1-30англ

Е.А. Балыгина
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ДЛЯ ПСИХОЛОГОВ
Учебное пособие
для студентов психологических факультетов
высших учебных заведений
Москва
Издательство «ФЛИНТА»
2019
1
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1я73
Б21
Одобрено на заседании учебно-методического совета
кафедры зарубежной и русской филологии
Московского государственного психолого-педагогического университета
(МГППУ) (протокол № 6 от 14 мая 2018 г.).
Б21
Балыгина Е.А.
Английский язык для психологов [Электронный ресурс] :
учеб. пособие / Е.А. Балыгина. — М. : ФЛИНТА, 2019. — 359 с.
ISBN 978-5-9765-4000-2
Пособие «Английский язык для психологов» написано в соответствии с программой подготовки психологов по курсу «Иностранный
язык». В качестве учебного материала предлагаются адаптированные
психологические тексты, соответствующие потребностям студентов
имеющих средний уровень языковой подготовки (intermediate).
Пособие подразделяется на тематические разделы: Psychology
as a science, Historical and Contemporary approaches to psychology,
Organization of the nervous system и другие. Основной текст каждого
урока сопровождается упражнениями, которые не только формируют лексическую и грамматическую компетенции, но и представляют
дополнительные сведения об изучаемой психологической теме. Каждый тематический блок включает коммуникативные задания, содержащие вопросы для дискуссий.
Пособие предназначено для студентов психологических факультетов высших учебных заведений.
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1я73
ISBN 978-5-9765-4000-2
© Балыгина Е.А., 2019
© Издательство «ФЛИНТА», 2019
2
CONTENTS
Предисловие .................................................................................................... 5
UNIT 1. Psychology as a Science ................................................................... 7
1.1. What is science? ......................................................................................... 8
1.2. Scienti�c methods in psychology ............................................................. 18
UNIT 2. Historical and Contemporary Approaches to Psychology ......... 37
2.1. Wilhelm Wundt and Voluntarism ............................................................. 39
2.2. Edward Titchener and Structuralism ........................................................ 49
2.3. Behaviorism: from Pavlov to Watson ...................................................... 60
2.4. John Watson and Behaviorism ................................................................. 70
2.5. Humanistic psychology ............................................................................ 88
2.6. Cognitive psychology ............................................................................. 104
UNIT 3. Organization of the Nervous System .......................................... 117
3.1. The central nervous system .................................................................... 118
3.2. Peripheral nervous system ...................................................................... 128
UNIT 4. Brain Studies ................................................................................ 141
4.1. Clinical anatomical methods .................................................................. 142
4.2. Invasive anatomical methods ................................................................. 153
4.3. Non-invasive anatomical methods: Brain imaging ................................ 167
UNIT 5. Sleep Phenomenon ....................................................................... 180
5.1. Sleep research in the 20th century ......................................................... 182
5.2. Sleep as an Active Brain process ........................................................... 193
5.3. Functions of Sleep .................................................................................. 203
5.4. Why do we dream? ................................................................................. 214
UNIT 6. Visual Perception .......................................................................... 228
6.1. Sensation and Perception ....................................................................... 229
6.2. Perception as Unconscious Inference ..................................................... 241
6.3. Gestalt Theory of Visual Perception ...................................................... 254
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UNIT 7. Theories of Emotion ..................................................................... 271
7.1. James-Lange theory ............................................................................... 272
7.2. Cannon-Bard theory ............................................................................... 282
7.3. The cognitive appraisal theory ............................................................... 292
UNIT 8. Theories of Attachment ............................................................... 303
8.1. Patterns of attachment ............................................................................ 305
8.2. Formal theories of attachment ................................................................ 318
8.3. Harlow’s experiments on attachment in monkeys ................................. 330
8.4. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory ................................................................ 342
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Предисловие
Учебное пособие «Английский язык для психологов» предназначено для студентов-психологов, имеющих средний уровень
языковой подготовки (intermediate).
Реализуя требование Федерального государственного образовательного стандарта высшего образования (ФГОС ВО), большинство существующих учебников по иностранному языку для
специальных целей в качестве учебного материала используют
аутентичные тексты, имеющие профессиональную направленность. Однако практика преподавания иностранного языка в
высшем учебном заведении показывает, что подобный подход
сопряжён со значительными трудностями, обусловленными низким уровнем языковой подготовки студентов неязыковых специальностей.
Использование учебного материала, требующего свободного
владения языком, на занятиях в неязыковых группах зачастую
приводит к тому, что обучающиеся вынуждены тратить большую часть учебного времени на преодоление языковых трудностей, утрачивая интерес к изучению языка как средству получения знаний в профессиональной сфере.
В данном учебном пособии, реализующем принцип доступности учебного материала, предпринимается попытка решения
проблемы одновременного развития языковых навыков и изучения предметной области «Психология».
Высокий уровень доступности учебного материала, предлагаемого в учебном пособии, позволяет вовлечь будущих психологов в поиск профессиональной информации с опорой на знание иностранного языка.
Изучая учебные психологические тексты среднего уровня
сложности (intermediate), студент не только получает представление о лексической и грамматической системе языка, но и развивает умение применять лингвистические знания для получения профессиональной информации.
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Логика изложения материала в каждом из разделов пособия
определяется прежде всего необходимостью максимально полного раскрытия некоторых аспектов рассматриваемой психологической темы. После каждого изучаемого текста предлагаются
вопросы, проверяющие не только понимание текста, но и знание
основных понятий и положений изучаемых психологических
теорий. Упражнения, формирующие лексическую и грамматическую компетенции, также подчинены задаче ознакомления
студента со всеми аспектами изучаемой психологической темы.
Вопросы, следующие после основного текста каждого раздела, позволяют вовлечь учащихся в целенаправленную коммуникативную деятельность на материале основного текста и следующих после него упражнений. Для ответа на вопросы студентам
достаточно понять содержание основного текста и упражнений
изучаемого раздела.
Подобный подход к отбору учебного материала, направленный на максимально полное освещение изучаемой психологической темы, создаёт условия для вовлечения в иноязычное профессионально ориентированное общение студентов первого и
второго курсов, которые зачастую не обладают достаточно высоким уровнем предметных знаний.
Таким образом учебное пособие содержит доступный учебный материал, организация которого определяется необходимостью интеграции лингвистических и профессионально ориентированных знаний и навыков при обучении иностранному языку
для специальных целей в неязыковом вузе.
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UNIT 1
Psychology as a Science
Unit outline
1.1. What is science?
1.2. Scienti�c methods in psychology
Learning objectives
1. What makes psychology a science?
2. How does psychology differ from false explanations of behavior?
3. Explain why using our intuition about everyday behavior is insuf�cient
for a complete understanding of the causes of behavior.
4. What are the basic steps of scienti�c study?
5. How do differences in behavior relate to differences in heredity
(nature)?
6. What is the impact of social experience (nurture) on a person’s
psychological characteristics?
Key points
�
�
�
�
�
Psychology is the scienti�c study of mind and behavior.
Psychologists use the scienti�c method to collect, analyze, and
interpret evidence.
Employing the scienti�c method allows the scientist to collect
empirical data objectively.
A scienti�c study goes through the following sequence of steps:
hypothesis, method and results.
Psychologists commonly use three types of research: descriptive
(observation, surveys and interviews, and case studies), correlational
and experimental ones.
7
1.1. What is science?
approach [ə’prəuʧ] — подход
attempt [ə’tempt] — пытаться
common [‘kɔmən] — общепринятый, распространённый
concern [kən’sɜːn] — интерес, участие, заинтересованное отношение
de�ne [dɪ'faɪn] — давать определение (какому-л. понятию)
de�nition [ˌdefɪ'nɪʃ(ə)n] — определение, дефиниция
derive from — происходить от
directly [daɪ'rektlɪ] — непосредственно (без посредников)
examine [ɪg’zæmɪn] — исследовать; изучать
experience [ɪk’spɪərɪəns] — опыт
explain / account for — объяснять
heritage [‘herɪtɪʤ] — наследство; наследие
mind [maɪnd] — 1) разум, ум; 2) мышление, умственная деятельность
observation [ˌɔbzə’veɪʃən] — наблюдение
observe [əb’zɜːv] — наблюдать
perception [pə’sepʃən] — восприятие
refer [rɪ'fɜː] / (refer to) — указывать, обозначать
science [‘saɪəns] — наука
scienti�c [ˌsaɪən’tɪfɪk] — научный
separate [‘sepərət] — отдельный
similarity [ˌsɪmɪ’lærətɪ] — подобие, сходство
the ancients — древние народы
thought [θɔːt] / thinking — (от think) мысль; мышление
When you think of the word psychology, what �rst comes to mind?
The word psychology is derived from the Greek “psyche” [‘saɪkɪ]
(mind, soul or spirit) and “logos” (study). Psychology is the “study
of mind”.
Psychology is the scienti�c study of behavior and mental processes.
What does behavior refer to in the de�nition of psychology?
Behavior is anything you do — eating, sleeping, talking, or
sneezing.
8
Mental processes are the thoughts, feelings, and motives. Although
we cannot directly see thoughts and feelings, they are real. They
include thinking about kissing someone, a baby’s feelings when its
mother leaves the room, and a student’s memory of a motorcycle
trip.
So, psychology means the study of the psyche, or mind, and this
study is as old as the human species. The ancients, for example,
attempted to account for dreams, mental illness, emotions, and
fantasies. Was this psychology? Or did psychology start when
explanations of human cognitive experience became more
systematic?
Plato [‘pleɪtəu] and Aristotle [ˈarɪstɒtəl], for example, created
theories that attempted to account for such processes as memory,
perception, and learning. Is this the point at which psychology
started?
Or did psychology start when it became a separate science in the
19th century?
It is common these days to begin a history of psychology at the point
where psychology became a separate science.
This approach is unsatisfactory because it ignores the philosophical
heritage that made psychology the type of science that it became.
What is science?
At various times in history, in�uential individuals (such as Galileo
[ˌgalɪˈleɪəʊ] and Kant) have said that psychology could never be a
science because of its concern with subjective experience.
To answer the question of whether psychology is a science we must
�rst attempt to de�ne science.
Science is a way of answering questions about nature by examining
nature directly, rather than by depending on church dogma [‘dɔgmə]
or abstract thought processes alone.
From the very beginning the focus of psychology has been
empirical observation (that is, the direct observation of nature),
but there is more to science than simply observing nature. To be
useful, observations must be organized in some way. After noting
9
similarities and differences among observations, many scientists
attempt to explain what they have observed.
Science, then, has two major components: (1) empirical observation
and (2) theory.
Here we have the two essential elements [‘elɪmənts] of modern
science: the making of observations is the empirical or factual
component, and the systematic attempt to explain these facts is the
theoretical component.
EX. 1. Answer the questions below.
1. What is psychology?
2. What is behavior? What is a mental process?
3. What processes did Plato [‘pleɪtəu] and Aristotle [ˈarɪstɒtəl]
attempt to account for?
4. Why is it important to study the history of psychology?
5. Why did Galileo [ˌgalɪˈleɪəʊ] and Kant think that psychology
could never be a science?
6. What is a science? What are two major components of
science?
7. What makes psychology a science? How does psychology
differ from false explanations of behavior?
8. How can we study the mind if we can’t observe it?
9. Would you agree that psychology can be considered a
science?
EX. 2. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
actions
thinking
study
Psychology is the systematic, scienti�c ________ (1) of behaviors
and mental processes.
Behavior refers to observable ________ (2) or responses in both
humans and animals.
10
Mental processes, which are not directly observable, refer to a
wide range of complex mental processes, such as ________ (3),
imagining, studying, and dreaming.
✓ observable [əb’zɜːvəbl] — наблюдаемый, поддающийся наблюдению
EX. 3. Fill in the gaps with the following words.
thoughts experience approach observed
DEFINING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the scienti�c study of human behavior and mental
processes.
Psychologists ________ (1) human behavior as scientists who are
skeptical and objective.
Behavior includes everything organisms do that can be ________
(2).
Mental processes are ________ (3), feelings, and motives.
As a truly general science, psychology addresses all sides of human
________ (4) — positive and negative, strengths and weaknesses.
EX. 4. Choose the most suitable verb form.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, psychology was de�ned / de�ning
as the scienti�c study of the mind.
Around 1920, psychologists became disappointing / disappointed
with the idea of studying the mind.
The reason was that science deals with what we can observe / be
observed, and no one can observe / be observed a mind. Anyway,
through the mid-1900s, psychologists de�ned / de�ning their �eld
simply as the study of behavior.
However, people care about what they feel and think, not just about
what they do.
11
So for a compromise, let’s de�ned / de�ne psychology as the
systematic study of behavior and experience.
EX. 5. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
de�nition
idea
behavior describe
goal
predict
Although the current ________ (1) of psychology is very broad,
psychologists usually have four speci�c goals in mind when they
study some behavior or mental process.
The �rst goal of psychology is to ________ (2) the different ways
that organisms behave.
The second goal of psychology is to explain the causes of ________
(3).
Being able to describe and explain behavior helps psychologists
reach the third ________ (4), which is to predict behavior.
If psychologists can ________ (5) behavior, then they can often
control behavior. However, the ________ (6) of control has both
positive and negative sides.
EX. 6. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
invented
method
behavior observation
Many �elds, such as history, law, art, and business, are also
interested in human ___________ (1). How is psychology different?
Psychology’s great strength is that it uses scienti�c ____________
(2) to systematically answer questions about behavior.
Questions sometimes go unanswered for lack of a suitable
research ___________ (3) (a systematic process for answering
scienti�c questions). In the past, for example, we had to take
the word of people who say they never dream. Then the EEG
(electroencephalograph) was ______________ (4).
12
EX. 7. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
likely
occurred
devise
describe
to predict
BYSTANDER APATHY
Researchers might be interested in knowing whether individuals will
help a stranger who has fallen down.
The researchers could __________ (1) a study in which they observe
people walking past a person who needs help.
The researchers could __________ (2) helping behavior by counting
how many times it occurs.
The researchers may also examine characteristics of the individuals
studied and try __________ (3) who will help, and when. Are happy
people more ____________ (4) to help? Are women or men more
likely to help? After psychologists have analyzed their data, they
also will want to explain why helping behavior __________ (5)
when it did.
✓ devise — разрабатывать, продумывать (планы, идеи); выдумы✓
✓
✓
✓
вать, изобретать
observation — наблюдение
observe — наблюдать
occur — происходить, случаться, совершаться
researcher — научный работник; исследователь; учёный
EX. 8. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
unwilling
fail
likely
observations
description
Answering psychological questions often begins with a careful
__________ (1) of behavior. Description, or naming and classifying,
is typically based on making a detailed record of scienti�c
__________ (2).
13
But a description doesn’t explain anything, does it? Right.
Descriptions can’t answer the important “why” questions. Why are
people more aggressive when they are uncomfortable? Why are
bystanders often __________ (3) to help in an emergency?
Understanding usually means we can explain a behavior. For
example, research on “bystander apathy” �nds that people often
__________ (4) to help when other possible helpers are nearby.
Why? Because no one feels personally obligated to help. As a
result, the more potential helpers there are, the less __________
(5) it is that anyone will help. Now we can explain a complex
problem.
✓
✓
✓
✓
fail — не сделать, потерпеть неудачу
likely — вероятный, возможный
obligate — обязывать
unwilling — нежелающий (что-л. делать)
EX. 9. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
accuracy
guarantee
predict
prediction
Explaining a behavior means that we can __________ (1) behavior
accurately. Notice that our explanation of bystander apathy makes
a __________ (2) about the chances of getting help. If you’ve ever
been stranded on a busy freeway with car trouble, you’ll see the
__________ (3) of this prediction: Having many potential helpers
nearby is no __________ (4) that anyone will stop to help.
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
a goal — цель
accuracy — правильность, точность
accurately — точно
examine — исследовать, изучать
predict — предсказывать, прогнозировать
prediction — прогноз
14
EX. 10. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
scienti�c
observation
regarded
perception
The �rst western thinker to study psychological topics, Aristotle
[ˈarɪstɒtəl] (384—322 BCE) combined the logic of philosophy with
empirical __________ (1). His best known psychological work, De
Anima («О душе»), is __________ (2) as the �rst systematic treatise
[‘triːtɪz] on psychology.
Its range of topics includes such basic psychological processes as
the senses, __________ (3), memory, thinking, and motivation.
Aristotle’s writings on psychology anticipated topics and theories
that would be central to __________ (4) psychology centuries later.
✓ anticipate — предвосхищать, предугадывать
EX. 11. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
behavior abilities observation knowledge
сlaims an approach
PSYCHOLOGY AS A POWERFUL WAY OF THINKING
We often hear claims about psychological issues. For instance, we
hear claims that men and women have different __________ (1) or
that violence on television has a harmful effect on children.
As a science, psychology demands that researchers ask questions
about such issues and that they test their ideas through systematic
__________ (2).
In the long run, this means that psychology provides a way of
building __________ (3) that is relatively accurate and dependable.
Of course, psychological research cannot discover an answer for
every interesting question about the mind and __________ (4).
You won’t �nd the meaning of life or the secret of happiness in
this textbook. But you will �nd __________ (5) to investigating
questions that has proven to be fruitful.
15
The more you learn about psychology as a way of thinking, the
better able you will be to evaluate the psychological __________ (6)
you hear in daily life.
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
accurate [‘ækjərət] — правильный, точный
approach [ə'prəuʧ] — подход (к решению проблемы, задачи)
claim [kleɪm] — заявление, утверждение
demand [dɪ'mɑːnd] — требовать, предъявлять требование
dependable [dɪ'pendəbl] — надёжный, заслуживающий
доверия
✓ evaluate [ɪ'væljueɪt] — оценивать, давать оценку, составлять
мнение
✓ observation [ˌɔbzə'veɪʃən] — наблюдение
✓ provide [prə'vaɪd] — давать, предоставлять, обеспечивать
EX. 12. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
re�ections
philosophy
mind
founder discipline
issues
FROM SPECULATION TO SCIENCE:
HOW PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPED
Of course, people have always wondered about the mysteries of the
_________ (1). In that sense, psychology is as old as the human race.
But it was only a little over 125 years ago that psychology emerged
as a _________ (2).
Psychology’s intellectual parents were the disciplines of ________ (3)
and physiology [ˌfɪzɪ’ɔləʤɪ].
By the 1870s a small number of scholars in both �elds were actively
exploring questions about the mind. Are people’s perceptions of the
world accurate _________ (4) of reality? How do mind and body
interact?
The philosophers and physiologists who were interested in the
mind viewed such questions as interesting _________ (5) within
16
their �elds. It was a German professor, Wilhelm Wundt (1832—
1920), who changed this view. Wundt tried to make psychology
an independent discipline rather than a stepchild of philosophy or
physiology. Today he is widely characterized as the _________ (6)
of psychology.
✓
✓
✓
✓
emerge [ɪ'mɜːʤ] — появляться, возникать
explore [ɪk’splɔː] — исследовать, рассматривать, изучать
interact [ˌɪntər'ækt] — взаимодействовать, влиять друг на друга
re�ection [rɪ'�ekʃən] — отражение
EX. 13. Choose the most suitable verb form.
A NEW SCIENCE IS BORN
Borrowing / Borrowed from his training in physiology, Wundt (1874)
declared that the new psychology should be a science was modelled /
modeled after �elds such as physics and chemistry.
What was the subject matter of the new science? According to
Wundt, psychology’s primary focus has been / was consciousness —
the awareness of immediate experience.
Wilhelm Wundt said that “physiology informing / informs us about
those life phenomena that we perceive / are perceived by our
external senses; in psychology, the person looks upon himself as
from within and tries to explain / explaining the processes that this
internal observation discloses.”
Thus, psychology became / has become the scienti�c study of
conscious experience. This orientation kept psychology focuses /
focused on the mind and mental processes. But it demanded that the
methods psychologists were used / used to investigate the mind be as
scienti�c as those of chemists or physicists.
✓ awareness [ə'weənəs] — осознание; осведомлённость
✓ borrow [‘bɔrəu] — заимствовать, перенимать
✓ disclose [dɪs'kləuz] — выявлять, обнаруживать
17
✓
✓
✓
✓
external [ɪk’stɜːnəl] — внешний
internal [ɪn'tɜːnəl] — внутренний
investigate [ɪn'vestɪgeɪt] — изучать, исследовать
model [‘mɔdəl] — создавать, конструировать (на основе
каких-л. принципов)
✓ within [wɪ'ðɪn] — в, внутри (выражает отношения места)
1.2. Scienti�c methods in psychology
a cause-and-effect conclusion — вывод о наличии причинно-следственной связи
abandon [ə'bændən] — отказываться (от чего-л.)
apply [ə'plaɪ] — применять (to)
approach — подход (к решению проблемы, задачи и т.п.)
beyond — далее, за пределы
circumstance [‘sɜːkəmstæns] — обстоятельство
collect — собирать
conclude cause [kɔːz] and effect [ɪ'fekt] — сделать вывод о наличии
причинно-следственной связи
contradict [ˌkɔntrə'dɪkt] — противоречить
count — включать, принимать во внимание
determine [dɪ'tɜːmɪn] — определять, устанавливать
devise [dɪ'vaɪz] — разрабатывать, изобретать
engage in smth — заниматься чем-л., быть занятым чем-л.
imitate — подражать; имитировать
justify — 1) оправдывать, объяснять; 2) подтверждать, доказывать
likely ['laɪklɪ] — вероятный, возможный
measure [‘meʒə] — измерять
relationship — взаимосвязь, связь
researcher — исследователь
sequence [‘siːkwəns] — последовательность
strength — достоинство, сильная сторона
support — подтверждать; подкреплять; свидетельствовать в пользу
(кого-, чего-л.)
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threat — опасность, угроза
variable ['veərɪəbl] — переменная (величина)
violence — жестокость, насилие
violent — агрессивный, насильственный
weakness — слабое место, недостаток
A scienti�c study goes through the following sequence of steps:
hypothesis, method and results.
Research ordinarily begins with careful observations. In psychology,
researchers observe what people do, under what circumstances, and
how one person differs from another. For example, in a study on
laughter, Robert Provine simply recorded who laughed and when
and where.
Then, researchers want to go beyond observations to try to explain
what they see. To explain their observations, researchers form a
hypothesis, which is a statement such as “people who watch violent
television programs will act more violently.”
1. A hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or
more variables.
A hypothesis can be based on observations, such as noticing
that some children who watch much violence on television are
themselves aggressive.
A hypothesis can also be based on a larger theory, such as “children
tend to imitate the behavior they see, so those who watch a great
deal of violence on television will themselves become more
violent.”
2. A method.
Any hypothesis could be tested in many ways, and almost any
method has its strengths and weaknesses. One way to test the effects
of violent TV shows would be to examine whether children who
watch more violent programs engage in more violent behavior. The
main limit of this approach is that we cannot conclude cause and
19
effect: Watching violence may lead to violence, but it is also likely
that people who are already violent like to watch violence.
Another method is to take a set of children, let some of them watch
violent programs while others watch nonviolent programs, and see
whether the two groups differ in their violent behaviors. That kind of
study can justify a cause-and-effect conclusion if indeed the groups
differ.
3. Results.
Fundamental to any research is collecting and then interpreting the
results.
A phenomenon such as “violent behavior” can be especially dif�cult
to measure. How do we decide what is real violence and what is just
playfulness? Do threats count?
Another problem is that the results may apply only to certain kinds
of people or only under certain circumstances.
The �nal task is to determine what the results mean.
If results support the hypothesis, investigators gain con�dence in
their hypothesis.
If they clearly contradict the hypothesis, researchers should either
abandon or modify the original hypothesis.
Thus, researchers form a hypothesis, devise a method to test it,
collect results, and then interpret the results. Most articles in
scienti�c publications follow this sequence too.
EX. 1. Answer the questions below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the basic steps of scienti�c study?
What is a hypothesis?
How could a hypothesis be scienti�cally tested?
What can a hypothesis “watching violence leads to more
violent behavior” be based on?
5. How can we test the effects of violent TV shows?
6. What problems are involved in collecting and interpreting the
results of the study?
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7. What methods should be used to investigate psychological
issues?
EX. 2. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
fonder empirical
scienti�c
directly
Scienti�c observation is based on gathering __________ (1)
evidence (information gained from direct observation). Unlike
personal observation, __________ (2) observation is systematic and
objective.
We study behavior __________ (3) and collect data (observed facts)
so that we can draw valid conclusions.
Would you say it’s true, for instance, that “Absence makes the heart
grow fonder” (Дальше с глаз — ближе к сердцу)? Why argue about
it? As psychologists, we would simply get some people who are
separated (“absent hearts”) and some who see each other every day
(“present hearts”) and �nd out who is _________ (4) of their loved
ones!
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
draw a conclusion — делать вывод
evidence — доказательство, подтверждение, свидетельство
gain — получать, приобретать
gather — собирать, накоплять, приобретать
valid — обоснованный (довод, возражение)
EX. 3. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
differences observations
predictions
observing
variables
OBSERVING SOME PHENOMENON
The �rst step in a scienti�c study involves __________ (1) some
phenomenon in the world. The critically thinking psychologist sees
21
something in the world and wants to know why or how it is the way
it is.
The phenomena that scientists study are called __________ (2),
a word related to the verb to vary. A variable is anything that can
change.
For example, one variable that interests psychologists is happiness.
Some people seem to be generally happier than others. What might
account for these __________ (3)?
As scientists consider answers to such questions, they often develop
theories. A theory is a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that
attempts to explain __________ (4).
Theories tell us about the relationships between variables on a
conceptual level. Theories seek to explain why certain things have
happened, and they can be used to make __________ (5) about
future observations. For instance, some psychologists theorize that
the most important human need is the need to belong to a social
group.
✓ variable [‘veərɪəbl] — переменная (величина)
EX. 4. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
functioning
relationship
prediction
social groups
FORMULATING HYPOTHESES AND PREDICTIONS
The second step in a scienti�c study is stating a hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a statement about the __________ (1) between two
or more variables. It is a __________ (2) that can be tested.
A theory can generate many hypotheses. So, a researcher who
believes that social belonging is the most important aspect of human
functioning might predict that people who belong to __________ (3)
will be happier than those who do not.
Another hypothesis from the theory that belongingness is important
to human __________ (4) might be that individuals who have been
22
socially excluded should feel less happy than those who have been
socially included.
EX. 5. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
de�ne measures
research
predictions
variables
TESTING THROUGH EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
The next step in a scienti�c study is to test the hypothesis by
conducting empirical __________ (1), that is, by collecting and
analyzing data.
At this point, it is time to design a study that will test __________
(2) that are based on the theory. To do so, a researcher �rst needs
a concrete [‘kɔŋkriːt] way to measure the __________ (3) of
interest.
Imagine, for instance, that everyone in your psychology class
is asked to observe a group of children and to keep track of kind
behaviors. Do you think that all your classmates will __________
(4) “kind behaviors” in the same way? So, �rst of all you will have
to ensure that everyone agrees on what a variable means.
To measure personal happiness, for example, prominent psychologist
Ed Diener (1985) devised a self-report questionnaire that
__________ (5) how satis�ed a person is with his or her life, called
the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Scores on this questionnaire are then
used as measures of happiness.
EX. 6. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
results
methods
conclusions
researchers
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of the data analyses, scientists then draw
__________ (1) from their research.
23
If the results clearly contradict the hypothesis, __________ (2)
should either abandon or modify the original hypothesis. Then, a
theory which the hypothesis is based on might be revised. However,
a theory is revised only after a number of studies produce similar
__________ (3) and all of them contradict the hypothesis.
Before we change a theory, we want to be sure that the research can
be repeated by other scientists using different __________ (4).
EX. 7. Choose the most suitable verb form.
FORMULATING A HYPOTHESIS:
DO DOGS LOOK LIKE THEIR OWNERS?
Hypotheses are often generated / generate from everyday
observations.
For example, many people believe that pets resemble their owners.
How could this hypothesis be scienti�cally testing / tested?
Psychologists Michael Roy and Nicholas Christenfeld found that
study participants were / be able to accurately match photos of dogs
with photos of their owners — but only if the dogs were purebred.
Other research has come / coming to the same conclusion. The
explanation? People tend to choose dogs that resembling / resemble
themselves.
✓
✓
✓
✓
generate — порождать, создавать
match — подбирать (под пару, по цвету, форме и т.п.), сочетать
a participant — участник
resemble — походить, иметь сходство
EX. 8. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable words.
observers behaviors
observing
related
de�ne
research
Descriptive research methods are strategies for __________ (1)
and describing behavior. Using descriptive methods, researchers can
24
answer important questions, such as when certain behaviors take
place, how often they occur, and whether they are __________ (2)
to other factors, such as a person’s age, ethnic group, or educational
level.
As you might expect, psychologists very carefully __________
(3) the behaviors that they will observe and measure before they
begin their __________ (4). Often, to increase the accuracy of the
observations, two or more __________ (5) are used.
In some studies, observations are recorded so that the researchers can
carefully analyze the details of the __________ (6) being studied.
✓
✓
✓
✓
accuracy — точность
describe — описывать
educational — образовательный
occur — происходить, случаться, совершаться
EX. 9. Choose the most suitable verb form.
Science seeks to discover lawful relationships. A scienti�c law can
de�ne / be de�ned as a consistently observed relationship between
two or more classes of empirical events. For example, when
X occurs, Y also tends occur / to occur. Science, then, uses theories
to be found / to �nd and explain lawful, empirical events.
Traditionally, science is not interested in unique events but in general
laws that can be publicly observed / observing and veri�ed. That is,
a scienti�c law is general and, because it describing / describes a
relationship between empirical events, can be publicly observe /
observed.
EX. 10. Choose the most suitable verb form.
A goal of science is discover / to discover the causes of natural
phenomena. Specifying / Specify the causes of natural events,
however, is highly complex and usually requires experimental
research. The problem is that events seldom, if ever, have a single
25
cause; rather, they having / have multiple causes. Questions such
as “What caused the Second World War?” and “What causes
schizophrenia [ˌskɪtsə’friːnɪə]?” are still far from answer /
answered. Even simpler questions such as “Why did John quit his
job?” or “Why did Jane marry John?’ are, in reality, enormously
complex.
✓ consistent — устойчивый, последовательный, стойкий
EX. 11. Fill in the gaps with the following phrases.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
either of them
shorter people
better paying jobs
cause-and-effect conclusions
the risk of schizophrenia
CORRELATION DOES NOT INDICATE CAUSATION
A correlation indicates that two things tend to go together.
For example, taller people tend to be heavier than ___________ (1),
on the average.
Better educated people tend to have ___________ (2) than less
educated people. And so forth.
Sometimes, we are tempted to draw ___________ (3) after observing
a correlation.
For example, people with schizophrenia are more likely than other
people to abuse alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. Although we might
be tempted to assume that these substances increase ___________
(4), we cannot draw that conclusion.
It is equally plausible that having schizophrenia increases one’s uses
of alcohol and tobacco.
That is, a correlation between two items does not tell us which one
caused the other or, indeed, whether ___________ (5) caused the
other.
26
✓ causation — причинность, причинная обусловленность
✓ correlation — соотношение; взаимосвязь
EX. 12. Fill in the gaps with the following words.
observation
determining
occurs
causes
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Just as its name suggests, descriptive research is about describing
some phenomenon — ________ (1) its basic dimensions and
de�ning what this thing is, how often it ________ (2), and so on.
By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what ________ (3) some
phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people’s
behaviors and attitudes.
Descriptive research methods include ________ (4), surveys and
interviews, and case studies.
EX. 13. Fill in the gaps with the following words.
particular quickest
related
SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS
Sometimes the best and ________ (1) way to get information about
people is to ask them for it. One technique is to interview them
directly.
A ________ (2) method that is especially useful when information
from many people is needed is the survey, or questionnaire.
A survey presents a standard set of questions, or items, to obtain
people’s self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a ________ (3)
topic.
✓ questionnaire [ˌkwesʧə’neə] — вопросник, анкета, опросный
лист
27
EX. 14. Choose the most suitable verb form.
CASE STUDIES
A case study is an in-depth look at a single individual. Case
studies are performed / perform mainly by clinical psychologists
when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of
an individual’s life cannot be duplicated / duplicating and tested /
testing in other individuals.
A case study provides / providing information about one person’s
goals, hopes, fantasies, fears, traumatic experiences, family
relationships, health, and anything else that helps the psychologist
understand the person’s mind and behavior. Case studies can also
involve / be involved in-depth explorations of particular families or
social groups.
An example of a case study is the analysis of India’s spiritual leader
Mahatma Gandhi (1869—1948) by psychodynamic theorist Erik
Erikson. Erikson studied Gandhi’s life in great depth discovered /
to discover how his positive spiritual identity developed, especially
during his youth.
✓ duplicate — повторять, копировать
✓ provide — давать, предоставлять, обеспечивать
✓ perform — делать, выполнять (какую-л. работу, задание и т.д.)
EX. 15. Put the verbs in the right form.
THE SEARCH FOR LAWS
Another feature of science (be) that it seeks to discover lawful
relationships.
A scienti�c law can (de�ne) as a consistently observed relationship
between two or more classes of empirical events. For example, when
X occurs, Y also tends (occur).
Science, then, uses theories (�nd) and (explain) lawful, empirical
events. By (stress) lawfulness, science is proclaiming an interest in
the general case rather than the particular case.
28
Traditionally, science is not interested in unique events but in general
laws that can be publicly (observe) and (verify). That is, a scienti�c
law is general and, because it (describe) a relationship between
empirical events
✓ consistently
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
[kən’sɪstəntlɪ] — устойчиво, постоянно,
последовательно
de�ne [dɪ'faɪn] — определять, давать определение
general [‘ʤenərəl] — общий, общего характера (характерный
для определённого класса, типа)
lawful [‘lɔːfful] — закономерный
particular [pə'tɪkjələ] — особенный, отдельный, одиночный
proclaim [prə'kleɪm] — провозглашать, объявлять
verify ['verɪfaɪ] — проверять, подтверждать
EX. 16. Fill in the gaps with the following words.
prevents predict
vary
tend
discover considered
There are two general classes of scienti�c laws.
One class is correlational laws, which describe how classes of
events _______ (1) together in some systematic way.
For example, scores on intelligence tests _______ (2) to correlate
with scores on creativity tests. That is, if we knew a person’s score
on an intelligence test, we could _______ (3) his or her score on a
creativity test, and vice versa.
A more powerful class of laws is causal laws, which specify how
events are causally related. For example, if we knew the causes of a
disease, we could predict and control that disease — as removing the
causes of a disease _______ (4) the disease from occurring.
Thus, correlational laws allow prediction, but causal laws allow
prediction and control. For this reason, causal laws are more
powerful than correlational laws and thus are generally _______ (5)
more desirable.
29
A major goal of science is to _______ (6) the causes of natural
phenomena.
✓ causal [‘kɔːzəl] — причинный; выражающий связь причины и
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
следствия
cause [kɔːz] — причина
correlate with — находиться в связи, в определённом соотношении
desirable [dɪ'zaɪərəbl] — желательный
predict [prɪ'dɪkt] — предсказывать, прогнозировать
prediction [prɪ'dɪkʃən] — предсказание, прогноз
prevent [prɪ'vent] — предотвращать, препятствовать
specify ['spesɪfaɪ] — точно определять, устанавливать
vary ['veərɪ] — меняться, изменяться
EX. 17. Choose the most suitable words in italics.
REVISIONS IN THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF SCIENCE
Karl Popper (1902—1994) disagreed with the traditional describe /
description of science in two fundamental ways.
First, he disagreed that scienti�c / scienti�cally activity starts with
empirical observed / observation. According to Popper, the older
view of science implies that scientists wander around made / making
observations and then attempt / attempted to explain what they have
observed.
Popper (1963) showed / was shown the problem with such a view:
Twenty-�ve years ago, I began a lecture with the following
instructions: “Take pencil and paper: carefully observe and write
down what you have observed!” They asked, of course, what I
wanted them to observe. Clearly the instruction, “observe!” is
absurd. Observation is always selective. It needs a chosen object, a
de�nite task, an interest, a point of view, a problem.
So, for Popper, scienti�c activity starts with a problem and the
problem determining / determines what observations scientists will
30