertation in 1865 he was appointed professor of chemical technology at
the University of St. Petersburg. He became professor of general chemistry in
1867 and continued to teach there until 1890.
As he began to teach inorganic chemistry, Mendeleev could not find a
textbook that met his needs. Since he had already published a textbook on organic chemistry in 1861 he set out to write another one. The result was The
Principles of Chemistry, which became a classic .
While writing that book in the 1860s, Mendeleev discovered the periodic
law. His newly formulated law was announced before the Russian Chemical Society in March 1869 with the statement “elements arranged according to the value of their atomic weights present a clear periodicity of properties.” Mendele25
ev’s law allowed him to build up a systematic table of all the 70 elements then
known.
At first the periodic system did not raise interest among chemists. However, with the discovery of the predicted elements, notably gallium in
1875, scandium in 1879, and germanium in 1886, it began to win wide acceptance. Gradually the periodic law and table became the framework for a great
part of chemical theory. By the time Mendeleev died in 1907, he enjoyed international recognition and had received distinctions and awards from many countries.
Beyond his theoretical work in chemistry, Mendeleyev was known for his
contribution to the national economy. He was involved in research on Russian
petroleum production, the coal industry and advanced agricultural methods.
Mendeleyev was appointed director of the Central Bureau of Weights and
Measures, created in 1893. There he made significant contributions
to metrology. Refusing to content himself solely with the managerial aspect of
his position he purchased expensive precision instruments, enlarged the team of
the bureau, and conducted extensive research on metrology. After a few years he
published an independent journal of metrology. Thus, Mendeleev made the metrological reform. It was a set of measures to create the scientific, technical and
legal foundations of the state uniform system of measurements in Russia. The
metrological reform of D.I. Mendeleev was one of the most important state reforms carried out in Russia under the leadership of the Ministry of Finance in
the late 19th - early 20th centuries.
Vocabulary
survive – выживать
enroll in – поступить (в вуз)
graduate – закончит (вуз)
position – должность
receive – получать
master’s degree – степень магистра
conduct – проводить
organic – органический
finance – финансировать
government – правительство
abroad – за границей
return – возвращаться
obtain – получать
professorship – профессорская
должность
present – представлять собой, являться
property – свойство
doctoral dissertation – докторская
диссертация
appoint – назначать
publish – публиковать
set out – приступить к выполнению
чего-л.
periodic law – периодический закон
химических элементов
statement – сообщение, утверждение
arrange – приводить в порядок, организовываться
arranged according to – согласно в
соответствии
value – значение, величина
contribution – вклад
significant – существенный, значительный
26
allow – позволять
notably – в особенности
acceptance – признание
gradually – постепенно
framework – основа
recognition – официальное
признание
metrology – метрология
refuse – отказываться
content – довольствоваться, ограничиваться
enlarge – расширять
carry out – проводить, осуществлять
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) conduct research
a) получить мировое признание
2) organic chemistry
b) атомный вес
3) study abroad
c) угольная промышленность
4) atomic weight
d) точные инструменты
5) enjoy international recognition
e) Центральное бюро мер и весов
6) petroleum production
f) проводить исследования
7) coal industry
g) учиться за границей
8) Central Bureau of Weights and
h) под руководством
Measures
9) precision instruments
i) нефтедобыча
10) under the leadership
j) органическая химия
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Должность учителя; продолжить образование; получить степень магистра; проводить исследования по органической химии; получить профессорскую должность; защитить докторскую диссертацию; общая химия;
органическая и неорганическая химия; классическое произведение; четкая
периодичность; периодическая система элементов Менделеева; повышать
интерес; широкое признание; получать знаки отличия и награды; метрологическая реформа; комплекс мер; единая система мер и весов.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) research
a) a set of beliefs, ideas or rules that is
used as the basis for making judgements, decisions, etc.
2) property
b) large or important enough to have an
effect or to be noticed
3) master’s degree
c) to put something in a particular order
4) arrange
d) he quality of being exact, accurate
and careful
27
5) value
6) framework
e) the scientific study of measurement
f) a further university degree that you
study for after a first degree
g) a careful study of a subject, especially in order to discover new facts or information about it
h) the amount represented by a letter or
symbol
i) a quality or characteristic that something has
7) metrology
8) precision
9) significant
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
a) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Siberia, organ, technology, doctor, chemistry, period, atom, system, theory, nation, Russia, agriculture, centre, manager, metrology, science, technic, importance.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Educate, govern, state, discover, accept, recognize, distinct, contribute, produce,
measure, found.
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Mendeleev was born in a large family in Siberia.
2. In 1848 Dmitri’s parents took him to St. Petersburg, where he entered the
Main Pedagogical Institute.
3. Mendeleev graduated in 1855 received a master’s degree.
4. He got his first teaching position at the University of Heidelberg.
5. He became professor of general chemistry at the University of St. Petersburg.
6. When Mendeleev began to teach inorganic chemistry there was no good textbook, so he wrote and published The Principles of Chemistry.
7. According to the periodic law elements arranged according to the value of
their atomic weights don’t present a clear periodicity of properties.
8. The periodic system allowed Mendeleev to predict elements such as gallium,
scandium, and germanium.
9. At first the periodic system did not raise interest among chemists but gradually the periodic law and table became the foundation for a great part of chemical
theory.
10. Mendeleev also did much to create the scientific, technical and legal foundations of the state uniform system of measurements in Russia.
28
UNIT 3. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Text 1
What Is a Measuring Tool?
A measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity. It is
used to take a count of quantitative data, such as weight, length, time or temperature, pressure, flow, level, speed, radiation, etc … list goes on.
Try to step back in time and imagine a world without measurement tools.
People in ancient times used the different parts of their bodies to size things up.
An inch was the width of a man’s thumb, a hand was literally meant five fingers
across, a span was the length of an outstretched arm.
The
instrument
may
range
from
simple
objects
such
as rulers and stopwatches to electron
microscopes and particle
accelerators. Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern
measuring instruments.
Measuring tools are essential for many different types of jobs or exercises.
For measuring length, rulers are the accepted choice. A typical ruler is going to
be useful in so many different situations. Everyone knows how a ruler works, as
you simply line it up with something to determine how long it is.
There are various types of rulers, including yardsticks and tape measures,
that can measure different distances. Rulers are useful because they can have
multiple measurement systems, such as metric and imperial units, are simple to
use and have marks denoting subdivisions.
Laser measure tools are used to measure the distance between itself and
an object. It is a useful tool when you need to quickly determine how far away
something is. Typically, these laser measures are able to give accurate measurements of up to thirty meters.
Owning a level is important for just about anyone. This is a measuring
tool that can determine if everything is level and balanced.
Checking angles is very important for professionals, and they need to
have access to accurate data. An angle gauge is capable of measuring angles so
that you can determine if everything is at true level. This is a crucial aspect of
many projects that cannot be ignored.
Scales are used for weighing things and can be very precise for chemistry,
cooking or other scientific activities. There are hanging, pressure and balance
scales which have different pros and cons and are useful for different needs,
though pressure scales are the most common. Scales do need to be calibrated
sometimes, and digital ones can wear out and provide a bad reading.
Temperature is measured with thermometers, and both digital and mechanical are used. Mercury used to be favored to measure temperature, but it has
fallen out of favor due to its negative effects to exposed humans. They can be
used to measure the temperature outside but you may also use thermometers to
29
measure body temperature. Many people like to put thermometers on the sides
of their houses to keep an eye on the temperature outside.
It might seem obvious, but the clock is definitely the most important
measurement tool that humanity uses every single day. Clocks are used to measure time and you need to be able to do this to properly complete many tasks.
Watches and clocks can be mechanical or digital.
Pressure gauges are used in many different things. The most common air pressure gauge that most people will own is a tire gauge. These convenient little
tools are necessary when you want to air your tires up to the exact point where
they’re supposed to be.
Speedometers are very important for determining the speed of objects. Obviously, these speedometers are most popularly used inside of automobiles. If you
couldn’t measure the speed that your car is traveling, then it would be very difficult to stay within safe speed limits.
Measuring tools can be very precise, but low quality ones can lead to
faulty measurements.
Vocabulary
quality – качество
quantity – величина, количество
data – данные
lead – проводить
fault – ошибка, неисправность
size up – измерять
literally – буквально
width – ширина
length – длина
range – варьироваться
tools – инструменты
essential – основной, главный
exercise – занятие
determine – определить
unit – единица
denote – обозначать, указывать
accurate – точный
typically – обычно
own – владеть
level – нивелир
ignore – пренебрегать
wear out – изнашиваться
crucial – ключевой, решающий
obvious – очевидный
convenient – удобный
definitely – определенно
precise – точный
lead – приводить
fall out – выпадать, выходить из
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) angle gauge
a) каждый божий день
2) how far away
b) ускоритель частиц
3) pros and cons
c) истинный уровень
4) keep an eye
d) вернуться в прошлое
5) due
e) за и против
6) step back in time
f) следить
30
g) насколько далеко
h) неверное значение
i) углоизмеритель
j) из-за
7) true level
8) particle accelerator
9) bad reading
10) every single day
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Иметь доступ; широко используется; накачать воздухом; решающий аспект; ширина и длина; древние времена; секундомер; должным образом; в
пределах безопасной скорости; раньше был в почете; рулетка; вплоть до;
выполнять задачи.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) level
a) a long piece of plastic, cloth or flexible
metal that has measurements marked on it and
is used for measuring the length or height of
something
2) common
b) pay no attention to something or someone
3) tape measure
c) a piece of equipment that shows you what
time it is, usually in a house or on a building
4) ignore
d) the height of something
5) quantity
e) something that is wrong
6) scales
f) the amount or number of something
7) stopwatch
g) happening often; existing in large numbers
or in many places
8) clock
h) a watch that can measure exactly how long
it takes to do something, and that is often used
in sports activities
9) fault
i) a piece of equipment for measuring weight
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
c) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
quantity, meter, digit, fault, differ, mechanics, profession, science
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
rule, precise, develop, own, lead, cook, read, weigh, press, mean
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. A measuring instrument helps to measure a physical quantity like time, temperature, weight, length, etc.
2. A level is used to measure different distances.
31
3. The accuracy of data depends on the size of gauges.
5. Scales can be very useful for scientific activities.
6. Pressure gauges are used only as a tire gauge.
7. Faulty measurement can be explained by low quality of measuring instruments.
Упражнение 6. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. How did people measure things in ancient times?
2. What types of rulers do you know?
3. Where can you use pressure gauges?
4. Why is it very important to use a speedometer inside a car?
5. What kinds of thermometers are used to measure temperature?
6. Why did mercury fell out of favor in measuring temperature?
Text 2
Dimensional Accuracy
It is impossible to produce components with dimensions that are precise,
with sizes the same as those specified in a design. This is because all production
processes are imprecise to a certain extent. Therefore, the sizes of several components produced from the same design will vary (differ). Although the variation may only be a few hundredths of a millimeter, sizes will not be 100% accurate (exact) compared with the design.
Because engineers know that accuracy cannot be perfect, in designs they
often specify tolerances – that is, acceptable variations in precision. Instead of
giving one precise size, a tolerance specifies a range of acceptable sizes – an allowed amount of variation. This is often given as a deviation (difference) from a
precise size.
When the permissible deviation in size is very small, we say it is a tight
tolerance (or a close tolerance). A large permissible deviation is a loose tolerance. For example: machining a metal component to a tolerance of ±0,1 mm is
relatively easy to do, so this tolerance is loose. But a tolerance of just ±0,01 mm
is a tight tolerance in metalworking.
When one component goes through another, such as a shaft or a bolt going through a hole, the two must fit together – their sizes and shapes must
match.
A clearance fit allows a component to slide or turn freely, by leaving
clearance (a gap) between itself and the sides of the hole. This distance must be
quite precise. If there is insufficient clearance – if the gap is too small – the
component will fit too tightly. As a result, the component will bind – it will not
be able to slide or turn freely. In other words, there will not be enough play.
However, if there is too much clearance, there will be too much play and the
component will be able to move too much.
32
An interference fit is a very tight fit which does not allow a component to
move freely inside a hole. This type of fit can be achieved by forcing the component into the hole. Alternatively, the metal around the hole can be heated so
that it expands (increases in size due to heat). After sufficient expansion, the
component is placed in the hole. The metal then cools and contrasts (decreases
in size due to cooling). The contraction results in a tight fit. An example of an
interference fit is a train wheel fitted on an axle.
Vocabulary
component – составная часть, деталь
dimension – размер, величина
precise – точный
instead of – вместо, взамен
amount – количество
tolerance – допуск, отклонение
range of – диапазон
acceptable – приемлемый, допустимый
hole – отверстие
deviation – отклонение
machine – обрабатывать на станке
shaft – вал
tight – плотный, тугой
shape – форма
achieve – достигать
fit together – подходить, соответствовать друг другу
clearance – люфт, зазор
due to – из-за, благодаря
contraction – сокращение
expand – увеличиваться, расширяться
place – поместить, разместить
axle - ось
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) acceptable sizes
a) жесткий допуск
2) to a certain extent
b) благодаря охлаждению
3) alternatively
c) свободно двигаться
4) force the component
d) допустимое отклонение
5) move freely
e) недостаточный зазор
6) tight tolerance
f) другой вариант
7) due to cooling
g) вгонять деталь, вставлять с силой
8) precise distance
h) приемлемые, допустимые
размеры
9) permissible deviation
i) точное расстояние
10) insufficient clearance
j) в некоторой степени
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
По сравнению с; производственные процессы; следовательно, поэтому;
разновидность, вариант; точность не может быть идеальной; подходить
слишком плотно; через; свободный допуск; приводить к; свободно сколь-
33
зить или поворачиваться; указанные в проекте; несколько сотых миллиметра; диапазон приемлемых размеров; относительно; оставлять зазор.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) accurate
a) the distance between two objects; an
amount of clear space
2) bind
b)
to state or describe something exactly
3) sufficient
c) suitable or allowed
4) tolerance
d) fit in sizes and shapes
5) clearance
e)
correct, exact,
and
without
any mistakes
6) specify
f) become compact or solid
7) match
g) enough for a particular purpose
8) acceptable
h) to become less, or to make something become less
9) decrease
i) the permissible range of variation in
a dimension of an object
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
a) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
accuracy, accept, permission, dimension, differ, precision, permit, alternate
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
vary, achieve, specify, expand, perfect, produce, compare, move.
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Engineers know that it is easy to produce components with precise dimensions specified in a design.
2. Sizes of components are always 100% accurate compared with the design.
3. Tight tolerance is a rather large deviation in metalworking.
4. A train wheel must fit very tightly on the axle.
5. The hole will decrease with the high temperature.
6. If a component can move freely inside the hole, there is a loose tolerance.
7. Components going through one another have sizes and shapes that match.
8. One way to place a component in the hole is heating.
9. The component will bind if there is enough place to slide or turn.
10. The metal increases in size due to cooling.
34
Text 3
Measurement Errors
The operation of a measuring instrument are categorized by static and dynamic characteristics. We know that the static error is the difference between the
true value of the measured variable to the value indicated by the instrument not
changing with time. The static error may arise due to a number of reasons. They
are classified as: gross errors, systematic errors and random errors.
Gross errors occur due to the lack of experience of human beings. These
cover human mistakes in noting down the readings, recording the process variable, and calculating results.
These errors are called personal errors. Some gross errors are easily detected while others are difficult to detect. Complete elimination of gross errors
is not possible but can be minimized in the following ways:
- Great care should be taken while taking readings while recording and calculating.
- One or more persons to be involved in taking at least three or even more readings.
Systematic errors occur due to incorrect or poor calibration of the instrument.
1. Instrumental errors are classified as
a) Shortcomings of instruments: friction in bearings of various moving
parts, irregular spring tension,
b) Misuse of instruments: A good instrument if not properly used leads to
giving abnormal readings.
c) Loading of instruments:
As shown in the above figure, a pressure gauge is used to measure the
highest pressure range of 40 bar. If it is subjected to pressure more than 40 bar,
spring inside will lose its tension due to the overloading effect. In the next
measurement, it will show error while measuring any range. The errors due to
the loading can be corrected by using measuring instruments correctly.
2. Environmental errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, the effect of external magnetic and electrostatic fields, aging of the instrument, frequency sensitivity of the instrument. Such errors can be avoided by providing air condition-
35
ing, cleaning the instruments, housing the instruments in a proper protecting
cover.
3. Observational errors are the errors introduced by the monitoring person.
An error while reading a meter, wrong scale selection, etc.
Although the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced by taking
proper care, random errors are due to the accumulation of small effects in large
numbers. These errors are generally small. To avoid these errors, the frequency
of measurement is to be increased. That means the same parameter is to be
measured often.
Vocabulary
error, mistake – ошибка
value – значение
measure – измерять
variable – переменная
arise – возникать, появляться
occur – происходить, иметь место
readings – показания
detect – обнаруживать, выявлять
elimination – устранение
care – внимание
depend on – зависеть от чего-то
without – без
involve – вовлекать
deviation – отклонение
instrument – прибор
shortcoming – недостаток
spring – пружина
bearings – подшипники
tension – натяжение
misuse – неправильное употребление, злоупотребление
lead to – вести к …
loading of instrument – загрузка
прибора
proper – правильный
pressure – давление
pressure gauge – манометр
subject – подвергать
humidity – влажность, сырость
dust – пыль
effect – влияние
external - внешний
meter – счетчик, измеритель
frequency – частота
avoid – избежать
provide – обеспечивать
house – хранить, размещать (приборы)
introduce – внедрять, допускать
scale – масштаб
reduce – сокращать, уменьшать
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) poor calibration
a) грубые ошибки
2) can be minimized
b) истинное значение
3) measured variable
c) ряд причин
4) calculate results
d) ошибка оператора, субъективная
ошибка
5) gross errors
e) отсутствие опыта
6) the true value
f) рассчитать результаты
7) at least
g) измеряемая переменная
36
8) lack of experience
9) personal error
10) number of reasons
h) плохая калибровка
i) можно свести к минимуму
j) как минимум, по крайней мере
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Значение, не меняющееся во времени; только одно показание; грубые, систематические и случайные ошибки; люди; полное устранение; следующим образом; большое внимание; записывать показания; погрешности
прибора; натяжение пружины; неправильное обращение с прибором; отклоняющиеся от нормы показания; правильно используемый; диапазон
давления; износ (старение) прибора.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) meter
a) a difference from what is usual or expected
2) external
b) a deviation from accuracy or correctness; a
mistake, as in action or speech
3) reading
c) an instrument for measuring the pressure
of a gas or liquid.
4) field
d) the indication of a graduated instrument
5) deviation
e) to discover something
6) detect
f)
a device that measures the amount of
something that is used
7) pressure gauge
g)the number of times something happens
within a particular period
8) error
h) the influence of some agent, as electricity
or gravitation, considered as existing at all
points in space
9) frequency
i) coming from the outside
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
a) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
change, instrument, frequency, sensitivity, person, vary, norm
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
indicate, eliminate, lead, press, house, deviate, calculate, calibrate, provide, protect, measure
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Gross errors are always easily detected.
2. Environmental errors are due to the incorrect work of human beings.
37
3. Poor calibration of the instrument causes observational errors.
4. Constant deviation of the error is a systematic error.
5. Systematic errors occur due to the lack of experience of the monitoring person.
6. An instrument not being properly used gives incorrect readings.
Упражнение 6. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What are three main types of measuring instruments errors?
2. How can gross errors be reduced?
3. What are the ways to correct environmental errors?
4. How is it possible to avoid random errors?
5. Why will the overloading of a pressure gauge cause mistake in the next measurement?
38
UNIT 4. MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
Text 1
Instrumentation and Control
In today’s modern world, the top target of every plant management is to
achieve the safest and maximum production out of their equipment, machinery
and devices. In order to reach that target, one of the major steps it follows is to
install good instrumentation in the plant.
An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates process physical
variables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure etc. Instruments include
many varied contrivances which can be as simple as valves and transmitters, and
as complex as analyzers. When we walk through a modern day plant, we find
many transmitters, gauges, control valves, motors, circuit, solenoid valves etc.
This is all nothing but Instrumentation.
Instruments often comprise control systems of varied processes. The control of processes is one of the main branches of applied instrumentation. But the
fact is, that instrumentation can’t do anything alone. It needs some brain that can
constantly monitor the readings provided by it and takes actions accordingly to
operate the final control elements like valves, motors etc.
At the same time, these actions must ensure to operate these devices at optimal parameters as to ensure their health and long-life. This is where the world
of control comes in.
Control System enables the instrumentation to operate in a way to give
you the safest and optimum production. Nowadays, it is fully automatic. Once
configured, it brings your whole plant over the screens of control room.
Control devices are able to change a field parameter, and provide remote
or automated control capabilities.
Transmitters are devices which produce an analog signal, usually in the
form of a 4–20 ma electrical current signal, although many other options using
voltage, frequency, or pressure are possible.
This signal can be used to control other instruments directly, or it can be
sent to a computerized controller, where it can be interpreted into readable values and used to control other devices and processes in the system.
Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information
from the field and changing the field parameters, and as such are a key part of
control loops.
Vocabulary
target – цель
achieve – достигать
plant – завод
install – устанавливать
ensure – гарантировать, обеспечивать
configure – настраивать
enable – давать возможность, раз39
comprise – включать в себя
variable – переменная
circuit – схема, цепь
pressure – давление
contrivance – изобретение, устройство
valve – клапан
branch – отрасль, направление
monitor – следить
gauge – измерительный прибор
accordingly – соответственно
решать
operate – работать, функционировать
capability – способность
possible – возможный
current – электрический ток
frequency – частота
play part – играть роль
gather – собирать
in a way – таким образом, чтобы
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) monitor the readings
a) управлять элементами
2) long-life
b) принимать меры
3) reach the target
c) после настройки
4) once configured
d) контур управления
5) main branch
e) следить за показаниями
6) control loop
f) достичь цели
7) operate elements
g) срок службы
8) take actions
h) основное направление
9) operate at optimal parameters
i) управлять напрямую
10) control directly
j) работать на оптимальных параметрах
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Дело в том, что…; дистанционный или автоматический контроль; руководство завода; это не что иное, как…; достигать цели; такой сложный как;
главная цель; такой простой как; управлять напрямую; один из важных
шагов; ключевой момент (часть); параметры поля; сбор информации; читаемые значения.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) motor
a) a result that you try to achieve
2) branch
b) a piece of equipment used for sending
electronic signals
3) capability
c) the best possible; producing the best possible results
40
4) optimal
5) transmitter
6) remote control
7) gauge
8) target
9) plant
d) the ability to operate a machine from a distance using radio or electrical signals
e) a device that uses electricity or fuel to produce movement and makes a machine work
f) a part of something larger
g) the ability to do something
h) a factory or place where power is produced
i) a measuring device
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
d) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
achieve, physics, read, electricity, computerize, signify
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
operate, manage, transmit, equip, press, analyze, read, control, inform
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Nowadays, the main target of every plant management is just to achieve the
maximum production.
2. Transmitters, gauges, motors, circuit and valves are all different instruments.
3. The control of process is one of the main branches of physics.
4. The use of good instrumentation helps to achieve the maximum production
out of the machinery.
5. Automated or remote control capabilities are provided by means of control
devices.
6. Instrumentation plays an important part in the control of processes.
7. Transmitters are devices producing a digital signal that can be used to control
other instruments.
Упражнение 6. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What does the term instrument stand for?
2. Is it necessary to monitor constantly the readings provided by the instruments?
3. What is the way to ensure the long-life of devices?
4. How are transmitters used to control other instruments and devices?
5. Is it possible to configure the control system in a way to show the information
of all process of the plant?
41
Text 2
What is Process Control?
First we need to understand what process control is and what are the important technical terms and parameters involved in this process. Process control
is a statistics and engineering discipline that deals with architectures, mechanisms and algorithms for maintaining the output of a specific process within a
desired range.
An example about heating up of a room temperature which is a process
that has the specific, desired outcome to reach and maintain a temperature (e.g.
20°C) defined by you or a person inside the room and should be kept constant
over time.
You can always change the setting from time to time depending on what
your body wants. Get the remote control and adjust the setting to your desired
temperature.
In the example above, the temperature is the process variable. At the
same time, it is the input variable since it is measured by a thermometer and
used to decide whether to heat or not to heat up the room as you prefer. The desired temperature (20°C) is the setpoint (SP).
The state of the heater, for example the setting of the valve allowing hot
water to flow through it or in the case of simple on-off control, turning the heater off and on is called the manipulated variable since it is subject to control actions.
The first instant is an example of a proportional control since the opening
of the valve is proportional to the needs of the users of the room. There are other
types of control such as derivative and integral or a combination of the two incorporated with proportional. These are all common in controlling other parameters such as pressure, flow and level of a material (liquid or solid).
A commonly used control device called a programmable logic controller.
It is used to read a set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of logic statements, and generate a set of analog and digital outputs.
The room temperature would be an input to the programmable logic controller. The logical statements would compare the setpoint to the input temperature and determine whether more or less heating was necessary to keep the temperature constant.
A programmable logic controller would then either open or close the hot
water valve, depending on whether more or less hot water was needed or just
simply turn the heater off when the desired temperature is reached and turn it
back on when it is needed.
Vocabulary
term – термин
involve – использовать, вовлекать
be subject to – подвергаться
instant – момент, мгновение
42
deal with – иметь дело с
maintain – поддерживать
heat up – нагревать, подогревать
outcome – результат
constant – неизменный, постоянный
depend on – зависеть от…
remote – удаленный
adjust – настраивать, изменять
set – устанавливать
input – вход, входные данные
output – выход, результат
variable – переменная
valve – клапан
allow – позволять
needs – потребности
liquid – жидкий
solid – твердый
commonly – обычно
controller – регулятор
a set – набор
statement – инструкция, показание
generate – производить, выдавать
determine – определять
reach – достигать
manipulated variable – управляемая
переменная
proportional - соответствующий
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) on – off control
a) потребности пользователей
2) needs of the users
b) дистанционный контроль
3) adjust the settings
c) в желаемом диапазоне
4) control device
d) со временем
5) remote control
e) в зависимости от …
6) commonly used
f) настроить параметры
7) since
g) обычно используемый
8) depending on
h) поскольку
9) over time
i) контроль включения и выключения
10) within a desired range
j) устройство управления
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Техническая дисциплина; включать и выключать; желаемая температура;
клапан горячей воды; подвергаться контролю; набор; измеряется термометром; поддерживать температуру; время от времени; обогреватель;
входная температура; программируемый регулятор; выдавать (производить) результат; встроенный.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) controller
a) doing something for a particular purpose
2) variable
b) an instrument for measuring temperature
3) output
c) to get to a particular level
4) valve
d)
an amount that
a person, machine,
or organization produces
43
5) needs
6) action
7) thermometer
8) reach
9) constant
e) a device attached to a pipe or a tube
which controls the flow of air or liquid
through the pipe or tube
f) something that changes quite often
g) something wanted or thought necessary
h) not changing or varying
i) a regulating mechanism
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
a) прилагательные от существительных и глаголов. Переведите на
русский язык.
program, specify, proportion, vary, logic, change, digit.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
set, heat, open, use, combine, state, depend, act, determine, compare, define,
manipulate.
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. The goal of process control is to maintain the output of a process within a desired range.
2. It is impossible to change the settings according to your wants.
3. The remote control is used to operate another device from a distance.
4. Manipulated variable is called “manipulated” because it’s the one you can not
change.
5. On-off control just turns on and off the device.
6. The desired temperature is reached in the room, the valve opens allowing hot
water to flow to heat up the room.
Упражнение 6. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What is process control?
2. What is a programmable logic controller used for?
3. Is a proportional control the only type of control?
4. What device is used to get the input variable in case of heating up a room
temperature?
5. How does the programmable logic controller determine whether more or less
heating is necessary to keep the temperature constant?
44
Text 3
Measuring Electricity
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a
pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage.
Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently
built in a panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable
instruments, usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form
of a multimeter, are standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics
work. Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on
a meter that is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent
of full scale, and are used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than
one percent. One of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to check its accuracy.
Ammeter
The most common way to measure current in a circuit is to break the circuit open and insert an ammeter in series with the circuit so that all electrons
flowing through the circuit also have to go through the meter. Because measuring current in this manner requires the meter be made part of the circuit, it is
more difficult to measure than voltage or resistance. Some digital meters have a
separate jack to insert the red test lead plug when measuring current. Other meters, like most inexpensive analog meters, use the same jacks for measuring
voltage, resistance, and current.
An ammeter will act as a short circuit if placed in parallel of a source of
voltage. If this is done, a surge in current will result, potentially damaging the
meter. Ammeters are generally protected from excessive current by means of a
small fuse located inside the meter housing. If the ammeter is accidently connected across a voltage source, the resultant surge in current will blow the fuse
and render the meter incapable of measuring current until the fuse is replaced.
Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an electronic device used to measure a material’s resistance to electrical current. An ohmmeter is useful in troubleshooting electrical
or electronic circuits and devices to help pinpoint the cause of component failures. A simple ohmmeter has a display, two probes, and a source of electrical
current – usually a small, internal battery. When the meter’s probes are applied
to a material, the electrical source introduces a small current in the material between the tips of the probes. The meter detects the difference in voltage between
45
the two probe tips and displays a measurement of the material’s resistance. This
difference in voltage results from the material’s resistance to current flow and is
called resistance. The readout on the ohmmeter’s display is given in units of
measurement called ohms. If the material is a good conductor of electrical current, such as a piece of copper wire, then the resistance is low. When resistance
is low, the ohm readout on the meter will be a very low number and might even
be zero. If the resistance is very high such as in insulating material, the readout
on the meter will be high; maybe tens of thousands of ohms or higher. If the
probes of the meter are applied to two points that have no physical connection,
there will be no current flow. This condition is known as an open. In the case of
an open, the meter’s display will show infinite resistance. An ohmmeter can be
used to find broken or shorted wires by taking resistance measurements at different points along the path of a circuit. The meter can also be used to help diagnose failures in closed components such as electrical motors or in solid state devices by comparing readings measured.
Vocabulary
circuit – цепь, схема
pointer – стрелка, указатель
scale – шкала
voltage – напряжение
equip – оборудовать, снаряжать
current – ток, поток
resistance – сопротивление
purpose – цель
general – общий
fraction – доля
flow – поток, плыть
typically – обычно
conductor - проводник
probe – щуп
tip - наконечник
troubleshooting – исправление проблем
pinpoint – точно определить
cause – причина
failure – отказ, сбой
insert – вставить
jack – гнездо, розетка
require – требовать
lead plug – свинцовая вилка
act – работать, действовать, как…
surge – всплеск, повышение
damage – наносить ущерб, причинять вред
by means of – посредством
fuse – предохранитель
accidently – случайно
substantial – существенный
until – пока не
connect across – подключить через
ohm - ом
readout – снятие показаний
copper wire – медный кабель
insulating material – изолирующий
материал
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) source of voltage
a) вольтметр общего назначения
2) permanently
b) широкий диапазон
46
3) suitably calibrated
4) in this manner
5) potential difference
6) break the circuit
7) meter housing
8) fixed apparatus
9) wide range
10) general purpose voltmeter
c) таким образом
d) корпус счетчика
e) источник напряжения
f) постоянно, непрерывно
g) стационарный аппарат
h) откалиброван соответствующим
образом
i) разность потенциалов
j) разорвать цепь
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Чрезмерный ток; испытательные приборы; высокая точность; специально
откалиброванный; аналоговый вольтметр; давление; электрическая цепь;
проходить через прибор; существенный источник напряжения; предохранитель, размещенный внутри; портативные приборы; электрические и
электронные работы; отдельное гнездо.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) calibration
a) a hole into which a wire connected to
a piece of electrical equipment can
be plugged so
that
the equipment can operate
2) circuit
b)
a small safety part in
an electrical device
that causes it
to stop working if the electric current is too
high, and so prevents fires or other dangers
3) damage
c)
a movement of water, air,
or electricity in a particular direction
4) jack
d) the force of an electric current, measured
in volts
5) connect
e) the process of checking a measuring instrument to see if it is accurate
6) fuse
f) to harm or spoil something
7) current
g)
a closed system of wires through
which electricity can flow
8) source
h) to join something else
9) voltage
i)
the place something
comes
from
or starts at
Упражнение 4. Переведите, обращая внимание на суффиксы, и
скажите, от какой части речи образованы эти слова
47
suitable, potential, digital, equipment, resistance, requirement, typically, connection, difference, suitably, measurement, calibration, generator, permanently,
pressure, specially, pointer, protection, housing, requirement.
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Digital instruments give a numerical display of measurement.
2. Instruments incorporated in a panel are used to monitor fixed apparatus.
3. There is no instrument in one housing able to measure voltage, resistance and
current.
4. There is no variety of voltmeters, they all are of the same style.
5. Multimeters are test instruments that are generally used in electrical and electronic
work.
6. Voltage and resistance are more difficult to measure than current.
7. Analog meters are more accurate.
8. A surge in current can damage the meter.
9. A fuse is always located inside the meter housing.
Упражнение 6. Найдите неверные утверждения.
1. An ohmmeter consists of a display, two probes and a battery.
2. Resistance is the difference in voltage between the two probe tips of the meter.
3. A very low number displayed on the meter shows that the resistance is very
high.
4. Resistance is low if the material is not a good conductor.
5. The ohmmeter is also used for finding broken wires and diagnose failures.
6. Ohm is a unit of measurement.
7. To measure current you just need to place the meter near the wire.
8. If there is no physical connection between two points to which the probes are
applied, there will be no current flow.
Упражнение 7. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What instrument is used for measuring voltage and resistance?
2. What instrument is used for measuring electric current?
3. Why is the calibration of measuring instruments important?
4. What is the difference between analog and digital voltmeters?
5. Why current is more difficult to measure than voltage and resistance?
6. What protects ammeters from excessive current?
48
UNIT 5. ELECTRICITY
Text 1
Electricity
We can’t imagine our civilization without electricity: economic and social
progress will be turned to the past and our daily lives completely transformed.
Electrical power has become universal. Thousands of applications of electricity such as lighting, electrochemistry and electrometallurgy are longstanding
and unquestionable.
With the appearance of the electrical motor, power cables replaced transmission shafts, gear wheels, belts and pulleys in the nineteenth century workshops. And in the home a whole range of various time and labour saving appliances have become a part of our everyday lives.
Other devices are based on specific properties of electricity: electrostatics
in the case of photocopying machine and electromagnetism in the case of radar
and television. These applications have made electricity most widely used.
The first industrial application was in the silver workshops in Paris. The
generator – a new compact source of electricity – was also developed there. The
generator replaced the batteries and other devices that had been used before.
Electric lighting came into wide use at the end of the last century with the
development of the electric bulb by Thomas Alva Edison. Then the transformer
was invented, the first electric lines and networks were set up, dynamos and induction motors were designed.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century the successful development
of electricity has begun throughout the industrial world. The consumption of
electricity has doubled every ten years.
Today consumption of electricity per capita is an indicator of the state of
development and economic health of a nation. Electricity has replaced other
sources of energy as it has been realized that it offers improved service and reduced cost.
One of the greatest advantages of electricity is that it is clean, ecofriendly, easily-regulated and generates no by-products. Applications of electricity now cover all fields of human activity from house washing machines to the
latest laser devices. Electricity is the efficient source of some of the most recent
technological advances such as the laser and electron beams. Truly electricity
provides humankind with the energy of the future.
Vocabulary
turn to – обращаться к
completely – полностью, совершенно
electrical power – электроэнергия
appliance – прибор, устройство
property – свойство
bulb – лампочка
set up – устанавливать, открывать
49
application – применение, употребление
lighting – освещение
longstanding – давний, многолетний
appearance – появление
transmission shaft – трансмиссионный вал, передаточный вал
gear wheel – шестеренка, зубчатое
колесо
belt – ремень
pulleys – шкивы, блоки
workshop – мастерская, цех
throughout – по всему, повсюду
consumption – потребление
double – удваивать
per capita – на душу населения
reduce – уменьшать
by-products – побочный продукт
efficient – эффективный
technological advances – технологические новшества, технологические достижения
electron beams – электронные
пучки
humankind – человечество
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) to become universal
a) новейшие лазерные устройства
2) power cables
b) компактный источник
электроэнергии
3) time and labour saving appliances
c) становиться универсальным
4) the latest laser devices
d) заменить батареи
5) a compact source of electricity
e) кабели электропитания
6) to set up electric networks
f) создать электрические сети
7) to replace the batteries
g) время и трудосберегающие приборы
8) to come into wide use
h) улучшить обслуживание
9) to improve services
i) войти в широкое употребление
10) to reduce costs
j) уменьшить затраты
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Ксерокс; промышленное использование; пучок электронов; потребление
электричества; вырабатывать побочные продукты; обеспечивать энергией;
экологически чистый; приборы, экономящие время и труд; ремни и блоки;
потребление на душу населения; снижать расходы; бесспорный факт;
свойства электричества; трансмиссионные валы; зубчатые колеса; элек-
50
трическое освещение; разработать индукционные двигатели; заменять другие источники энергии.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) radar
a) designed to cause as little harm as possible to the environment
2) electricity
b) an object that changes the voltage of a flow of electricity
3) dynamo
c) a system that uses radio signals for finding the exact position of something
4) transformer
d) a piece of equipment that produces a powerful narrow line
of light, used to cut hard substances
5) eco-friendly e) a piece of equipment that changes the movement of an engine or machine into electricity
6) electron
f) the production of electrical or magnetic forces in an object
by other electrical or magnetic forces near it
7) induction
g) a part of an atom that moves around the nucleus and has a
negative electrical charge
8) laser
h) a form of energy that can produce light, heat, and power
for machines, computers, televisions, etc.
Упражнение 4. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. The key drawback of electricity is that it causes big damages to the environment.
2. It was Thomas Alva Edison who discovered electricity.
3. The only property of electricity is its electrodensity.
4. The initial industrial consumption of electricity was in skunk works.
5. Electricity permeates all fields of human activity.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. What properties does electricity possess?
2. In what areas is electricity applied?
3. What did the generator replace?
4. What does consumption of electricity indicate?
5. How does mankind benefit from electricity usage?
6. What are the disadvantages of electricity?
51
Text 2
Direct Current Generator
Historically, direct current machines came into being before alternating
current machines because the scientists of that time (about the middle of the
19th century) were only familiar with battery sources and consequently made
motors which operated from batteries, as well as generators to charge the batteries. 1) ____________, and will not in the foreseeable future, since the DC motor
offers a controllability not yet approached by AC motors. Nevertheless a thorough study of DC generators is necessary 2) ____________.
3) ___________. Mechanical power input received from a prime mover
(DC motor in this case) is converted electromagnetically into electrical energy.
This electrical energy can be changed into heat as is done by connecting load resistors across its armature terminals. The field winding of the generator is excited with direct current. It is based on the principle of production of dynamically
or motionally induced emf (Electromotive Force). 4) __________, dynamically
induced emf is produced in it according to Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic
Induction. This emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
The field of the machine produces the magnetic flux. It is basically a stationary electromagnet composed of a set of salient poles bolted to the inside of a
circular frame. Field coils, mounted on the poles, carry the DC exciting current.
The frame is usually made of solid cast steel, 5) ________. In some generators
the flux is created by permanent magnets. The armature is the rotating part of a
DC generator. 6) ________. The core is composed of iron laminations that are
forming a solid cylindrical core. The laminations are individually coated with an
insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other. 7)
_______.
Упражнение 1. Заполните пропуски в тексте «Direct Current
Generator» приведенными ниже фразами. Должно остаться 3 лишних
предложения.
a) It consists of a commutator, an iron core, and a set of coils;
b) They support the field coil;
c) Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux;
d) A DC generator is an energy converter;
e) it is made of cast steel;
f) As a result, eddy-current losses are reduced;
g) Although superior in many ways, AC machines have not completely replaced
DC machines;
h) Current flows and the poles are electromagnetised and produce the necessary
flux;
i) because the construction of motors and generators is the same;
j) whereas the pose pieces are composed of stacked iron laminations.
52
Vocabulary
direct current machine – машина
постоянного тока
alternating current machine –
машина переменного тока
consequently – следовательно, поэтому
foreseeable – обозримый, предвидимый
nevertheless – тем не менее, однако, несмотря
thorough – тщательный, кропотливый, полный
load resistor – нагрузочный резистор
armature terminal – клемма обмотки якоря
field winding – обмотка возбуждения; обмотка подмагничивания;
обмотка электромагнита
excite – вызывать, побуждать, возбуждать
induce – вызывать, приводить, индуцировать
Electromotive Force – электродвижущая сила
magnetic flux – магнитный поток
salient poles – явно выраженные
полюсы; явновыраженные полюсы;
выступающие полюсы
bolt – закреплять
circular – круговой, круглый
field coil – электромагнитная катушка; полевая рамочная антенна;
катушка электромагнита
solid – твердый
cast steel – литая сталь
rotating – вращающийся
lamination – слоистость, тонкое
напластование; пластинчатое строение; нанесение слоями, послойное нанесение
insulating film – диэлектрическая
плёнка; изоляционная плёнка; изолирующая плёнка
eddy-current – вихревой ток
iron – железо
Упражнение 2. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) electrical energy
a) источник питания
2) alternating current
b) магнитный поток
3) battery source
c) чугун
4) electromotive force
d) электродвижущая сила
5) output voltage
e) переменный ток
6) magnetic flux
f) изоляционная пленка
7) insulating film
g) преобразователь энергии
8) cast iron
h) выходное напряжение
9) energy converter
i) электроэнергия
53
Упражнение 3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Постоянный ток; электрический ток; электромагнитные поля; проводник;
переменный ток; механическое действие; электродвижущая сила; литая
сталь; железо; клемма обмотки якоря; обмотка возбуждения; генерировать;
батарея; генератор; заряжать; резисторы; принцип; индукция; рама; цилиндрический; электрический контакт.
Упражнение 4. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) magnetic frame
a) it provides a path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature
from one pole to another one
2) pole cores and pole shoes
b) They are used to reduce losses of
friction and other mechanical losses
3) pole coil or field coils
c) this part rotates inside of an armature
4) armature core
d) it is a very useful part of DC generator. Its main work is to take input AC
and give output DC
5) armature winding
e) they spread out the flux in the air
gap and also reduce the reluctance in
magnetic path
6) commutator
f) it provides mechanical support for
the poles as well as mechanical
strength for generator machine. It also
carries the magnetic flux produced by
poles
7) brushes
g) it takes supply from commutator
and gives output to terminal of generator
8) bearings
h) it is a static part of a generator
9) stator
i) it carries current and generates electromotive force
10) shaft
j) these coils electromagnetise poles
which produce the necessary flux
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Direct current machines came into being after alternating current machines.
2. The DC motor offers a controllability not yet approached by AC motors.
3. A thorough study of DC generators is not necessary.
54
4. Mechanical power input received from a secondary mover is converted electromagnetically into electrical energy.
5. The electrical energy can be changed into heat by connecting load resistors
across its armature terminals.
6. The field winding of the generator is excited with alternating current.
7. The emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is opened.
8. The field of the machine produces the magnetic flux.
9. Field coils, mounted on the poles, carry the alternating exciting current.
10. The laminations are coated with an insulating film so that they do not come
in electrical contact with each other.
Text 3
Optoelectronic Semiconductor Devices
Optical semiconductor devices are widely used, in fields ranging from optical fiber communication systems to consumer electronics, and have become
necessary devices in the equipment and systems making up the infrastructure of
our society. Most optical semiconductor devices are optoelectronic pn-junction
devices, such as laser diodes, light-emitting diodes, and photodiodes. The
main interest in the field of optoelectronic devices has shifted from device physics and operation principles to device applications. That is why we require a
wide range of knowledge related to optoelectronic semiconductor devices.
The successful fabrication of a diode laser relies upon the properties of the
materials involved. At least two compatible materials must be found, one for the
cladding layers and another for the active region. The fundamental requirement
for these materials is that they have the same crystal structure and nearly the
same lattice constant.
The basic operating mechanism of laser diodes is based on the electrical
and optical properties of pn-junctions and semiconductor materials. Laser diodes
are devices emitting coherent light produced in a stimulated emission process.
The light emission process in laser diodes is more complicated than that in
LEDs, where light is produced in a spontaneous emission process. The lasing
wavelength ranges from the visible to the infrared depending on the material of
the active layer.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are used under a forward bias that emits
incoherent light when current passes through the semiconductor junction. When
the minority charge carriers recombine radiatively with the majority charge carriers, photons are emitted. This is the basic light generation process in semiconductors.
Depending on the semiconductor material used in the light-emitting layer
(active layer), the wavelength of the emitted light can be anywhere within the
range from visible to infrared. LEDs have been widely used in optical fiber
55
communication systems, data links, remote controllers, for display and indicator
applications, etc.
Photoinduced electrons and holes recombine radiatively (photoluminescence) and non-radiatively. If an electrical field is applied to the semiconductor,
some of the induced carriers take part in electric conduction and this leads to a
decrease in electrical resistance of the semiconductor. This is called photoconduction.
If there is a pn-junction in the illuminated area, the electrons and the holes
are separated by the electrical field at the pn-junction without any electric bias,
and an electromotive force between the p- and n-side semiconductors is generated. This is called the photovoltaic effect.
Based on the phenomena described above, light power can be converted
into electrical power in photodiodes. Their operating mechanisms are based on
the electrical and optical properties of the pn-junction and semiconductor material. Their functions are, however, quite different from those of LEDs and laser
diodes, and in the photodiodes the optical absorption processes are used.
Vocabulary
semiconductor – полупроводник,
полупроводниковый
ranging from … to – начиная от …
до
consumer electronics – бытовая
электронная техника
infrastructure – инфраструктура
light-emitting diode – электролюминесцентный диод; светоизлучающий диод; световое перо
shift from … to – переходить от …
к
require – требовать, нуждаться
relate to – иметь отношение к
pn-junction – p-n-переход, электронно-дырочный переход
fabrication – изготовление, производство
compatible – сочетаемый, совместимый
cladding layer – плакирующий
слой, слой покрытия
region – участок, зона, область,
край
lattice – решетка, сетка
coherent light – когерентный свет
emission – эмиссия, излучение
spontaneous – самопроизвольный,
спонтанный
depend on – зависеть от
light-emitting diode (LEDs) – электролюминесцентный диод; светоизлучающий диод; световое перо
forward bias – прямое смещение
minority charge carrier – неосновной носитель заряда
generation – производство, генерирование
infrared – инфракрасный
photoinduced – фотоиндуцированный
lead to – приводить к, вести к
resistance – сопротивление
separate – обделять, разъединять
photovoltaic – фотоэлектрический
absorption – всасывание,
поглощение
56
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) optical semiconductor devices
a) волоконно-оптические линии
связи
2) active region
b) оптические полупроводниковые
приборы
3) optical fiber communication systems
c) плакирующий слой
4) wavelength
d) лазерный диод
5) carrier
e) носитель
6) light-emitting diode
f) постоянная (параметр) решетки
7) cladding layer
g) когерентный
8) lattice constant
h) активная область
9) coherent
i) длина волны
10) laser diode
j) светодиод
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Широко используемый; зависящий от; отличаться от; принимать участие;
основываться на; применяться к; основное требование; по меньшей мере;
главный интерес; сместился от.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) diode
a) the distance over which the wave's
shape repeats
2) laser
b) coating lying between/on something
3) charge
c) threads used to carry light
4) lattice constant
d) to give something off
5) wavelength
e) device that converts energy into coherent radiation flux
6) junction
f) spectrum of some objects
7) range
g) length that denotes the size of the
unit cell in a crystal lattice
8) layer
h) place where two wires meet
9) emit
i) property defining the ability of ob-
57
10) optical fiber
jects to create electromagnetic field
j) an electrical element of two main
types that conducts current
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
а) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Conductor, laser, length, layer, light, mechanism, junction, material, resistance,
region.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Emit, convert, use, illuminate, separate, generate, combine, display, process,
pass.
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. Optical semiconductor devices can be divided only into three groups.
2. The work of a diode also depends on its composition.
3. Laser diodes work using electromagnetic forces.
4. Optical fiber is one of the materials used in diodes.
5. Although there are various types of diodes, they have similar functions.
6. Photovoltaic effect means that electrons and the holes are separated by electric bias.
7. In light-emitting diodes light is produced in a stimulated emission process.
8. In one of the diode types light can be changed into electricity.
9. The structure of a diode laser has two layers.
58
UNIT 6. AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS
Text 1
Automation Technology
Automation is the application of machines to tasks once performed by
human beings or, increasingly, to tasks that would otherwise be impossible. Although the term “mechanization” is often used to refer to the simple replacement
of human labour by machine, automation generally implies the integration of
machines into a self-governing system. Automation has revolutionized those areas in which it has been introduced, and there is scarcely an aspect of modern
life that has been unaffected by it.
The term “automation” was coined in the automobile industry about 1946
to describe the increased use of automatic devices and controls in mechanized
production lines. The origin of the word is attributed to D.S. Harder, an engineering manager at the Ford Motor Company at the time. The term is used widely in a manufacturing context, but it is also applied outside manufacturing in
connection with a variety of systems in which there is a significant substitution
of mechanical, electrical, or computerized action for human effort and intelligence.
In general usage, automation can be defined as a technology concerned
with performing a process by means of programmed commands combined with
automatic feedback control to ensure proper execution of the instructions. The
resulting system is capable of operating without human intervention. The development of this technology has become increasingly dependent on the use of
computers and computer-related technologies. Consequently, automated systems
have become increasingly sophisticated and complex. Advanced systems represent a level of capability and performance that surpass in many ways the abilities of humans to accomplish the same activities.
Automation technology has matured to a point where a number of other
technologies have developed from it and have achieved a recognition and status
of their own. Robotics is one of these technologies; it is a specialized branch of
automation in which the automated machine possesses certain anthropomorphic,
or humanlike, characteristics. The most typical humanlike characteristic of a
modern industrial robot is its powered mechanical arm. The robot's arm can be
programmed to move through a sequence of motions to perform useful tasks,
such as loading and unloading parts at a production machine or making a sequence of spot-welds on the sheet-metal parts of an automobile body during assembly. As these examples suggest, industrial robots are typically used to replace human workers in factory operations.
Vocabulary
otherwise – иначе, в противном
intervention – вмешательство
59
случае
although – хотя, несмотря на то
labour – труд, рабочая сила
self-governing – самоуправляемый
scarcely – едва, вряд ли
coin – придумывать
production line – производственная
линия, конвейер
attribute – приписывать, относить
substitution – замена, замещение
concerned – связанный, занятий
by means of – посредством
feedback control – управление с
обратной связью
ensure – гарантировать,
обеспечивать
consequently – вследствие, поэтому, следовательно
sophisticated – сложный, замысловатый
surpass – превосходить, опережать
accomplish – выполнять, совершать
mature – созревать
recognition – признание
possess – обладать, располагать
sequence – последовательность
spot-weld – точечный сварной шов
sheet-metal – листовой металл
assembly – сборка
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) mechanization
a) вмешательство человека
2) human labour
b) самоуправляемая система
3) self-governing system
c) запрограммированные команды
4) automobile industry
d) надлежащее исполнение
5) automatic devices
e) человеческий труд
6) programmed commands
f) автомобильная промышленность
7) proper execution
g) механизация
8) human intervention
h) автоматические устройства
9) industrial robot
i) кузов автомобиля
10) automobile body
j) промышленный робот
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Автоматизация, применение, человеческие существа, простая замена, революционизировать, был придуман, более широкое использование, механизированная производственная линия, происхождение слова, главный
инженер, значимое замещение, выполнение процесса, компьютерные тех-
60
нологии, поэтому, все более сложные, передовые системы, возможность и
производительность, достигла уровня, достигли признания, специализированная отрасль, автоматизированная машина, антропоморфный или человекоподобный, механическая рука, последовательность движений, загрузка
и выгрузка, детали из листового металла, заменить труд человека.
Упражнение 3. Дополните предложения фактами из текста.
1. Mechanization means replacement … .
2. Automation implies the integration … .
3. The term “automation” was coined in … .
4. In automatic systems there is a substitution of … .
5. Automatic processes are performed by means of … without … .
6. Advanced automated systems surpass … .
7. Robotics is a specialized branch of automation where a robot possesses … .
8. The robot’s powered mechanical arm can … .
9. Industrial robots are used to … .
Упражнение 4. Разделите текст на логические части и озаглавьте
каждую часть.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. What does the term “automation” mean?
2. What is the difference between automation and mechanization?
3. When was the term “automation” coined?
4. In what field did it arise?
5. Whose name is the origin of the word “automation” attributed to?
6. In what connection is the term used?
7. What is the definition of automation?
8. What does the development of automation technology depend on?
9. What advanced technology has developed from automation technology?
10. What are the main characteristics of industrial robotics?
11. What is the most typical humanlike characteristic of an industrial robot?
12. What operations can the robot’s arm be programmed for?
13. What is the main purpose of industrial robots?
Упражнение 6. Выскажитесь на следующие темы.
1. Mechanization and automation.
2. The origin and the use of the term “automation”.
3. The role of computers and computer-related technologies in the development
of automation.
4. The characteristics and the purpose of robotics.
61
Упражнение 7. Сделайте краткий доклад о развитии технологии
автоматизации.
Text 2
Principles and Theory of Automation
There are three basic building blocks of automation: (1) a source of power
to perform some action, (2) feedback controls, and (3) machine programming.
Almost without exception, an automated system will exhibit all these elements.
Power source. The actions performed by automated systems are generally
of two types: (1) processing and (2) transfer and positioning. In the first case,
energy is applied to accomplish some processing operation on some entity. The
process may involve the shaping of metal, the molding of plastic, the switching
of electrical signals in a communication system, or the processing of data in a
computerized information system. Feedback controls are widely used in modern automated systems. A feedback control system consists of five basic components: input, process being controlled, output, sensing elements, and controller
and actuating devices.
The input to the system is the reference value, or set point, for the system
output. This represents the desired operating value of the output. Using the previous example of the heating system as an illustration, the input is the desired
temperature setting for a room. The process being controlled is the heater (e.g.,
furnace). In other feedback systems, the process might be a manufacturing operation, the rocket engines on a space shuttle, the automobile engine in cruise control, or any of a variety of other processes to which power is applied. The output
is the variable of the process that is being measured and compared to the input;
in the above example, it is room temperature.
The sensing elements are the measuring devices used in the feedback loop
to monitor the value of the output variable. In the heating system example, this
function is normally accomplished using a bimetallic strip. This device consists
of two metal strips joined along their lengths. The two metals possess different
thermal expansion coefficients; thus, when the temperature of the strip is raised,
it flexes in direct proportion to the temperature change. The purpose of the controller and actuating devices in the feedback system is to compare the measured
output value with the reference input value and to reduce the difference between
them. In general, the controller and actuator of the system are the mechanisms
by which changes in the process are accomplished to influence the output variable. These mechanisms are usually designed specifically for the system and consist of devices such as motors, valves, solenoid switches, piston cylinders, gears,
and other mechanical and electrical components.
Machine programming. The programmed instructions determine the set
of actions that is to be accomplished automatically by the system. The program
specifies what the automated system should do and how its various components
62
must function in order to accomplish the desired result. The content of the program varies considerably from one system to the next. In relatively simple systems, the program consists of a limited number of well-defined actions that are
performed continuously and repeatedly in the proper sequence with no deviation
from one cycle to the next. In more complex systems, the number of commands
could be quite large, and the level of detail in each command could be significantly greater.
Programming commands are related to feedback control in an automated
system in that the program establishes the sequence of values for the inputs (set
points) of the various feedback control loops that make up the automated system. A given programming command may specify the set point for the feedback
loop, which in turn controls some action that the system is to accomplish. For
example, in a robot controller, the program might specify that the arm is to move
to a designated position, and the feedback control system is used to verify that
the move has been correctly made.
Vocabulary
exception – исключение
exhibit – проявлять, демонстрировать
accomplish – выполнять, осуществлять
entity – сущность, существо; объект, элемент
molding – литье, отливка; формование, прессование
actuate – активировать, приводить
в действие
reference – эталонный
set point – установка, заданная точка, контрольная точка
operating value – параметр срабатывания
previous – предыдущий
measure – измерять, оценивать
loop – цикл; цепь; петля
accomplish – выполнять, совершать, достигать
bimetallic strip – биметаллическая
полоса
length – длина,
продолжительность, отрезок
furnace – печь, топка, электропечь
variable – переменная
thermal expansion coefficient –
температурный коэффициент расширения; коэффициент теплового
расширения
flex – сгибать, гнуть
valve – клапан, вентиль, задвижка
solenoid switches – электромагнитные переключатели
piston cylinders – поршневые цилиндры
gears – зубья; шестерня; передача
considerably – значительно, существенно, заметно
relatively – относительно, сравнительно
continuously – непрерывно, постоянно
repeatedly – неоднократно, часто,
повторно
proper sequence – правильная последовательность
deviation – отклонение, отступление, сдвиг
significantly – существенно
63
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) a source of power
a) элементы управления обратной
связью
2) well-defined actions
b) чувствительные элементы
3) feedback controls
c) источник энергии
4) operating value
d) формовка металла
5) automated system
e) автоматизированная система
6) sensing elements
f) четко определенные действия
7) shaping of metal
g) рабочая величина
8) programming commands
h) заданное значение
9) input
i) команды программирования
10) set point
j) ввод
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Без исключения; обработка; в первом случае; переключение электрических
сигналов; система связи; исполнительные устройства; предыдущий пример; система отопления; установка нужной температуры; ракетные двигатели; космический шаттл; автомобильный двигатель; приведенный выше
пример; две полосы металла; коэффициенты теплового расширения; прямо
пропорционально; в общем; выходная переменная; состоять из; набор действий; выполняться непрерывно; в свою очередь; обозначенное положение.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) molding
a) a person or thing that directs or regulates something
2) robot
b) a machine capable of carrying out a
complex series of actions automatically, especially one programmable by a
computer
3) valve
c) a device for controlling the passage
of fluid through a pipe or duct, especially an automatic device allowing
64
4) controller
5) loop
movement in one direction only
d) material such as wood, plastic, or
stone shaped for use as a decorative or
architectural feature
e) a shape produced by a curve that
bends round and crosses itself
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
а) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Power, action, system, type, energy, operation, process, metal, element, controller а какое тут прилагательное, value, function, length, change.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Reduce, accomplish, influence, design, consist, determine, compare, specify,
function, perform, relate, establish, move.
Упражнение 5. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. The purpose of the feedback loop is to verify that the programmed step has
been carried out.
2. There are 13 basic building blocks of automation.
3. Feedback controls are not used in modern automated systems.
4. The output to the system is the reference value, or set point, for the system input.
5. The actions performed by automated systems are generally of two types: (1)
processing and (2) transfer and positioning.
6. Programming commands needn’t be related to feedback control in an automated system.
7. The feedback control system is used to verify that the move of a robot controller has been made correctly.
Text 3
Types of Automation
Manufacturing is one of the most important application areas for automation technology. There are several types of automation in manufacturing.
Fixed automation, sometimes called hard automation, refers to automated machines in which the equipment configuration allows fixed sequence of
processing operations. These machines are programmed by their design to make
only certain processing operations. They are not easily changed over from one
product style to another. This form of automation needs high initial investments
and high production rates. That is why it is suitable for products that are made in
large volumes. Examples of fixed automation are machining transfer lines found
in the automobile industry, automatic assembly machines and certain chemical
processes.
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Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in large quantities, ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a
time. For each new product the production equipment must be reprogrammed
and changed over. This reprogramming and changeover take a period of nonproductive time. Production rates in programmable automation are generally
lower than in fixed automation, because the equipment is designed to facilitate
product changeover rather than for product specialization. A numerical control
machine tool is a good example of programmable automation.
The program is coded in computer memory for each different product
style and the machine tool is controlled by the computer programme.
Flexible automation is a kind of programmable automation. Programmable automation requires time to reprogram and change over the production
equipment for each series of new product. This is lost production time, which is
expensive. In flexible automation the number of products is limited so that the
changeover of the equipment can be done very quickly and automatically. The
reprogramming of the equipment in flexible automation is done at a computer
terminal without using the production equipment itself. Flexible automation allows a mixture of different products to be produced one right after another.
Vocabulary
manufacturing – производство
several – несколько
fixed automation / hard automation
– фиксированная / жесткая
система автоматизации (с непереналаживаемыми средствами автоматизации)
refer to – иметь отношение
configuration – конфигурация,
форма, очертание
certain – определенный, некоторый, некий
initial – начальный, первоначальный
rate – скорость, темп, коэффициент
be suitable for – быть пригодным,
приняться, годиться
machining transfer lines – автоматическая станочная
линия
automatic assembly machines – автоматические сборочные машины,
сборочный автомат
chemical – химический
quantity – количество, величина
dozen – дюжина, масса
at a time – за один раз, за один
прием
changeover – переналадка, перенастройка
generally – как правило, в целом,
обычно
facilitate – способствовать
numerical control machine tool –
станок с числовым программным
управлением
computer memory – память компьютера
flexible automation – гибкая автоматизация
require – требовать
equipment – оборудование
be limited to – ограничиваться, локализовываться
one right after another – один за
другим
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Упражнение 1. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. How many types of automation do you know?
2. What equipment configuration does fixed sequence of processing operations
allow?
3. What is programmable automation?
4. What type of automation is suitable for products that are made in large volumes?
5. What is the difference between programmable and flexible automation?
Упражнение 2. Выразите согласие или несогласие с данными
утверждениями.
1. There are two types of automation in manufacturing.
2. Hard automation refers to automated machines in which the equipment configuration allows any sequence of processing operations.
3. Production rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in
fixed automation.
4. Programmable automation does not require time to change over the production equipment for each series of new product.
5. In flexible automation the number of products is limited so that the changeover of the equipment can be done very quickly and automatically.
Упражнение 3. Разделите текст на логические части и озаглавьте каждую часть.
Text 4
Robots of our Time
The robots of our time resemble humans very little. According to specialists, the main thing for them is not to look like people, but to do their work for
them. Factories which are equipped with automatic machine tools, transfer lines
and management information systems place a lot of hope in them.
The first generation of robots appeared in the 60s and they were complex
and capricious in maintenance. They could perform operations of the type "take
off – put on" or "pick up – bring". They could pick up items only from definite
positions determined by a rigid programme.
Today, to avoid errors robots are supplied with vision (TV camera) and
hearing (microphone). They can perform more complex production operations –
painting, soldering, welding and assembly work. A more complex task lies
ahead – to remove people completely from production areas where there are
harmful fumes, excessively high or low temperatures and pressure.
Generally speaking a single robot by itself is hardly of any use in production. It must be coupled in design with other equipment – with a system of ma67
chines, machine tools and other devices. We must set up robotized complexes
and flexible productions capable of being easily and quickly readjusted to an
output of new goods.
Flexible production systems consist, as a rule, of several machine tools
with numerical programmed control or of processing centres – machine tools
equipped with microprocessors. An all-purpose computer controls the entire cycle, including the storage facilities. One hundred per cent automated production
is no longer a dream.
There is already a talk of making thinking robots. Apparently, robots will
appear which will be able to acquire the ability to study. Maybe they will be able
to enrich our concepts about the world around us.
There are six categories of robots: (1) the manual manipulator, remotely
controlled by a person, which carries out hand-and-arm functions to hold and
move objects; (2) the fixed-sequence robot, which performs a series of operations in a preset order, always in the same series of locations in space; (3) the
variable-sequence robot, which operates in the same manner as the fixedsequence robot but can easily be reprogrammed for a different sequence of operations; (4) the playback robot, which repeats a sequence of movements and operations that are first "taught" by manual movements of a manipulator and stored
in the robot's memory unit; (5) the numerically-controlled robot, which moves
from one position to another according to numerical instructions in such forms
as punched paper tapes or cards; and (6) the intelligent robot, an advanced type
that can decide its course of action on the basis of its sensing devices and analytical capability.
Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations; the applications
can be divided into four categories: (1) material handling, (2) processing operations, (3) assembly, and (4) inspection.
In nearly all industrial robotic applications the robot provides a substitute
for human labour. There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed
by humans that identify the work as a potential application for robots: (1) the
operation is repetitive, involving the same basic work motions every cycle; (2)
the operation is hazardous or uncomfortable for the human worker (e.g., spray
painting, spot welding, arc welding, and certain machine loading and unloading
tasks); (3) the task requires a work part or a tool that is heavy and awkward to
handle; and (4) the operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts.
Vocabulary
resemble – напоминать, походить,
иметь сходство
maintenance – обслуживание, эксплуатация, ремонт
determined – установленный,
определяемый
playback – воспроизведение, считывание
punched paper tape – перфолента,
перфорированная бумажная лента
manufacturing – производство; изготовление
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rigid – жесткий
soldering – пайка
fumes – пары, испарения
excessively – слишком
be coupled – сочетаться, сопровождаться
set up – установить
readjusted – переналаживаемый
output – выход, выпуск
all-purpose computer – универсальный компьютер
entire – весь
apparently – вероятно, повидимому
enrich – обогащать, пополнять
manual – ручной
remotely – дистанционно
fixed-sequence robot – робот с фиксированной последовательностью
движений; цикловой робот
handling – управление, манипулирование; загрузка-разгрузка; транспортировка
assembly – сборка, монтаж
inspection – контроль; проверка;
браковка
substitute – замена, замещение
labour – труд, работа, рабочая сила
identify – выявлять, распознавать
repetitive – повторяющийся, монотонный, однообразный
hazardous – рискованный, опасный
arc welding – дуговая сварка
loading – назрузка; загрузка
unloading – разгузка; выгрузка
awkward – неудобный в использовании
shifts – смена
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) to place a lot of hope in
a) едва ли быть полезным
2) to be supplied with
b) быть снабженным чем-л.
3) to be hardly of use
c) заданный порядок
4) no longer
d) возлагать большие надежды
5) preset order
e) обработка материала
6) analytical capability
f) уже не
7) material handling
g) аналитический потенциал
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
По мнению; основное для них; выглядеть как; оснащены; информационные системы управления; первое поколение; сложный и капризный; выполнять операции; определенные позиции (положения); чтобы избежать
ошибок; зрение и слух; производственные операции; ждет впереди; полностью удалить людей из; высокие или низкие температуры и давление; в
69
целом; роботизированные комплексы; способные; несколько станков; центры обработки данных; складское хозяйство; ручные функции; серия операций; местоположения в пространстве; таким же образом; переходит из
одной позиции в другую; усовершенствованный тип; применение роботов
в промышленности; определенные характеристики; окраска распылением.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) transfer lines
a) moves from one position to another
according to numerical instructions in
such forms as punched paper tapes or
cards
2) manual manipulator
b) operates in the same manner as the
fixed-sequence robot but can easily be
reprogrammed for a different sequence
of operations
3) fixed-sequence robot
c) is remotely controlled by a person,
which carries out hand-and-arm functions to hold and move objects
4) variable-sequence robot
d) repeats a sequence of movements
and operations that are first "taught" by
manual movements of a manipulator
and stored in the robot's memory unit
5) playback robot
e) performs a series of operations in a
preset order, always in the same series
of locations in space
6) numerically-controlled robot
f) is an advanced type that can decide
its course of action on the basis of its
sensing devices and analytical capability
7) intelligent robot
g) is a manufacturing system which
consists of a predetermined sequence
of machines connected by an automated material handling system and designed for working on a very small
family of parts
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
а) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Manipulator, person, function, object, location, sequence, position, instruction,
type, action, basis, capability, category, assembly, inspection, robot, operation,
cycle.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
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Equip, place, appear, perform, determine, avoid, supply, remove, speak, couple,
set up, readjust, control, think.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. What is the main thing for robots, according to specialists?
2. When does the first generation of robots appear? What operations could they
perform?
3. What operations can robots perform nowadays?
4. What operations will robots be able to perform in the future?
5. What do flexible production systems consist of?
6. What categories of robots do you know?
7. What is the manual manipulator?
8. How can the fixed-sequence robot be defined?
9. What is the variable-sequence robot?
10. What does the playback robot do?
11. What is the characteristic feature of the numerically-controlled robot?
12. What is the intelligent robot?
13. What manufacturing operations are robots used in?
14. What are the characteristics of industrial jobs where robots provide a substitute for human labour?
71
UNIT 7. MODERN COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES
Text 1
Modern Developments in Automation Technology
A number of significant developments in various fields have occurred
during the 20th century: the digital computer, improvements in data-storage
technology and software to write computer programs, advances in sensor technology, and the derivation of a mathematical control theory. All these developments have contributed to the progress in automation technology.
The development of the electronic digital computers called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) in 1946 and UNIVAC (Universal
Automatic Computer) in 1951 has permitted the control function in automation
to become much more sophisticated and the associated calculations to be executed much faster than previously possible. The development of integrated circuits in the 1960s propelled a trend toward miniaturization in computer technology that has led to machines that are much smaller and less expensive, than their
predecessors, yet are capable of performing calculations at much greater speeds.
This trend is represented today by the microprocessor, a miniature multicircuited
device capable of performing all the logic and arithmetic functions of a large
digital computer.
Along with the advances in computer technology, there have been parallel
improvements in program storage technology for containing the programming
commands. Modern storage media includes magnetic and solid state disks, optical data storage read by lasers, flash drives. In addition, improvements have
been made in the methods of programming computers and other programmable
machines. Modern programming languages are easier to use and are more powerful in their data-processing and logic capabilities.
The advances in sensor technology have provided a vast array of measuring devices that can be used as components in automatic feedback control systems. These devices include highly sensitive electromechanical probes, scanning
laser beams, electrical field techniques, and machine vision. Some of these sensor systems require computer technology for their implementation. Machine vision, for example, requires the processing of enormous amounts of data that can
be accomplished only by high-speed digital computers. This technology is
proved to be a versatile sensory capability for various industrial tasks, such as
part identification, quality inspection, and robot guidance.
Finally, there has evolved since World War II a highly advanced mathematical theory of control systems. The theory includes traditional negative feedback control, optimal control, adaptive control, and artificial intelligence. The
traditional feedback control theory makes use of linear ordinary differential
equations to analyze problems, as in Watt's flying-ball governor. Although most
processes are more complex than the flying-ball governor, they still obey the
72
same laws of physics that are described by differential equations. The optimal
control theory and the adaptive control theory are concerned with the problem
of defining an appropriate index of performance for the process of interest and
then operating it in such a manner as to optimize its performance. The difference
between optimal and adaptive control is that the latter must be implemented
under conditions of a continuously changing and unpredictable environment; it
therefore requires sensor measurements of the environment to implement the
control strategy.
Artificial intelligence is an advanced field of computer science in which
the computer is programmed to exhibit characteristics commonly associated
with human intelligence. These characteristics include the capacity for learning,
understanding languages, reasoning, solving problems, rendering expert diagnoses, and similar mental capabilities. The developments in artificial intelligence
are expected to provide robots and other "intelligent" machines with the ability
to communicate with humans and to accept very high-level instructions rather
than the detailed step-by-step programming statements typically required of today's programmable machines. For example, a robot of the future endowed with
artificial intelligence might be capable of accepting and executing the command
"assemble the product." Present-day industrial robots must be provided with a
detailed set of instructions specifying the locations of the product's components,
the order in which they are to be assembled, and so forth.
Vocabulary
occur – случаться, иметь место,
наблюдаться
digital computer – цифровой компьютер
derivation – образование, происхождение; вывод (теории)
contribute to – способствовать, содействовать
permit – позволять, допускать, давать
associated – связанный, обусловленный; объединенный
execute – выполнять, осуществлять
previously – ранее, прежде
integrated circuit – интегральная
схема
propel – стимулировать, продвигать, побуждать, подталкивать
predecessor – предшественник,
предок
measuring device – измерительный
прибор / оборудование
probe – зонд, контактный датчик,
щуп, электрод
implementation – выполнение, реализация
enormous – огромный, колоссальный
accomplish – выполнять, достигать
versatile – универсальный, многоцелевой, гибкий
equation – уравнение, равенство,
выражение
Watt’s flying-ball governor – центробежный регулятор Уатта
obey – подчиняться, соблюдать
describe – описывать
adaptive – адаптивный; самонастраивающийся
interest – доля, процент
73
multicircuited device – многоконтурное устройство
solid state disks – твердотельные
накопители
optical data storage – оптическое
хранение данных
flash drive – флеш-накопитель,
флешка
data-processing – обработка данных
the latter – последний (из перечисленных)
unpredictable – непрогнозируемый,
непредсказуемый
reasoning – выводы, умозаключения; мышление, осмысление
statement – отчет, сообщение, заключение; предложение, формулировка; оператор
endowed – наделенный
so forth – и так далее
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) programming command
a) оператор программирования
2) data-processing capability
b) лазерный луч
3) laser beam
c) измерения датчика
4) robot guidance
d) команда программирования
5) sensor measurement
e) руководство роботом
6) expert diagnosis
f) мощность обработки данных
7) programming statement
g) экспертная диагностика
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Важные разработки; соответствующие вычисления; интегральные схемы;
выполнять расчёты; многоконтурное устройство; запоминающая среда;
языки программирования; измерительные приборы; система управления с
обратной связью; электромеханические контактные датчики; машинное
зрение; сенсорные системы; обработка информации; линейные простые
дифференциальные уравнения; умственные способности; искусственный
интеллект.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с предложениями в
правой.
1) miniaturization
a) The development of electronic …
computer has permitted the control
function in automation to become more
sophisticated.
74
2) calculations
3) digital
4) expensive
5) languages
6) devices
7) intelligence
b) The development of integrated circuits propelled a trend toward … in
computer technology.
c) Present-day machines are much
smaller and less … than their predecessors.
d) Modern computers are capable of
performing … at much greater speed.
e) The advances in sensor technology
have provided a vast array of measuring … .
f) Artificial … is an advanced field of
computer science.
g) Modern programming … are more
powerful in their logic capabilities
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
а) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Digit, program, integration, processing, sensing, guidance, reasoning, electron,
difference, automation, theory, system.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Program, sophisticate, integrate, propel, render, store, sense, scan.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. What developments of the XXth century have contributed to the progress in
automation technology?
2. What is the role of the electronic digital computer in automation?
3. What is the significance of integrated circuits for computer technology?
4. What functions does the microprocessor perform?
5. What are the improvements in program storage technology?
6. What have the advances in sensor technology provided?
7. What measuring devices do you know?
8. What industrial tasks does the machine vision technology fulfill?
9. What theory has evolved since World War II?
10. What does this theory include?
11. What is the most advanced field of computer science?
12. What characteristics does it exhibit?
13. What capacities do these characteristics include?
14. What ability will the developments in artificial intelligence provide robots
with?
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Text 2
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing
Since about 1970, there has been a growing trend in manufacturing firms
toward the use of computers to perform many functions related to design and
production. The technology associated with this trend is called CAD/CAM, for
computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing. Today it is widely
recognized that the scope of computer applications must extend beyond design
and production to include the business functions of the firm. The name given to
this more comprehensive use of computers is computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM).
CAD/CAM is based on the capability of a computer system to process,
store, and display large amounts of data representing part and product specifications. For mechanical products, the data represent graphic models of the components; for electrical products, they represent circuit information; and so forth.
CAD/CAM technology has been applied in many industries, including machined
components, electronics products, and equipment design and fabrication for
chemical processing. CAD/CAM involves not only the automation of the manufacturing operations but also the automation of elements in the entire designand-manufacturing procedure.
Computer-aided design (CAD) makes use of computer systems to assist in
the creation, modification, analysis, and optimization of a design. The designer,
working with the CAD system rather than the traditional drafting board, creates
the lines and surfaces that form the object (product, part, structure, etc.) and
stores this model in the computer database. By invoking the appropriate CAD
software, the designer can perform various analyses on the object, such as heat
transfer calculations. The final object design is developed as adjustments made
on the basis of these analyses. Once the design procedure has been completed,
the computer-aided design system can generate the detailed drawings required to
make the object.
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) involves the use of computer systems to assist in the planning, control, and management of production operations. This is accomplished by either direct or indirect connections between the
computer and production operations. In the case of the direct connection, the
computer is used to monitor or control the processes in the factory. Computer
process monitoring involves the collection of data from the factory, the analysis
of the data, and the communication of process-performance results to the plant
management. These measures increase the efficiency of the plant. Computer
process control entails the use of the computer system to execute control actions
to operate the plant automatically, as described above. Indirect connections between the computer system and the process involve applications in which the
computer supports the production operations without actually monitoring or
controlling them. These applications include planning and management func76
tions that can be performed by the computer (or by humans working with the
computer) more efficiently than by humans alone. Examples of these functions
are planning the step-by-step processes for the product, part programming in
numerical control (NC), and scheduling the production operations in the factory.
Computer-integrated manufacturing includes all the engineering functions
of CAD/CAM and the business functions of the firm as well. In an ideal CIM
system, computer technology is applied to all the operational and informationprocessing functions of the company, from customer orders through design and
production (CAD/CAM) to product shipment and customer service. The scope
of the computer system includes all activities that are concerned with manufacturing. In many ways, CIM represents the highest level of automation in manufacturing.
Vocabulary
related to – относящийся к, связаннный с
associated with – имеющий отношение к, связанный с
computer-aided – автоматизированный
recognized – признанный
scope – масштаб, возможности,
рамки
extend – расширять, простирать
(ся)
beyond – за, сверх, вне
comprehensive – всесторонний,
полный, комплексный
computer-integrated manufacturing – автоматизированное производство на основе ЭВМ, комплексное автоматизированное производство
capability – возможность, способность, умение
drafting board – чертежный стол
surface – поверхность, внешность,
наружность
invoke – применять, обращаться к
appropriate – соотвествующий,
подходящий
software – программное обеспечение
adjustment – регулирование, согласование; пригонка, настройка
drawing – чертеж
process-performance – эффективность / производительность процесса
entail – влечь за собой, вызывать
scheduling – оперативное управление, планирование
be applied to – применяться
order – заказ
shipment – отгрузка, поставка
customer service – обслуживание
клиентов
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
1) computer applications scope
a) компьютерная база данных
2) product specifications
b) объем применения компьютеров
77
3) equipment design and fabrication
c) система автоматизированного
проектирования
4) computer database
d) проектирование и изготовление
оборудования
5) step-by-step process
e) характеристики продукта
6) computer-aided design system
f) пошаговый процесс
7) process-performance results
g) результаты производительности
процесса
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Растущая тенденция; производственная фирма; система автоматизированного проектирования; автоматизированная система управления производством; производство с комплексным управлением от ЭВМ; обрабатывать
информацию; обрабатываемые детали; химическая обработка; производственные операции; управлять производственными процессами; сбор данных; числовое программное управление; планирование производственных
операций; обслуживание заказчика.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с предложениями в правой.
1) functions
a) Manufacturing … use computers for
design and production.
2) firms
b) CAD/CAM technology includes the
business … of the firm as well.
3) automation
c) CIM means computer-integrated ….
4) industries
d) CAD/CAM technology is applied in
many ….
5) manufacturing
e) CAD/CAM involves … of manufacturing operations.
6) data
f) Computer process monitoring involves the collection and analysis of
manufacturing … from the factory.
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
а) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Processing, control, application, part, database, operation, function, system,
product, model.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
78
Manufacture, produce, design, apply, program, specify, inform, fabricate, process, modify, analyse, adjust, monitor, communicate, perform.
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. When was the technology of CAD/CAM introduced into manufacturing
firms?
2. What is CAD/CAM technology based on?
3. What industries has it been applied in?
4. What is the main function of CAD/CAM technology?
5. What is the purpose of the CAD system?
6. How does it operate?
7. What is the purpose of the CAM system?
8. How does it operate?
9. What functions does the CIM system perform?
10. What does the CIM system represent?
Text 3
Computer Networks
Computer networks link computers by communication lines and software
protocols, allowing data to be exchanged rapidly and reliably. Traditionally,
networks have been split between wide area networks (WANs) and local area
networks (LANs). A WAN is a network connected over long-distance telephone
lines, and a LAN is a localized network usually in one building or a group of
buildings close together. The distinction, however, is becoming blurred. It is
now possible to connect up LANs remotely over telephone links so that they
look as though they are a single LAN.
Originally, networks were used to provide terminal access to another
computer and to transfer files between computers. Today networks carry e-mail,
provide access to public databases and bulletin boards, and are beginning to be
used for distributed systems. Networks also allow users in one locality to share
expensive resources, such as printers and disk-systems.
Distributed computer systems are built using networked computers that
cooperate to perform tasks. In this environment each part of the networked system does what it is best at. The high-quality bit-mapped graphics screen of a
personal computer or workstation provides a good user interface. The mainframe, on the other hand, can handle large numbers of queries and return the results to the users. In a distributed environment, a user might use his PC to make
a query against a central database. The PC passes the query, written in a special
language (e.g. Structured Query Language – SQL), to the mainframe, which
then parses the query, returning to the user only the data requested. The user
might then use his PC to draw graphs based on the data. By passing back to the
user's PC only the specific information requested, network traffic is reduced, if
79
the whole file were transmitted, the PC would then have to perform the query
itself, reducing the efficiency of both network and PC.
In the 1980s, at least 100,000 LANs were set up in laboratories and offices around the world. During the early part of this decade, synchronous orbit satellites lowered the price of long-distance telephone calls, enabling computer data and television signals to be distributed more cheaply around the world. Since
then, fibre-optic cable has been installed on a large scale, enabling vast amounts
of data to be transmitted at a very high speed using tight signals.
The impact of fibre optics will be considerable to reduce the price of network access. Global communication and computer networks will become more
and more a part of professional and personal lives as the price of microcomputers and network access drops. At the same time, distributed computer networks
should improve our work environments and technical abilities.
Vocabulary
allow – позволять, допускать
rapidly – быстро
split – делиться на части, распадаться
wide area networks (WANs) –
глобальные сети
local area networks (LANs) –
локальные сети
distinction – отличие, различие
blurred – неясный, расплывчатый,
смазанный
terminal – конечный, терминальный; заключительный, последний;
сессионный
access – доступ
database – база данных
bulletin boards – (электронные)
информационные доски / табло
distributed computer system – распределенная вычислительная система
bit-mapped – с побитовым отображением
screen – экран
mainframe – главный компьютер
вычислительного центра, центральная ЭВМ
handle – управлять, регулировать,
осуществлять контроль, сортировать
query – запрос
Structured Query Language – язык
структурированных запросов
parse – осуществлять поиск информации, отыскивать данные; делать грамматический разбор предложения
request – запрашивать
synchronous – синхронный, одновременный
orbit satellite – орбитальный спутник
impact – влияние
fibre-optic cable – волоконнооптический кабель, оптоволоконный кабель, световой кабель
drop – падать, опускаться, стихать
Упражнение 1. Соотнесите словосочетания на русском языке с
их английскими эквивалентами.
80
1) distributed systems
a) оптоволоконный
2) environment
b) обработка экрана
3) fibre-optic
c) распределенные системы
4) screen handling
d) синхронный
5) synchronous
e) среда
6) workstations
f) протоколы
7) protocols
g) рабочие станции
Упражнение 2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты данных словосочетаний.
Соединять компьютеры линиями связи; протокол ПО; быстро и надежно
обмениваться данными; сети разделились; районные сети; местные / локальные сети; телефонная связь; обеспечить доступ к терминалу; пересылать файлы; обеспечить доступ к …; база данных общего пользования;
доска объявлений; их начинают использовать для …; распределенные системы; делиться; делает то, что умеет лучше всего; вернуть результаты
пользователям; рисовать графики; В начале этого десятилетия; влияние
будет значительным.
Упражнение 3. Соотнесите слова в левой колонке с их определениями в правой.
1) protocol
2) bulletin board
3) user interface
4) make a query
5) parse
6) synchronous
a) analyse the syntax of a string of input symbols
b) a teleconferencing system allowing users to read messages left by other users
c) agreement governing the procedures used to exchange
information between co-operating computers
d) means of communication between a human user and a
computer system
e) taking place at exactly the same time as something else
f) request a search
Упражнение 4. Образуйте
а) прилагательные от существительных. Переведите на русский язык.
Link, system, screen, satellite, telephone, scale, distinction, terminal, access,
bulletin, board, optics.
б) существительные от глаголов. Переведите на русский язык.
Link, exchange, transfer, provide, perform, parse, reduce, improve, pass, draw.
81
Упражнение 5. Ответьте на вопросы.
1. What is the distinction between WAN and LAN networks?
2. How do computer networks impact our lives?
3. What are the advantages of using fiber-optics?
4. Which opportunities can the use of the networks open?
5. What paragraph of the text tells about the application of optic fibre?
6. What paragraph of the text shows types of networks?
82
СПИСОК ТЕРМИНОВ И СОКРАЩЕНИЙ
The common Instrumentation Abbreviations, Definitions and Acronyms
are as follows.
The common Abbreviations, Definitions and Acronyms used in Instrumentation Engineering are as Follows.
Symbol/term
A – Ampere
Adjust
Accuracy
AI – Alarm Indicator
AO – Analog Output
ATM – Atmosphere
BPV – Back Pressure Valve
Сalibration
CAH – Conductivity Alarm High
CE – Conductivity Element
CCP – Central Control Panel
CFA – Common Fault Alarm
Clearance
Controller
Circuit
Deviation
D – Diameter
DL – Dead load
DIM – Dimension
Digital
EL – Existing Load
Error
ES – Electrical Switch
ESD – Emergency Shutdown Station
F – Flow
Failure
Fit
FG – Flow Gauge
Frequency
FS – Flow Switch
Fuse
HS – Hand Switch
Hz – hertz
Translation
ампер
настраивать, изменять
точность
индикатор сигнала тревоги
аналоговый выход
атмосфера
клапан обратного давления
калибровка
сигнализация высокой проводимости
элемент проводимости
центральная панель управления
общий аварийный сигнал
люфт, зазор
регулятор
электрическая цепь, схема
отклонение
диаметр
статическая нагрузка
измерение
цифровой
существующая нагрузка
ошибка
электрический переключатель
станция аварийного отключения
поток
отказ, сбой
подходить, соответствовать
измеритель скорости потока,
расходомер
частота
реле потока
предохранитель
ручной переключатель
герц
83
Instrument
J – joule
K – kelvin
M – Meter
Meter
Mol – mole
N – Newton
Ohm
P – pressure
Pa – Pascal
PA – Pressure alarm
PG – Pressure gauge
Pointer
PPE – Personal Protective Equipment
Probe
QC – Quality control
Range
Readings
Readout
Remote control
RTD – Resistance Temperature Detector
SA – Speed Alarm High / Low
SR – Speed recorder
SS – Speed Switch
Switch
TA –Temperature Alarm
Tension
TCV – Temperature Control Valve
TM – Thermometer
TF – Temperature Gauge
Tolerance
TRC – Temperature Recorder Controller
Troubleshooting
VA – Vibration Alarm
Valve
Variable
Voltage
W – watt
Wb – Weber
WO – Work Order
прибор
джоуль
кельвин
метр
счетчик, измеритель
моль
ньютон
ом
давление
паскаль
сигнал критического давления
манометр
стрелка, указатель
средства индивидуальной защиты
щуп
контроль качества
диапазон
показания
снятие показаний
дистанционное управление
термометр сопротивления/
терморезистор
сигнал высокой или низкой скорости
спидометр
переключатель оборотов
переключатель, реле
сигнал высокой температуры
натяжение
терморегулирующий клапан
термометр
датчик температуры
допуск, отклонение
прибор для регистрации и регулирования температуры
исправление проблем
сигнал высокого уровня вибрации
клапан
переменная
напряжение
ватт
вебер
техническое задание
84
БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК
Основная литература
1.
Английский для технических специальностей = English for Technical Colleges : учебник для студ. учреждений сред. проф. Образования / А.П. Голубева, А.П.
Коржавый, И.Б. Смирнова. – 4-е изд., стер. – М.: Издательский центр «Академия»,
2014. – 208 с.
2.
Английский
язык
для
студентов-бакалавров
технических
факультетов=English for the Undergraduates of Engineering : учебное пособие : / авт.сост. Г. Ж. Жумабекова ; Новосибирский государственный технический университет. –
Новосибирск : Новосибирский государственный технический университет, 2016. – 75 с.
: табл. – URL: https://biblioclub.ru/index.php?page=book&id=574617.
3.
Гордеева М. Н. Английский язык для специальных целей: Еlectronics. Information Technologies : учебное пособие : / М. Н. Гордеева, Е. В. Гужева ; Новосибирский государственный технический университет. – Новосибирск : Новосибирский государственный технический университет, 2018. – 76 с. : табл. – URL:
https://biblioclub.ru/index.php?page=book&id=574720.
4.
Жумабекова Г.Ж. Английский язык для студентов-бакалавров технических факультетов = English for the Undergraduates of Engineering: учебное пособие. –
Новосибирск : Новосибирский государственный технический университет, 2016. – 75 с.
– URL: https://biblioclub.ru/index.php?page=book&id=574617
5.
Рачков М. Ю. Английский язык для изучающих автоматику (B1-B2) :
учебное пособие для вузов / М. Ю. Рачков. — 2-е изд., испр. и доп. — Москва : Издательство Юрайт, 2022. — 196 с. — Текст : электронный // Образовательная платформа
Юрайт : сайт. — URL: https://urait.ru/bcode/491642/p.38.
6.
Andre Marie Ampere Biography : сайт / TheFamousPeople. – URL:
https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/andre-marie-ampere-535.php
7.
Dmitri Mendeleev : сайт / Encyclopedia Britannica. – URL:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dmitri-Mendeleev
8.
Glendinning E.H. Oxford English for Electrical and Mechanical Engineering /
E.H. Glendinning, N. Glendinning. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1995. – 189 p.
9.
Ibbotson M. Professional English in Use. Engineering : Technical English for
Professionals / M. Ibbotson. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2009. – 144 p.
10.
Instrumentation : сайт / Encyclopedia Britannica. – URL:
https://www.britannica.com/technology/instrumentation-technology.
11.
Instrumentation and Control Reference Guide. – National Nuclear Security
Administration
:
сайт
/
energy.gov.
–
URL:
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2013/10/f4/QSR-InstrumentationControl.pdf
12.
Machine-Building Automation = Автоматизация машиностроения : учебное
пособие / Л. В. Аристова, О. С. Воячек, Т. Н. Кондрашина, С. А. Кокурина ; ред. Т. Н.
Кондрашина. – 4-е изд., стер. – Москва : ФЛИНТА, 2021. – 143 с. – URL:
https://biblioclub.ru/index.php?page=book&id=83210.
13.
Principles and theory of automation : сайт / Ektu.kz. – URL:
https://www.ektu.kz/files/DistanceEducation/Resource/366295/text%204.doc
14.
Types of Errors in Measuring Instruments: сайт / instrumentationapplication.com. – URL: https://instrumentationapplication.com/2020/12/04/types-of-errors-inmeasuring-instruments/
15.
What Is a Measuring Tool? сайт / https://www.reference.com. URL:
https://www.reference.com/science/measuring-tool-b57eb2e33189f6f7
85
16.
What is Process Control: сайт / instrumentationapplication.com. – URL:
https://instrumentationapplication.com/ what-is-process-control/
17.
White L. Engineering : Workshop / L. White. – Oxford : Oxford University
Press, 2003. – 40 p.
18.
Wilhelm Rontgen | Biography : сайт / TheFamousPeople. – URL:
https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/wilhelm-rontgen-5206.php
86
Дополнительная литература
1.
Cambridge Dictionary : сайт / Cambridge Dictionary online. – URL:
https://dictionary.cambridge.org
2.
Oxford Learner’s Dictionary : сайт / Oxford Dictionary online. – URL:
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/index.html
87
Учебное издание
Instrumentation. Английский для приборостроителей
Учебное пособие
Редактор М.В. Дорохова
Компьютерный набор Н.Ю. Бережных, Е.Э. Былина, Т.В. Яхно
88
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