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Aircraft Engines

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ИРКУТСКИЙ ФИЛИАЛ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОГО ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО
БЮДЖЕТНОГО ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОГО УЧРЕЖДЕНИЯ ВЫСШЕГО
ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ «МОСКОВСКИЙ
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ГРАЖДАНСКОЙ АВИАЦИИ» (МГТУ ГА)
Кафедра Гуманитарных и социально-политических дисциплин
(ГСПД)
Кузнецова Н.Б.
Aircraft Engines
Пособие по английскому языку
для студентов II курса специальности 162300
Иркутск 2013
Рецензент: к.фл.н., доцент Портнова Т.Ю.
Кузнецова Н.Б.
Aircraft Engines: учебное пособие. – Иркутск: МГТУ ГА (ИФ), 2013.
Учебно-методическое пособие составлено с учётом целей и задач
программы по иностранному языку для специальности 162300 Техническая
эксплуатация летательных аппаратов и двигателей.
Целью обучения является приобретение студентами коммуникативной
компетенции, позволяющей использовать иностранный язык как в
профессиональной деятельности, так и для целей самообразования.
Рассмотрено и одобрено на заседании кафедры гуманитарных и
социально-политических дисциплин МГТУ ГА (ИФ) протокол № 5/1 от 2013
года.
2
CONTENTS
UNIT 1. AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND SERVICE TECHNICIANS:
NATURE OF THE WORK ...................................................................................... 4
UNIT 2. GUIDE TO PROPULSION ....................................................................13
UNIT 3. POWER PLANT IS THE HEART OF THE ENGINE ..........................20
UNIT 4. MAIN PARTS OF THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS .........................................................................................................36
TEXTS FOR READING AND WRITING PRACTICE ........................................48
APPENDIX
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ ПО НАПИСАНИЮ РЕФЕРАТОВ И
АННОТАЦИЙ .......................................................................................................68
THE COMPLEX OBJECT .....................................................................................71
THE COMPLEX SUBJECT ...................................................................................76
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................83
СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ.....................................................................................87
3
Unit I
Aircraft Mechanics and Service Technicians: Nature of the Work
Essential Vocabulary
1) operation and maintenance ( эксплуатация и техническое обслуживание);
efficient operation and maintenance of a gas-turbine engine; to provide efficient
operation and maintenance of a gas-turbine engine the mechanic should be familiar
with the engine design; operational and periodic maintenance; operational
maintenance requires checking all the troublesome units and systems of the engine;
2) in particular (в особенности, в частности); for any specific engine in
particular; be familiar with the manufacturer's instructions for any specific engine
in particular;
3) precautions rules (меры предосторожности); certain precautions rules;
certain precautions rules should be inspected for foreign objects;
4) inflammable material (воспламеняющийся материал); to remove all
inflammable material; in operating the engine at full power it is necessary to
remove all inflammable material from the area;
5) engine compartments; engine compartments and nacelles (отсеки двигателя
и гондолы); engine compartments and nacelles are checked for cleanliness and
security.
6) fuel and oil leaks; all fuel and oil leaks, loose parts, cracks, corrosion, missed
rivers, warping, buckling, burning and other undesirable conditions; all fuel and oil
leaks, loose parts, cracks, corrosion, missed rivers, warping, buckling, burning and
other undesirable conditions should be revealed and eliminated (все утечки
топлива и масла, незакрепленные детали, трещины, коррозии, подтёки,
деформации, прогибы, обгорания и другие несоответствующие состояния
должны быть выявлены и устранены);
7) minor inspection (частичный осмотр); minor inspection and major
inspection; to include minor inspection and major inspection; The periodic engine
maintenance includes minor inspection and major inspection
Read and translate the text paying attention to new words and phrases.
Text: Engine Maintenance
In order to keep the engine in working condition, it is necessary to provide
its inspecting at regular intervals. To provide efficient operation and maintenance
of a gas-turbine engine the mechanic should be familiar with the engine design,
inspection, starting and overhaul procedures in general; and the manufacturer's
instructions for any specific engine in particular. In performing maintenance
operations certain precautions rules should be inspected for foreign objects; in
operating the engine at full power it is necessary to remove all inflammable
material from the area; no work should be performed on the ignition system or
4
spark plugs during engine running; the hot starts should be avoided as the turbine
or other parts overheating usually requires the engine overhaul.
Maintenance of any gas-turbine engine includes operational and periodic
maintenance. Operational maintenance is performed prior to every take-off and
after the aircraft landing with the view of checking all systems and units for their
readiness for flight. It is called pre-flight and post-flight maintenance,
correspondingly. Operational maintenance requires checking all the troublesome
units and systems of the engine. Engine compartments and nacelles are checked for
cleanliness and security of all lines and fittings. All fuel and oil leaks, loose parts,
cracks, corrosion, missed rivers, warping, buckling, burning and other undesirable
conditions should be revealed and eliminated. Operational maintenance also
includes checking the fuel, oil, water and hydraulic fluid level before each flight.
The periodic engine maintenance includes minor inspection (performed
every 60 hours of flight) and major inspection (performed every 200 and 600 hours
of flight). When the engine was operated during a certain predetermined number of
hours it is removed from the aircraft and sent to the overhaul base. The engine
overhaul includes complete disassembly, washing, delectation and repair or
replacement of worn units or parts.
Text: Duties and Responsibilities
Essential Vocabulary
1) to be responsible for – нести ответственность за ч.-л.
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible for making sure
airplanes are safe for flying.
Some of the parts aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible
for maintaining include the engine, the landing gear, and the instruments inside the
cockpit used to determine direction and altitude.
2) to be familiar with – быть хорошо осведомлённым в ч.-л.
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians need to be familiar with these
complex systems.
3) to be employed in – работать где-либо
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are employed in aircraft hangars,
in air fields, or at stations where aircraft repairs are done.
4) to be able to – (мочь), быть в состоянии
The mechanic must first be able to get to the engine, which usually involves
using lifts, hoists, or ladders because of where it is located.
There are also aircraft mechanics and service technicians that are able to
repair the airframe and work on the power sources.
5) to check for – осматривать, выявлять, проверять
They will also check for wear, defects, corrosion, and cracks in other parts of
the airplane, including the tail, the fuselage or body of the craft, and the wings.
6) to involve – включать в себя, касаться, вовлекать.
Involved – сложный.
5
The mechanic must first be able to get to the engine, which usually involves
using lifts, hoists, or ladders because of where it is located.
Other aspects of maintaining and repairing the aircraft can be more involved.
in accordance with - согласуясь с ( чем-л. ), в соответствии с ( чем-л. )
They are responsible for maintaining the aircraft, repairing parts that are
broken or worn, and inspecting the aircraft on a regular basis in accordance with
the schedules.
7) to be licensed as – быть квалифицированным как
Those who are licensed as power plant aircraft mechanics are skilled enough
to fix the engines and, to an extent, the propellers.
8) to provide with – обеспечивать чем-л.
These tools can provide the mechanics with information about the essential
functions of many of the different parts of the aircraft.
9) to be taken apart – разбираться на части
The engine must be taken apart completely and then each part must be
thoroughly checked for wear and cracks.
10) to work in shifts – работать по сменам
So aircraft mechanics and service technicians typically work in shifts,
sometimes during evenings and weekends.
11) to be well-versed in smth, to know a great deal about – хорошо
разбираться в чем-л.
Mechanics need to be well-versed in computers and advanced electronic
systems. They also must know a great deal about composite materials and turbine
engines.
Read and translate the text paying attention to new words and phrases and do
some tasks to every part.
Part I
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible for making sure
airplanes are safe for flying. The airplanes that are utilized by many airlines
nowadays have increasingly complex operating systems, which have been
developed in the interest of keeping the passengers safe. Aircraft mechanics and
service technicians need to be familiar with these complex systems and know how
to prevent mechanical failures that can endanger the passengers and crew.
They are responsible for maintaining the aircraft, repairing parts that are
broken or worn, and inspecting the aircraft on a regular basis in accordance with
the schedules.
Some of the parts aircraft mechanics and service technicians are responsible
for maintaining include the engine, the landing gear, and the instruments inside the
cockpit used to determine direction and altitude. They also maintain and repair the
brakes, air-conditioning mechanisms, pumps and valves. These mechanics and
technicians need to make sure they are replacing parts at regular intervals and
maintaining a log for each piece of aircraft indicating its maintenance and repair
history.
6
True or false?
1.
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians provide safe flights with
their thorough ground maintenance.
2.
Ground crew doesn’t have to know more about new operational
systems.
3.
Airplanes are inspected by aircraft mechanics and service technicians
in accordance with the season.
4.
To maintain some instruments inside the cockpit is also their duty.
Part II
Mechanics often use tools within the airplane itself to find and diagnose
problems. These tools can provide the mechanics with information about the
essential functions of many of the different parts of the aircraft. Other aspects of
maintaining and repairing the aircraft can be more involved. Maintaining and
repairing an engine, for instance, can be a very time-consuming and grueling
process. The mechanic must first be able to get to the engine, which usually
involves using lifts, hoists, or ladders because of where it is located. The engine
must be taken apart completely and then each part must be thoroughly checked for
wear and cracks. Often imaging equipment using X-ray technology and other
instruments calibrated to give precise measurements are used. Often the
beginnings of engine wear are invisible to the naked eye, so aircraft mechanics and
service technicians must know how to use imaging equipment to find the first signs
of deterioration to evaluate whether the part needs to be replaced. They will also
check for wear, defects, corrosion, and cracks in other parts of the airplane,
including the tail, the fuselage or body of the craft, and the wings. They also may
repair various surfaces of the aircraft, including those made of sheet metal, and will
check to be sure the aircraft cables still have enough tension to operate properly. If
they do not, it is the mechanic’s responsibility to replace them. Once they have
examined and repaired all of the airplane’s parts, they also need to test each part
for functionality.
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians can also become airframe
mechanics, which provide maintenance and repairs for many parts of the plane,
except for the controls, propellers, and power sources. Those who are licensed as
power plant aircraft mechanics are skilled enough to fix the engines and, to an
extent, the propellers. There are also aircraft mechanics and service technicians
that are able to repair the airframe and work on the power sources.
7
Match the definitions with the bold-typed words in the Part II
Implements, rust, importance, competent, power supplies, failings,
labor-intensive, to repair the engines, to assay, exact, for example, corruption
Part III
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are sometimes needed to be on
call in order to fix problems that occur during the pilot’s preflight check. If the
pilot or co-pilot notices that something on the plane doesn’t work, such as the
gauges or controls, a mechanic will need to be called in to fix these before the
plane can safely take off. The mechanic will have to work quickly but also
thoroughly to ensure the safety of the aircraft. Mechanics often specialize in
different kinds of aircraft. There are aircraft mechanics and service technicians
who specialize in repairing commercial jets, helicopters, and smaller planes
powered by propellers.
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are employed in aircraft hangars,
in air fields, or at stations where aircraft repairs are done. They have a large
responsibility not only to ensure the safety of the aircraft, but also to do so quickly
in order to facilitate the maintenance of flight schedules. They must be strong
enough to lift objects that can weigh more than 50 pounds. They are often required
to work in unnatural positions or climb on top of ladders and scaffolding, which
can be precarious. When they test the parts of the airplane, they usually have to
protect their ears from the excessively loud noise to which they will be exposed.
Airlines need mechanics to be available 24 hours a day, so aircraft mechanics and
service technicians typically work in shifts, sometimes during evenings and
weekends. They often work overtime as well.
The technology used to build aircraft is changing all of the time, and more
aircraft are now built with high-tech capabilities. Because of this, mechanics need
to be well-versed in computers and advanced electronic systems. They also must
know a great deal about composite materials and turbine engines as well, because
these components are used with increasing frequency in the construction of aircraft.
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians must know a great deal about
physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science and drafting. These academic
disciplines provide aircraft mechanics students with the scientific grounding they
will need to understand how the aircraft works, how repairs are made, and what
repairs need to be made to keep the aircraft safe and functional. Mechanics also
must be able to read and write English, update the maintenance log, and provide
repair and maintenance reports to their supervisors or to pilots.
Beyond formal training, there are many qualifications that aircraft
mechanics and service technicians must have. They must be ethical, self-motivated,
reliable, and able to diagnose and fix complex mechanical or electrical problems.
They also must be able and willing to climb ladders and stand on scaffolding.
People who are afraid of heights are not suited to this position.
There are many opportunities for professional advancement in this field.
Aircraft mechanics and service technicians are able to advance to many different
positions, including inspectors, lead inspectors, supervisors, or crew leaders.
Aircraft mechanics can progress more rapidly if they gain a certification to inspect
aircraft. They also become owners of aircraft repair facilities, work in repair
consulting, or help researchers and designers build better aircraft.
Answer the questions to the Part III:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why do aircraft mechanics and service technicians are sometimes
needed to be on call?
What academic disciplines are of great importance for future aircraft
mechanics and service technicians?
Where aircraft mechanics and service technicians are usually employed
in?
What character features are necessary for people of these professions?
Could you give examples of opportunities for professional
advancement in this field?
Exercise 1. Match English words with their Russian equivalents:
1.
professional advancement
2. to facilitate the maintenance
3. to update the maintenance log
4. enough tension
5. Precarious
ladders
and
scaffolding
6. work overtime
7. the first signs of deterioration
8. thoroughly checked
9. lifts and hoists
10. repair history
11. pumps and valves
12. endanger the passengers and crew
13. sheet metal
14. time-consuming
process
15. naked eye
and
16. mechanical failures
grueling
1. Обновлять
журнал
техобслуживания
2. История ремонта
3. Первые признаки повреждения
4. Тщательно проверены
5. Для облегчения обслуживания
6. Достаточное натяжение
7. Профессиональный рост
8. Работать сверхурочно
9. Шаткие
лестницы
и
строительные леса
10. Невооруженный взгляд
11. Лифты и подъёмники
12. Длительный и изнурительный
процесс
13. Листовой металл
14. Механические повреждения
15. Насосы и клапана
16. Подвергать
пассажиров и экипаж
опасности
9
Aircraft maintenance checks are periodic inspections that have to be
done on all commercial and civil aircraft after a certain amount of
time or usage.
Airlines and airworthiness authorities casually refer to the detailed
inspections as "checks", commonly one of the following: A check, B
check, C check, or D check. A and B checks are lighter checks, while C
and D are considered heavier checks.
Text: Daily, weekly and transit checks.
Daily checks
This is the lowest scheduled check, also called post-flight check,
maintenance pre-flight check, service check, and overnight check. It is an
inspection of an aircraft for obvious damage and deterioration of its general
condition and security. It also reviews the aircraft log for discrepancies and
corrective action. Daily checks require specific equipment and tools to ensure an
airplane remains airworthy. Usually daily checks are performed every 24 or
48 hours of accumulated flight time. Some of the daily check items include:
 Tail skid shock strut pop-up indicator
 Fluid levels
 General security and cleanliness of the flight deck
 Emergency equipment
Weekly checks
Technicians fill or change oils and fluids, such as hydraulic fluid, starter
oil, engine oil and generator drive fluids. Apart from that, specialists inspect the
general visual condition of airframe systems, landing gear, and the power plant. All
external and internal lights are checked, and a self-test is run on the A/C. If
required, tires are changed and fluids replenished in hydraulic and engine oil
systems.
Transit checks
Between flights, line technicians perform a transit check of the airplane at
the airport ramp. This includes a walk-around inspection of the airplane for
obvious damage, required servicing, correction of discrepancies, and operational
tasks specified for the airplane. Qualified ground personnel carries out a visual preflight walk-around of the airplane, and the flight crew completes a pre-flight
checklist from the flight deck. Together, these precautions should help ensure the
airworthiness of the airplane.
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A-checks
A-checks belong to a higher level of scheduled maintenance procedures.
Normally it is performed at a designated maintenance station on route and includes
the opening of all access panels for checking and servicing certain items. Special
tooling, test equipment and servicing is required.
Examples of A-check items include:
 General external visual inspection of aircraft structure for evidence of
damage, deformation, corrosion, and missing parts
 Crew oxygen system pressure
 Operation of emergency lights
 Lubricating the nose gear retract actuator
 The pressure of parking brake accumulator
 Testing the Built-in Test Equipment (BITE) and Flap/Slat Electronics Unit.
Fill in the table using the information from the text.
Type of Check
Daily check
Frequency
Examples ( 3 or more)
1)
2)
3)
Once a week
1)
2)
3)
A-check
Exercise 2. True or False? Prove your opinion using these conversational
phrases.
1. I'd like to say that ..
2. I consider that ...
3. As far as I know
4. It's well known that
5. I'm quite sure that ..
6. I'm not completely certain
that ...
7. If I'm not mistaken
-
Я бы хотел сказать, что
Я полагаю, что ...
Насколько мне известно
Хорошо известно, что ...
Я вполне уверен, что ...
Я не совсем уверен, что
Если я не ошибаюсь
11
1) Daily checks don’t require specific equipment and tools.
2) Technicians perform a transit check of the airplane at the airport of
departure.
3) A-checks include the opening of all access panels for checking and
servicing certain items.
4) Flight crew carries out a visual pre-flight walk-around of the airplane, and
qualified ground personnel completes a pre-flight checklist from the flight deck.
5) Weekly checks are the same as the lowest scheduled check post-flight
check, maintenance pre-flight check, service check, and overnight check.
6) Transit checks are performed every 24 or 48 hours of accumulated flight
time.
7) Tires can be changed and fluids can be replenished in hydraulic and
engine oil systems during weekly checks.
12
Unit II
Guide to Propulsion
.
Sir Isaac Newton first presented his three laws of motion in the "Principia
Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis" in 1686. His third law states that for
every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite reaction. In
other words, if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B also exerts an
equal and opposite force on object A. Notice that the forces are exerted on
different objects.
.
For aircraft, the principal of action and reaction is very important. It helps to
explain the generation of lift from an airfoil. In this problem, the air is deflected
downward by the action of the airfoil, and in reaction the wing is pushed
upward. Similarly, for a spinning ball, the air is deflected to one side, and the
ball reacts by moving in the opposite direction. A jet engine also produces thrust
through action and reaction. The engine produces hot exhaust gases which flow
out the back of the engine. In reaction, a thrusting force is produced in the
opposite direction.
13
Exercise 1. Guess the meaning of the international words.
Nouns
machine, group, problem, maximum, factor, period, mass, variation, vibration,
minute, gas, turbine, rocket, form, system, electricity, contact, cylinder, compress,
temperature, date, propeller, pulse, idea, pressure, reaction, oxygen, atmosphere,
vacuum, impulse, mission, product, limitation.
Adjectives
mechanical, interesting, specific, nuclear, atomic, electric, atmospheric, principal,
aerial, modern, basic, chemical, planetary, thermal, dynamic
Verbs
to occupy, to combine, to utilize, to accelerate
Essential Vocabulary
1. to propel
2. propulsion
3. source
4. to produce
5. device
6. to require
7. reliable
8. reliability
9. payload
10. to permit = to allow
11. to deal with
12. to receive
13. thrust
14. specific fuel consumption15. to consume
16. to burn
17. to reduce
18. reduction
19. flexibility
20. overhaul
21. steam engine
-
двигать
движение
источник
производить
прибор, агрегат
требовать
надежный
надежность
полезная нагрузка
позволять
касаться, иметь дело
получать
тяга
удельный расход топлива
потреблять, расходовать
гореть
уменьшать
уменьшение
гибкость
капитальный ремонт
паровой двигатель
14
Text: The Propulsion System
In order to propel an airplane through the air the force is required. This force
must be rather intensive and is provided by the propulsion system.
Every propulsion system consists of:
- the fuel which is the energy source from which the force is produced for
the required time;
- the engine which is the mechanical device by which the energy of the fuel
is transformed into the propulsive force. The word "engine" originally meant any
“ingenious” device, and came from the Greek word "ingenious", clever.
Any aircraft propulsion system must meet certain requirements. First is low
weight; second, the system must be reliable; third, the cost of the system must be
sufficiently low
The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the airframe, the
propulsion system and the payload. The payload consists of the crew, equipment
and cargo. The weight of the propulsion system must be so divided between fuel
and engine as to permit the airplane to fly a desirable distance without landing.
It must be stated that engines present one of the most interesting groups of
problems considered in the engineering field. The problems dealt with are
different. One of the main problems worked at by the designers is receiving the
maximum possible power or thrust for minimum weight.
Another important problem dealt with is that of fuel. Both in the past and
today the designers work at the problem of getting lower specific fuel
consumption. Specific fuel consumption is obtained by dividing the weight of the
fuel burned per hour by the horse power developed.
Probably the reduction of fuel consumption can be solved when a nuclear
reactor is used. If used as a source of power the nuclear process gives the most
energy per unit of mass of any source known. It must be noted that controlled
atomic energy has already produced electric power and marine propulsion power.
Another possible problem considered in any engine is its flexibility.
Flexibility is the ability of the engine to run smoothly and perform properly at all
speeds and through all variations of atmospheric conditions.
One more important problem worked at by the designers is the engine
reliability. The engine is to have a long life, with maximum of time between
overhaul periods. Overall propulsion system reliability is increased by using more
than one engine. At present the preferred number of engines varies from one
engine on small airplanes to eight on large military bombers. In transports the use
of four engines predominates. Reliability is determined by the length of time the
engine can run without major overhaul. The time varies with the use of the
airplane.
It must be emphasized that in some cases the problem of balance is one of
the main. Balance has several possible meanings but the principal factor is freedom
from vibration.
Besides any engine must be started easily and carry its full load in a few
minutes.
15
The necessity of carrying away excess heat developed by the engine has
always been a problem of first importance too.
Nowadays there exist many types of engines used for various purposes.
There are gasoline engines, diesel engines, gas turbines, steam engines, steam
turbines, jet engines and rocket engines.
Each of them has certain advantages and disadvantages over other forms of
power plants.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the adverbs. Name the adjectives from which the
adverbs are formed.
Fully, originally, smoothly, considerably, recently, deeply, highly, heavily,
principally, properly, definitely
Exercise 3. Translate the nouns formed from the verbs in the left column.
ignition
heat
consumption
inclusion
operation
performance
accomplishment
improvement
driver
expression
mixture
rise
requirement
supply
to ignite - зажигать
to heat - нагревать
to consume - потреблять
to include - включать
to operate - действовать
to perform - выполнять
to accomplish - достигать, выполнять
to improve - улучшать
to drive - водить, управлять
to express - выражать
to mix - смешивать
to rise - поднимать
to require - требовать
to supply - снабжать
Exercise 4. Find the Russian equivalents.
1. to propel
2. source
3. to produce
4. device
5. to require
6. reliable
7. reliability
8. payload
9. to receive
10.specific fuel
1. гибкость
2. двигать
3. источник
4. капитальный ремонт
5. надежность
6. надежный
7. полезная нагрузка
8. получать
9. потреблять
10. прибор, агрегат
16
consumption
11.to consume
12.to reduce
13.flexibility
14.overhaul
11. производить
12. требовать
13. удельный расход топлива
14. уменьшать
Exercise 5. Match the columns.
A.
1. to propel the airplane
2. to consist of
3. to transform into
4. must meet
5. can be divided among
6. to receive the maximum possible
power
7. to get lower
8. to increase the reliability by
9. to produce
B.
1. propulsion
2. energy
3. propulsive
4. engineering
5. fuel
6. specific
7. nuclear
8. atomic
9. engine
10.overhaul
xercise Answer the Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
using more than one engine
through the air
the propulsive force
the fuel and the engine
specific fuel consumption
for minimum weight
certain requirements
electrical power
the airframe, the propulsion
system and the payload
1. consumption
2. energy
3. field
4. force
5. fuel consumption
6. period
7. process
8. reliability
9. source
10. system
Exercise 6. Read the text “Air propulsion” and answer the questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What does an aircraft propulsion system consists of?
What are the aims of propulsion system?
Why do cargo planes have turboprops?
What airplanes do require very high excess thrust and why?
What does thrust depend on?
Text: Air propulsion
An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and
some means to generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.
An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from
the propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is
17
cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag
of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference
between the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will
accelerate.
Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a
cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high
engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of
gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large
mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large
amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more
fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount. That is why we find
high bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes and airliners.
Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft require
very high excess thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag
associated with high speeds. For these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as
important as very high thrust. Modern military aircraft typically employ
afterburners on a low bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ
some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.
Exercise 7. Fill in the missing words from the table and translate the text:
Third law, engine, Latin, working fluid, drive, gas turbines, machine, thrust,
generated through, reaction, aircraft engine, mechanical power, forwards.
What is propulsion? The word is derived from two_____words: pro meaning
before or____and pellere meaning to drive. Propulsion means to push forward
or____ an object forward. A propulsion system is a____ that produces____to push
an object forward. On airplanes, thrust is usually_______ some application of
Newton's_____ of action and______. A gas, or________, is accelerated by
the______, and the reaction to this acceleration produces a force on the engine.
An_______ is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that
generates _______. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston
engines or_________.
18
Exercise 8. Match words with their definitions:
1. Thrust
2. Propulsion
3. Engine
4. Bypass
5 Drag
6. Propulsive nozzle
a) A machine that converts energy into mechanical
force or motion
b) A pipe or channel used to conduct gas or liquid
around another pipe or a fixture.
c) The force that propels an object in a given
direction
d) The aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft's
motion through the air.
e) A driving or propelling force.
f) A device designed to control the direction or
characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to
increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed
chamber or pipe via an orifice. (the exhaust duct of
the engine)
Unit III
Power Plant is the Heart of the Engine
Essential Vocabulary
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
advantage
disadvantage,
air-breathing engine
jet engine
rocket engine
ramjet engine
pulsejet engine
gas-turbine engine turbojet engine
turboprop engine turbofan engine
turboshaft engine to belong
application
to boost
combustion chambercompressor (axial, .
centrifugal
to compare
in comparison (with)complicated
to cool
to deliver
to differ (from)
to eject
essential
feature
fuel
fuel consumption inlet assembly
load-carrying capacity
nozzle (exhaust)
propellant
solid propellant
liquid propellant
to be similar (to)
to utilize
преимущество
недостаток
воздушно-реактивный двигатель
реактивный двигатель
ракетный двигатель
прямоточный двигатель
пульсирующий двигатель
газотурбинный двигатель
турбореактивный двигатель
турбовинтовой двигатель
турбовентиляторный двигатель
турбовальный двигатель
принадлежать
применение
ускорять
камера сгорания
компрессор (осевой,
центробежный)
сравнивать
по сравнению (с)
сложный
охлаждать
доставлять
отличаться (от)
выбрасывать, выпускать
основной
черта, особенность
топливо
расход топлива
входное устройство
грузоподъемность
выхлопное сопло
ракетное топливо
твердое ракетное топливо
жидкое ракетное топливо
быть) похожим (на)
использовать
20
Exercise 1. Read the following words. Pay attention to their pronunciation.
- capacity, expand, comparison;
- various, air, compare, care;
- application, special, propulsion, machine;
- mixture, feature, actually, approach;
- majority, engine, jet, project;
- liquid, equivalent, quality, quantity.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following word – combinations.
A.
air-breathing engine, type of an air-breathing engine, the simplest type of
air-breathing engines;
wide application, wide application in aviation, wide application in
military aviation;
fuel consumption, high fuel consumption, low fuel consumption,
turbojets’ high fuel consumption;
rocket engine, liquid-propellant rocket engine, modern liquid-propellant
rocket engine, solid-propellant rocket engine.
complete supply, fuel supply system, oil supply system, rocket
propulsion system;
gas turbine engine, pilotless military weapons, fuel - air mixture,
auxiliary power plant, conventional power plant;
high speed military aircraft, low speed military aircraft, large multiengine
aircraft, high pressure gases.
B.
flight time, wing design, engine characteristics, helicopter engine,
pressure rise, cooling system;
aircraft wing load, shaft rotation speed, ballistic rocket trajectory, aircraft
steam engine, better engine performances, gas turbine installation, turbine inlet
temperature;
solar ultra-violet radiation, high temperature and high-pressure gases, a
nine-pressure compressor, high thrust-to-weight ratio, improved supersonic
specific fuel consumption.
21
Text: Aircraft Engines
One of the most essential parts of any airplane is its power plant. The heart
of the power plant is the engine. There must also be fuel supply and oil supply
system, engine control system, cooling and starting systems.
Types of engines, their number and location on the airplane depend on the
airplane performances, namely, its speed, altitude, range, load-carrying capacity
and so on. Engines may be mounted on the wings, on the fuselage (forward or aft)
or under the wings on pylons.
There are many types of aircraft engines in use: piston engines for lowspeed aircraft and some types of jet engines.
Jet engines fall into two main classes: air-breathing engines and rocket
engines. The engines of the first class utilize air from the atmosphere together with
the combustion of fuel to produce the jet for propulsive purposes. Pay attention
that the jet engine is not a modern development.
When used a jet engine produces high pressure, high temperature gas, which
is ejected rearwards with great force named thrust. The thrust is the reaction of the
flow or the jet of hot gases ejected from the rear. The jet is produced by the
combustion of the fuel in the compressed air which is supplied by the atmospheric
air that enters through the front opening.
For getting the required air into the combustion chamber a compressor is
mounted in the front opening. The air is sucked in the compressor and then is used
to burn the fuel.
Although a rocket engine is a jet engine it differs from other jet propulsion
systems considered in that it does not use atmospheric air as the propulsive fluid
stream. It carries the complete supply of working fluid or propellants (oxidizer and
fuel) and can operate outside the earth’s atmosphere. Therefore when used in the
vacuum the rocket engine can produce its thrust and so provides a possible means
of propulsion for interplanetary vehicles. The rocket engine is suitable for
operation over short periods.
There are two basic types of rocket engines: liquid-propellant and solidpropellant rocket engines. Rockets find extensive use. They are used as boosters
for missiles and research rockets, and as main power plants of guided missiles. A
rocket propulsion system may also be used as a primary or an auxiliary power
plant of an airplane.
The simplest type of air-breathing engines is the ramjet engine. It has no
major rotating parts. The main components of the ramjet are: the diffuser, the
combustion chamber and the jet nozzle. A ramjet is often the power plant for
missiles and target vehicles. The ramjet can operate at high flight speeds and
altitudes but is unsuitable as an aircraft power plant because it requires forward
motion imparting to it before any thrust is produced, that is, it must be boosted to a
high speed before the initial starting of the engine. Up to now the ramjet has not
yet found wide application in aviation.
The pulsejet is more complicated than the ramjet; however, its flight
velocity is considerably lower. The pulsejet is unsuitable as an aircraft power plant
22
because it has high fuel consumption and is unable to equal the performance of the
modern gas turbine engines. Possible application of the pulsejet is to propel
pilotless military weapons. The main limitation of the pulsejet is the following
one: it produces great noise during its operation.
Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan belong to the family of gas-turbine
engines. Any type of the gas-turbine engines comprises the inlet assembly
(diffuser), the compressor, the combustion chamber, the gas turbine and exhaust
nozzle.
In a turbojet engine the diffuser takes the air and delivers it to the
compressor. The mechanical compressor further compresses the air and delivers it
to the combustion chamber, where the fuel-air mixture burns. The high
temperature and high pressure gases enter the turbine. The turbine is connected
with the compressor. The main function of the turbine is to provide power for the
compressor. Then the combustion products expand in the exhaust nozzle and are
ejected with high velocity producing thrust.
The turbojets are classified into 2 groups according to the kind of
compressors which they use, that is, centrifugal and axial compressors. The
majority of modern turbojets are equipped with axial compressors. At present the
turbojet engine has become a conventional power plant for nearly all high-speed
military aircraft.
The turboprop engine is very similar to the turbojet. The difference is that it
uses propeller to provide most of its thrust. It is heavier than a turbojet of
equivalent size and power. However, its fuel consumption is lower in comparison
with a turbojet. A variation of the turboprop engine is known as the turboshaft
engine. It is often used for powering helicopters.
The turbofan engine combines the features of both the turbojet and
turboprop engines. In the turbofan the propeller is replaced by an axial-flow fan.
The turbofan is lighter than a turboprop; it has relatively low fuel consumption.
The turbofan as well as the turboprop produces more thrust than the turbojet
during take-off. Turbofans are widely used in aviation, especially in large multiengine aircraft.
Exercise 3. Give the English equivalents.
1. воздушно-реактивный двигатель
2. реактивный двигатель
3. прямоточный двигатель
4. пульсирующий двигатель
5. турбореактивный двигатель
6. турбовинтовой двигатель
7. поршневой двигатель
8. турбовентиляторный двигатель
9. газотурбинный двигатель
10.турбовальный двигатель
11.ракетный двигатель
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
turboshaft engine
turboprop engine
turbojet engine
turbofan engine
solid propellant rocket engine
rocket engine
ramjet engine
pulsejet engine
liquid propellant rocket
engine
10. jet engine
23
12.ракетный двигатель на твердом
топливе
13.ракетный двигатель на жидком
топливе
11. air-breathing engine
12. gas-turbine engine
13. piston engine
Exercise 4. Find the Russian equivalents.
a.
1. cooling system
2. starting system
3. fuel supply system
4. location
5. combustion of fuel
6. thrust
7. propellant
8. fuel
9. velocity
10.limitation
11.complicated
1. горение топлива
2. ограничение
3. размещение
4. ракетное топливо
5. система запуска
6. система охлаждения
7. скорость
8. сложный
9. топливная система
10.топливо
11.тяга
b.
1. to depend on
2. to be mounted
3. to fall into
4. to utilize
5. to eject
6. to supply
7. to differ
8. to carry
9. to produce
10. to propel
11. to power
12. to comprise
13. to provide
14. to replace
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
включать, содержать
делиться
зависеть от
заменять
извергать
использовать
обеспечивать
оснащать(двигателем)
переносить
поставлять
приводить в движение
различать
располагаться
создавать
Exercise 5. Match the verbs with the objects.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
to depend on
to be mounted
to fall into
to utilize
to be ejected
to differ from
to carry
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
two main types
thrust
the airplane performance
power for the compressor
pilotless military weapons
oxidizer and fuel
other jet propulsion systems
24
8. to produce
9. to propel
10.to power
11.to provide
12.to replace by
13.to deliver
8. on the wings
9. helicopters
10.from the rear
11.an axial-flow fan
12.air to the compressor
13.air from the atmosphere
Exercise 6. Ask about different types of engines according to their design,
operation and application. Answer the questions.
Remember Speech Patterns!
1. It is known that …
- Известно, что …
2. To my mind
- По-моему …
3. I think
- Я думаю
4. As a rule
- Как правило
5. You are right
- Вы правы …
6. I’m of the same opinion
- Я такого же мнения
7. I can’t agree with you
- Я не могу согласиться с
вами
1. What does … consist of (include, comprise)?
… consists of (include, comprise) … .
2. What is the function of … ?
Its function is to … .
3. Where is … used (applied, utilized)?
It is used (applied, utilized) in … .
4. What … is (are) widely used?
… types are.
Exercise7. Complete the questions. Use the proper auxiliary verb.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
How many parts … the turboshaft engine include?
What thrust … modern aircraft engines develop?
Where … the combustion products expand?
How much fuel … this engine consume?
When … the first turbojet appear?
Where … the air compressed?
What compressor … modern jet engines equipped with?
Where … the engines mounted?
Why … the jet engines widely used?
25
Exercise 8. Read the text and write an annotation
Text: What Is a Gas Turbine Engine?
When you go to an airport and see the commercial jets there, you can't help
but notice the huge engines that power them. Most commercial jets are powered by
turbofan engines, and turbofans are one example of a general class of engines
called gas turbine engines.
A gas turbine engine uses a pressurized gas to spin a turbine and
compressor. Inside the engine, fuel is ignited to increase the gas’s temperature and
pressure. This causes the gas to act on the turbine at a higher velocity. Gas turbine
engines are used to power many aircraft and helicopters, boats and have recently
been used in some battle tanks.
A turbine uses the energy of a flowing fluid to rotate a wheel. The concept of
a turbine has existed for many years; windmills and water wheels are simple
examples. Moving air passes over a windmill’s slanted blades, causing the wheel
to spin. Turbines can also be used with steam, as in the case of many power plants.
The turbine in a gas turbine engine, however, uses highly pressurized air to rotate.
Norwegian engineer Aegidius Elling was granted a patent for a gas turbine
in 1884. His first turbine model that produced more power than it consumed was
unveiled in 1903. Elling’s design locked a spinning air compressor to the turbine, a
feature widely used today. He believed that if more heat-resistant materials could
be found, the gas turbine engine could be used to power airplanes.
The main parts of a gas turbine engine are the compressor, the combustion
area and the turbine. Air enters the compressor at normal pressure and then gets
compressed. In the combustion area, some type of fuel is burned to increase the
temperature and energy content of the air. The high-temperature, high-pressure gas
is then forced to exit the engine, turning the turbine on its way out. A solid shaft
connects the compressor and turbine - the rotation of the turbine is used to spin the
compressor, which makes the engine as a whole more efficient.
The shaft that connects the compressor to the turbine may or may not be
used to power additional devices. In a jet engine, the method of obtaining thrust is
expelling the exhaust gas at a high velocity, which causes the aircraft to be pushed
forward. In vehicles that are not powered by thrust, the spinning shaft can be used
to do mechanical work.
A gas turbine engine has several advantages over the type of engine found in
most automobiles. First of all, it has a better power-to-weight ratio. Gas turbine
engines are also smaller than their automobile counterparts for a given amount of
power. These reasons explain why many helicopters and airplanes use this type of
engine.
Find and write down English equivalents from the text “What Is a Gas Turbine
Engine?”
Соотношение мощности и веса, ветряные и водяные мельницы,
приводить в действие дополнительные устройства, газ высокого давления,
26
термостойкий материал, энергия вытекающей жидкости, вращать
компрессор, запас энергии, на более высокой скорости, сплошной вал,
испускать выхлопной газ, двойник.
True or false?
1. A gas turbine engine uses a pressurized gas to rotate a wheel.
2. The main parts of a gas turbine engine are the compressor, the
combustion area and the turbine.
3. Inside the engine, fuel is ignited to decrease the gas’s temperature and
pressure.
4. Aegidius Elling was granted a patent for a gas turbine in 1894.
5. Air enters the compressor at high pressure and then gets compressed.
6. An aircraft gas turbine engine has several advantages over automobile
one.
Exercise 9. Translate the sentences with the adjectives in the comparative form.
Remember! To compare things we use: much - намного; far - гораздо;
a little – немного.
1. The more efficient the compressor, the higher the pressure generated for a
given work input.
2. The more efficiently the turbine uses the expanding gas, the greater the
output of the work for a given pressure drop in the gas.
3. Because the turbojet engine is a heat engine, the higher the temperature of
combustion the greater is the expansion of the gases.
4. Although the turbo-rocket engine is smaller and lighter than the
turbo/ramjet, it has higher fuel consumption.
5. The centrifugal flow compressor is usually more robust than the axial
compressor and is also easier to develop and manufacture.
6. The axial flow compressor consumes far more air than a centrifugal compressor of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much higher
pressure ratios.
7. The more the pressure ratio of a compressor is increased the more difficult it
becomes to ensure that it will operate efficiently over the full speed range.
8. Engines operating at higher turbine inlet temperatures are thermally more
efficient and have an improved power to weight ratio.
9. Bypass engines have a better propulsive efficiency and thus can have a
smaller turbine for a given thrust.
27
Text: Types of Turbines
There are many different kinds of turbines:
You have probably heard of a steam turbine. Most power plants use coal,
natural gas, oil or a nuclear reactor to create steam. The steam runs through a huge
and very carefully designed multi-stage turbine to spin an output shaft that drives
the plant's generator.
Hydroelectric dams use water turbines in the same way to generate power.
The turbines used in a hydroelectric plant look completely different from a steam
turbine because water is so much denser (and slower moving) than steam, but it is
the same principle.
Wind turbines, also known as wind mills, use the wind as their motive force.
A wind turbine looks nothing like a steam turbine or a water turbine because wind
is slow moving and very light, but again, the principle is the same.
A gas turbine is an extension of the same concept. In a gas turbine, a
pressurized gas spins the turbine. In all modern gas turbine engines, the engine
produces its own pressurized gas, and it does this by burning something like
propane, natural gas, kerosene or jet fuel. The heat that comes from burning the
fuel expands air, and the high-speed rush of this hot air spins the turbine.
Gas turbine engines are, theoretically, extremely simple. They have three
parts:
1. Compressor - Compresses the incoming air to high pressure.
2. Combustion area - Burns the fuel and produces high-pressure, highvelocity gas.
3. Turbine - Extracts the energy from the high-pressure, high-velocity gas
flowing from the combustion chamber.
Types of Turbine Engines:
 Turbine engines are classified according to the type of compressors they use
 There are three types of compressors-centrifugal flow, axial flow, and
centrifugal-axial flow
 Compression of inlet air is achieved in a centrifugal flow engine by
accelerating air outward perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
machine
 The axial-flow engine compresses air by a series of rotating and stationary
airfoils moving the air parallel to the longitudinal axis
 The centrifugal-axial flow design uses both kinds of compressors to achieve
the desired compression
 The path the air takes through the engine and how power is produced
determines the type of engine
There are four types of aircraft turbine engines:
 Turbojet
 Turboprop
 Turbofan
 Turboshaft
Text: Engine Types
During the development of jet engine technology, several types of engines
have been invented. Most of these types perform differently at varying airspeeds,
which means that each type of engine has varying characteristics. The turbojet is
the earliest jet engine and formed the base for the engines we use today. Besides
the turbojet, turboprop engines were widely used and still powers many aircraft
today. Nowadays, the turbofan engine is used most common by commercial
aviation and makes use of a fan which drives air around bypass ducts. We'll
discuss these types in more detail below.
 Answer the question: Why was it necessary to invent several types
of engines?
Turbojet
The turbojet is the simplest jet engine in terms of construction. It is still
widely used in military aviation since it allows aircraft to fly at speeds exceeding
Mach 1. Although there are many types its basic design consists of an air intake, a
gas generator unit and an exhaust nozzle. The gas generator in turn consists of the
compressor, combustion chamber and turbine. In this design, the turbine drives
only the compressor and various accessory systems; this leaves more energy to
provide actual thrust than in other types. As said before, the turbojet is commonly
used to provide power in order to fly supersonic where it fuel efficiency increases.
 Answer the question: What is the main advantage of using the
turbojet engine?
Turboprop
The turboprop is similar to the turbojet, except that the turbine drives a
propeller, as well, in a two-spool configuration. Contrary to the turbojet, the
turboprop accelerates a large amount of air to a relatively low exhaust velocity.
Because of this, the turboprop reaches a very high fuel-efficiency at the expense of
airspeed. Because of this, the turboprop engine performs best in the 250 to 450
mph speed range. Additionally, the turboprop generates more noise than the
turbojet.
 Answer the question: What is the best speed range for turboprop and
why?
Turbofan
Above 450 mph both the turbofan and turbojet is most widely used on
commercial aircraft and business jets. The turbofan engine was designed in order
to permit higher turbine temperatures without increasing gas velocity dramatically
because this would decrease efficiency in subsonic flight. The turbofan makes use
of a huge fan driven by the turbine commonly known as the N1. This fan directs air
through bypass ducts, which lead air around the core engine to a separate exhaust
nozzle. This method has proven to be very efficient at transonic airspeeds, making
the turbofan ideal for modern commercial aircraft. The turbofan can be categorized
by the ratio at which air moves through and around the core engine: Low bypass-
ratio turbofans and high bypass-ratio turbofans. Almost every modern transport
aircraft is powered by turbofan engines which contribute to high efficiency.
 Answer the question: How does the turbofan make use of a huge fan?
Turboshafts
The turboshaft is another form of gas-turbine engine that operates much like
a turboprop system. It does not drive a propeller. Instead, it provides power for a
helicopter rotor. The turboshaft engine is designed so that the speed of the
helicopter rotor is independent of the rotating speed of the gas generator. This
permits the rotor speed to be kept constant even when the speed of the generator is
varied to modulate the amount of power produced.
 Answer the question: Where the turboshaft is usually used?
Ramjets
The simplest jet engine – the ramjet – has no moving parts. The speed of the
jet “rams” or forces air into the engine. It is essentially a turbojet in which rotating
machinery has been omitted. Its application is restricted by the fact that its
compression ratio depends wholly on forward speed. The ramjet develops no static
thrust and very little thrust in general below the speed of sound. As a consequence,
a ramjet vehicle requires some form of assisted takeoff, such as another aircraft. It
has been used primarily in guided-missile systems. Space vehicles use this type of
jet.
 Answer the question: How does the ramjet differs from the turbojet
one?
Exercise 10. Translate the nouns or adjectives formed from the verbs in the left
column.
burner
heat
conversion
acceleration
operation
diffuser
production
rise
rotary
movable
expansion
requirement
supply
assembly
addition
to burn - зажигать
to heat - нагревать
to convert - преобразовать
to accelerate - ускорять
to operate - действовать
to diffuse - распространять
to produce - создавать
to rise - увеличивать, поднимать
to rotate - вращать
to move - двигать
to expand - расширять
to require - требовать
to supply - снабжать
to assemble - собирать
to add - добавлять
30
Exercise 11. Read the dialogue. What new information have you got?
Instructor: Today we are going to discuss aviation jet engines, which are
actually turbo-jet engines, having a compressor at the front to force the air in.
Peter: What drives the compressor?
Instructor: There's plenty of energy at the back, where the hot gases leave the
combustion chamber. If you put a turbine there and connect it to the
compressor by a shaft, that would solve the problem, wouldn’t’ it?
Nick: What's about the other types of jet engines?
Instructor: They're all variations on the turbo-jet principle. There's the turboprop, for example, where the turbines rotate both the compressor and an
ordinary propeller.
Nick: What are the advantages of this type of engine?
Instructor: At very low flying speeds propellers are more efficient form of
propulsion that jet engines. Pure jet engines are very efficient at high subsonic
speeds, but at medium and low subsonic speeds their efficiency sharply
decreases.
Peter: And this was the reason for development of by-pass engines.
Instructor: Right you are, this was the reason. But the development of bypass
engines was only the first step.
Nick: Are by-pass engines still used?
Instructor: They are, but in a modified form. In a by-pass engine only some of
the air goes straight through; the remainder if passed through ducts, round the
combustion chamber and turbine, but later rejoins the main stream at the rear.
Peter: And what was the second step?
Instructor: The second step was development of fan engines. The first set of
rotor blades of the axial compressor was enlarged to form a sort of multi-blade
propeller, known as the fan.
Nick: Modern jet engines look so big and impressive. Is it because of their
large diameter fans?
Instructor: The diameter of modem high by-pass-ratio jet engines is up to
three meters, and they are pylon-mounted.
31
Exercise 12. Do the two-way translation and match the columns.
.
1. От чего зависит количество
1. Jet engines fall into two main
двигателей и их расположение
classes: air-breathing engines and
на самолетах?
rocket engines
2. Possible application of the pulsejet
2. Где на самолете могут
is to propel pilotless military
располагаться двигатели?
weapons.
3. Turbofans are widely used in
3. На какие классы
aviation, especially in large multiподразделяются реактивные
engine aircraft
двигатели?
4. Types of engines, their number and
4. Какие два основных типа
location on the airplane depend on
ракетных двигателей
the airplane performances
существуют?
5. Engines may be mounted on the
wings, on the fuselage (forward or
5. Какой самый простой из
aft) or under the wings on pylons.
воздушно-реактивных
6. There are two basic types of rocket
двигателей?
engines: liquid-propellant and
6. Для чего предназначен
solid-propellant rocket engines.
пульсирующий двигатель?
7. The simplest type of air-breathing
engine is the ramjet engine.
7. Какие двигатели относятся к
8. Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan
газотурбинным двигателям?
belong to the family of gas-turbine
8. Из чего состоит
engines.
газотурбинный двигатель?
9. It comprises the inlet assembly
9. Как подразделяются
(diffuser), the compressor, the
турбореактивные двигатели?
combustion chamber, the gas
10. На каких самолетах
turbine and exhaust nozzle.
используются
10. The turbojets are classified into 2
турбовентиляторные
groups according to the kind of
двигатели?
compressors which they use.
Exercise13 . Do your projects or reports about types of turbine engines using the
information below.
 Turbojet
 The turbojet engine consists of four sections: compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine section, and exhaust. The compressor section passes inlet
air at a high rate of speed to the combustion chamber
 The combustion chamber contains the fuel inlet and igniter for combustion
 The expanding air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor, sustaining engine operation
 The accelerated exhaust gases from the engine provide thrust
 This is a basic application of compressing air, igniting the fuel-air mixture,
producing power to self-sustain the engine operation, and exhaust for
propulsion
 Turbojet engines are limited in range and endurance
 They are also slow to respond to throttle applications at slow compressor
speeds
 Turboprop
 A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller through a
reduction gear.
 The exhaust gases drive a power turbine connected by a shaft that drives the
reduction gear assembly
 Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum
propeller performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine'
operating rpm
 Turboprop engines are a compromise between turbojet engines and
reciprocating power plants
 Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 250 and 400 mph
and altitudes between 18,000 and 30,000'
 They also perform well at the slow airspeeds required for takeoff and
landing, and are fuel efficient
 The minimum specific fuel consumption of the turboprop engine is normally
available in the altitude range of 25,000' to the tropopause.
 Turbofan
 Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the
turbojet and the turboprop.
 Turbofan engines are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a
secondary airflow around the combustion chamber.
 The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the engine, and
aids in exhaust noise suppression.
 This provides turbojet-type cruise speed and lower fuel consumption.
 The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine is usually divided into
two separate streams of air.
 One stream passes through the engine core, while a second stream bypasses
the engine core.
 It is this bypass stream of air that is responsible for the term "bypass
engine".
 A turbofan's bypass ratio refers to the ratio of the mass airflow that passes
through the fan divided by the mass airflow that passes through the engine
core.
34
 Turboshaft
 The fourth common type of jet engine is the turboshaft
 It delivers power to a shaft that drives something other than a propeller
 The biggest difference between a turbojet and turboshaft engine is that on a
turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the expanding gases is
used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust
 Many helicopters use a turboshaft gas turbine engine
 In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as auxiliary power units on
large aircraft
35
Unit IV
Main Parts of the Gas Turbine Engine and their functions
Essential Vocabulary
1. working fluid
2. to accelerate
3. to increase
4. velocity
5. conversion
6. efflux
7. rotary air compressor
8. air intake
9. exhaust outlet
10.centrifugal compressor
11.axial flow compressor
12.to drive (drove, driven)
13.to couple
14.shaft
15.to diffuse
16.frontal area
17.pressure ratio
18.to attain
19.to burn (burnt)
20.quantity
21.fuel burner
22.volume of air
23.to supply
24.to expand
25.smooth stream
26.to release
27.blade
28.(exhaust) nozzle
29.accessories
30.to extract energy
31.to involve
32.blade tips
33.flow of gas
34.row
35.stationary nozzle guide vanes
36.moving blades
37.assembly
38.discharge gases
рабочее тело
ускорять
увеличивать
(векторная) скорость
преобразование
истечение
роторный компрессор
воздухозаборник
выхлопное устройство
центробежный компрессор
осевой компрессор
приводить в движение
соединять
вал
рассеивать, распространять
лобовая площадь
степень сжатия
достигать
жечь, сжигать
количество
топливная форсунка
количество воздуха
снабжать, подавать
расширять
ровный поток
выпускать, освобождать
лопатка
(выхлопное) сопло
вспомогательные агрегаты
выделять энергию
вовлекать, включать в себя
законцовки лопасти
поток воздуха
ряд
неподвижные направляющие лопатки
соплового аппарата
- вращающиеся лопатки
- агрегат
- выхлопные газы
-
36
Text: Main Parts of the Gas Turbine Engine
The gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using air as the working
fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the air passing through the engine has to be
accelerated; this means that the velocity or kinetic energy of the air is increased. To
obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased, followed by the
addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic energy in the form
of a high velocity jet efflux.
The gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake,
one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust outlet.
There are two basic types of rotary air compressors: centrifugal flow and
axial flow compressors. Both types are driven by the engine turbine and are
coupled direct to the turbine shaft. The function of the compressor is to accelerate
the air, to diffuse it and to produce the required pressure rise.
The axial compressor consumes far more air than a centrifugal compressor
of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much higher pressure ratios.
Since the airflow is an important factor in determining the amount of thrust, this
means that the axial compressor engine will also give more thrust for the same
frontal area.
The combustion chamber has the difficult task of burning large quantities of
fuel supplied through the fuel burners with extensive volumes of air supplied by
the compressor. The heat is released in such a manner that the air is expanded and
accelerated to give a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions
required by the turbine. This task must be accomplished with the minimum loss in
pressure and with the maximum heat release.
The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and
accessories. It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the
combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature. High
stresses are involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade
tips may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to
which the turbine is exposed may have an entry temperature between 850 and
1,700 deg. С and may reach a velocity of over 2,500 feet per second in parts of the
turbine.
The turbine may consist of several stages. Each stage employs one row of
stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving blades.
The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to atmosphere at a
velocity and in the required direction to provide the resultant thrust.
Because the turbojet engine is a heat engine, the higher the temperature of
combustion the greater is the expansion of the gases. The combustion temperature,
however, must not exceed a value that gives a turbine gas entry temperature
suitable for the design and materials of the turbine assembly.
The use of air-cooled blades in the turbine assembly permits a higher gas
temperature and a consequently higher thermal efficiency.
37
Learn these phrases.
1. to accelerate the air
2. to increase the velocity
3. to drive the compressor
4.
5.
6.
7.
to couple to the turbine shaft
to diffuse the air
to reach a velocity
to burn large quantities of fuel
8. to supply by the compressor
9. to expand hot gases
10. to release hot gases
11. to extract energy
12. to provide thrust
- ускорять воздух
- увеличить скорость
- приводить в движение
компрессор
- соединять с валом турбины
- рассеивать воздух
- достигать скорости
- сжигать большое количество
топлива
- доставлять компрессором
- расширять горячие газы
- освобождать (выделять)
горячие газы
- выделять энергию
- создавать тягу
Exercise 1. Guess the meaning of the international words.
Nouns
Gas, turbine, acceleration, energy, compressor, diffuser, factor, temperature,
material, compression, process, accessory, pressure, stress, operation, system,
atmosphere, efficiency.
Adjectives
Kinetic, final, centrifugal, frontal, minimum, maximum, stationary,
resultant, thermal.
Exercise2. Find the Russian equivalents.
a.
1. quantity
2. fuel burner
3. volume of air
4. blade
5. (exhaust) nozzle
6. accessories
7. blade tips
8. moving blades
9. discharge gases
10.assembly
1. (выхлопное) сопло
2. агрегат
3. вращающиеся лопатки
4. выхлопные газы
5. законцовки лопасти
6. количество
7. количество воздуха
8. лопатка
9. принадлежности
10.топливная форсунка
38
b.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
working fluid
velocity
efflux
rotary air compressor
air intake
exhaust outlet
centrifugal compressor
axial flow compressor
shaft
pressure ratio
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
центробежный компрессор
степень сжатия
роторный компрессор
рабочее тело
осевой компрессор
истечение
выхлопное устройство
воздухозаборник
вал
(векторная) скорость
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
to accelerate
to increase
to drive
to couple
to diffuse
to attain
to burn
to supply
to expand
to release
to extract energy
to involve
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
вовлекать, включать в себя
выделять энергию
выпускать, освобождать
достигать
жечь, сжигать
приводить в движение
распространять
расширять
снабжать, подавать
соединять
увеличивать
ускорять
c.
Exercise 3. Match the verbs with the objects.
1. to accelerate
2. to increase
3. to drive
4. to couple
5. to diffuse
6. to reach
7. to burn
8. to supply
9. to expand
10. to release
11. to extract
12. to provide
1. to the turbine shaft
2. thrust
3. large quantities of fuel
4. the kinetic energy
5. hot gases
6. gases
7. energy
8. the compressors
9. by the compressor
10.the air flow
11.the air
12.velocity
39
Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with the word-combinations in the right column.
1. In order to propel an airplane through the air
the force ….
2. The … must be rather intensive and is
provided by the propulsion system
3. Every …consists of the fuel and the engine
4. The engine is the … for transforming the
energy of the fuel into the ….
5. The total weight of the airplane can be
divided among the …, the propulsion system
and the ….
6. The payload consists of the …, equipment
and … .
7. One of the main problems is receiving the …
or thrust for minimum … .
8. The reduction of fuel consumption can be
solved when a … is used.
9. The engine is to have a long life with
maximum of time between … .
10. Reliability is determined by the length of
time the engine can run without … .
1. airframe
2. cargo
3. crew
4. force
5. is required
6. major overhaul
7. maximum possible
power
8. mechanical device
9. nuclear reactor
10. overhaul periods
11. payload
12. propulsion
system
13. propulsive force
14. weight
Text: The First Jet Engine - A Short History of Early Engines
Exercise 5. After reading this information about famous inventors and their
inventions, try to find more and realize it in your own projects.
Sir Isaac Newton in the 18th century was the first to theorize that a rearwardchanneled explosion could propel a machine forward at a great rate of speed. This
theory was based on his third law of motion. As the hot air blasts backwards
through the nozzle the plane moves forward.
Henri Giffard built an airship which was powered by the first aircraft engine, a
three-horse power steam engine. It was very heavy, too heavy to fly.
In 1874, Felix de Temple, built a monoplane that flew just a short hop down a hill
with the help of a coal fired steam engine.
Otto Daimler, in the late 1800's invented the first gasoline engine.
In 1894, American Hiram Maxim tried to power his triple biplane with two coal
fired steam engines. It only flew for a few seconds.
40
The early steam engines were powered by heated coal and were generally much
too heavy for flight.
American Samuel Langley made a model airplanes that were powered by steam
engines. In 1896, he was successful in flying an unmanned airplane with a steampowered engine, called the Aerodrome. It flew about 1 mile before it ran out of
steam. He then tried to build a full sized plane, the Aerodrome A, with a gas
powered engine. In 1903, it crashed immediately after being launched from a
house boat.
In 1903, the Wright Brothers flew, The Flyer, with a 12 horse power gas powered
engine.
From 1903, the year of the Wright Brothers first flight, to the late 1930s the gas
powered reciprocating internal-combustion engine with a propeller was the sole
means used to propel aircraft.
It was Frank Whittle, a British pilot, who designed the first turbo jet engine in
1930. The first Whittle engine successfully flew in April, 1937. This engine
featured a multistage compressor, and a combustion chamber, a single stage
turbine and a nozzle.
The first jet airplane to successfully use this type of engine was the German
Heinkel He 178. It was the world's first turbojet powered flight. General Electric
for the US Army Air Force built the first American jet plane. It was the XP-59A
experimental aircraft.
Exercise 6. Do you know the history of the aircraft engine construction in
Russia? Complete the dialogue.
a.
…?
b.
The aircraft engine construction began in Russia at the end of the 19th
century with Mozhaisky’s steam engine and the steam turbine of the Russian
engineer Kuzminsky.
a.
…?
b.
As far as I know Kuzminsky’s engine consisted of an air compressor,
a combustion chamber and a multistage turbine.
a.
…?
b.
Such Russian scientists as V.Tatarinov, A.Ufimtsev, S.Grizodubov,
B.Lutsky worked at the development of aircraft piston engines.
a.
…?
b.
The first piston engines had from 3 to 8 cylinders and produced 20-80
horse powers.
a.
…?
b.
In 1924 the M-11 air - cooled engine designed by Shvetsov went into
serial production. It had high reliability, small size and weight and low coast.
41
a. … ?
b. The U-2 (Po-2) training aircraft were powered by the M-11 engines for a
long time.
a.
…?
b. Such names as V.Klimov, A.Kuznetsov, A.Mikulin, A.Shvetsov, A.Lulka
have become famous in our country as well as abroad.
a. … ?
b. They constructed powerful and reliable turbojet and turboprop engines.
a. … ?
b. The PS-90 turbofan engine designed by P.Solovyev is the best aircraft
engine in the world.
Exercise 7. Fill in the gaps with the word-combinations in the right column.
1. The heart of the power plant is the….
2. Jet engines fall into….
3. The jet is produced by the… in the
compressed air.
4. Jet engines fall into two main classes: …
engines and …engines.
5. When used a… produces high pressure and
high temperature gas.
6. Rocket engines are used as… for missiles
and research rockets, and as… of guided
missiles.
7. The rocket engine carries the complete
supply of… or …(oxidizer and fuel).
8. There are two basic types of rocket engines:
… and …rocket engines.
9. The … is more complicated than the ramjet.
10. Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan engines
belong to the family of …. .
11. The majority of modern turbojets are
equipped with … compressors.
12. The turboprop engine uses propeller to
provide most of its … .
1. working fluid
2. thrust
3. solid propellant
4. rocket
5. pulsejet engine
6. propellant
7. main power plants
8. liquid propellant
9. jet engine
10. two main classes
11. gas turbine engines
12. engine
13. combustion of the fuel
14. boosters
15. axial
16. air-breathing
42
Grammar Practice
That (those)
1. that (those)+ noun –
указательные местоимения
тот, та, то (те)
2. that (those) + of + noun –
слова – заместители
существительного
2. that – союз:
a. что
That engine produced great noise during its
operation. – Тот двигатель создавал …
The work of a new device is much more
efficient than that of the old one. -…чем
работа старого.
He said that he would come back in 10
minutes.– Он сказал, что вернется ...
b. то что
That he is a good driver is a well-known fact. То что он хороший…
c. который
(относительное
местоимение)
Windows is a software program that makes
your PC easy to use. - … программа,
которая делает …
Exercise 8. Translate the sentences with that (those) which are used instead of
nouns.
1. The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the fourstroke piston engine.
2. The diameter of Mars is 4,200 miles about half that of the Earth.
3. Hydrogen atoms are the lightest of those of any other elements.
4. The elements of which the Sun and stars consist are almost the same as
those of the Earth.
5. The radio waves come back from an object in the same way as those of a
light.
6. Chemical properties of phosphorus are like those of nitrogen.
7. The proton has a mass of 1,837 times that of the electron.
8. The properties of the metal are very close to those of aluminium.
9. Navigation by radio is much more efficient than that by any other means.
Exercise 9. Translate the sentences. Pay attention to the functions of that and
those.
1.
Newton’s third law of motion states that “for every force acting on a
body there is an opposite and equal reaction”.
2.
Both engine cycles show that in each engine instance there is
induction, compression, combustion and exhaust.
3.
It must be noted that controlled atomic energy has already produced
electric power and marine propulsion power.
43
4.
An axial flow compressor consists of one or more rotor assemblies
that carry blades of airfoil section.
5.
It must be stated that engines present one of the most interesting
groups of problems considered in the engineering field.
6.
Although a rocket engine is a jet engine, it has one major difference in
that it does not use atmospheric air as the propulsive fluid stream.
7.
The power of the jet engine is much higher than that of the diesel
engine.
8.
The engine of the aircraft must be lighter than that of any ground
vehicle.
9.
The turbo-rocket engine has one major difference in that it carries its
own oxygen to provide combustion.
10. The flexibility of a diesel engine is higher than that of a gasoline
engine.
11. The speed of the car is less than that of a plane.
12. The weight of diesel engines is heavier than that of gasoline engines.
13. This vehicle requires longer overhaul than that vehicle.
14. The speed of jet engines is much more than that of piston engines.
15. The pressure in the jet engine is higher than that in the diesel engine.
16. The payload of an aircraft is usually higher than that of a tank.
Exercise10. Replace the Russian words by the English ones.
1. In order to propel an airplane through the air the требуется сила.
2. This force must be rather intensive and is provided by the двигательной
системой.
3. Every propulsion system consists of топлива и двигателя.
4. The engine is the механический агрегат by which the energy of the fuel
is transformed into движущую силу.
5. Any aircraft propulsion system must meet certain требованиям: low
weight, высокой надежностью, low cost.
6. The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the airframe,
двигательной системой и полезной нагрузкой.
7. One of the main problems is получение the maximum possible power or
тяги for minimum весе.
8. Both in the past and today the designers work at the problem of getting
более низкого удельного расхода топлива.
9. Всережимность is the ability of the engine плавно работать and
perform properly at всех скоростях and through all variations of atmospheric
conditions.
10. The engine is to have a long life, with maximum of time between
периодами капитального ремонта.
44
11. Overall propulsion system reliability увеличивается by using more than
one engine.
12. Reliability is determined by the length of time the engine can run без
капитального ремонта.
13. Any engine must легко запускаться and carry its full load in a few
minutes.
Exercise 11. True or false?
1. In order to propel an airplane through the air the force is not required.
2. The force must be rather intensive and is provided by the propulsion
system.
3. Every aircraft consists of the fuel and the engine.
4. The engine is the chemical device for transforming the energy of the fuel
into the propulsive force.
5. The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the wing and the
propulsion system.
6. The payload consists of the crew, equipment and cargo.
7. One of the main problems is receiving the minimum possible power for
maximum weight.
8. The reduction of fuel consumption can be solved when a nuclear reactor
is used.
9. The engine is to have a long life with minimum of time between overhaul
periods.
10. Reliability is determined by the length of time the engine can run
without major overhaul.
Exercise 12. Answer the questions.
1. What is required to propel an airplane through the air?
2. What does the propulsion system consist of?
3. What is the fuel?
4. What is the engine?
5. What requirements must the propulsion system meet?
6. How is the total weight of an airplane divided?
7. What are the main problems dealt with the engine?
8. What is the specific fuel consumption?
9. How can one increase the reliability of the propulsion system?
10.What types of engines are there nowadays?
Exercise 13. Speak about the propulsion system using the key-words.
1.To propel an aircraft
the force is required
the force is provided by
45
2. The propulsion system consists of …
the fuel is …
the engine is …
3. The propulsion system must meet the requirements:
low weight
high reliability
low cost
4. The total weight of an airplane can be divided among…
The payload consists of…
The weight of the propulsion system can be divided between …
5. There are many problems considered in the engineering field:
receiving the maximum possible power for …
getting lower specific fuel consumption
flexibility of the engine
engine reliability
the problem of balance
carrying away excess heat
6. There exist many types of engines. They are …
Exercise 14. Make questions to the underlined words.
1.
2.
3.
4.
In order to propel an airplane through the air the force is required.
This force is provided by the propulsion system.
The fuel is the energy source.
The total weight of the airplane is divided among the airframe, the
propulsion system and the payload.
5. Overall propulsion system reliability is increased by using more than one
engine.
Exercise 15. Do the two-way translation.
1. Чем создается сила для
движения самолета в
воздухе?
1. The force is provided by the
propulsion system to move an
airplane through the air.
2. Из чего состоит двигательная
система?
3. Что такое двигатель?
2. The propulsion system consists of
the fuel and the engine.
3. The engine is the mechanical device
by which the energy of the fuel is
transformed into the propulsive
force.
4. The propulsion system must meet
certain requirements. It must have
low weight, high reliability and low
cost.
4. Каким требованиям должна
отвечать двигательная
система самолета?
5. Как распределяется полный
46
вес самолета?
6. Как увеличить надежность
двигательной системы?
7. Какие типы двигателей
существуют?
5. The total weight of an airplane can
be divided among the airframe, the
propulsion system and the payload.
6. Overall
propulsion
system
reliability is increased by using
more than one engine.
7. There are gasoline engines, diesel
engines, gas turbines, steam engines, steam turbines, jet engines and
rocket engines.
Exercise 16. Ask questions.
1. …?
The power plant is a device that produces mechanical power or energy.
2. …?
Every propulsion system consists of the fuel which is the energy source
and the engine which is the mechanical device.
3. …?
The total weight of the airplane can be divided among the airframe, the
propulsion system and the payload.
4. ..?
The payload consists of the crew, equipment and cargo.
5…?
The designers work at the problem of getting lower specific fuel
consumption.
6…?
Specific fuel consumption is obtained by dividing the weight of the fuel
burned per hour by the horse power developed.
7…?
The engine must run smoothly and operate at all speeds and in all weather
conditions.
8…?
Overall propulsion system reliability is increased by using more than one
engine.
9…?
There are many types of engines used today for different purposes.
47
Texts For Reading And Writing Practice
Dialogue 1.
Instructor: Historically, there are three types of compressors, used in aviation
jet engines. These are centrifugal compressors, axial flow compressors and
hybrid compressors. Each of these types has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
Nick: Up to now we have discussed only axial flow compressors. Does it mean
that they are the most efficient type?
Instructor: Yes, it does. Axial flow compressors are the most efficient and the
most complex type of compressors, and they are used in most jet engines. On
the other hand, centrifugal compressors are very simple and robust, very easy
to manufacture, but, unfortunately, their efficiency is low.
Nick: Are the axial compressors mounted on the turbine shaft?
Instructor: Yes. The axial compressors force the air straight backwards by
means of a series of multi-blade fans mounted one behind the other.
Axial Compressor
Vocabulary:
1. duct
2. to upset
3. to stall
4. coughing
5. short-like sound
6. to surge
7. bangs
8. shrouding
-
канал
нарушать
работать в режиме срыва потока
звуки, похожие на кашель
звуки, похожие на выстрел
работать в режиме помпажа
взрывоподобные звуки
бандажирование законцовок лопаток
An axial compressor is a mechanical device for causing a pressure rise in the
air delivered to the combustion chamber. There is a constant relationship between
the volume, the temperature and the pressure of the air as it passes through the
axial compressor. The temperature of the air at any point of the duct is the product
of the pressure and the volume of that air.
When the volume of the air is being reduced in an axial compressor, there is
a rise in both pressure and temperature. The more efficient is the design of the
compressor, the higher will be the rise in pressure. The efficiency of an axial-flow
compressor depends primarily upon the design of its rotor and stator blades.
Rotor blades have airfoil cross-sections and are made of aluminum alloy,
steel or titanium. They can operate with maximum efficiency only within a limited
range of operating conditions. Outside this range the smooth flow of air in the
compressor is usually upset by unwanted turbulence. When one stage of the
48
compressor is upset by turbulence, it is said that the compressor stalls. The stalling
compressor usually develops severe vibrations or coughing. Sometimes it may
even produce shot-like sounds. When all stages of the compressor are upset by
turbulence, it is said that the compressor surges. The surging compressor produces
powerful bangs, the temperature of the exhaust gases rapidly rises and the engine
may be partially or wholly damaged. Stator blades may be attached directly to the
casing of the compressor, with connecting shrouding at the tips to give them
greater stability.
Dialogue 2.
Instructor: This time we are going to discuss the central part of the jet engine - its
combustion chamber. This is the place where fuel is mixed with the air from the
compressor and ignited.
Peter: It must be quite complex!
Instructor: On the contrary, you'll be surprised by its simplicity! Just imagine two
tubes, one inside the other. The inside one, called the flame tube, is fitted at the
front with a perforated flare, located behind an entry snout. In the center of the
flare there are a number of swirl vanes.
Nick: Up to now, it's quite simple.
Instructor: The air comes from the compressor at high velocity of one or two
hundred meters per second...
Peter. It can surely blow out the flame.
Instructor: Very definitely it can. Besides, there is more available air than is
needed for combustion. And this is the reason why there are two tubes: only the
quantity of air needed for combustion goes into the inner tube, the rest passes
outside it.
Nick: The flare clearly helps to decrease the velocity of the air entering the flame
tube.
Peter: And also to raise its temperature and pressure.
Instructor: You're both right!
Peter: I don't see why the compressor should be made to deliver so much air when
only part of it is needed for combustion.
Instructor: The temperature of the gases leaving the combustion zone may be as
high as 2000 degrees Centigrade. This is too hot to feed into the turbine. About
half of the excess air is needed to dilute and cool these exhaust gases.
The Combustion Chamber
Vocabulary:
1. multiple combustion
chamber layout
2. layout
3. flame tube
- трубчатая конструкция камеры сгорания
- схема, расположение
- жаровая труба
49
4. tubo-annular
5. casing
- трубчато – кольцевая
- корпус, кожух
Combustion chambers are mechanical devices for burning air-fuel mixture.
They may be installed in the engine in a number of different ways. The multiple
combustion chamber layout is used with engines having centrifugal compressors.
In this layout a number of flame tubes are disposed radially round the engine.
Annular and tubo-annular designs of combustion chambers are more often used
presently.
The flame tube of annular combustion chambers is in the form of a double
ring which in turn is fitted into an annular casing of two more rings. Tubo-annular
combustion chambers have flame tubes grouped round the engine, as in the
multiple layout, but instead of each having a separate outer casing, they are all
disposed in a common annular casing, shaped like two broad rings, one inside the
other.
Tubo-annular chambers are easier to manufacture and overhaul, while
annular chambers, besides possessing these advantages, are also more compact.
Annular chambers are more fuel-efficient and reduce many of the problems of air
pollution. All combustion chambers must be capable to withstand very high
temperatures, rapid changes of temperature and corrosive effects produced by the
products of combustion.
Dialogue 3.
Instructor: The basic principles of gas turbine design are easy to understand, but
their practical application is very complicated, to say the least. First, what does the
turbine do?
Peter: It drives the compressor, of course.
Instructor: Anything else?
Nick: I suppose it drives various accessories, too. Fuel pumps, electric generators,
and things like that.
Peter: In turbo-prop aircraft it drives the propeller shaft, in helicopters it drives the
rotor shaft, both through reduction gears.
Instructor: You're both well in the picture! I am very impressed!
Now let's see how a turbine operates. The hot exhaust gases from the combustion
chamber first pass fixed nozzle guide vanes.
Peter: They look like stator vanes in a compressor, don't they?
Instructor: Yes, in a way. But actually they are quite different. Firstly, they have
complex cooling ducts inside. Secondly, they are monocrystallic that is produced
from a piece of metal, grown as a single crystal.
Nick: What substance is used as a cooling agent?
Instructor: As a cooling agent is used common air, bled from a compressor stage.
Immediately behind the fixed nozzle guide vanes are the rotating blades of the
turbine. These are the most critical items of the whole jet engine. In modern jet
50
engines they have to withstand temperatures of up to 1400 degrees Centigrade and
strains of up to three or four tons.
Peter: I think that design and manufacture of such blades must be quite a problem!
Instructor: This is the field of what is known as very high technologies and top
secret know-how.
Nick: How many turbines may modern high bypass ratio engines have?
Instructor: Modern high bypass ratio jet engines may have three gas turbines, and
three concentric shafts, running independently. Such engines are very fuel efficient
and also extremely quiet.
The Gas Turbine
1.
2.
3.
4.
driving torque
triple-spool system
power-to-weight ratio
bearing
Vocabulary:
- вращающийся момент
- трехвальная система
- удельная мощность
- подшипник
The gas turbine provides the power to drive the compressor and accessories.
It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the combustion
chamber and expanding them to lower pressure and temperature. High stresses are
involved in this process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips may
rotate at speeds up to 500 meters per second. The continuous flow of gas, to which
the turbine is exposed may have an entry temperature of up to 1400°C and may
reach a velocity up to 700 meters per second in some parts of the turbine.
To produce the driving torque, the turbine may consist of several stages,
each employing one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving
blades. The number of stages depends on whether the engine has one shaft or two
and also on the relation between the power required from the gas flow, the
rotational speed at which it must be produced and the diameter of turbine
permitted.
The number of shafts varies with the type of engine. High compression ratio
engines usually have two shafts driving high and low pressure compressors. On
high bypass ratio fan engines another turbine is interposed between the high and
low pressure turbines, thus forming a triple-spool system.
The bypass engine enables a smaller turbine to be used than in a pure jet
engine for a given thrust output and it operates at a higher gas inlet temperature,
thereby obtaining improved thermal efficiency and power-to-weight ratio.
The balancing of a turbine is an extremely important operation in its
manufacture and maintenance. In view of the high rotational speeds and the mass
of materials, any unbalance could seriously affect the rotating assembly bearings
and engine operation. Balancing is effected on a special balancing machine and is
conducted after each maintenance operation connected with replacements of
blades, discs and bearings.
51
The Exhaust System
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
to impede
afterburning
eyelids
nozzle aperture
pneumatic rams
divergent passage
Vocabulary:
- препятствовать
- дожиг топлива
- створки, заслонки
- отверстие сопла
- пневматические толкатели
- расширяющийся канал
The exhaust system of a jet engine passes the turbine discharge gases to
atmosphere at a velocity, and in the required direction to provide the resultant
thrust. Great care must be taken in the design of the exhaust system at the rear of
the engine. If the flow of exhaust gases is impeded by too small an exit,
temperatures and pressures will be built up inside the engine, while too large an
exit will make them fall, and create a loss of thrust.
When afterburning is in operation, the area of the exhaust nozzle can be
increased by opening two eyelids that partially obstruct the nozzle aperture when
closed. The pilot actuates these eyelids by pneumatic rams which in turn are linked
to the fuel supply system. As they open the supply of fuel is increased.
Bypass engines can benefit spectacularly from the use of afterburning.
Thrust can be increased by 70% or more for short periods of time. This enables the
airplanes to reach an economical cruising height far more quickly than planes not
fitted with afterburners.
As a rule it can be said that forward thrust is created wherever there are
divergent passages which convert velocity into pressure energy. Following the air
as it passes through the engine, we see that considerable thrust is developed in the
compressor because of the rise in pressure there.
Exercise 1. Group the words according to the theme:
a) engine components
b) engine operation
c) classification of the jet engines
To have some limitations, combustion chamber, to eject with high velocity,
in comparison with, axial compressor, to belong to the family of gas - turbine
engines, discharge nozzle, in contrast to, to deliver the air, the simplest type of airbreathing engines, fuel-air mixture, inlet assembly, to expand in the exhaust
nozzle, to differ from other engines, liquid propellant rocket engines, to utilize air
from the atmosphere, to combine features of some engines, to produce high
temperature gases, to find wide application in aviation.
52
Exercise 2. Replace the Russian words and word-combinations by the English
ones.
1. The gas turbine engine is essentially a тепловой двигатель using air as a
рабочего тела to provide thrust.
2. Газотурбинный двигатель consists of a rotary air compressor with an
воздухозаборником, one or more камер сгорания, a turbine, and an
выхлопного устройства.
3. There are two basic types of роторных компрессора: centrifugal flow
and осевой compressors.
4. Both types приводятся в движение by the engine turbine and are coupled
direct to the валу турбины
5. The function of the compressor is ускорить the air, распространить it
and to produce the required повышение давления.
6. The axial flow compressor расходует far more air than a центробежный
компрессор of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much
higher степень повышения давления.
7. Камера сгорания has the difficult task of burning большого количества
топлива with огромным количеством воздуха supplied by the
compressor.
8. The turbine has the task of создание мощности to drive the compressor
and accessories.
9. The turbine may consist of нескольких ступеней.
10. Each stage employs one row of неподвижных направляющих лопаток
соплового аппарата and one row of вращающихся лопаток.
11. The exhaust system passes the выхлопные газы турбины to the
atmosphere at a velocity and in the required direction чтобы создать тягу.
12. The use of лопаток с воздушным охлаждением in the turbine
assembly permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency.
Exercise 3. Group the words according to the following topics:
a) a compressor
b) a combustion chamber
c) a turbine
d) an exhaust nozzle
air intake, axial flow, blade tips, burners, centrifugal flow, expansion of air,
frontal area, discharge gas, moving blades, resultant thrust, rotary, to rotate, stage,
to accelerate, to burn, to couple, to diffuse, to drive the compressor, to provide
power.
Exercise 4. Write the English equivalents:
Тепловой двигатель, рабочая жидкость,
роторный компрессор,
воздухозаборник, выхлопное устройство, центробежный компрессор, осевой
компрессор, приводятся в движение турбиной, присоединяются к валу
53
турбины, создавать необходимый рост давления, расходует гораздо больше
воздуха, сжигание большого количества топлива, топливные форсунки,
минимальная потеря давления, максимальное выделение тепла, лопасти
турбины, могут вращаться на скорости, может состоять из нескольких
ступеней, проводит выхлопные газы турбины.
Exercise 5. Translate the text without using the dictionary and write the
annotation.
The Aeroengine
The aeroengine should meet the following requirements:
- it must be easily started on the ground and in the flight;
- operate stably within the wide range of operating modes on the ground and
in air providing at the same time the power (thrust) required;
- be highly reliable;
- have a long service life.
On the other hand it should be light, efficient, small-sized and easily
controlled and maintained.
An airplane performance greatly depends on the ratio of the thrust of its
engines to the airplane weight. On the basis of these data it is possible to estimate
how the engine power (thrust) and specific fuel consumption change with the flight
speed and altitude variations.
Weight of the aeroengine is one of the most important properties. Specific
weight of an engine is its weight per unit of power provided. The less the specific
weight the lighter the engine.
Low engine weight is important for obtaining the required airplane take-off
and climb performances. Light engines are needed for the installation on vertical
take-off and landing aircraft.
Fuel economy is one of its properties characterized be the engine efficiency
and specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption of an engine is the
amount of fuel consumed by the engine per unit of time with relation to init of
power produced by it.
The greater the engine efficiency is, and correspondingly, the less the
specific fuel consumption is the better the engine fuel economy is.
Exercise 6. Translate the text and write down the main fuel problems in
aviation.
Some Fuel Problems
The new era of fast high-flying jets brought with it many problems. The high
fuel consumption is problem number one.
The jets suffer from high fuel consumption. A 10,000-pound thrust engine
consumes a lot of fuel. For example, the largest jets have fuel tanks in the wings
54
capable of storing in excess of 21,000 gallons of fuel. Twenty-one thousand
gallons is the equivalent capacity of five or six of the refueling trucks one sees
normally around an airport.
There were experts who said that a jet air-liner could never come into
general use because it was uneconomical.
But note the fuel consumption was exceptionally high only relative to
duration in the air, not to distance covered. High fuel consumption is a relative
matter; it can be low relative to kilometers covered; yet high relative to time in the
air. They cover long distances in short period of time.
Still, fuel makes up a big part of the total gross weight of the airplane, while
power-to-weight ratio or specific weight has always been a critical factor in prime
movers for aircraft.
Besides, there exists a problem of the fuel choice. Power for aerial
propulsion is known to be produced by using the oxygen of atmospheric air as a
chemical reactant in combustion with some fuel, e.g. a hydrocarbon such as
gasoline or kerosene. Regular jet engines can definitely be used for speeds up to
two or three times that of sound. But at two thousand mph hydrocarbon fuel will
begin to boil. Also at altitudes of 100,000 feet or more, there is very "little" air for
the jet to "swallow".
There is a great future in nuclear energy. However, there are many problems
of utilizing atomic energy. It is well-known fact that the radiation from any atomic
pile is dangerous, and the power plant must be properly shielded. The shielding for
the plane will weigh about the same as the engine, fuel load and tanks of our
present big planes. Eventually the research performed in this field will give
satisfactory solutions.
There exists one more problem. This is the problem of fueling and refueling
the jet planes. Jet airplanes have been designed so that they are capable of being
fueled at the rate of one to two thousand gallons per minute from four hoses
through underwing pressure-fueling points. At some airports there are installed
large underground hydrant-type fueling systems. With such an installation fuel is
pumped underground from a remotely located fuel-tank system to the airplane
location and from there directly into the airplane fuel tanks. The problem of refueling the plane is solved by plane-to-plane or in-the-air refueling.
There is still a lot to be done in the field of jets and rockets with improved
fuels and less complex engines. Scientists seem to be able to handle such problems.
Exercise 7. Read and write an annotation.
Fuel System
Most modern aircraft are equipped with 2 or more fuel tanks (or cells). In
high wing aircraft, the cells are housed in the wings. Since they are higher than the
engine, the fuel flows down to the engine by the force of gravity.
On low wing aircraft fuel pumps are required. To initially get fuel to the
engine for starting, an electrical “boost pump” is turned on to pump fuel to the
55
engine. After the engine is started, a mechanical fuel pump driven by the engine
feeds fuel to the engine. The electric boost pump can now be turned off.
Each fuel tank is equipped with a drain valve located at the lowest point in
the tank. This drain allows the pilot during preflight walk-around to check for and
drain off any water which may have accumulated in the fuel tank. There is usually
another drain located at the lowest part of the fuel piping system. This valve must
also be drained during pre-flight to eliminate any water which may have
accumulated in the fuel lines. Associated with this drain is a fuel strainer which
filters out foreign matter which may be in the fuel system.
A vent line allows air to enter the tank as fuel is used. During hot weather,
fuel may expand and overflow through the vent when tanks are full.
A fuel selector valve located inside the cockpit allows the pilot to select
which tank(s) are to be in use during flight. Most small aircraft operate with the
selector set on Both, such that both the left and right fuel tanks are simultaneous
feeding fuel to the engine. The pilot may set the selector on Left or Right tank as a
means of equalizing the loading of the aircraft. Usually, the selector should be set
to both for take-off and landing. Pilots of low wing aircraft should exercise caution
in their fuel management if tank selection is other than both. Running a tank dry
can cause the engine to quit and vapor lock to occur in the fuel lines. It may be
impossible to restart the engine under these conditions.
There is a fuel gauge in the cockpit for each fuel tank. The lower 1/4 of the
fuel gauge indication is marked with a red line as a caution to the pilot of a low
fuel condition. The pilot should never rely on the fuel gauge as the sole measure of
fuel remaining. The gauges on aircraft are subject to a variety of indicator errors.
The pilot should therefore double check the fuel remaining based on the power
setting of the engine in flight and time in flight.
Inside the cockpit a fuel mixture control and a fuel primer pump are located
on the instrument panel. The mixture control is used to adjust the air/fuel mixture
for the altitude being flown. It allows the pilot to adjust the fuel/air ratio entering
the engine. As altitude is gained, the intake air becomes less dense. Less fuel must
be fed through the carburetor to permit the fuel/air mixture to remain correct
proportion. If leaning is not accomplished by the pilot, a rich mixture (too much
fuel) results it. This is not only wasteful of fuel, but can result in fouled spark plugs
due to carbon and soot buildup on the spark plugs. A rough running engine results.
An additional gauge called an Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge can be installed in
the aircraft as an aid in achieving the proper “leaning” of the engine.
The fuel primer is a plunger that can be used in cold weather to inject fuel
directly into the carburetor as an assist in starting the engine in cold conditions.
Exercise 8. Read and write an annotation.
Advantages of the Diesel for Aviation
The mechanical advantages which the Diesel aircraft engine has over the
gasoline aircraft engine include elimination of electrical ignition trouble and
interference with radio communication, freedom from carburetor trouble at sea56
level and at various altitudes, lower exhaust gas temperature permitting the use of
an exhaust-driven supercharger, and better installation in the airplane. These
advantages formerly were offset by the greater specific weight of the Diesel but
now that this has been reduced to approximately that of the gasoline engine, full
advantage can be taken of them for aviation.
ADVANTAGES FOR CIVIL AVIATION
The advantages of the Diesel for civil aviation are so overwhelming that
when suitable Diesels become available it will not be long before they are used
extensively in privately-owned airplanes as well as in large transport planes for
passengers and freight. For the private flier there will be the advantage of reduced
fire hazard which will safeguard him in forced landings and make the sport even
more popular than it is today. The advantages of reduced fuel load and increased
payload or flight range also will be noticeable despite the relatively small size of
such airplanes. Reduction in fuel operating cost will enable the private flier to
spend considerably more hours in the air than he can afford to do at present.
SPECIALIZED DIESEL ADVANTAGES
Owners of airplanes used for special purposes such as exploration in tropical
or arctic regions far from ordinary lines of communication will find the Diesel
particularly advantageous. In addition to the outstanding advantage of reduced fire
hazard the difficulty of transporting fuel to remote out-of-the-way places will be
reduced due to the smaller amount of fuel required. The fact that fuel oil does not
evaporate at atmospheric temperatures will make fuel storage easier and the ability
of the Diesel to run on kerosene in an emergency is an asset which should not be
overlooked. Absence of electrical interference from the ignition system of the
Diesel is another advantage for expeditions of this kind as it will help to improve
radio communication.
COMMERCIAL ADVANTAGES
Airline companies will find the Diesel advantageous for many reasons when
reliable engines of this type are available for everyday use. The safety factor of
their operations will be increased due to the elimination of fire hazard and the
psychological effect on both passengers and crew will be most pronounced.
Sleeper planes will become more popular and refueling will not present any
hazards. Reduction of fuel loads will enable greater payloads to be carried or
schedules to be speeded up by eliminating refueling stops. Fuel operating costs will
be cut in half and even insurance rates will be reduced.
For transatlantic airlines the Diesel will prove to be ideal as it will enable
larger payloads of passengers and mail to be carried non-stop over considerably
greater distances than is now possible with gasoline - engined planes. No longer
will intermediate stops have to be made between the United States and Europe
which waste time and subject American property to interference by another nation.
Passengers will not be forced to wait indefinitely due to the inability of airliners to
carry them as well as the mail. Special Diesel - engined mailplanes will be
catapulted to ensure that the mail leaves on time regardless of weather conditions.
Greater business will result from the use of Diesel-engined airplanes which
will save time for the passengers and ensure greater profits for the airlines. All of
57
these highly desirable changes will be brought about by the use of the economical
Diesel for aviation in the future after World War II.
Exercise 9. Replace the Russian words and word-combinations by the English
ones.
One of the most essential parts of any airplane is its силовая установка.
There must also be топливно - масляная система, engine control
system, cooling system and система запуска
3.
Types of engines, their количество and location on the airplane depend
on the ТТХ самолета.
4.
Engines may be mounted on the wings, on the fuselage (forward or aft) or
под крыльями on pylons.
5. There are many types of aircraft engines in use: piston engines for lowspeed aircraft and some types of реактивных двигателей
6. Jet engines fall into two main classes: воздушно-реактивные engines and
ракетные engines.
7. The engines of the first class utilize air from the atmosphere together with
the горением топлива.
8. The rocket engine carries the полный запас of working fluid or
ракетного топлива (oxidizer and fuel) and can operate outside the earth’s
atmosphere.
9. There are two basic types of rocket engines: с жидким и твердым
топливом rocket engines.
10. The simplest type of air-breathing engines is the прямоточный
двигатель.
11. The пульсирующий двигатель is more complicated than the ramjet.
12. Turbojet, турбовинтовые and turbofan belong to the family of
газотурбинных двигателей.
13. The turbine соединяется with the compressor.
14. The main function of the turbine is создавать мощность for the
compressor.
15. The majority of modern turbojets are equipped with осевыми
компрессорами.
16. The turboprop engine uses propeller чтобы создать most of its тяги.
17. In the turbofan the propeller is replaced by an осевым вентилятором.
18. The turbofan engine combines the особенности of both the turbojet and
turboprop engines.
1.
2.
58
Exercise 10. True or false? Express your agreement or disagreement using
“You are right”, “I’m of the same opinion”, “I can’t agree with you”.
1.
A rocket engine is not a jet engine; it uses atmospheric air as the
propulsive fluid stream.
2. A rocket engine can not operate outside the earth’s atmosphere.
3. There are two basic types of rocket engines: liquid-propellant and solidpropellant rocket engines.
4. A rocket propulsion system may also be used as a primary power plant of
an airplane.
5. The simplest type of air-breathing engines is the pulsejet engine.
6. The ramjet has found wide application in aviation.
7. The ramjet is more complicated than the pulsejet.
8. The pulsejet is suitable as an aircraft power plant because it has high fuel
consumption.
9. Turbojet, turboprop and turbofan belong to the family of gas-turbine
engines.
10. In a turbojet engine the diffuser takes the air and delivers it to the
combustion chamber
11. The main function of the turbine is to provide power for the combustion
chamber.
12. There are two types of compressors: centrifugal and axial compressors.
13. The majority of modern turbojets are equipped with centrifugal
compressors.
14. The turboprop engine differs considerably from the turbojet.
15. The turboprop is lighter than a turbojet of equivalent size and power.
16. A variation of the turboprop engine is known as the turboshaft engine
often used for powering guided missiles.
17. It is well known that there are liquid and solid-propellant rocket engines.
18. The turbofan engine doesn’t combine the features of both the turbojet and
turboprop engines.
19. Turbofans are widely used in aviation, especially in large multi-engine
aircraft.
Exercise 11. Answer the questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What can you say about the number and location of engines in the aircraft?
How are jet engines classified?
What is the difference between rocket and air-breathing engines?
What are two types of rocket engines?
What is the simplest type of air-breathing engines?
Is the pulsejet engine more complicated that the ramjet one?
What engines belong to the family of gas-turbine engines?
How are turbojets divided?
What are essential components of a turbojet engine?
59
10. What are the advantages of a turbofan engine?
Exercise 12. The most important types of engines are turbojet and turboprop
engines. Let’s compare them according to the following parameters. (Find the
additional information to do this task properly)
Thrust is produced by
Turbojet engines
the jet of hot gases
ejected from the rear
Turboprop engines
the propellers
Weight
Size
Speed
Fuel consumption
Use in airplanes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What engine is heavier?
What about their size?
What engine develops higher speed?
What engine consumes more fuel?
What airplanes are powered by turboprop engines?
What airplanes are powered by turbojet engines?
Exercise 13. Make questions to the underlined words
1. Types of engines, their number and location on the airplane depend on the
airplane performances.
2. Jet engines fall into two main classes: air-breathing engines and rocket
engines.
3. The jet is produced by the combustion of the fuel in the compressed air.
4. Rockets find extensive use.
5. The simplest type of air-breathing engines is the ramjet engine.
6. The main components of the ramjet are: the diffuser, the combustion
chamber and the jet nozzle.
7. Turbofans are widely used in aviation, especially in large multi-engine
aircraft.
60
Exercise 14. Read the texts and write annotations.
a) The Ramjet Engine
The simplest type of jet engine is the ramjet. This engine consists of a
diffuser, a combustion chamber, a discharge nozzle. The function of a diffuser is to
convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into a pressure. The diffuser delivers
the air at a static pressure higher than atmospheric pressure to the combustion
chamber. There fuel is mixed with the air and ignited.
The burning causes the specific volume of the air to increase. The air is
accelerated in the combustion chamber, where it burns at constant pressure to a
high temperature. High temperature gases are delivered to the discharge nozzle to
produce exit velocity greater than the entrance velocity. The fuel used in this type
of engine is usually a liquid one.
Theoretically, ramjet operation is limited to altitudes below 90000 feet
because atmospheric oxygen is necessary for combustion. The velocity that can be
obtained by a ramjet engine is unlimited, theoretically.
Really the faster it travels the better it operates and the more thrust it
develops. Its speed is limited, however, at Mach 5,0 because the skin temperature
has a harmful effect on the metals used in construction.
Ramjet engines are used in guided missiles. Ramjets are sometimes used
experimentally on helicopters and in pods on fighters and bombers.
b) The Turbojet Engine
This engine consists of a diffuser, a mechanical compressor, a combustion
chamber, a mechanical turbine and a discharged nozzle.
The function of a diffuser is to transform the kinetic energy of the entering
air into a static pressure. The diffuser delivers its air to the mechanical compressor
which compresses the air and delivers it to the combustion chamber. The high
temperature gases then enter the turbine.
The turbine is directly connected to the compressor, and all the power
developed by the turbine is absorbed by the compressor and the auxiliary
apparatus. The main function of the turbine is to provide power for the mechanical
compressor. After the gases leave the turbine, they enter the discharged nozzle and
are ejected with a velocity greater than the flight velocity. This produces a thrust
for propulsion.
The turbojet engine is product of one of the most intensive engineering
development programs in aviation history. Since its introduction, the increase in its
performance has been phenomenal and it is now in mass production for various
airplanes.
It is now the standard power plant for nearly all high-speed military fighters
and bombers.
61
Grammar Practice: Gerund (V-ing)
He achieved these results by raising temperature. – Он достиг этих результатов
(повышая) при повышении температуры.
On returning home he began preparing his report. – Возвратившись (по
возвращению) домой, он приступил к подготовке доклада.
In preparing the report he used new materials. – При подготовке доклада он
использовал новый материал.
Exercise 15. Translate the sentences with the Gerund after the prepositions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
There can be no progress in science without experimenting.
By using the latest data the designer can improve the construction.
Before inventing the radio people had less opportunity for communication.
The possibility of using a reaction jet had interested aircraft designers for a
long time.
All metal expand upon heating.
On cooling all bodies decrease.
Experiments show that all gases expand on heating and decrease on cooling.
On taking off from the Earth the rocket must get as much as acceleration as
possible to reach the necessary speed.
We may get an electric flow by moving an electric conductor in a magnetic
field.
There are other ways of making an electric current flow along a wire.
Flight and navigation instruments serve for aircraft handling and steering in
flight.
Their principle of operation is based on measuring the atmospheric pressure.
Any altitude can be determined by measuring the pressure associated with
it at a given moment.
Exercise 16. Translate the sentences. Gerund or Participle I?
1. The airflow is an important factor in determining the amount of thrust.
2. The combustion chamber has the difficult task of burning large quantities of
fuel with extensive volumes of air.
3. The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and
accessories.
4. It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from the
combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and
temperature.
5. The air passing through the engine has to be accelerated.
6. The jet engine although appearing so different from the piston enginepropeller combination applies the same basic principles to effect propulsion.
7. The ramjet engine has no major rotating parts.
62
8. The resulting expansion of gases causes a rise in pressure forcing the valves
to close and the expanding gases are then ejected rearwards.
9. The design of a combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may
vary considerably.
10.The temperature of the gas entering the exhaust system is between 550 and
850 deg. C.
Exercise 17. Replace the Russian words and word-combinations by the English
ones.
1. The gas turbine engine is essentially a тепловой двигатель using air as a
рабочего тела to provide thrust.
2. Газотурбинный двигатель consists of a rotary air compressor with an
воздухозаборником, one or more камер сгорания, a turbine, and an
выхлопного устройства.
3. There are two basic types of роторных компрессора: centrifugal flow and
осевой compressors.
4. Both types приводятся в движение by the engine turbine and are coupled
direct to the валу турбины
5. The function of the compressor is ускорить the air, распространить it and
to produce the required повышение давления.
6. The axial flow compressor расходует far more air than a центробежный
компрессор of the same frontal area and can be designed to attain much
higher степень повышения давления.
7. Камера сгорания has the difficult task of burning большого количества
топлива with огромным количеством воздуха supplied by the compressor.
8. The turbine has the task of создание мощности to drive the compressor and
accessories.
9. The turbine may consist of нескольких ступеней.
10. Each stage employs one row of неподвижных направляющих лопаток
соплового аппарата and one row of вращающихся лопаток.
11. The exhaust system passes the выхлопные газы турбины to the atmosphere
at a velocity and in the required direction чтобы создать тягу.
12. The use of лопаток с воздушным охлаждением in the turbine assembly
permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency.
Exercise 18. Answer the questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What does the gas turbine use to provide thrust?
What does the gas turbine consist of?
What basic types of rotary air compressors are there?
What are they driven by?
What is the function of the compressor?
What compressor gives more thrust?
What is the function of the combustion chamber?
What is the function of the turbine?
63
9. What does each stage of the turbine employ?
10. What system passes the turbine discharge gases турбины to atmosphere?
11. What permits a higher gas temperature and a higher thermal efficiency?
Exercise 19. True or false?
1. The gas turbine engine is not a heat engine.
2. A gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake,
one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust system.
3. There are four basic types of rotary air compressors.
4. Both types of compressors are driven by the combustion chambers.
5. The function of the compressor is to burn the air.
6. The centrifugal flow compressor consumes far more air than the axial
compressor of the same frontal area.
7. The axial flow compressor can be designed to attain much higher pressure
ratios.
8. The combustion chamber has the difficult task of burning large quantities of
fuel with extensive volumes of air supplied by the compressor.
9. The turbine has the task of providing power to drive exhaust system.
10. The turbine consists of one stage.
11. The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to the aircraft at a
velocity and in the required direction to provide thrust.
12. The use of liquid-cooled blades in the turbine assembly permits a higher gas
temperature and a higher thermal efficiency.
Exercise 20. Make the following sentences complete.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The function of the gas turbine engine is to …
The function of the turbine is to …
The function of the compressor is to …
The function of the combustion chamber is to …
The function of the exhaust system is to …
The function of the air-cooled blades is to …
Exercise 21. Speak about the gas turbine engine using the key-words.
1. The gas turbine engine
a heat engine
to use air
to provide thrust
to consist of
2. The compressor
there are two types
to be driven by
to be coupled to
The function of the compressor is to …
64
3. The axial compressor
to consume far more air
to give more thrust
4. The combustion chamber
The function of the combustion chamber is to …
5. The turbine
the function of the turbine is to …
to consist of
may rotate at speeds
to have an entry temperature
6. The exhaust system
The function of the exhaust system is to…
Exercise 22. Make questions to the underlined words.
1. The gas turbine engine uses air as a working fluid to provide thrust.
2. The gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air
intake, one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust outlet.
3. There are two basic types of rotary air compressors: centrifugal flow and
axial flow compressors.
4. Both types of compressors are driven by the engine turbine.
5. The function of the compressor is to accelerate the air, to diffuse it and to
produce the required pressure rise.
6. The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to the atmosphere.
7. The use of air-cooled blades permits a higher gas temperature and a
consequently higher thermal efficiency.
8. The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the temperature rise
required.
Exercise 23. Ask the questions.
1. …?
The gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine.
2…?
The gas turbine engine consists of a rotary air compressor with an air intake,
one or more combustion chambers, a turbine, and an exhaust outlet.
65
3… ?
The compressors are driven by the engine turbine.
4. … ?
The compressors are coupled direct to the turbine shaft.
5. … ?
The function of the compressor is to accelerate the air, to diffuse it and to
produce the required pressure rise.
6… ?
The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and
accessories.
7…?
The turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds over 1,500 feet per second.
8… ?
The exhaust system passes the turbine discharge gases to
atmosphere to provide the resultant thrust.
Exercise 24. Do the two-way translation.
1. Что используют газотурбинные
двигатели в качестве рабочего тела?
2. Из чего состоит газотурбинный
двигатель?
3. К чему присоединяется
компрессор?
4. Какова задача компрессора?
1. The gas turbine engines use air as a
working fluid to provide thrust.
2. The gas turbine engine consists of a
rotary air compressor with an air intake,
one or more combustion chambers, a
turbine, and an exhaust outlet.
3. The compressors
are coupled
direct to the turbine shaft.
4. The function of the compressor is to
accelerate the air, to diffuse it and to
produce the required pressure rise.
66
5. Какой тип компрессора
расходует больше воздуха?
6. На какой скорости могут
вращаться законцовки лопасти
турбины?
7. Что позволяет увеличивать
температуру газа в турбине?
5. The axial compressor consumes far
more air than a centrifugal compressor
of the same frontal area.
6. The turbine blade tips may rotate at
speeds over 1,500 feet per second.
7. The use of air-cooled blades in the
turbine assembly permits a higher gas
temperature and a higher thermal
efficiency.
67
Методические рекомендации по написанию рефератов и
аннотаций
Реферат - это краткое изложение содержания первоисточника с основными
фактическими сведениями и выводами на языке оригинала или родном
языке. Различают два вида рефератов: информативный, или рефератконспект, и индикативный, или реферат-резюме.
Реферат обычно состоит из трех частей:
1) заголовочной (вводной), содержащей выходные данные, название
публикации, фамилию автора, место издания, издательство, год, число
страниц, иллюстраций. Независимо от того, на каком языке пишется
реферат иностранного источника, заголовочная часть составляется на
иностранном языке;
2) собственно реферативной (описательной), представляющей собой
концентрированную передачу содержания реферируемого документа
(главную идею и существенные положения). Эта часть строится на базе
выделенных при чтении ключевых фрагментов. Здесь принято не
выделять абзацы;
3) заключительной, в которой содержатся основные выводы по проделанной
работе в целом. Иногда эта часть может входить в собственно
реферативную.
Аннотация – это краткая справка о тексте, патенте, книге, справочнике с
точки зрения содержания. При аннотировании печатный материал
излагается в предельно сжатой форме. Это процесс свертывания
(сжатия) информации с очень большим уменьшением по отношению к
оригиналу.
В отличие от реферата, который отвечает на вопрос: «ЧТО сказано, ЧТО
излагается в первоисточнике?», аннотация отвечает на вопрос: «О ЧЕМ
говорится в первоисточнике?» Умение составлять аннотацию
необходимо студентам в учебном процессе для обработки печатной
информации на иностранном и русском языках и при оформлении
записок к дипломным проектам. Специалисты и ученые обязаны уметь
писать аннотации к своим научным статьям, докладам для
конференций, используемой литературе и т.д.
Клише – это речевой стереотип, готовый оборот, используемый в качестве
легко воспроизводимого в определенных условиях и контекстах
стандарта.
 Общая характеристика статьи: The paper (article) under discussion
(consideration) is intended (aims) to describe (explain, examine, survey) …
 Задачи, поставленные автором: The author outlines (points out, reviews,
 analyses)…
 Оценка полученных результатов исследования: The results obtained
(confirm ,lead to, show)…
68
 Подведение итогов, выводов по работе: The paper summarizes, in summing
up, at the end of the article the author sums up…
К аннотациям как на русском, так и на английском языке предъявляются
следующие требования:

Лаконичность языка, т.е. использование простых предложений
(глаголы употребляются всегда в настоящем времени в действительном
или страдательном залоге. Модальные глаголы, как правило,
отсутствуют).

Строгая логическая структура аннотации.

Обязательное введение в текст аннотации безличных конструкций и
отдельных слов, например: «Сообщается…», «Подробно описывается»,
«Кратко рассматривается…», «Излагаются…», «Комментируются…» и
др., с помощью которых происходит введение и описание текста
оригинала.

Недопущение повторений в заглавии и тексте аннотации.

Точность в передаче заглавия оригинала, отдельных формулировок и
определений.

Использование общепринятых сокращений слов, таких, как напр., и
т.д., и т.п., и др.

Единство терминов и обозначений.
Текст аннотации должен быть максимально кратким, от 500 до 1000
печатных знаков.
Основные штампы (key-patterns) аннотаций на английском и русском языках:
1. The article (paper, book, etc.) deals 1. Эта статья (работа, книга и т.д.)
with…
касается…
2. As the
describes…
title
implies
the
article 2. Согласно названию, в статье
описывается…
3. It is specially noted…
3. Особенно отмечается…
4. A mention should be made…
4. Упоминается…
5. It is spoken in detail…
5. Подробно описывается…
6. …are noted
6. Упоминаются…
7. It is reported…
7. Сообщается…
8. The text gives a valuable information 8. Текст дает ценную информацию…
on…
9. Much attention is given to…
9. Большое внимание уделяется…
10. The article is of interest to…
10. Эта статья представляет интерес
для…
69
11. It (the article) gives a detailed analysis 11. Она (статья) дает детальный
of …
анализ…
12. It draws our attention to…
13.
The
difference
between
terms…and…should be stressed
12. Она (статья, работа) привлекает
наше внимание к…
the 13. Следует подчеркнуть различие
между терминами …и…
14. It should be stressed (emphasized) 14. Следует подчеркнуть, что…
that…
15. …is proposed
15. Предлагается…
16. …are examined
16. Проверяются (рассматриваются)
17. …are discussed
17. Обсуждаются…
18. An option permits…
18. Выбор позволяет…
19. The method proposed … etc.
19. Предлагаемый метод… и т.д.
70
The Complex Object
Part A (General English)
Сложное дополнение может состоять из прямого дополнения и инфинитива:
I want you to visit me in the evening. Я хочу, чтобы вы навестили меня
вечером.
Pete wants me to write the letter. Петя хочет, чтобы я написал это письмо.
После глаголов see, hear, watch, make, feel, let в сложном дополнении
инфинитив употребляется без частицы to:
I saw him come into the house. Я видел, что он вошел в дом.
He heard me open the door. Он слышал, что я открыла дверь.
Сложное дополнение может также состоять из прямого дополнения и
причастия:
I heard her singing an English song. Я слышал, как она пела английскую
песню.
He watched them playing in the garden. Он наблюдал за тем, как они
играли в саду.
Разница между ними заключается в следующем:
Сложное дополнение с инфинитивом обозначает однократное действие:
I heard her say these words. Я слышал, что она сказала эти слова.
We saw her run into the house. Мы видели, что она вбежала в дом.
Сложное дополнение с причастием настоящего времени подчеркивает
процесс протекания действия:
I saw her crossing the street. Я видел, как она переходила улицу.
I watched the children playing with a ball. Я наблюдал за тем, как дети
играли в мяч.
Сложное дополнение не имеет точного соответствия в русском языке и
переводится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением с
союзами что, чтобы(если в сложное дополнение входит инфинитив) и как
(если в сложное дополнение входит причастие настоящего времени).
Упражнение 1.
Закончите предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение.
E.g “Bring me a book,” said my brother to me.
My brother wanted meto bring him a book.
1. The teacher said to the pupils: “Learn the rule.” — The teacher wanted ... 2. “Be
careful, or else you will spill the milk,” said my mother to me. — My mother did
not want ... 3. “My daughter will go to a ballet school,” said the woman. — The
woman wanted ...4. The man said: “My son will study mathematics.” —The man
wanted ... 5. “Oh, father, buy me this toy, please,” said the little boy. — The little
boy wanted …6. “Wait for me after school,” said Ann to me. — Ann wanted ... 7.
“Fix the shelf in the kitchen,” my father said to me. — My father wanted ... 8. “It
71
will be very good if you study English,” said my brother to me. —My brother
wanted ... 9. “Fetch me some water from the river, children,” said our
grandmother. — Our grandmother wanted ... 10. “Come to my birthday party,”
said Kate to her classmates. — Kate wanted ... 11. The biology teacher said to us:
“Collect some insects in summer.” — The biology teacher wanted ...12. “Don’t eat
ice cream before dinner,” said our aunt to us. Our aunt did not want ... 13. “Come
and live in St Petersburg with me,” said my mother to me. My mother wanted...
Упражнение 2.
Переведите на английский язык, употребляя сложное дополнение.
1. Я хочу, чтобы все дети смеялись. 2. Я хочу, чтобы все это прочитали. 3.
Мне хотелось бы, чтобы доктор посмотрел его. 4. Дети хотели, чтобы я
рассказал им сказку. 5. Я не хочу, чтобы она знала об этом. 6. Он хотел,
чтобы его друг пошел с ним. 7. Мой брат хочет, чтобы я изучала испанский
язык. 8. Я бы хотел, чтобы мои ученики хорошо знали английский язык. 9. Я
не хочу, чтобы ты получил плохую оценку. 10. Мне бы не хотелось, чтобы
они опоздали. 11. Я не хотела, чтобы вы меня ждали. 12. Она бы хотела,
чтобы ее брат получил первый приз. 13. Я хочу, чтобы вы прочли эту книгу.
14. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы приехали к нам. 15. Она хотела, чтобы ее сын
хорошо окончил школу. 16. Им бы хотелось, чтобы мы проиграли игру. 17.
Она не хотела, чтобы я уехал в Москву. 18. Я бы не хотел, чтобы вы потеряли
мою книгу. 19. Папа хочет, чтобы я была пианисткой. 20. Мы хотим, чтобы
этот артист приехал к нам в школу. 21. Вам бы хотелось, чтобы я рассказал
вам эту историю? 22. Хотите, я дам вам мой словарь?
Упражнение 3.
Перепишите следующие предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение
вместо придаточных дополнительных предложений.
E.g. I expect that she will send me a letter.
I expect her to send me a letter.
I know that he is a great scientist.
I know him to be a great scientist.
1. I know that my friend is a just man. 2. I expect that he will understand your
problem and help you to solve it. 3. I expected that she would behave quite
differently. 4. I did not expect that my brother would forget to send her flowers. 5.
He knows that my mother is a very kind woman. 6. She expected that her brother
would bring her the book. 7. I know that your uncle is an excellent mathematician.
8. People expect that the 21st century will bring peace on the Earth. 9. We know
that it is true. 10. I never expected that he would be a politician. 11. No one expects
that the President will resign. 12. We expect that the economy will grow by 2%
next year. 13. I didn’t expect that he knew Russian so well. 14. I expect that it will
take about an hour to get home. 15. The kids know that all her pies are delicious.
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16. They expect that he will have a good working knowledge of computers. 17.
Nobody expected that she would win the gold medal.
Упражнение 4.
Переведите на английский язык, употребляя сложное дополнение.
1. Я рассчитываю, что письмо придет завтра. 2. Она рассчитывала, что
учитель похвалит ее. 3. Он не рассчитывал, что они вернутся так поздно. 4. Я
знаю, что она талантливая певица. 5. Я знала, что он великий ученый. 6. Мы
не рассчитывали, что вы так много сделаете. 7. Учитель рассчитывал, что
ученики поймут правило. 8. Я не ожидал, что он напишет такие прекрасные
стихи. 9. Она знала, что он очень занятой человек. 10. Все знали, что она
прогрессивный ученый. 11. Я знаю, что твоя сестра — очень способная
студентка. 12. Все знают, что Байрон — великий поэт. 13. Я не ожидал, что
это случится так скоро. 14. Мы рассчитываем, что вы нам поможете. 15. Он
ожидал, что министр ответит сразу. 16. Мы рассчитывали, что погода
изменится.
Упражнение 5.
Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение
с причастием.
E.g. Не was reading in the garden. She saw him..
She saw him reading in the garden.
1. We noticed a man. The man was cleaning his shoes. 2. He saw two girls. They
were dancing on the stage. 3. She watched the children. They were running and
playing in the garden. 4. I saw her. She was arranging her hair. 5. We saw our
neighbour. Неwas listening to the latest news on the radio. 6. The cat was rubbing
against my legs. I felt it. 7. They were fishing. We saw it. 8. The pupils were
writing a paper. The teacher watched them. 9. A caterpillar was crawling on my
arm. I felt it. 10. We heard our talented performer last night. She was singing a
Russian folk song. 11. I watched the sun. It was rising. 12. I heard him. He was
singing an English song. 13. John, heard his sister. She was talking loudly on the
veranda. 14. We saw Ben. He was crossing the square. 15. They heard their father.
He was playing the piano in the drawing room. 16. I can see the train. It is coming.
17. I watched the rain. It was beating down the flowers in the garden. 18.1 saw a
group of boys. They were eating ice cream. 19. We noticed a group of people.
They were digging potatoes in the field. 20. Didn’t you see her? She was smiling at
you. 21. The girl was singing. I heard her. 22. They were talking about computers.
He heard them. 23. You and your friend were walking along the street yesterday. I
saw you. 24. The little girls were playing on the grass. We watched them. 25. The
ship was leaving the port. He stood and looked at it. 26. She was sleeping
peacefully in her bed. Mother watched her.
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Упражнение 6.
Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное дополнение
с инфинитивом.
E.g. Не dropped his bag. I saw it.
I saw him drop his bag.
1.The boy noticed a bird. It flew on to the bush near the window. 2. Jane saw her
neighbor. He opened the door of his flat and went in. 3. I saw him. He pointed to a
picture on the wall. 4. I heard him. He shut the door of the study. 5. We saw that
the children climbed to the tops of the trees. 6. I noticed that Henry went up and
spoke to the stranger.7. He slipped and fell. I saw it. 8. I heard that she suddenly
cried out loudly. 9. She bent and picked up something from the floor. The
policeman saw it. 9. I saw that he opened the door and left the room. 11. She
dropped the cup on the floor and broke it. I saw it. 12. They turned the corner and
disappeared. We watched them. 13. The doctor touched the boy’s leg. The boy felt
it. 14. Pete bought some flowers. His friends saw it. 15. The wounded hunter felt
that the bear touched him, but he did not move. 16. Shall we hear it if the telephone
rings? 17. Tamara saw that the boat drifted down the river. 18. The ship sailed
away from the shore. They saw it. 19. Have you heard how he sings the part of
Hermann in Tchaikovsky’s “Queen of Spades”?
Part B (Technical English)
The Complex Object
Subject + Predicate + noun(pronoun)+ Infinitive
We know electrons to travel from the
cathode to the anode.
Мы знаем, что электроны
движутся …
They want this aircraft to come into
service.
Они хотят, чтобы этот самолет
поступил на вооружение
The Complex Object is used after the verbs:
to think – думать
to know - знать
to believe, to assume - полагать
to want, to wish – хотеть
lo consider – считать
to allow – позволять
to suppose – предполагать
to report – сообщать
to find - обнаруживать, находить
to show - показывать
tо expect – ожидать
to declare – заявлять
tо understand - понимать
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Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences.
1.
At the lower altitude we know the air to consist of oxygen and
nitrogen.
2.
The designers want the sizes of the structure to be decreased.
3.
The experts allowed the engineers to remove some units.
4.
The scientists asked the engineers to support them in the research
work.
5.
The commander ordered his men to load the ship.
6.
The specialists wanted the vehicle to weigh less than the previous one.
7.
The engineer allowed the workers to stop the vehicle for the overhaul.
8.
The scientists wanted the mission to be included into the general plan
of the institute.
9.
The specialists wished the expedition to have been completed by the
end of the month.
10. They wanted the noise in the vehicle to be decreased.
75
The Complex Subject
Part A (General English)
Сложное подлежащее (Complex Subject) состоит из подлежащего
(существительное или местоимение в именительном падеже), составного
глагольного сказуемого: первая часть – глагол в пассивном залоге, вторая
часть – инфинитив. Эта конструкция строится по следующей схеме:
ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ
Составное глагольное сказуемое
существительное в
СКАЗУЕМОЕ
ИНФИНИТИВ
общем или
(обычно глагол в
местоимение в
страдательном залоге
именительном падеже
He
is known
to go to work to Siberia.
Он,
как известно,
Поедет работать в Сибирь
All bodies
are known
to possess weight.
Все тела
известно
обладают весом.
Можно перевести и простым предложение с
водным словом/предложением: Все тела,
как известно, обладают весом.
1. The people of all ancient civilizations are known to have made maps.
Известно, что люди всех древних цивилизаций составляли карты.
2. Philip was known to be a young man without money Знали, что Филипп
был молодым человеком без денег.
3. We were allowed to leave. Нам разрешили уйти
4. They were expected to return in the morning. Ожидали, что они вернутся
утром.
5. Известно, что экспедиция пропала. The expedition is known to have
disappeared.
6. Сообщили, что рейс задерживается из-за шторма. The flight is
announced to be delaying because of the storm.
7. Говорят, он побывал во всех странах в мире. He is said to have been to
all the countries in the world.
8. They are unlikely to come in time. Они вряд ли придут вовремя.
9. The work proved to be useful. Работа оказалась полезной.
10. He turned out to know nothing. Оказалось, что он ничего не знает.
11. He is likely to return on Saturday. Он скорее всего вернется в субботу.
12. She is unlikely to support your idea. Она вряд ли поддержит вашу идею.
13. The atmosphere has been proved to extend several hundred kilometers above
the earth.
14. Доказано, что атмосфера простирается на несколько сот километров
над землей.
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15. When two bodies oscillate at the same frequency they are said to be in
resonance.
16. Когда два тела колеблются с одинаковой частотой, говорят, что они
находятся в резонансе
17. The atom can be said to be the smallest component part of a substance which
keeps its identity. Можно сказать, что атом является мельчайшей
составной частью, которая сохраняет свойства данного вещества.
18. Mr. Bunting was supposed to know nothing about it Полагали, что мистер
Вантинг ничего не знает об этом.
Не was said to work a lot - Говорили, что он много работает.
...was said to..— Говорили, что...
...was seen to...— Видели, что...
...was heard to...— Слышали, что...
...was supposed to...— Предполагали, что...
...was believed to...— Полагали, что...
...was expected to..— Ожидали, что
...was reported to...— Сообщали, что
...was considered to...— Считали, что
...was thought to...— Думали, что..,
...was found to...— Обнаружили, что...
...was announced to...— Объявили, что...
...was known to...— Было известно, что...
Упр. 1. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на сложное
подлежащее.
1. Не was said to be one of the most promising nuclear physicists. 2. He is said to
be a good translator. 3. Roberta was known to be an honest and hard-working girl.
4. Clyde was expected to arrive at the week-end. 5. Becky and Tom were supposed
to have stayed at the widow Douglas. 6. The number of the unemployed is reported
to be increasing with every year. 7. Many new textbooks are expected to be
published soon. 8. The Moscow Underground is said to be the finest in the world.
9. Chernyshevsky is known to have spoken several foreign languages. 10. A hare is
known to run very fast. 11. The man was seen to take off his coat. 12. The diamond
content of the mines in Western Yakutia is said to be in no way inferior to that of
the world-famous South African mines. 13. That power station is known to be
situated on the Angara River. 14. These devices are considered to be very
effective. 15. Many books are known to be published in our country every year. 16.
You are supposed to graduate in four years. 17. Radium is said to be very
radioactive. 18. This device was known to have been designed in that laboratory.
19. His invention is considered to be of great importance. 20. The sun is known to
represent a mass of compressed gases. 21. The new rocket is reported to go into
operation next year. 22. This type of rocket is supposed to have many advantages.
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23. For a longtime the atom was thought to be indivisible. 24. The helium atom
was found to have two electrons. 25. I did not know what I was expected to say to
that, so I said nothing.
Упр. 2. Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное
подлежащее.
E.g. We heard that a car stopped outside the door.
A car was heard to stop outside the door.
It is believed that the poem was written by Byron.
The poem is believed to have been written by Byron.
1. We know Bernard Shaw to have been a very witty man. 2. People consider the
climate there to be very healthful. 3. It was announced that the Chinese dancers
were arriving next week. 4. It is expected that the performance will be a success. 5.
It is said that the book is popular with both old and young. 6. It is believed that the
poem was written by an unknown soldier. 7. It is supposed that the playwright is
working at a new comedy. 8. It is reported that the flood has caused much damage
to the crops. 9. It was supposed that the crops would be rich that year. 10. It has
been found that this mineral water is very good for the liver. 11. Scientists consider
that electricity exists throughout space. 12. It is said that the weather in Europe was
exceedingly hot last summer. 13. It is said that this man was very handsome in his
youth. 14. It was reported that five ships were missing after the battle.
Следующие глаголы в предложениях, содержащих Complex Subject,
употребляются в Active Voice:
to seem, to appear, to turn out, to happen
Упр. 3. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на сложное
подлежащее.
1. Irving turned out to be a long, pale-faced fellow. 2. His office turned out to be in
one of the back streets. 3. He appeared to be an ideal man. 4. She doesn't seem to
want to do anything I suggest. 5. He turned out to have no feeling whatever for his
nephew. 6. This appeared to amuse the policeman. 7. You can easily get in through
the window if the door happens to be locked. 8. The peasants did not seem to see
her. 9. The Gadfly seemed to have taken a dislike to Signora Grassini from the
time of their first meeting. 10. You don't seem to have done any great thing to
yourself by going away. 11. "Jim," he said at last, in a voice that did not seem to
belong to him. 12. Money just doesn't happen to interest me. 13. In the middle of
the lecture Dr. Sommerville happened to pause and look out of the window. 14.
From the very first men. turn of Long John, I was afraid that he might turn out to
be the very one-legged sailor whom I had watched for so long at the inn. 15. Clyde
seemed to have been thinking of no one else but Sondra since their last meeting.
16. Clyde appeared to have forgotten of his promise to spend his spare eve. mugs
78
with Roberta. 17. She appeared to be an excellent actress. 18. One day a Hare
happened to moot a Tortoise. 19. The Tortoise seemed to be moving very slowly.
20. The Hare turned out to be the loser of the race. 21. The apparatus seemed to be
in excellent condition. 22. You appear to have found in him something that I have
missed. 23. This work seems to take much time. 24. The operation seemed to be a
complicated one. 25. The new methods of work appear to be very effective. 26.
The percentage of carbon in this steel turned out to be low.
Упр. 4. Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребляя сложное
подлежащее.
E.g. It appeared that they had lost the way. They appeared to have lost the way.
1. It seems they know all about it. 2. It seems they have heard all about it. 3. It
seemed that the discussion was coming to an end. 4. It seems that you don't
approve of the idea. 5. It seemed that the house had not been lived in for a long
time. 6. It appeared that he was losing patience. 7. It appeared that he had not heard
what had been said. 8. It happened that I was present at the opening session. 9. It so
happened that I overheard their conversation. 10. It turned out that my prediction
was correct. 11. It turned out that the language of the article was quite easy.
Запомните следующие предложения, содержащие Complex Subject
He is likely to win the prize.- Похоже, что он выиграет приз.
He is sure to come.- Он обязательно придет.
Упр. 5. Переведите на русский язык, обращая внимание на словосочетания to
be likely to, to be sure to.
1. Mr. Worthing is sure to be back soon. 2. These two young people are sure to be
very good friends. 3. You are sure to be there tomorrow night, aren't you? 4. We
most of us want a good many things that we are not likely to get. 5. He is sure to
tell me all about this even if I don't ask him. 6. When Sondra said that they were
sure to meet again, she saw Clyde's face suddenly brighten. 7. If we go on arguing,
we are sure to quarrel. 8. They are sure to acknowledge your talent. 9. He is sure to
give us some useful information. 10. The article is likely to appear in the next issue
of the journal. U. She is not likely to change her opinion. 12. They were sure to
come to an understanding. 13. Don't worry: everything is sure to turn out all right.
14. This new course of treatment is sure to help your grandmother.
Упр. 6. Переведите на английский язык, употребляя сложное подлежащее.
1. Известно, что марсианские каналы были открыты в 1877 году.
2. Предполагают, что заседание закончится в десять часов. 3. Полагают, что
они знают об этом больше, чем хотят показать. 4. Джим оказался храбрым
мальчиком. 5. Рочестер случайно встретил Джейн по дороге домой. 6.
Говорят, что он работает над своим изобретением уже несколько лет. 7.
79
Говорят, что эта статья переведена на все языки мира. 8. Вы, кажется, много
читали до поступления в университет. 9. Как известно, Жуковский был
прекрасным педагогом и лектором. 10. Никак не ожидали, что холодная
погода наступит так рано. 11. Оказалось, что мы уже когда-то встречались.
12. Вы, кажется, устали. 13. Условия работы оказались более трудными, чем
предполагалось. 14. Вы случайно не знаете этого человека? 15. Книга,
которую вы мне дали, оказалась скучной. 16. Новые автобусы оказались
очень удобными. 17. Из трех сестер Бронте Шарлотта считается наиболее
талантливой. 18. Как известно, английская писательница Войнич жила в
течение нескольких лет в Петербурге и изучала русскую литературу.
Считают, что русская литература оказала влияние на ее творчество. 19. Ваш
приятель, кажется, очень интересуется древней историей. 20. Известно, что
римляне построили на Британских островах хорошие дороги. 21. Полагают,
что поэма «Беовульф» была написана в VIII веке. 22. Вальтер Скотт
считается создателем исторического романа. 23. Сообщают, что экспедиция
достигла места назначения. 24. Я случайно знаю номер его телефона. 25. Он
оказался хорошим спортсменом. 26. Он, кажется, пишет новую статью:
кажется, он работает над ней уже две недели. 27. Я случайно встретил его в
Москве. 28. Говорят, что это здание было построено в XVII веке.
Part B (Technical English)
The Complex Subject
Noun/pronoun + verb + Infinitive
The Complex Subject is used with:
the verbs in the Passive Voice:
to report - сообщать
to think - думать
to state - устанавливать
to announce - объявлять
to hear - слышать
to understand - понимать
e.g.
The plane is reported to have
landed.
to know - знать
to suppose - предполагать
to expect - ожидать
to consider - считать
to believe - полагать
tо say – говорить
Сообщают, что самолет совершил
посадку. Как сообщают, самолет
совершил посадку.
the word groups:
to be likely - вероятно
to be unlikely – маловероятно, вряд ли
to be certain/to be sure – несомненно, обязательно, бесспорно
the verbs:
to seem/to appear - казаться, по-видимому
to happen/to chance - случаться
to prove/to turn out - оказываться
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Exercise 1. Translate the following sentences with “is said (is stated, is …)
+Infinitive”:
1. The laboratory is assumed to contain the complicated equipment required
to support and perform various experiments.
2. 45,000 international voice channels are said to exist in the world now.
3. Submarine cables are believed to play a very significant role in
communication systems.
4. Written language is stated to be an evident transformation of oral
(устный) speech.
5. Frequencies above 1,500 kilohertz were found to propagate much farther
than it had been expected.
6. Nuclear energy is expected to become the world's main source of power.
7. Alpha rays are thought to be the least penetrating and easily stopped even
by an inch of air.
Exercise 2. Translate the following sentences with "to seem”, “to appear”, “to
happen, “to prove”+ Infinitive”:
1. At present it seems more practicable to produce heat from nuclear sources
than to convert the heat to electricity by thermoelectric units.
2. It is true that many real and significant problems seem too difficult to
solve.
3. People happened to have known about the radioactivity long time ago.
4. Computers prove to be very important in computing to an accuracy of
three or four significant figures.
5. There seems to be three series of radioactive elements.
6. The memory of the computer appears to be limited in some extent.
7. The reference book proved to have been very essential in the research
work.
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences with “is likely (is certain, is sure…)
+ Infinitive”.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The fault of the device is likely to be caused by noise.
The radio network is certain to increase with time.
The new installation is sure to attract much attention.
The activity of an engineer is likely to extend.
This method of switching is sure to be cheaper.
Radio is certain to be the most significant means of communication.
Much information is likely to come through space.
The data is likely to be processed by specialists.
81
Exercise 4.Translate the following sentences paying attention to the functions of
the Infinitive.
1. The scientists allowed the workers to locate the installation in this area.
2. To locate a relay station one must take into consideration weather and
climate conditions.
3. The engineers wanted the workers to fulfill the task as soon as possible.
4. The specialist asked the operator to process the data as soon as possible.
5. The commander ordered his men to string wires over the area.
6. New experiments in building the spaceship are known to be provided by
some scientific institutes and research laboratories.
7. The information has been essential enough to understand the faults of the
device.
8. The instrument consists of a special system to measure the intensity of solar
illumination.
9. The experimenter wanted the missile to be directed properly to the target.
10. The attempts happened to be successful.
11. To transmit messages means to propagate news.
82
Glossary
AIRSPEED, The speed of the airplane through the air.
ВОЗДУШНАЯ СКОРОСТЬ, скорость самолета в
воздухе.
AIRWORTHINESS, The condition of the aircraft with
respect to its aerodynamic, mechanical, and legal ability
to fly.
ЛЕТНАЯ ГОДНОСТЬ, состояние самолета,
отражающее его соответствие аэродинамическим,
механическим и юридическим нормам для полета.
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT, A small turbine engine in
the airplane for supplying electrical and pneumatic
power for systems operation on the ground or in flight.
ВСПОМОГАТЕЛЬНАЯ СИЛОВАЯ УСТАНОВКА,
малый газотурбинный двигатель на самолете для
снабжения электрической и пневматической
мощностью для работы систем на земле и в полете.
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR, A type of compressor
used in a gas turbine engine in which air passes through
the compressor in a straight flow, front to rear.
ПРЯМОТОЧНЫЙ КОМПРЕССОР, тип компрессора,
используемый для газотурбинного двигателя, в
котором воздух проходит через компрессор прямым
потоком от передней его части к задней.
BUILT-IN TEST EQUIPMENT, Equipment installed on
the airplane and in airplane systems to test the systems
without external test equipment.
ВСТРОЕННОЕ ОБОРУДОВАНИЕ ДЛЯ
ПРОВЕРКИ, оборудование, установленное на
самолете и в системах самолета для их проверки без
внешнего дополнительного оборудования для
проверки.
CALIBRATE, To repair, adjust, fix or correct the
measuring capabilities of a measuring device.
КАЛИБРОВАТЬ, починить, отрегулировать или
откорректировать измерительные возможности
приборов для измерения величин.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER, A part of an engine for
burning fuel in the air supplied by the compressor.
КАМЕРА СГОРАНИЯ, часть двигателя для
сжигания топлива о воздухе, подаваемого
компрессором.
COMPRESSOR, A rotating part of an engine driven by
a mechanical shaft from the turbines for increasing air
pressure and temperature before the air enters the
combustion chamber, Low pressure compressor - front
section of compressor, High pressure compressor - rear
section of compressor
КОМПРЕССОР, вращающаяся часть двигателя,
приводимая в движение механическим валом от
турбин для увеличения давления и температуры
воздуха перед входом воздуха в камеру сгорания;
компрессор низкого давления - передняя секция
компрессора, компрессор высокого давления задняя секция компрессора.
КОРРОЗИЯ, химическая реакция, которая вызывает
постепенное разрушение поверхности металла при
его окислении или химическом разложении.
CORROSION, A chemical action which causes gradual
destruction of the surface of a metal by oxidation or
chemical contamination.
COWL, A removable cover around the engine sections
for access to the components on the engine.
Fan Cowl - Cover around the fan section.
Nose Cowl - Front section of the nacelle for air inlet to
the engine.
Side Cowl - Cover around the sides of the engine.
Thrust Reverser Cowl - Cover around the core section.
Translating Cowl - The moveable outer portion of
the thrust reverser cowl which is operated during
reverse thrust.
DIFFUSER, A part of an engine between the
compressor and combustion chamber for reducing the
airflow speed and increasing the air pressure.
КАПОТ, съемный кожух вокруг секций двигателя
для доступа к компонентам двигателя.
КАПОТ ВЕНТИЛЯТОРА - кожух вокруг секции
вентилятора.
ПЕРЕДНИЙ КАПОТ-передняя секция гондолы для
входа воздуха в двигатель.
БОКОВОЙ КАПОТ-кожух с боков двигателя.
КАПОТ МЕХАНИЗМА РЕВЕРСА ТЯГИ - кожух
вокруг внутренней секции
ПЕРЕВОДНОЙ КАПОТ - подвижная наружная часть
капота механизма реверса тяги, которая работает во
время использования реверсивной тяги
ДИФФУЗОР, часть двигателя между компрессором
и камерой сгорания для понижения скорости
воздушного потока и увеличения воздушного
давления.
83
DOCK, A closed-in or protected area reserved for
aircraft repairs. Less structured than a hangar.
ДОК, закрытая или предохраняемая зона,
зарезервированная для ремонтов самолета. Меньшая
по структуре, чем ангар.
ENGINE BLEED AIR, Air taken from the engine to
power various aircraft accessories.
ОТБОР ВОЗДУХА ОТ ДВИГАТЕЛЯ, воздух, взятый
от двигателя для задействования различных
вспомогательных компонентов самолета.
ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO, the ratio of inlet pressure
over exhaust pressure measurements. The ratio is used as
the primary parameter to set thrust on some engines.
СТЕПЕНЬ СЖАТИЯ В ДВИГАТЕЛЕ, отношение
измерения давления на входе к давлению на выходе.
Степень сжатия используется как первичный
параметр для установки тяги на некоторых
двигателях.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE, The temperature of
the engine exhaust measured by thermocouples and
displayed by an indicator for monitoring correct engine
operation.
ТЕМПЕРАТУРА ВЫХОДЯЩИХ ГАЗОВ,
температура выхлопа двигателя, измеренная
термопарами и указанная на индикаторе для
отслеживания правильной работы двигателя.
FAN, A rotating part of an engine, driven by the low
pressure turbine, for air supply to the engine and to the
duct around the front part of the engine. The fan
provides the major portion of engine thrust.
ВЕНТИЛЯТОР, вращающаяся часть на двигателе,
приводимая в движение турбиной низкого давления
для подачи воздуха к двигателю и к трубопроводу
вокруг передней части двигателя. Вентилятор
обеспечивает основную часть тяги двигателя.
FAN COWL, A covering around the fan section of the
engine that can be opened for access to the components
on the engine.
КАПОТ ВЕНТИЛЯТОРА, кожух вокруг секции
вентилятора двигателя, который может открываться
для доступа к компонентам двигателя.
FEEDBACK, A part of an output signal which returns to
the input for control or indication.
ОБРАТНАЯ СВЯЗЬ, часть выходящего сигнала,
который возвращается как входной, для контроля
или индикации.
FUEL CONTROL UNIT, A component on the engine
for controlling fuel flow for starting and engine
operation.
БЛОК УПРАВЛЕНИЯ ТОПЛИВОМ, компонент на
двигателе для управления расходом топлива для
старта и работы двигателей.
FUEL FLOW, the rate at which an engine consumes fuel
measured in units of weight per hour.
РАСХОД ТОПЛИВА, величина потребляемого
двигателем топлива, измеряемого в весовых
единицах в час.
FUEL HEATER, A component on the engine for heating
fuel to prevent icing conditions in the engine fuel
system.
ПОДОГРЕВАТЕЛЬ ТОПЛИВА, компонент на
двигателе для подогрева топлива, чтобы
предотвратить условия обледенения в топливной
системе двигателя.
GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT, Equipment used
to service, test, move, power, оr repair аn airplane while
it is оn the ground.
ОБОРУДОВАНИЕ НАЗЕМНОЙ ПОДДЕРЖКИ,
оборудование, используемое для обслуживания,
проверки, передвижки, подачи мощности или
ремонта, когда самолет находится на земле.
HOIST, А device for lowering and lifting аn engine оr а
heavy component during removal and installation оn the
airplane.
ЛЕБЕДКА, ПОДЪЕМНИК, устройство для
опускания или поднимания двигателя или тяжелых
компонентов во время демонтажа и установки на
самолет.
INLET GUIDE VANES, А fixed set of blades in front
of аn engine compressor for directing airflow to the
compressor
ЛОПАТКИ ВХОДНОГО НАПРАВЛЯЮЩЕГО
АППАРАТА, фиксированная установка лопаток в
передней части компрессора двигателя для
направления воздушного потока в компрессор.
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JET PUMP, А component in the fuel system, operated
bу fuel pressure, for removing water and fuel from а fuel
tank.
РЕАКТИВНО-СТРУЙНЫЙ НАСОС, компонент в
топливной системе, работающий с помощью
давления топлива, для удаления воды и топлива из
топливного бака.
LUBRICANT, А substance used to reduce friction
between moving parts. It can bе а natural or аn artificial
material.
СМАЗОЧНОЕ ВЕЩЕСТВО, вещество,
используемое для уменьшения трения между
двигающимися частями. Оно может быть
натуральным и синтетическим материалом.
МАСН NUMBER, The ratio of the aircraft’s true
airspeed to the speed of sound at that point.
ЧИСЛО МАХА, отношение истинной
воздушной скорости самолета к скорости звука в
этой точке.
MAIN ENGINE CONTROL, А component оn the
engine for controlling fuel flow for starting and engine
operation.
ОСНОВНОЕ УПРАВЛЕНИЕ ДВИГАТЕЛЕМ,
компонент на двигателе для управления расхода
топлива для запуска и работы двигателя.
MAINTENANCE, Work accomplished in support of the
structure and systems of аn aircraft. It includes,
inspection, overhaul, repair, preservation and the
replacement of parts.
ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИЯ, работа, выполняемая для
поддержания конструкций и систем самолета. Она
включает: инспекцию, капитальный ремонт, ремонт,
хранение и замену частей.
N1, Speed of the low pressure compressor rotor.
N1, скорость ротора компрессора низкого давления.
N2, High pressure compressor rotor speed.
N2, скорость ротора компрессора высокого
давления.
NACELLE, A streamlined enclosure on the wing or
fuselage for the engine.
ГОНДОЛА, ограждение вдоль потока на крыле или
фюзеляже для двигателя.
NOZZLE, A shaped device for directing flow in a duct.
ФОРСУНКА, НАСАДКА; устройство, имеющее
определенную форму для направления потока.
OVERHAUL, To return an aircraft or one of its
components to a like-new or just manufactured
condition.
КАПИТАЛЬНЫЙ РЕМОНТ, отремонтировать
самолет или один из его компонентов как новый,
или, как в условиях производства при его
изготовлении.
PYLON, A structural component for supporting an
engine from the wing.
ПИЛОН, элемент конструкции для поддержки
двигателя на крыле.
QUICK ENGINE CHANGE KIT, A collection of
components allowing installation of a basic engine on to
any of the engine positions of a particular model
airplane.
КОМПЛЕКТ ИНСТРУМЕНТОВ ДЛЯ БЫСТРОЙ
СМЕНЫ ДВИГАТЕЛЯ, набор элементов,
позволяющих установку основного двигателя в
любом местоположении для специфических моделей
самолета.
RATIO, A specific relationship between one number
value and another.
ОТНОШЕНИЕ, определенное отношение между
одним численным значением к другому.
REGULATING VALVE, A valve for controlling
pressure or flow.
РЕГУЛИРУЮЩИЙ КЛАПАН, клапан для
управления давления или потока.
ROTOR, A rotating section of an engine (turbine,
compressor) or a generator.
РОТОР, вращающаяся секция двигателя (турбины,
компрессора) или генератора.
RUST, The oxidation of iron and iron containing metals.
It is usually a reddish brown color.
РЖАВЧИНА, окисление железа или железосодержащих металлов. Обычно красновато-
85
коричневого цвета.
SPIN BRAKE, A device in the nosewheel well for
stopping the wheel rotation after retraction.
ТОРМОЗ ВРАЩЕНИЯ, устройство в передней нише
шасси для остановки вращения колеса после уборки
шасси.
SPINNER, An aerodynamic fairing attached to the fan
of a turbofan engine.
ОБТЕКАТЕЛЬ, аэродинамический обтекатель,
присоединенный к вентилятору
турбовентиляторного двигателя.
STALL, A flight condition during which lift is destroyed
due to slow airplane speed or attitude.
СВАЛИВАНИЕ, полетные условия, во время
которых нарушено условие подъемной силы
вследствие малой скорости самолета или
пространственно положения.
STRAIN, Structural material deformed slightly due to
the action and forces of stress.
ДЕФОРМАЦИЯ, РАСТЯЖЕНИЕ, небольшая
структурная деформация материала под действием
сил давления и взаимодействия.
SUPPLEMENTARY MODES, Additional digital flight
control system modes that are available, used when
deviating from normal modes.
ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНЫЕ РЕЖИМЫ, дополнительные
цифровые режимы системы управления полетом,
которые имеются в наличии и используемые, когда
отклоняются от нормальных режимов.
SURGE, A sudden change in the airflow through the
compressor resulting in the compressor not being able to
compress the airflow.
ПОМПАЖ, резкое изменение давления воздушного
потока через компрессор, вызывающее
невозможность сжатия воздушного потока.
THRUST, The driving force of a jet engine.
THRUST REVERSER, A mechanical component in the
fan or exhaust section of the engine for eliminating
forward thrust and decreasing the landing distance by
deflecting fan air or exhaust gasses in the forward
direction.
ТЯГА, отталкивающая сила реактивного двигателя.
МЕХАНИЗМ РЕВЕРСА ТЯГИ, механический
компонент в секции вентилятора или выхлопной
секции двигателя для гашения передней тяги и
уменьшения дистанции пробега с помощью
отклонения воздуха вентилятора или выхлопных
газов в направлении вперед.
TORQUE TUBE, A tubular component for transmitting
twisting motion to the control surfaces.
ТРУБКА ПЕРЕДАЧИ КРУТЯЩЕГО МОМЕНТА,
трубчатый элемент для передачи вращательного
движения к поверхностям управления.
TURBINE, A rotating part of an engine which extracts
kinetic energy from the combustion chamber gases. This
energy is converted to turbine rotation which rotates the
compressors and fan through a coaxial shaft.
ТУРБИНА, вращающаяся часть двигателя, которая
получает кинетическую энергию из газовой камеры
сгорания. Эта энергия преобразуется в движение
турбины, которая вращает компрессоры и
вентилятор на коаксиальном валу.
TURBOFAN, A jet engine in which the first set of
blades is a large fan. An air driven fan/compressor used
in air conditioning system.
ТУРБОВЕНТИЛЯТОР, реактивного двигателя, в
котором первая ступень с лопастями является
большим вентилятором. Воздух, приводимый
вентилятором/компрессором используется в системе
кондиционирования воздуха.
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Список литературы
1.
Е.Н.Девнина «Большой англо-русский и русско-английский
авиационный словарь» - Москва, «Живой язык», 2011.
2.
И.И.Матханова,
Л.П.Ерохина
«Техническая
эксплуатация
летательных аппаратов и двигателей» - Иркутск: ИВВАИУ, 2008.
3.
The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge by the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), U.S. Department of Transportation, 2008.
4.
http://www.airbus.com/
5.
http://www.boeing.com/
6.
http://gendocs.ru/v33147/boeing_technical_dictionary
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