The Meaning of Death in Смерть Ивана Ильича

The Meaning of Death in
Смерть Ивана Ильича
Taylor Turner
After struggling with the greatest spiritual crisis of his life and abandoning lit-erature
to focus on theological writing, Tolstoy returned to the world of fiction with the
publication of Смерть Ивана Ильича in 1886. While many of the author’s earlier
works did reflect his “moral passion” and the “earnestness of his search for the ‘right’
way to live,” Смерть Ивана Ильича appears to be especially driven by moral and
spiritual motifs (Gutsche 55). As Tolstoy had been heavily immersed in biblical
studies prior to writing the tragic tale of death, it seems appropriate to approach
Смерть Ивана Ильича from the same critical view often used to analyze the Bible.
Applying the fourfold method of interpretation to the concept of death in Смерть
Ивана Ильича helps uncover various layers of meaning implied by this important
term. Through literal, moral, allegorical, and anagogical levels of meaning, Tolstoy
uses the theme of death to portray the proper way all people should approach living
and dying.
The Literal Meaning of Death
In Смерть Ивана Ильича, Tolstoy masterfully describes the excruciating process of
dying. The literal meaning of death in the story can be seen as Ivan Il’ich’s actual
physical death, including the physical pain and suffering Ivan Il’ich endures as he
dies. Tolstoy expands this idea as he illustrates how those around the main
character—his family, friends, co-workers and doctors—react to Ivan Il’ich’s death.
One of the novella’s greatest tragedies is that so many people within the story,
including Ivan Il’ich for the majority of the time, refuse to acknowledge the fact that
death will eventually come upon them. On the literal level, Tolstoy uses the
characters he creates to teach that all people must come to terms with their own
mortality, because death is a fate no one can escape. While Pyotr Ivanovich refuses to
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understand death for what it really is, Gerasim demonstrates how to correctly
approach the dilemma of dying.
Pyotr Ivanovich illustrates the common human tendency to view death as a
foreign force that involves other people, but never affects oneself. Along with many
of his co-workers, Pyotr Ivanovich did not sincerely mourn for Ivan Il’ich or allow
the death to turn his thoughts to his own mortality. Tolstoy tells that “услыхав о
смерти Ивана Ильича, первая мысль каждого из господ […] была о том, какое
значение может иметь эта смерть на перемещения или повышения самих
членов или их знакомых” (Tолстой 16). Tragically, Pyotr Ivanovich and the other
workers who knew Ivan Il’ich focus mostly on how their friend’s death would affect
their positions of employment. Instead of trying to learn how to accept death as a
necessary part of life, Pyotr Ivanovich and his associates neglect the opportunity to
gain understanding after Ivan Il’ich passes away. Each character selfishly relishes in
the “чувство радости о том, что умер он, а не я” (17). While many were grateful
that Ivan Il’ich had died instead of them, Pyotr Ivanovich reflects an even more
arrogant attitude as he ponders the meaning of his friend’s death: “Петр Иванович
успокоился и с интересом стал расспрашивать подробности о кончине Ивана
Ильича, как будто смерть была такое приключение, которое свойственно
только Ивану Ильичу, но совсем не свойственно ему” (qtd. in Попов 152). As
Tolstoy explores issues surrounding the literal meaning of death, he uses Pyotr
Ivanovich to show the dangerous human tendency to ignore the reality that
everyone’s mortal life will eventually come to an end.
In contrast with Pyotr Ivanovich, Tolstoy uses the simple character of Gerasim
to show the appropriate way to deal with death. Unlike the rest of the personas in the
story, Gerasim does not ignore or even dread death. Gerasim stands apart because of
his ability to accept death and continue living and serving others. When Pyotr
Ivanovich comments on the sad passing of Ivan Il’ich, Gerasim wisely answers,
“Божья воля. Все там же будем” (Толстой 25). Gerasim recognizes death as just
another experience in the natural course of human events. He even connects death
with God’s will, implying that dying is part of God’s overall plan for mankind.
Because he has learned to accept mortality, Gerasim does not back down when death
grips his master. Ivan Il’ich admires Gerasim for this trait, and while everyone else
tries to pretend Ivan Il’ich is not dying, “[…] Герасим не лгал, по всему видно
было, что он один понимал, в чём дело, и не считал нужным скрывать этого, и
просто жалел исчахшего, слабого барина” (69). Accepting death empowers
Gerasim: he alone can sympathize with Ivan Il’ich and understand how to alleviate
his master’s pain. Though Gerasim may be ranked far lower in society than Ivan
Il’ich or Pyotr Ivanovich, his wise acceptance and understanding of death elevate him
above those who refuse to face death’s inevitability.
As Tolstoy discusses physical death and human nature, he provides two
contrasting examples of how people deal with dying. As in many of his literary
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works, Tolstoy endows the peasant with a special knowledge that allows him to live
an honest and productive life, while those of the upper class lack the wisdom they
need to accept the truth, enjoy peace, and work for others. On the literal level,
Смерть Ивана Ильича reiterates the impending inevitability of death, while
showing that people can erase the threat of dying by accepting it as part of nature’s
course.
The Moral Meaning of Death
In addition to addressing the problem of confronting death, Tolstoy also investigates
the right way to live. Ironically, while Ivan Il’ich is the only character who literally
suffers death in Смерть Ивана Ильича, many around him who enjoy good physical
health appear to be dead on a moral level. Like in Gogol’s masterful Мёртвые
Души, Tolstoy depicts dead souls as those plagued by greed, pride, and a general lack
of compassion. Such “dead” characters live a false existence, a fact Ivan Il’ich only
realizes as he reaches the end of his life. Commenting on this stagnant state of
falsehood, Konstantine Popov states, “ложь является постоянной атмосферой, в
которой живут все персонажи и которую видел и чувствовал особенно
осязательно умирающий Иван Ильич” (143). Throughout the story, both Ivan
Il’ich and his wife Praskovya Fyodorovna live a false life that could be considered
moral death, while only Ivan Il’ich eventually realizes the terrible consequences of
this amoral existence.
While Ivan Il’ich dies physically, Praskovya Fyodorovna displays a form of
moral death by focusing only on her own needs and neglecting to sincerely care for
her husband. When Pyotr Ivanovich discusses Ivan Il’ich’s last days and terrible
suffering, Praskovya Fyodorovna shifts the focus back to herself, detailing the terrible
burden she had to endure: “Ах, ужасно! Последние не минуты, а часы он не
переставая кричал. Трое суток сряду он, не переводя голосу, кричал. Это было
невыносимо. Я не могy понять, как я вынесла это; за тремя дверьми слышно
было. Ах! что я вынесла!” (Толстой 23). Tragically, Praskovya Fyodorovna
recounts Ivan Il’ich’s terrible end as a trial that she had to endure, neglecting to even
consider what her husband must have been going through. Praskovya Fyodorovna
further displays her cold-heartedness when the true purpose of her conversation with
Pyotr Ivanovich is revealed. Instead of mourning her husband’s death and trying to
honor his memory, her primary concern is “как бы по случаю смерти мужа достать
денег от казны” (24). Pyotr Ivanovich learns that Praskovya Fyodoravna has quickly
become an expert on acquiring money from her husband’s death, and though it
appears she already secured some funds, she is still obsessed with the question, “[…]
нельзя ли как-нибудь вытянуть ещё побольше денег” (24). Tolstoy uses
Praskovya Fyodorovna as a prime example of people who live false lives and become
morally dead due to self-centered ambitions.
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Like his wife, Ivan Il’ich also lives a life full of falsehood, and only as he
approaches death does he begin to see the truth and regret his past conduct. As
Tolstoy recounts the hero’s life, he sums it up with an abrupt verdict: “прошедшая
история жизни Ивана Ильича была самая простая и обыкновенная и самая
ужасная” (26). How could living an ordinary life be so terrible? Although Ivan Il’ich
did not commit what most would consider to be serious sins, he went through life
focused entirely on acquiring money, praise, and power. In all his relationships, Ivan
Il’ich failed to treat people with true kindness and consideration. Much like his wife
who sought wealth after his death, Ivan Il’ich operated entirely on self-interest. But
unlike his wife, Ivan Il’ich comes to understand the false manner of his former life.
Popov identifies falsehood as one of the novella’s central themes and argues that the
pain of guilt from living a false life surpasses Ivan Il’ich’s physical pain as the hero
draws closer to death: “Так что слово «ложь» и его синонимы играют заметную
идейно-художественную роль в повести и наполняются огромным
напряжением, неимоверно усиливая мучение главного героя” (147). Only when
Ivan Il’ich realizes the falsehood of his life can he overcome moral death and truly
live.
As one of the greatest moral writers of all time, Tolstoy frequently warns his
audience of obstacles that can blind them to the true purpose of life. Through
Praskovya Fyodorovna and Ivan Il’ich, Tolstoy shows the behavior that can lead to
moral death, and warns that all must avoid falsehood to find true happiness and
fulfillment in life.
The Allegorical Meaning of Death
Beyond conveying a moral message, Смерть Ивана Ильича describes the death of
Ivan Il’ich’s carnal side and his spiritual rebirth. Allegorically, the story can be seen
as a tale of resurrection and renewal. After assessing his selfish actions for the first
time, Ivan Il’ich finally starts to feel remorse. Divine revelation illuminates the hero’s
understanding, showing that the only true way to live is to live for others.
For Ivan Il’ich to change, he must recognize his past mistakes and sincerely
desire to become better. Though he struggles with the painful idea that his life has
had no meaning because of his focus on materialism and self-promotion, Ivan Il’ich
takes the first step towards spiritual renewal by finally accepting that he did not live
the right way. An hour before his death, he admits his guilt and ponders what he can
do to resolve his predicament: “Да, всё было не то, — сказал он себе, — но это
ничего. Можно, можно сделать «то». Что ж «то»?» — спросил он себя и вдруг
затих” (89). For Ivan Il’ich, honest confession that he has lived the wrong way
becomes the first step towards transformation. Beyond being a simple moral
recognition of past mistakes, this moment signifies Ivan Il’ich casting off spiritual
death. Gutsche notes the religious symbolism surrounding Ivan Il’ich’s change of
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heart: “The moment of revelation comes at the end of the third day, only an hour
before Ivan Il’ich’s death. This explicit reference to time, with its biblical
suggestiveness, marks and sets up expectations for the approach of a redemptive
moment, a ‘resurrection’” (71). Now that Ivan Il’ich no longer denies living a false
life, he has become humble and prepared enough to accept a new way of living.
Through Ivan Il’ich’s recognition that living the right way means reaching out
to serve others, Tolstoy shows that the power of love can overcome spiritual death.
As Ivan Il’ich ponders what action to take before he slips away, a clear wave of
comprehension washes over him: “И вдруг ему стало ясно, что то, что томило его
и не выходило, что вдруг всё выходит сразу, и с двух сторон, с десяти сторон,
со всех сторон. Жалко их, надо сделать, чтобы им не больно было. Избавить их
и самому избавиться от этих страданий” (Толстой 90). As he begins to see that
true living comes by showing compassion towards others, his suffering fades, and
death dies away. In place of pain and fear of death Ivan Il’ich feels joy. In his soul
ring the liberating words, “Кончена смерть […] Её нет больше” (91). For Ivan
Il’ich, the terrible existence of living a false life is over. He has learned to live by
showing compassion for others, and that new knowledge frees him from spiritual
death.
In Смерть Ивана Ильича, as in many of the author’s works, Tolstoy proposes
that humanity can overcome its fallen nature and fulfill its great potential for good by
displaying love. For Tolstoy, love is a spiritual necessity. Those who lack it suffer
spiritual death. In Мысли о Боге, Tolstoy explains, “любовь есть проявление в себе
(сознание) Бога — и потому стремление выйти из себя, освободиться, жить
божеской жизнью. Стремление же это вызвает Бога, т.е. любовь в других.
Главная мысль моя в том, что любовь вызывает любовь в других. Бог,
проснувшийся в тебе, вызывает пробуждение того же Бога и в других” (qtd. in
Новгородцев 311). According to Tolstoy, demonstrating love is one of the keys to
becoming liberated and leading a worthy life. After recognizing and subsequently
abandoning his former self-centered existence, Ivan Il’ich becomes spiritually reborn
by grasping the divine love within himself and sharing it with others.
The Anagogical Meaning of Death
One of the most amazing developments in Смерть Ивана Ильича is that the literal,
moral, and allegorical meanings of death weave together to form a unified anagogical
message. This message deals not only with the dying process, but also with the
purpose of life. Through the story, Tolstoy helps the reader feel Ivan Il’ich’s physical,
psychological, and spiritual suffering. Just as Ivan Il’ich accepts a new life powered
by love, the reader joins with the hero to internalize the story’s profound lessons.
In Смерть Ивана Ильича, Tолстой allows his audience to truly empathize
with Ivan Il’ich by undergoing all the same emotions and insights that the hero
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experiences. One of Tolstoy's greatest strengths as an author is his ability to capture
real life and human experience and convey these vivid images and feelings to his
readers. As Ivan Il’ich passes away in Смерть Ивана Ильича, the reader undergoes
the same process. In this way, Tolstoy can reiterate one of the novella’s most crucial
themes: the importance of empathizing with others through an understanding of their
experiences. Addressing this idea, Harriet Hustis remarks, “The Death of Ivan Ilych is
thus not simply a powerful mimetic representation of death in a text; it enacts the
paradox of death-as-text in order to criticize the tendency (of readers, novelists, and
philosophers alike) to conceptualize death as someone else’s fate […]” (261-2). By
understanding and embracing Ivan Il’ich’s fate, the reader avoids the same pitfall that
Pyotr Ivanovich and Ivan Il’ich’s coworkers fall into. Instead of seeing death as
someone else’s problem, Tolstoy gives the reader the chance to become like Gerasim
by accepting death and striving to alleviate suffering for all mankind. Through his
novella, Toлстой shows his audience that just like Ivan Il’ich, the reader should
accept the doctrine of compassion.
Conclusion
While Tolstoy’s rich writing provides for a number of possible interpretations,
analyzing Смерть Ивана Ильича on four levels of meaning helps elucidate some of
the novella’s most important ideas. On the literal level of meaning, Tolstoy teaches us
to accept physical death as one of life’s natural processes in accordance with God’s
will. Tolstoy also conveys moral meaning through the theme of death by showing
that selfishness and materialism destroy any hope for true joy and fulfillment.
Through allegory, Tolstoy shows that spiritual rebirth comes through compassionate
service. And as the culmination of the other levels of meaning, Tolstoy’s anagogical
message is that Ivan Il’ich’s experience is our experience: we must learn to empathize
with others, jointly share our burdens, and go forward with a desire to love and
understand our fellow man.
Works Cited
Gutsche, George J. “Moral Fiction: Tolstoy’s Death of Ivan Il’ich.” Tolstoy’s Death of Ivan
Il’ich: A Critical Companion. Ed. Gary R. Jahn. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1999. 55-101.
Hustis, Harriet. “Three Rooms Off: Death and the Reader in Tolstoy's The Death of Ivan
Ilych.” Literature Interpretation Theory, 11 (2000): 261-75.
Новгородцев, П. И. “Об общественном идеале.” Л. Н. Толстой: Pro et Contra. Ed. К.Г.
Исупов. Санкт-Петербург: Русского Христианского гуманитарного института, 2000.
309-330
Попов, Константин. “Семантико-стилистическая характеристика лейтмотивных слов
ложь, боль, и смерть в повести «Смерть Ивана Ильича» Л.Н. Толстого.” Russian
Language Journal. 40 (1996): 143-154.
Плюханова, М. Б. “Творчество Толстого.” Л. Н. Толстой: Pro et Contra. Ed. К.Г. Исупов.
Санкт-Петербург: Русского Христианского гуманитарного института, 2000. 822-857.
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Jahn, Gary R. “The Importance of the Work.” Tolstoy’s Death of Ivan Il’ich: A Critical
Companion. Ed. Gary R. Jahn. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1999. 3-30
Толстой, Л.Н. Смерть Ивана Ильича. Hertfordshire: Bradda Books LTD., 1966.
Франк, С.Л. “Нравственное учение Л. Н. Толстого.” Л. Н. Толстой: Pro et Contra. Ed.
К.Г. Исупов. Санкт-Петербург: Русского Христианского гуманитарного института,
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