Unit I. Classification of medicine 1 Учреждение образования «БЕЛОРУССКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ» А. М. Романова, Г. Н. Лесневская ENGLISH FOR PHARMACEUTICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Рекомендовано учебно-методическим объединением по химико-технологическому образованию в качестве учебно-методического пособия для студентов учреждений высшего образования по специальностям 1-48 02 01 «Биотехнология», 1-48 02 02 «Технология лекарственных препаратов» Минск 2014 2 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ УДК 811.111(075.8) ББК i81.2Англя73 iiР56 Рецензенты: кафедра современных языков ГУО «Командно-инженерный институт МЧС Республики Беларусь» (кандидат филологических наук, доцент, заведующая кафедрой Т. Г. Ковалева); кандидат филологических наук, доцент, заведующая кафедрой интенсивного обучения иностранным языкам № 2 УО «Минский государственный лингвистический университет» Т. Г. Дементьева Все права на данное издание защищены. Воспроизведение всей книги или ее части не может быть осуществлено без разрешения учреждения образования «Белорусский государственный технологический университет». Романова, А. М. English for Pharmaceutics and Biotechnology : учеб.-метод. Р56 пособие для студентов специальностей 1-48 02 01 «Биотехнология», 1-48 02 02 «Технология лекарственных препаратов» / А. М. Романова, Г. Н. Лесневская. – Минск : БГТУ, 2014. – 202 с. : цв. ил. ISBN 978-985-530-327-6. Учебно-методическое пособие рассчитано на студентов и магистрантов неязыковых вузов специальностей «Биотехнология», «Технология лекарственных препаратов» и представляет собой комплекс адаптированных текстов по биотехнологической и фармацевтической тематике из оригинальных англоязычных источников. Пособие имеет целью развитие и совершенствование навыков научно-технического перевода, использования специальных терминов в устной речи, аннотирования и реферирования. Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено как для аудиторных занятий, так и для организации самостоятельной работы студентов. УДК 811.111(075.8) ББК 81.2Англя73 ISBN 978-985-530-327-6 © УО «Белорусский государственный технологический университет», 2014 © Романова А. М., Лесневская Г. Н., 2014 Unit I. Classification of medicine 3 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Учебно-методическое пособие представляет собой комплекс текстов и упражнений по технологии лекарственных препаратов, биотехнологии и биоэкологии из оригинальных англоязычных источников. Цель его – развивать и совершенствовать у студентов навыки работы с профессионально-ориентированной лексикой, научно-технического перевода литературы и употребления специальных терминов в устной речи, а также обучать составлению аннотаций и рефератов. Пособие состоит из трех частей и двенадцати разделов. Первая часть «Technology of Medicines» включает четыре раздела, в которых рассматривается классификация лекарственных средств. Вторая часть «Biotechnology» содержит шесть разделов, посвященных биотехнологии, классификации микроорганизмов, технологии протеинов и биологически активных веществ. Третья часть «Bioесоlogy» включает два раздела, охватывающих технологии очистки промышленных и бытовых отходов. Содержание текстового материала соответствует действующей программе по английскому языку для неязыковых вузов. Каждый раздел заканчивается блоком лексических заданий, направленных на закрепление полученных навыков работы с профессионально-ориентированным тестом по специальности, его анализа и изложения. Кроме того, в состав данного учебно-методического пособия включен терминологический англо-русский словарь по материалу трех частей. В разделе «Appendix» приведены тексты для самостоятельной работы студентов, тематика которых отвечает основному материалу разделов: списки лекарственных растений и трав, токсикология и перечень эфирных и косметических масел. Текстовый материал данного пособия отражает связь изучаемого материала с лекционными курсами «Pharmaceuticals», «Biological Background of Herbal Medicine», «Application of Biotechnology», «Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Products», «Classification and Structure of Microorganisms» выпускающих кафедр. 4 ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Лексический материал этих разделов подобран и скомпонован таким образом, чтобы способствовать развитию навыков говорения по научным темам, что дает возможность проводить «круглые столы», дискуссии и интервью. В состав учебно-методического пособия включены тематические цветные вкладки с изображением систем организма человека (желудочно-кишечный тракт, коронарно-сосудистая система, система нервных окончаний); сопоставительных схем влияния на организм человека бактериальных и вирусных заболеваний, схем воздействия на человека загрязненной окружающей среды, таблиц по классификации микроорганизмов, по промышленной биотехнологии, по основам биотехнологического производства и ферментации; с фотографиями лекарственных растений, которые наиболее распространены на территории нашей страны. Пособие может быть использовано не только для аудиторных, но и для факультативных занятий со студентами III и IV курсов. Unit I. Classification of medicine 5 PART I TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES UNIT I CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINE TEXT A. ANTIPYRETICS Antipyretics comes from the Greek anti (against), and pyreticus (pertaining to fever). Antipyretics are drugs or herbs that reduce fever. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature. The body then works to lower the temperature, resulting in a reduction in fever. Most antipyretic medications have other purposes. The most common antipyretics are ibuprofen and aspirin, which are used primarily as pain relievers. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and pain relievers. There is some debate over the appropriate use of such medications, as fever is part of the body’s immune response to infection. Non-pharmacological Treatment Bathing or sponging with lukewarm or cool water can effectively reduce body temperature in those with heat illness but not usually in those with fever. The use of alcohol baths is not an appropriate cooling method, because there have been reported adverse events associated with systemic absorption of alcohol. Medications Many medications have antipyretic effects and thus are useful for fever but not heat illness, including: 1) NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, and nimesulide; 2) aspirin, and related salicylates like choline salicylate, magnesium salicylate, and sodium salicylate; 6 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES 3) paracetamol; 4) metamizole, banned in over 30 countries for causing agranulocytosis; 5) nabumetone; 6) phenazone, also known as antipyrine, available in combination with benzocaine; and 7) quinine. Plants Traditional use of higher plants with antipyretic properties is a common worldwide feature of many ethnobotanical cultural systems. In ethnobotany, plants with naturally occurring antipyretic properties are commonly referred to as febrifuges. TEXT B. ANALGESICS An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain. The word analgesic derives from Greek for “without pain”. Commonly known as painkillers, analgesic drugs act in various ways on the central nervous systems. They are distinct from anesthetics, which reversibly eliminate sensation, and include paracetamol, the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and opioid drugs. Analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: for neuropathic pain, traditional analgesics are less effective. And there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as anticonvulsants. Major Classes of Analgesics Paracetamol and NSAIDs. The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol or acetaminophen is uncertain but appears to act centrally in the brain rather than peripherally in nerve endings. Paracetamol has few side effects and is regarded as generally safe, although excess or sustained use can lead to liver and kidney damage. NSAIDs predispose to peptic ulcers, renal failure, allergic reactions, and occasionally hearing loss. In contrast to paracetamol and the opioids, aspirin and the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) lead to a decrease in prostaglandin production resulting in reduction of both pain and inflammation. The use of aspirin by children under 16 suffering from viral illness can lead to a rare but severe liver disorder. Cyclooxygenase enzyme (COX-2) inhibitors. These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by Unit I. Classification of medicine 7 NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: the COX-1 (constitutive) enzyme and the COX-2 (inducible) enzyme. Research suggested that most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs were mediated by blocking the COX-1 enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX-2 enzyme. These drugs are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular. After widespread adoption of the COX-2 inhibitors, it was discovered that most of the drugs in this class increased the risk of cardiovascular events by 40% on average. Opiates and Morphinomimetics Morphine, the archetypal opioid, and various other substances (e.g. codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, dihydromorphine, pethidine) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor system. Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks and pinpoint pupils), seizures (tramadol), but there is no dose ceiling in patients who accumulate tolerance. Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea and vomiting. Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives are typically co-prescribed. When used appropriately, opioids and similar narcotic analgesics are otherwise safe and effective, however risks such as addiction and the body tolerance can occur. The effect of tolerance means that frequent use of the drug may result in its diminished effect so, when safe to do so, the dosage may need to be increased to maintain effectiveness. This may be of particular concern regarding patients suffering with chronic pain. Flupirtine is used in Europe as a moderate to strong pain and migraine and its muscle relaxant properties. It has no anticholinergic properties and is believed to be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin or histamine receptors. It is not addictive and tolerance usually does not develop. Specific Forms and Uses Combinations. Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and codeine preparations found in many nonprescription pain relievers. While the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen and other NSAIDS has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy 8 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion which arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations. Topical or systemic analgesia. Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofen-containing gel. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental work and minor medical procedures. Psychotropic agents. Some cannabinoids, either from the Cannabis sativa plant or synthetic, have analgesic properties, although the use of cannabis derivatives is currently illegal in many countries. Inhaled cannabis is effective in alleviating neuropathy and pain resulting from spinal injury and multiple sclerosis. Other psychotropic analgesic agents include clonidine, mexiletine and other local anaesthetic analogues. Atypical, adjuvant analgesics, and potentiators. Drugs which have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation and newer anti-depressants are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic. Adjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include many drugs with CNS actions. These drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate and/or modify the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin. The use of adjuvant analgesics is an important and growing part of the pain-control field and new discoveries are made practically every year. Many of these drugs combat the side effects of opioid analgesics, an added bonus. Stimulants such as caffeine work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants. The use of medicinal cannabis remains a debated issue. TEXT C. ANTIBACTERIALS An antibacterial is an agent that inhibits bacterial growth or kills bacteria. The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic(s). Today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of Unit I. Classification of medicine 9 various infectious diseases, antibiotic(s) has come to denote a broader range of antimicrobial compounds, including anti-fungal and other compounds. The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria, but are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units. Chemically most of modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include the beta-lactam antibacterials, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials (the sulfonamides and the quinolones) are produced solely by chemical synthesis. In accordance with this, many antibacterial compounds are classified on the basis of chemical or biosynthetic origin into natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic. Another classification system is based on biological activity. In this classification, antibacterials are divided into two broad groups according to their biological effect on microorganisms: bactericidal agents kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents slow down or stall bacterial growth. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT I Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What term was first used by Selman Waksman to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution? 10 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES 2. What compounds are classified on the basis of chemical/biosynthetic origin into natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic? 3. In accordance with what effect on microorganisms many antibacterial compounds are divided into two broad groups: bactericidal agents kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents slow down or stall bacterial growth? 4. What drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin? 5. What major classes of analgesics do you know? Ex. II. Name the word. 1. Drugs or herbs that reduce fever, cause the hypothalamus to override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature, and make the body work to lower the temperature. 2. Pain relievers, e.g. ibuprofen and aspirin. 3. It has weak NMDA antagonist and no anticholinergic properties, and is used for moderate to strong pain. 4. It is effective in alleviating neuropathy and pain resulting from spinal injury and multiple sclerosis. 5. Sulfonamides and quinolones produced solely by chemical synthesis. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. Many medications have antipyretic effects and thus are useful for fever but not … illness. 2. Rofecoxib, celecoxib and etoricoxib are equally effective … when compared with …, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular. 3. Compounds, isolated from living organisms, are the … 4. … are produced solely by chemical synthesis. 5. Most of modern antibacterials chemically are semisynthetic modifications of various … 6. Combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including …, most often due to confusion which arises from the non-acting components of these combinations. Antibacterials, natural compounds, heat, analgesics, aminoglycosides, accidental overdoses, NSAIDs. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) antibiotic(s) a) stimulant that works against heavy sedation; 2) opioids b) drug that may elevate mood in distressed patients; Unit I. Classification of medicine 3) caffeine 11 c) drug denoting a broader range of antimicrobial compounds, including anti-fungal; 4) anesthetics d) very effective analgesics with some unpleasant side-effects; 5) antidepressant e) painkillers acting on the peripheral and central nervous systems; 6) analgesics f) the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Ex. V. Get meaningful sentences: 1. Also, pain, the, is, choice, of, analgesic, determined, type, by. 2. Are, antibacterial, small, many, relatively, molecules, compounds. 3. Natural, chemically, in, chemistry, advances, most, semisynthetic, modern, antibacterials, medicinal, compounds, modifications, of, various, with, of, are. 4. Plants, in, referred, with, ethnobotany, as, naturally, commonly, febrifuges, occurring, antipyretic, properties, are, to. 5. Fever, or, bathing, with, heat, cool, those, water, illness, can, effectively, reduce, usually, body, in, with, sponging, but, not, in, temperature, with, those. Ex. VI. Topics for discussion. Look through the list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine (Appendix B) and speak on their application. Ex. VII. Translate into English paying attention on the etymology of medicinal herbs and plants. Лекарственные растения (лат. Plantae medicinalis) – обширная группа растений, органы или части которых являются сырьем для получения средств, используемых в народной, медицинской или ветеринарной практике в лечебных или профилактических целях. Наиболее широко лекарственные растения представлены в народной медицине. В качестве лекарственных растений в начале XXI века широко используются аир обыкновенный, алоэ, брусника, девясил, зверобой, календула, каллизия, клюква, малина, мать-и-мачеха, мята, облепиха, подорожник, ромашка, солодка, тысячелистник, шалфей, шиповник и многие другие. На начало 2013 года по данным Международного союза охраны природы (IUCN), было описано около 320 тысяч видов растений, из них лишь небольшая часть (21 тысяча видов) активно используется в медицине. 12 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES UNIT II PHARMACEUTICALS TEXT A. HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY Ancient pharmacology. Using plants and plant substances to treat all kinds of diseases and medical conditions is believed to date back to prehistoric medicine. The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the oldest known medical text of any kind, dates to about 1800 BC and represents the first documented use of any kind of medication. It and other medical papyri describe Ancient Egyptian medical practices, such as using honey to treat infections. Ancient Babylonian medicines demonstrate the use of prescriptions in the first half of the second millennium BC. Medicinal creams and pills were employed as treatments. On the Indian subcontinent, the Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism whose core dates from the 2nd millennium BC, although the hymns recorded in it are believed to be older, is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. It describes plant-based medications to counter diseases. The earliest foundations of Ayurveda were built on a synthesis of selected ancient herbal practices, together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 400 BC onwards. The student of Ayurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis. The Hippocratic Oath for physicians, attributed to 5th century BC Greece, refers to the existence of “deadly drugs”, and ancient Greek physicians imported medications from Egypt and elsewhere. Medieval Pharmacology Medieval medicine saw advances in surgery, but few truly effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine. Folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments. Unit II. Pharmaceuticals 13 Theodoric Borgognoni (1205–1296), one of the most significant surgeons of the medieval period, was responsible for introducing and promoting important surgical advances including basic antiseptic practice and the use of anaesthetics. Modern Pharmacology For most of the 19th century, drugs were not highly effective, leading Oliver Wendell Holmes to the famous comment in 1842 that “if all medicines in the world were thrown into the sea, it would be all the better for mankind and all the worse for the fishes”. During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with irrigation, Dakin’s solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene. In the inter-war period, the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics were developed. The Second World War saw the introduction of widespread and effective antimicrobial therapy with the development and mass production of penicillin antibiotics, made possible by the pressures of the war and the collaboration of British scientists with the American pharmaceutical industry. Medicines commonly used by the late 1920s included aspirin, codeine, and morphine for pain; digitalis, nitroglycerin, and quinine for heart disorders, and insulin for diabetes. Other drugs included antitoxins, a few biological vaccines, and a few synthetic drugs. In the 1930s antibiotics emerged: first sulfa drugs, then penicillin and other antibiotics. Drugs increasingly became the center of medical practice. In the 1950s other drugs emerged including corticosteroids for inflammation, antihistamines for nasal allergies, xanthines for asthma, and typical antipsychotics for psychosis. By 2012 thousands of approved drugs have been developed. Increasingly, biotechnology is used to discover biopharmaceuticals. Recently, multi-disciplinary approaches have yielded a wealth of new data on the development of novel antibiotics and antibacterials and on the use of biological agents for antibacterial therapy. In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control. 14 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES Governments have been heavily involved in the regulation of drug development and drug sales. Until the 1970s, drug prices were not a major concern for doctors and patients. As more drugs became prescribed for chronic illnesses, however, costs became burdensome, and by the 1970s nearly every state required or encouraged the substitution of generic drugs for higher-priced brand names. As of 2008, the United States is the leader in medical research, including pharmaceutical development. U.S. drug prices are among the highest in the world, and drug innovation is correspondingly high. In 2000 U.S. based firms developed 29 of the 75 top-selling drugs; firms from the second-largest market, Japan, developed eight, and the United Kingdom contributed 10. France, which imposes price controls, developed three. Throughout the 1990s outcomes were similar. TEXT B. PHARMACEUTICAL DRUGS A pharmaceutical drug, also referred to as a medicine or medication, can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease. The word pharmaceutical comes from the Greek word Pharmakeia. The modern transliteration of Pharmakeia is Pharmacia. Administration is the delivery of a pharmaceutical drug to a patient. There are three major categories of drug administration: enteral (taking medication orally), parenteral (introducing the medication directly to the circulatory system), and other (which includes introducing medication through intranasal, topical, inhalation, and rectal means). It can be performed in various dosage forms such as pills, tablets, or capsules. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous (into the blood through a vein) and oral administration (through the mouth). Legal considerations. Depending upon the jurisdiction, medications may be divided into over-the-counter drugs (OTC), which may be available without special restrictions, and prescription only medicine (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner. The precise distinction between OTC and prescription depends on the legal jurisdiction. A third category, behind-the-counter medications (BTMs), is implemented in some jurisdictions. BTMs do not require a prescription, but must be kept in the dispensary, not visible to the Unit II. Pharmaceuticals 15 public, and only be sold by a pharmacist or pharmacy technician. Doctors may also prescribe prescription drugs for off-label use – purposes which the drugs were not originally approved for by the regulatory agency. The Classification of Pharmacotherapeutic Referrals helps guide the referral process between pharmacists and doctors. The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations imposes a world law of prohibition of certain medications. They publish a lengthy list of chemicals and plants whose trade and consumption (where applicable) is forbidden. OTC medications are sold without restriction as they are considered safe enough that most people will not hurt themselves accidentally by taking it as instructed. Many countries, such as the United Kingdom have a third category of pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. For patented medications, countries may have certain mandatory licensing programs which compel, in certain situations, a medication’s owner to contract with other agents to manufacture the drug. Such programs may deal with the contingency of a lack of medication in the event of a serious epidemic of disease, or may be part of efforts to ensure that disease treating drugs, such as AIDS drugs, are available to countries which cannot afford the drug owner’s price. Prescription practice. Drugs which are prescription only are regulated as such because they can impose adverse effects and should not be used unless necessary. Medical guidelines and clinical trials required for approval are used to help inform doctors’ prescription of these drugs, but errors can happen. Reasons to not prescribe drugs such as interactions or side effects are called contraindications. Errors include overprescription and polypharmacy, misprescription, contraindication and lack of detail in dosage and administrations instructions. Drug development. Drug development is the process by which a drug is created. Drugs can be extracted from natural products (pharmacognosy) or synthesized through chemical processes. The drug’s active ingredient will be combined with a “vehicle” such as a capsule, cream, or liquid which will be administered through a particular route of administration. Child-resistant packaging will likely be used in the ultimate package sold to the consumer. Blockbuster drug. A blockbuster drug is a drug generating more than $1 billion of revenue for its owner each year. Cimetidine was the first drug ever to reach more than $1 billion a year in sales, thus making 16 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES it the first blockbuster drug. In the pharmaceutical industry, a blockbuster drug is one that achieves acceptance by prescribing physicians as a therapeutic standard for, most commonly, a highly prevalent chronic (rather than acute) condition. Patients often take the medicines for long periods. The birth control pill Enovid was the first modern drug taken by those not ill for a highly prevalent chronic condition. The focus on highly profitable drugs for chronic conditions and resulting de-emphasis of one-time acute treatment drugs has led to occasional shortages of antibiotics or vaccines, such as the influenza vaccine shortage. TEXT C. TYPES OF MEDICATIONS Medications can be classified in various ways, such as by chemical properties, mode or route of administration, biological system affected, or therapeutic effects. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines. A sampling of classes of medicine includes: 1) antipyretics: reducing fever (pyrexia/pyresis); 2) analgesics: reducing pain (painkillers); 3) antimalarial drugs: treating malaria; 4) antibiotics: inhibiting germ growth; and 5) antiseptics: prevention of germ growth near burns, cuts and wounds. And more than 20 types of pharmacotherapy are known according to their indication. These are listed below. Medications affecting gastrointestinal tract (digestive system) include those for: 1) upper digestive tract (antacids, reflux suppressants, antiflatulents, proton pump inhibitors); 2) lower digestive tract (laxatives, antispasmodics, antidiarrhoeals, bile acid sequestrants, and opioid). Medications affecting the cardiovascular system include those for: 1) general (β-receptor blockers (“beta blockers”), calcium channel blockers, diuretics, cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmics, nitrate, antianginals, vasoconstrictors, vasodilators, peripheral activators); 2) affecting blood pressure, i.e. antihypertensive drugs; 3) coagulation (anticoagulants, heparin, antiplatelet drugs, haemostatic drugs); and 4) atherosclerosis/cholesterol inhibitors: hypolipidaemic agents, statins. Medications affecting central nervous system include: psychedelics, hypnotics, anaesthetics, antipsychotics, antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants, lithium salts), antiemetics, anticonvulsants or Unit II. Pharmaceuticals 17 antiepileptics, anxiolytics, barbiturates, movement disorder (e.g. Parkinson’s disease) drugs, stimulants (including amphetamines), antihistamines, and emetics. Medications affecting pain and consciousness (analgesic drugs). The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and paracetamol. Anesthetic medication can also be used to reduce pain or numb a person’s feeling to it. Medications affecting the eye include: 1) general (adrenergic neurone blocker, astringent, ocular lubricant); 2) diagnostic (topical anesthetics, sympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, mydriatics, cycloplegics); 3) antibacterial (antibiotics, topical antibiotics, sulfa drugs, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones); 4) antiviral drugs: anti-fungal (imidazoles, polyenes), anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs, corticosteroids), anti-allergy (mast cell inhibitors), and anti-glaucoma (adrenergic agonists, beta-blockers, and nitroglycerin). Medications affecting the ear, nose and oropharynx include: antihistamines, NSAIDs, steroids, antiseptics, local anesthetics, and antifungals. Medications affecting the respiratory system include: bronchodilators, NSAIDs, anti-allergics, antitussives, mucolytics, decongestants corticosteroids, and steroids. Medications reducing endocrine problems include: androgens, antiandrogens, gonadotropin, corticosteroids, human growth hormone, insulin, antidiabetics (sulfonylureas, biguanides or metformin, insulin), thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosponate, and vasopressin analogues. Medications for the reproductive system or urinary system treatment include: antifungal, alkalising agents, quinolones, antibiotics, cholinergics, anticholinergics, anticholinesterases, antispasmodics, sildenafils, and fertility medications. Medications for the skin treatment include: emollients, antipruritics, antifungals, disinfectants, scabicides, pediculicides, tar products, vitamin A derivatives, vitamin D analogues, keratolytics, abrasives, systemic antibiotics, topical antibiotics, hormones, desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, sunscreens, antiperspirants, and corticosteroids. Medications for infections and infestations treatment include: antibiotics, antifungals, antileprotics, antituberculous drugs, antimalarials, anthelmintics, amoebicides, antivirals, and antiprotozoals. 18 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES Medications affecting the immune system include: vaccines, immunoglobulins, immunosuppressants, interferons, monoclonal antibodies. Medications affecting allergic disorders include: anti-allergics, antihistamines, and NSAIDs. Medications for nutrition treatment include: tonics, electrolytes and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium preparations), parental nutritional supplements, vitamins, anti-obesity drugs, anabolic drugs, haematopoietic drugs, and food product drugs. TEXT D. PHARMACEUTICALS AND PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT Since the 1990s water contamination by pharmaceuticals has been an environmental issue of concern. Most pharmaceuticals are deposited in the environment through human consumption and excretion, and are often filtered ineffectively by wastewater treatment plants which are not designed to manage them. Once in the water they can have diverse, subtle effects on organisms, although research is limited. Pharmaceuticals may also be deposited in the environment through improper disposal, runoff from sludge fertilizer and reclaimed wastewater irrigation, and leaky sewage. Pharmacoenvironmentology is a branch of pharmacology and a form of pharmacovigilance which deals entry of chemicals or drugs into the environment after elimination from humans and animals posttherapy. It deals specifically with those pharmacological agents that have impact on the environment via elimination through living organisms subsequent to pharmacotherapy, while Ecopharmacology is concerned with the entry of chemicals or drugs into the environment through any route and at any concentration disturbing the balance of ecology (ecosystem), as a consequence. Ecopharmacology is a broad term that includes studies of “PPCPs” irrespective of doses and route of entry into environment. Ecopharmacovigilance is the science and activities associated with the detection, evaluation, understanding and prevention of adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment. This is close to the WHO definition of pharmacovigilance, the science aiming to capture any adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in humans after use. The term Envi- Unit II. Pharmaceuticals 19 ronmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants (EPPP) was suggested in the 2010 nomination of pharmaceuticals and environment as an emerging issue to Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) by the International Society of Doctors for the Environment (ISDE). Throughout the 1990s outcomes were similar. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT II Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What nine arts, except distillation, were indispensable in the preparation and application of medicines in ancient times? 2. What medicines were commonly used for pain in the beginning of the XXth century? 3. What popular medieval treatments can you name? 4. What antibiotics emerged in the 1930s? 5. Do you share a famous comment of 1842 that “if all medicines in the world were thrown into the sea, it would be all the better for mankind and all the worse for the fishes”? State your point. Ex. II. Name the word. 1. Type of drugs regulated as such because they can impose adverse effects and should not be used unless necessary. 2. Reasons to not prescribe drugs such as interactions or side effects. 3. Prescription practice says that these documents, required for approval, are used to help inform doctors’ prescription of these drugs, but errors can happen. 4. The science and activities associated with the detection, evaluation, understanding and prevention of adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment. 5. Most of them are deposited in the environment through human consumption and excretion. 20 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. Until the 1970s, … were not a major concern for doctors and patients. 2. Depending upon the jurisdiction, may be divided into over-thecounter drugs. 3. A … can be loosely defined as any chemical substance intended for use in the medical diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of disease. 4. … may be available without special restrictions, while must be prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner. 5. The World Health Organization keeps a list of … Medications, prescription only medicine, pharmaceutical drug, essential medicines, drug prices. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) digitalis, nitroglycerin, a) one of ten arts indispensable in the and quinine preparation and application of medicines that the student of Ayurveda was expected to know; 2) analysis and separation b) medicines used by the late 1920s for of minerals heart disorders; 3) administration c) the delivery of a pharmaceutical drug to a patient; 4) errors of prescription d) a branch of pharmacology and a form practice of pharmacovigilance which deals with entry of chemicals or drugs into the environment after elimination from humans and animals post-therapy; 5) pharmacoenvironmen- e) misprescription, contraindication and tology lack of detail in dosage and administrations instructions. Ex. V. Translate into English paying attention on the classification of medicinal herbs and plants. Официальные лекарственные растения – растения, сырье которых разрешено для производства лекарственных средств в стране. Эти виды лекарственного растительного сырья указаны в Государственном реестре лекарственных средств. Фармакопейные лекарственные растения – официальные растения, требования к качеству лекарственного растительного сырья которых изложены в соответствующей статье Государственной фармакопеи Unit II. Pharmaceuticals 21 или международных фармакопей. Фармакогнозия – это одно из направлений фармацевтической науки, которое изучает лекарственные растения и лекарственное растительное сырье. Лекарственные растения народной медицины – наиболее широкая категория. Большинство растений в ней относительно плохо описано, и сведения об эффективности их применения не прошли необходимой проверки средствами современной фармакологии. Тем не менее многие растения этой группы активно используются в странах, где медицинская помощь недоступна или слишком дорога. Ex. VI. Read the text below and give it a title. Modern pharmaceutical manufacturing techniques frequently rely upon biotechnology. Amongst the earliest uses of biotechnology in pharmaceutical manufacturing is the use of recombinant DNA technology to modify Escherichia coli bacteria to produce human insulin, which was performed at Genentech in 1978. Prior to the development of this technique, insulin was extracted from the pancreas glands of cattle, pigs, and other farm animals. While generally efficacious in the treatment of diabetes, animal-derived insulin is not indistinguishable from human insulin, and may therefore produce allergic reactions. Genentech researchers produced artificial genes for each of the two protein chains that comprise the insulin molecule. The artificial genes were then inserted... into plasmids... among a group of genes that were activated by lactose. Thus, the insulin-producing genes were also activated by lactose. The recombinant plasmids were inserted into Escherichia coli bacteria, which were induced to produce 100,000 molecules of either chain A or chain B human insulin. The two protein chains were then combined to produce insulin molecules. 22 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES UNIT III MEDICAL PLANTS TEXT A. HISTORY OF HERBAL MEDICINE Herbal medicine (or herbalism) is the study and use of medicinal properties of plants. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. Pharmacognosy is the study of all medicines that are derived from natural sources. The bark of willow trees contains large amounts of salicylic acid, which is the active metabolite of aspirin. Willow bark has been used for millennia as an effective pain reliever and fever reducer. Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals. Many of these phytochemicals have beneficial effects on long-term health when consumed by humans, and can be used to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds have been isolated so far; a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. Chemical compounds in plants mediate their effects on the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines, but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful side effects. The use of plants as medicines predates written human history. Ethnobotany (the study of traditional human uses of plants) is recognized as an effective way to discover future medicines. In 2001, researchers identified 122 compounds used in modern medicine which were derived from “ethnomedical” plant sources; 80% of these have had an ethnomedical use identical or related to the current use of the active elements of the plant. Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including aspirin, digitalis, quinine, and opium. Unit III. Medical plants 23 The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among nonindustrialized societies, and is often more affordable than purchasing expensive modern pharmaceuticals. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that presently the majority of population of some Asian and African countries use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care. Studies in Europe have shown that their use is less common in clinical settings, but has become increasingly more in recent years as scientific evidence about the effectiveness of herbal medicine has become more widely available. The use of plants as medicines predates written human history. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food also yield useful medicinal compounds. The use of herbs and spices in cuisine developed in part as a response to the threat of food-borne pathogens. Studies show that in tropical climates where pathogens are the most abundant, recipes are the most highly spiced. Further, the spices with the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected. In all cultures vegetables are spiced less than meat, presumably because they are more resistant to spoilage. Many of the common weeds that populate human settlements, such as nettle, dandelion and chickweed, also have medicinal properties. Modern herbal medicine. Digoxin is a purified cardiac glycoside that is extracted from the foxglove plant, Digitalis lanata. Digoxin is widely used in the treatment of various heart conditions, namely atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter and sometimes heart failure that cannot be controlled by other medication. The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among nonindustrialized societies. Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. The use of, and search for, drugs and dietary supplements derived from plants have accelerated in recent years. Pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and natural-products chemists are combing the Earth for phytochemicals and leads that could be developed for treatment of various diseases. In fact, according to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants. Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plants and widely used in modern medicine today, 80% show a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the 24 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES traditional use of the plants from which they are derived. More than two thirds of the world’s plant species – at least 35,000 of which are estimated to have medicinal value – come from the developing countries. At least 7000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. In many medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) significant variations of plants characteristics have been ascertained with varying soil traits, and the selective recovery and subsequent release in food of certain elements have been demonstrated. Great attention must be paid to choose soil and cropping strategies, to obtain satisfactory yields of high quality and best-priced products, respecting their safety and nutritional value. TEXT B. BIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF HERBAL MEDICINE The carotenoids in primrose produce bright red, yellow and orange shades. People consuming diets rich in carotenoids from natural foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are healthier and have lower mortality from a number of chronic illnesses. All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal metabolic activities. These phytochemicals are divided into: 1) primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants; and 2) secondary metabolites – compounds which are found in a smaller range of plants, serving a more specific function. For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination. It is these secondary metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs – examples are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove. Plants synthesize a bewildering variety of phytochemicals but most are derivatives of a few biochemical motifs. Alkaloids are a class of chemical compounds containing a nitrogen ring. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. They often have pharmacological effects Unit III. Medical plants 25 and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenic rituals. Examples are the local anesthetic and stimulant cocaine; the psychedelic psilocin; the stimulant caffeine; nicotine; the analgesic morphine; the antibacterial berberine; the anticancer compound vincristine; the antihypertension agent reserpine; the cholinomimeric galatamine; the spasmolysis agent atropine; the vasodilator vincamine; the anti-arhythmia compound quinidine; the anti-asthma therapeutic ephedrine; and the antimalarial drug quinine. Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly invoke a bitter taste. Polyphenols Polyphenols (also known as phenolics) are compounds contain phenol rings. The anthocyanins that give grapes their purple color, the isoflavones, the phytoestrogens from soy and the tannins that give tea its astringency are phenolics. Glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to a noncarbohydrate moiety, usually a small organic molecule. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body. An example is the cyanoglycosides in cherry pits that release toxins only when bitten by a herbivore. Terpenes are a large and diverse class of organic compounds, produced by a variety of plants, particularly conifers, which are often strong smelling and thus may have had a protective function. They are the major components of resin, and of turpentine produced from resin. (The name “terpene” is derived from the word “turpentine”.) Terpenes are major biosynthetic building blocks within nearly every living creature. Steroids, for example, are derivatives of the triterpene squalene. When terpenes are modified chemically (such as by oxidation or rearrangement of the carbon skeleton) the resulting compounds are generally referred to as terpenoids. Terpenes and terpenoids are the primary constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers. Essential oils are used widely as natural flavor additives for food, as fragrances in perfumery, and in traditional and alternative medicines 26 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES such as aromatherapy. Synthetic variations and derivatives of natural terpenes and terpenoids also greatly expand the variety of aromas used in perfumery and flavors used in food additives. Vitamin A is an example of a terpene. The fragrance of rose and lavender is due to monoterpenes. The carotenoids produce the reds, yellows and oranges of pumpkin, corn and tomatoes. Prevalence of Use A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), what was used, and why it was used. The survey was limited to adults, aged 18 years and over during 2002, living in the United States. According to this survey, herbal therapy, or use of natural products other than vitamins and minerals, was the most commonly used CAM therapy (18.9%) when all use of prayer was excluded. Herbal remedies are very common in Europe. In Germany, herbal medications are dispensed by apothecaries. Prescription drugs are sold alongside essential oils, herbal extracts, or tisanes. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to pure medical compounds which have been industrially produced. Herbal Preparations There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, the most common of which is in the form of a liquid that is drunk by the patient – either a tisane or a (possibly diluted) plant extract. Whole herb consumption is also practiced either fresh, in dried form or as fresh juice. Several methods of standardization may be determining the amount of herbs used. One is the ratio of raw materials to solvent. However different specimens of even the same plant species may vary in chemical content. For this reason, thin layer chromatography is sometimes used by growers to assess the content of their products before use. Another method is standardization on a signal chemical. Tisanes, or herbal teas, are the resultant liquid of extracting herbs into water, though they are made in a few different ways. Infusions are hot water extracts of herbs, such as chamomile or mint, through steeping. Decoctions are the long-term boiled extracts, usually of harder substances like roots or bark. Maceration is the old infusion of plants Unit III. Medical plants 27 with high mucilage-content, such as sage, thyme, etc. To make macerates, plants are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left to stand for 7 to 12 hours (depending on herb used). For most macerates 10 hours is used. Tinctures are alcoholic extracts of herbs, which are generally stronger than tisanes. They are usually obtained by combining 100% pure ethanol (or a mixture of 100% ethanol with water) with the herb. A completed tincture has an ethanol percentage of at least 25% (sometimes up to 90%). Herbal wine and elixirs are alcoholic extract of herbs; usually with an ethanol percentage of 12–38%. Herbal wine is a maceration of herbs in wine, while an elixir is a maceration of herbs in spirits. Extracts include liquid extracts, dry extracts and nebulisates. Liquid extracts are liquids with a lower ethanol percentage than tinctures. They can (and are usually) made by vacuum distilling tinctures. Dry extracts are extracts of plant material which are evaporated into a dry mass. They can then be further refined to a capsule or tablet. A nebulisate is a dry extract created by freeze-drying. Vinegars are prepared at the same way as tinctures, except using a solution of acetic acid as the solvent. Syrups are extracts of herbs made with syrup or honey. Sixty five parts of sugar are mixed with 35 parts of water and herb. The whole is then boiled and macerated for three weeks. The exact composition of a herbal product is influenced by the method of extraction. A tea will be rich in polar components because water is a polar solvent. Oil, on the other hand, is a non-polar solvent and it will absorb non-polar compounds. Alcohol lies somewhere in between. Many herbs are applied topically to the skin in a variety of forms. Essential oil extracts can be applied to the skin, usually diluted in a carrier oil (many essential oils can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight – diluting in olive oil or another food grade oil such as almond oil can allow these to be used safely as a topical). Salves, oils, balms, creams and lotions are other forms of topical delivery mechanisms. Most topical applications are oil extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for anywhere from weeks to months allows certain phytochemicals to be extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into salves, creams, lotions, or simply used as oil for topical application. Any massage oils, antibacterial salves and wound healing compounds are made this way. 28 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES Inhalation as in aromatherapy can be used as a mood changing treatment to fight a sinus infection or cough, or to cleanse the skin on a deeper level (steam rather than direct inhalation here). Safety Datura stramonium is a highly effective treatment for asthma symptoms when smoked, because it contains atropine, which acts as an antispasmodic in the lungs. A number of herbs are thought to be likely to cause adverse effects. Furthermore, adulteration, inappropriate formulation, or lack of understanding of plant and drug interactions have led to adverse reactions that are sometimes life threatening or lethal. Proper double-blind clinical trials are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of each plant before they can be recommended for medical use. Although many consumers believe that herbal medicines are safe because they are “natural”, herbal medicines and synthetic drugs may interact, causing toxicity to the patient. Herbal remedies can also be dangerously contaminated, and herbal medicines without established efficacy, may unknowingly be used to replace medicines that do have corroborated efficacy. Standardization of purity and dosage is not mandated in the United States, but even products made to the same specification may differ as a result of biochemical variations within a species of plant. Plants have chemical defense mechanisms against predators that can have adverse or lethal effects on humans. Examples of highly toxic herbs include poison hemlock and nightshade. They are not marketed to the public as herbs, because the risks are well known, partly due to a long and colorful history in Europe, associated with “sorcery”, “magic” and intrigue. Although not frequent, adverse reactions have been reported for herbs in widespread use. On occasion serious untoward outcomes have been linked to herb consumption. A case of major potassium depletion has been attributed to chronic licorice ingestion, and consequently professional herbalists avoid the use of licorice where they recognise that this may be a risk. Black cohosh has been implicated in a case of liver failure. Few studies are available on the safety of herbs for pregnant women, and one study found that use of complementary and alternative medicines are associated with a 30% lower ongoing pregnancy and live birth rate during fertility treatment. Unit III. Medical plants 29 Examples of herbal treatments with likely cause-effect relationships with adverse events include: chaparral, Chinese herb mixtures, comfrey, germander, liquorice root, and pennyroyal. Examples of herbs with asserted risk of long term adverse effects include: ginseng (unpopular among herbalists for this reason), goldenseal, milk thistle (against which herbalists generally advise and rarely use), aloe vera juice, buckthorn bark and berry, and valerian. There is also concern with respect to the numerous wellestablished interactions of herbs and drugs. In consultation with a physician, usage of herbal remedies should be clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse drug interactions when used in combination with various prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals, just as a patient should inform a herbalist of their consumption of orthodox prescription and other medication. For example, dangerously low blood pressure may result from the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressure together with prescription medicine that has the same effect. Some herbs may amplify the effects of anticoagulants. Certain herbs as well as common fruit interfere with cytochrome P450, an enzyme critical to much drug metabolism. Practitioners Herbalist is a person whose life is dedicated to the economic or medicinal uses of plants. On the other hand, he is skilled in the harvesting and collection of medicinal plants. Traditional Chinese herbalist is one who is trained or skilled in the dispensing of herbal prescriptions; traditional Chinese herb doctor. Herbalists must learn many skills, including the wild crafting or cultivation of herbs, diagnosis and treatment of conditions or dispensing herbal medication, and preparations of herbal medications. Education of herbalists varies considerably in different areas of the world. Lay herbalists and traditional indigenous medicine people generally rely upon apprenticeship and recognition from their communities in lieu of formal schooling. In some countries formalized training and minimum education standards exist, although these are not necessarily uniform within or between countries. For example, in Australia the currently selfregulated status of the profession results in different associations setting different educational standards, and subsequently recognizing an educational institution or course of training. 30 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES The National Herbalists Association of Australia is generally recognized as having the most rigorous professional standard within Australia. In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalists is done by state funded Universities. For example, Bachelor of Science degrees in herbal medicine are offered at Universities such as University of East London, Middlesex University, University of Central Lancashire, University of Westminster, University of Lincoln and Napier University in Edinburgh at the present. TEXT C. MODERN HERBAL MEDICINE The World Health Organization (WHO), the specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with international public health, published Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials in 1998 in order to support WHO Member States in establishing quality standards and specifications for herbal materials, within the overall context of quality assurance and control of herbal medicines. In the European Union (EU), herbal medicines are now regulated under the European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products. Some herbs, such as cannabis and coca, are outright banned in most countries. Sales of ephedrine as a dietary supplement are prohibited in the United States by the Traditional Herbal Medicine Systems. Some researchers trained in both western and traditional Chinese medicine have attempted to deconstruct ancient medical texts in the light of modern science. One idea is that the yin-yang balance, at least with regard to herbs, corresponds to the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance. Herbal Philosophy and Spiritual Practices Alternative medical systems Acupuncture, Chiropractic medicine, Massage Therapy, Naturopathic medicine, Osteopathy Traditional medicine Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan, Unani, Siddha, Ayurveda NCCAM classifications Whole medical systems, Mind-body interventions, Biologically based therapies, Manipulative therapy, Energy therapies Unit III. Medical plants 31 Eisenburg states in his book “The Chinese and Western medical models are like two frames of reference in which identical phenomena are studied. Neither frame of reference provides an unobstructed view of health and illness. Each is incomplete and in need of refinement”. Specifically, the traditional Chinese medical model could effect change on the recognized, and expected, phenomena of detachment to patients as people and estrangement unique to the clinical and impersonal relationships between patient and physician of the Western school of medicine. Four approaches to the use of plants as medicine include: 1. The magical/shamanic. Almost all non-modern societies recognize this kind of use. The practitioner is regarded as endowed with gifts or powers that allow him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from the average person, and the herbs are said to affect the spirit or soul of the person. 2. The energetic. This approach includes the major systems of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, and Unani. Herbs are regarded as having actions in terms of their energies and affecting the energies of the body. The practitioner may have extensive training, and ideally be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural powers. 3. The functional dynamic. This approach was used by early physiomedical practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of contemporary practice in the UK. Herbs have a functional action, which is not necessarily linked to a physical compound, although often to a physiological function, but there is no explicit recourse to concepts involving energy. 4. The chemical. Modern practitioners call it Phytotherapists – attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical constituents. It is generally assumed that the specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant is responsible for the activity claimed or demonstrated, a concept called synergy. Herbalists tend to use extracts from parts of plants, such as the roots or leaves but not isolate particular phytochemicals. Pharmaceutical medicine prefers single ingredients on the grounds that dosage can be more easily quantified. It is also possible to patent single compounds, and therefore generate income. Herbalists often reject the notion of a single active ingredient, arguing that the different 32 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES phytochemicals present in many herbs will interact to enhance the therapeutic effects of the herb and dilute toxicity. Furthermore, they argue that a single ingredient may contribute to multiple effects. Herbalists deny that herbal synergism can be duplicated with synthetic chemicals. They argue that phytochemical interactions and trace components may alter the drug response in ways that cannot currently be replicated with a combination of a few putative active ingredients. Pharmaceutical researchers recognize the concept of drug synergism but note that clinical trials may be used to investigate the efficacy of a particular herbal preparation, provided the formulation of that herb is consistent. In specific cases the claims of synergy and multifunctionality have been supported by science. The open question is how widely both can be generalized. Herbalists would argue that cases of synergy can be widely generalized, on the basis of their interpretation of evolutionary history, not necessarily shared by the pharmaceutical community. Plants are subject to similar selection pressures as humans and therefore they must develop resistance to threats such as radiation, reactive oxygen species and microbial attack in order to survive. Human diseases are multifactorial and may be treated by consuming the chemical defenses that they believe to be present in herbs. Bacteria, inflammation, nutrition and ROS (reactive oxygen species) may all play a role in arterial disease. Herbalists claim a single herb may simultaneously address several of these factors. Likewise a factor such as ROS may underlie more than one condition. In short herbalists view their field as the study of a web of relationships rather than a quest for single cause and a single cure for a single condition. In selecting herbal treatments herbalists may use forms of information that are not applicable to pharmacists. Because herbs can moonlight as vegetables, teas or spices they have a huge consumer base and large-scale epidemiological studies become feasible. Ethnobotanical studies are another source of information. For example, when indigenous peoples from geographically dispersed areas use closely related herbs for the same purpose that is taken as supporting evidence for its efficacy. Herbalists contend that historical medical records and herbals are underutilized resources. They favor the use of convergent information in assessing the medical value of plants. An example would be when in vitro activity is consistent with traditional use. Unit III. Medical plants 33 TEXT D. USES OF HERBAL MEDICINES BY ANIMALS Indigenous healers often claim to have learned by observing that sick animals change their food preferences to nibble at bitter herbs they would normally reject. Field biologists have provided corroborating evidence based on observation of diverse species, such as chickens, sheep, butterflies, and chimpanzee. The habit has been shown to be a physical means of purging intestinal parasites. Lowland gorillas take 90% of their diet from the fruits of Aframomum melegueta, a relative of the ginger plant, which is a potent antimicrobial and apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infections at bay. Current research focuses on the possibility that this plant also protects gorillas from fibrosing cardiomyopathy which has a devastating effect on captive animals. Sick animals tend to forage plants rich in secondary metabolites, such as tannins and alkaloids. Since these phytochemicals often have antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antihelminthic properties, a plausible case can be made for self-medication by animals in the wild. Some animals have digestive systems especially adapted to cope with certain plant toxins. For example, the koala can live on the leaves and shoots of the eucalyptus, a plant that is dangerous to most animals. A plant that is harmless to a particular animal may not be safe for humans to ingest. A reasonable conjecture is that these discoveries were traditionally collected by the medicine men of indigenous tribes, who then passed on safety information and cautions. Extinction of Medicinal Plant Species Because “over 50% of prescription drugs are derived from chemicals first identified in plants”, a 2008 report from the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (representing botanic gardens in 120 countries) warned that “cures for things such as cancer may become extinct before they are ever found”. They identified 400 medicinal plants at risk of extinction from over-collection and deforestation, threatening the discovery of future cures for disease. These included Yew trees (the bark is used for the cancer drug paclitaxel); Hoodia (from Namibia, a potential source of weight loss drugs); half of Magnolias (used as Chinese medicine for 5000 years to fight cancer, dementia and heart 34 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES disease); and Autumn crocus (for gout). Their report said that “five billion people still rely on traditional plant-based medicine as their primary form of health care”. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT III Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What does herbal medicine (or herbalism) study and use? 2. What produces the reds, yellows and oranges of pumpkin, corn and tomatoes? 3. What large variety of organisms produces alkaloids? 4. What shades are produced by the carotenoids in primrose bright? 5. Name four approaches to the use of plants as medicine. Ex. II. Name the word. 1. A large and diverse class of organic compounds, produced by a variety of plants, particularly conifers, which are often strong smelling and thus may have had a protective function. 2. An attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical constituents. 3. Bark of this rare tree is used for the cancer drug paclitaxel. 4. This plant is a potential source of weight loss drugs. 5. Half of these trees all over the world has been used as Chinese medicine for 5.000 years to fight cancer, dementia and heart disease. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and …, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. 2. The … of willow trees contains large amounts of salicylic acid, which is the active metabolite of aspirin. 3. The use of … to treat disease is almost universal among nonindustrialized societies. 4. People consuming diets rich in … from natural foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are healthier and have lower mortality from a number of chronic illnesses. Unit III. Medical plants 35 5. Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to … have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. 6. … have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions. Bark, herbs, bee products, plants, physicians, carotenoids. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) digoxin a) the study of all medicines that are derived from natural sources; 2) alkaloids b) a purified cardiac glycoside that is extracted from the foxglove plant; 3) tisanes c) a class of chemical compounds containing a nitrogen ring; 4) datura stramo- d) herbal teas or the resultant liquid of extracting nium herbs into water, though they are made in a few different ways; 5) pharmacognosy e) highly effective treatment for asthma symptoms when smoked, because it contains atropine, which acts as an antispasmodic in the lungs. Ex. V. Translate into English paying attention on the application of medicinal herbs and plants. В лекарственных травах содержится минимум одно вещество, обладающее лечебными свойствами. Это вещество или вещества зачастую неравномерно распределены по тканям и частям растения. Поэтому при сборе лекарственных трав надо знать, где сосредоточены полезные элементы и в какой период развития растения их концентрация максимальна. Основные способы применения сырья лекарственных растений: производство лекарственных средств для внутреннего и наружного использования. Внутрь применяют водные извлечения: настой, отвар, водно-спиртовые, масляные извлечения (настойка, экстракты) из лекарственного растительного сырья или сборов. Из сочных свежих частей официальных растений получают сок. Наружно используются: травяная ванна, обертывание, примочка, компресс. Из официальных растений получают различные морфологические группы лекарственного растительного сырья: трава, цветки, листья, корневища, корни, плоды, семена, кора, почки и др. 36 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES Ex VI. Speak on the history of ethnobotany using the following cards: Definition Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationships that exist between people and plants. Ethnobotanists aim to document, describe and explain complex relationships between cultures and (uses of) plants, focusing primarily on how plants are used, managed and perceived across human societies. This includes use for food, clothing, currency, ritual, medicine, dye, construction, cosmetics and more. History of eth- Though the term “ethnobotany” was not coined unnobotany til 1895 by the botanist John William Harshberger, the history of the field begins long before that. In A.D. 77, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published a catalog of about 600 plants in the Mediterranean. That illustrated herbal publication contained information on how and when each plant was gathered, whether or not it was poisonous, its actual use, and how the Greeks used the plants for medicinal purposes. Ethnobotany of In 1542 Leonhart Fuchs, a Renaissance artist, cataRenaissance loged 400 plants native to Germany and Austria. John Ray (1686–1704) provided the first definition of “species” in his “Historia Plantarum” as a set of individuals who give rise through reproduction to new individuals similar to themselves. Ethnobotany of The first individual to study the emic perspective of the XIXth cen- the plant world was Leopold Glueck, a German phytury sician working in Sarajevo at the end of 19th century. His published work on traditional medical uses of plants done by rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to be considered the first modern ethnobotanical work. The term “ethnobotany” was first used by a botanist named John W. Harshberger in 1895 while he was teaching at the University of Pennsylvania. Aboriginal bo- The 19th century saw the peak of botanical exploratany tion. Alexander von Humboldt collected data from the New World, and the James Cook’s voyages brought back collections and information on plants Unit III. Medical plants 37 from the South Pacific. Through all of this research, the field of “aboriginal botany” was established – the study of all forms of the vegetable world which aboriginal peoples use for food, medicine, textiles, ornaments and more. Modern ethno- Beginning in the 20th century, the field of ethnobobotany tany experienced a shift from the raw compilation of data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. This is also the beginning of academic ethnobotany. The so-called “father” of this discipline is Richard Evans Schultes, even though he did not actually coin the term “Ethnobotany”. Today the field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills: botanical training for the identification and preservation of plant specimens; and anthropological training to understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants. 38 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES UNIT IV PHARMACOGNOSY TEXT A. PHARMACOGNOSY Pharmacognosy, derived from the Greek for drug knowledge, is the study of medicines derived from natural sources. It can be defined as the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources. It is also defined as the study of crude drugs. The term “pharmacognosy” was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811. Originally, during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, pharmacognosy was used to define the branch of medicine or commodity sciences (Warenkunde in German) which deals with drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form. Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin, used for medicine. By the beginning of the 20th century the subject had developed mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs both in their whole state and in powder form. Such branches of pharmacognosy are still of fundamental importance particularly for quality control purposes. Although most pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived from plants, other types of organisms are also regarded as pharmacognostically interesting, in particular, various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.), and, recently, various marine organisms. According to the International Society of Pharmacognosy, pharmacognosy is the study of natural product molecules that are useful for their medicinal, ecological, gustatory, or other functional properties. Other definitions draw on a broad spectrum of biological subjects, including botany, ethnobotany, marine biology, microbiology, herbal medicine, chemistry, biotechnology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmaceutics, clinical pharmacy, and pharmacy practice. The contemporary study of pharmacognosy can be divided into the fields of: Unit IV. Pharmacognosy 39 medical ethnobotany: the study of the traditional use of plants for medicinal purposes; • ethnopharmacology: the study of the pharmacological qualities of traditional medicinal substances; • the study of phytotherapy (the medicinal use of plant extracts); • phytochemistry, the study of chemicals derived from plants (including the identification of new drug candidates derived from plant sources); • zoopharmacognosy, the process by which animals selfmedicate, by selecting and using plants, soils, and insects to treat and prevent disease; • marine pharmacognosy, the study of chemicals derived from marine organisms. The plant kingdom still holds many species of plants containing substances of medicinal value which have yet to be discovered. Large numbers of plants are constantly being screened for their possible pharmacological value. • TEXT B. ISSUES OF PHYTOTHERAPY The part of pharmacognosy focusing on use of crude extracts or semi-pure mixtures originating from nature, namely phytotherapy, is probably the best known and also the most debated area in pharmacognosy. Although phytotherapy is sometimes considered as alternative medicine, when critically conducted, it can be considered the scientific study on the effects and clinical use of herbal medicines. Constituents and Drug Synergism One characteristic of crude drug material is that constituents may have an opposite, moderating or enhancing effect. Hence, the final effect of any crude drug material will be a product of the interactions between the constituents and the effect of each constituent on its own. To effectively study the existence and effect of such interactions, scientific studies must examine the effect that multiple constituents, given concurrently, have on the system. Herbalists assert that as phytopharmaceuticals rely upon synergy for their activities, plants with high levels of active constituents like ginsenosides or hypericin may not correlate with the strength of the herbs. In phytopharmaceutical or herbal 40 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES medicine, the therapeutic effects of herbs cannot be determined unless its active ingredient or cofactors are identified or the herb is administered as a whole. One way to indicate strength is standardization to one or several marker compound that are believed to be mainly responsible for the biological effects. However many herbalists believe that the active ingredient in a plant is the plant itself. Herb and Drug Interactions A study of herb drug interactions indicated that the vast majority of drug interactions occurred in four classes of drugs, the chief class being blood thinners, but also including protease inhibitors, cardiac glycosides and the immune-suppressant ciclosporin. Natural Products Industry Most bioactive compounds of natural origin are secondary metabolites, i.e. species-specific chemical agents that can be grouped into various categories. A typical protocol to isolate a pure chemical agent from natural origin is bioassay-guided fractionation, meaning step-bystep separation of extracted components based on differences in their physicochemical properties, and assessing the biological activity, followed by next round of separation and assaying. Typically, such work is initiated after a given crude drug formulation (typically prepared by solvent extraction of the natural material) is deemed “active” in a particular in vitro assay. If the end-goal of the work at hand is to identify which one(s) of the scores or hundreds of compounds are responsible for the observed in vitro activity, the path to that end is fairly straightforward: 1) fractionate the crude extract, e.g. by solvent partitioning or chromatography; 2) test the fractions thereby generated with in vitro assay; 3) repeat the first two steps until pure, active compounds are obtained; and 4) determine structure(s) of active compound(s), typically by using spectroscopic methods. In vitro activity does not necessarily translate to activity in humans or other living systems. The most common means for fractionation are solvent-solvent partitioning and chromatographic techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), medium-pressure liquid chromatography, “flash” chromatography, open-column chromatography, vacuumliquid chromatography (VLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), with each technique being most appropriate for a given amount of starting material. Countercurrent chromatography (CCC) is particularly well- Unit IV. Pharmacognosy 41 suited for bioassay-guided fractionation because, as an all-liquid separation technique, concern about irreversible loss or denaturation of active sample components is minimized. After isolation of a pure substance, the task of elucidating its chemical structure can be addressed. For this purpose, the most powerful methodologies available are nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS). In the case of drug discovery efforts, structure elucidation of all components that are active in vitro is typically the end goal. In the case of phytotherapy research, the investigator may use in vitro BAGF as a tool to identify pharmacologically interesting or important components of the crude drug. The work does not stop after structural identification of in vitro actives, however. The task of “dissecting and reassembling” the crude drug one active component at a time, in order to achieve a mechanistic understanding of how it works in phytotherapy, is quite daunting. This is because it is simply too difficult, from cost, time, regulatory, and even scientific perspectives, to study experimental fractions of the crude drug in humans. In vitro assays are therefore used to identify chemical components of the crude drug that may rationally be expected to have a given pharmacological effect in humans, and to provide a rational basis for standardization of a crude drug formulation to be tested in humans and marketed to them. Loss of Biodiversity Farnsworth for example, has found that 25% of all prescriptions dispensed from community pharmacies in the United States from 1959 to 1980 contained active ingredients extracted from higher plants. In some countries in Asia and Africa 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine (including herbal medicine) for primary health care. Constituents of substances used by traditional healers have rarely been incorporated into modern medicine. Quinine, physostigmine, d-tubocurarine, pilocarpine and ephedrine, have been demonstrated to have active effects. Knowledge of traditional medicinal practices is disappearing, particularly in the Amazon, as native healers die out and are replaced by more modern medical practitioners. Botanists and pharmacologists are racing to learn these ancient practices, which, like the forest plants they employ, are also endangered. Species extinction is not only due to habitat loss. 42 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES Overharvesting of medicinal species of plants and animals also contributes to species loss. This is particularly notable in the matter of Traditional Chinese Medicine where crude drugs of plant and animal origin are used with increasing demand. TEXT C. SUSTAINABLE SOURCES OF PLANT AND ANIMAL DRUGS As species face loss of habitat or overharvesting, there have been new issues to deal with in sourcing crude drugs. These include changes to the herb from farming practices, substitution of species or other plants altogether, adulteration and cross-pollination issues. For instance, ginseng which is field farmed may have significant problems with fungus, making contamination with fungicides an issue. This may be remedied with woods grown programs, but they are insufficient to produce enough ginsengs to meet demand. The farming of plant or animal species for medicinal purposes has caused difficulties listed below. A. One solution is to farm medicinal animals and plants. Chinese officials have promoted this as a way of guaranteeing supplies as well as protecting endangered species. And there have been some successes – notably with plant species, such as American ginseng – which is used as a general tonic and for chronic coughs. Also red deer has for centuries been farmed for its antlers, used to treat impotence and general fatigue. But growing your own is not a universal panacea. Some plants grow so slowly that cultivation in not economically viable. Animals such as musk deer may be difficult to farm, and so generate little profit. Seahorses are difficult to feed and plagued by disease in captivity. Other species cannot be cultivated at all. Even when it works, farming usually fails to match the scale of demand. Overall, cultivated plants in China supply less than 20% of the required 1.6 million tons per annum. Similarly, China’s demand for animal products such as musk and pangolin scales far exceeds supply from captive-bred sources. B. Farming alone can never resolve conservation concerns. For a start, consumers often prefer ingredients taken from the wild, believing them to be more potent. This is reflected in the price, with wild oriental ginseng fetching up to 32 times as much as cultivated plants. Unit IV. Pharmacognosy 43 Then there are welfare concerns. Bear farming in China is particularly controversial. Around 7,600 captive bears have their bile “milked” through tubes inserted into their gall bladders. Bear farming is surrounded by appalling levels of cruelty and neglect: 10,000 wild bears would need to be killed each year to produce as much bile, making bear farming the more desirable option. It is commonly believed in China that the bile from a wild bear is the most potent, and so farming bears for their bile cannot replace the demand for the product extracted from wild animals. C. One alternative to farming involves replacing medical ingredients from threatened species with manufactured chemical compounds. In general, this sort of substitution is difficult to achieve because the active ingredient is often not known. In addition, most TCM users believe that TCM compounds may act synergistically so several ingredients may interact to give the required effect. Thus TCM users often people prefer the wild source. TEXT D. PHARMACOLOGY AND PHARMACY Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, synthesis and drug design, molecular and cellular mechanisms, organ or systems mechanisms, signal transduction/cellular communication, molecular diagnostics, interactions, toxicology, chemical biology, therapy, and medical applications. The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. The former studies the effects of the drug on biological systems, and the latter the effects of biological systems on the drug. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is 44 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical science, deals with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals which show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these chemicals. In contrast, pharmacy, a health services profession, is concerned with application of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it is in a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two is their distinctions between direct-patient care, for pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT IV Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. Into how many fields can the contemporary study of pharmacognosy be divided? Name them. 2. What kind of difficulties is caused by the farming of plant or animal species for medicinal purposes? 3. What is the main difference between pharmacology and pharmacy? 4. What are most common means for fractionation? Give their examples. 5. What types of organisms are regarded as pharmacognostically interesting? Ex. II. Name the word. 1. The study of medicines derived from natural sources or the study of crude drugs. 2. A health services profession. 3. The process by which animals self-medicate, by selecting and using plants, soils, and insects to treat and prevent disease. 4. High-performance liquid chromatography. Unit IV. Pharmacognosy 45 5. The study of the pharmacological qualities of traditional medicinal substances. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. Constituents of substances used by traditional healers have rarely been incorporated into … 2. If … have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. 3. Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of … 4. Pharmacy is concerned with … of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings. 5. Pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, …, metabolism, and excretion of chemicals from the biological systems. Substances, distribution, drug action, application, modern medicine. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) pharmacology a) the scientific study on the effects and clinical use of herbal medicines; 2) pharmacognosy b) a biomedical science dealing with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals which show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these chemicals; 3) pharmacodynamics c) the study of medicines derived from natural sources; 4) pharmacokinetics d) the study of chemicals with biological receptors; 5) phytotherapy e) the study of the ADME of chemicals from the biological systems. Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the partial list of herbs and herbal treatments with known or suspected adverse effects (Appendix B) and speak on their application. Ex. VI. Translate into English. Лекарственная форма – придаваемое лекарственному средству или лекарственному растительному сырью удобное для применения состояние, при котором достигается необходимый лечебный эффект. Лекарственная форма классифицируется по следующим критериям. 1. По разделению на дозы. Дозированные и недозированные: порошки, гранулы, мази (пасты, кремы, гели, линименты), пластыри, 46 PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES суспензии (взвеси), эмульсии, растворы, микстуры, аэрозоли. Недозированные (неразделенные): сборы, карандаши лекарственные, клей кожный, настои, отвары, настойки, эликсиры, сиропы. Дозированные (разделенные): брикеты, таблетки (драже, глоссеты), пилюли, карамели, пастилки (троше), пленки глазные, суппозитории (палочки, пессарии, шарики, свечи), капли, капсулы (пеллеты). Пеллеты (вид капсул) – это покрытые оболочкой твердые частицы шарообразной формы, содержащие одно или несколько активных действующих веществ с добавлением вспомогательных веществ. 2. По консистенции. Твердые, мягкие или жидкие: экстракты, среди которых различают: жидкие экстракты (подвижные жидкости), на этиловом 70%-ном спирте в соотношении 1 : 1; густые экстракты (вязкие массы с содержанием влаги не более 25%), на этиловом спирте, воде, эфире; сухие экстракты (сыпучие массы с содержанием влаги не более 5%), высушенные густые. Твердые: сборы, карандаши лекарственные, порошки, гранулы, брикеты, капсулы, таблетки (драже, глоссеты), пилюли, карамели, пастилки, пленки глазные. Мягкие: мази (пасты, кремы, гели, линименты), суппозитории (палочки, пессарии, шарики, свечи), пластыри. Жидкие: настои, отвары, настойки, эликсиры, сиропы, растворы (капли), суспензии (взвеси), эмульсии, микстуры. Газообразные: аэрозоли. 3. По цели действия и способу применения: для местного (локального) действия; для общего (системного, резорбтивного) действия: а) для парентеральных способов применения (лекарственные формы для инъекций: порошки, суспензии (взвеси), эмульсии, растворы), б) для энтеральных способов применения. Ex VII. Speak on phytochemicals using the following cards: Definition Phytochemicals, chemical compounds that occur naturally in plants (phyto means “plant” in Greek), are responsible for color and organoleptic properties, such as the deep purple of blueberries and smell of garlic. The term is generally used to refer to those chemicals that may have biological significance, for example antioxidants, but are not established as essential nutrients. Scientists estimate that there may be as many as 10,000 different phytochemicals having the potential to affect diseases such as cancer, stroke or metabolic syndrome. Unit IV. Pharmacognosy 47 Phytochemicals Without specific knowledge of their cellular actions as candidate nu- or mechanisms, phytochemicals have been consitrients dered as drugs for millennia. Some phytochemicals with physiological properties may be elements rather than complex organic molecules. Sometimes they can be harmful and sometimes they can be very helpful, as far as concerned they are responsible for the color in vegetables or fruits. Abundant in many fruits and vegetables, selenium, for example, is involved with major metabolic pathways, including thyroid hormone metabolism and immune function. Particularly, it is an essential nutrient and cofactor for the enzymatic synthesis of glutathione, an endogenous antioxidant. Clinical trials There are currently many phytochemicals in clinical and health claim trials for a variety of diseases. Lycopene from tomastatus toes, for example, has been tested in human studies for cardiovascular diseases and prostate cancer. These studies, however, did not attain sufficient scientific agreement to conclude an effect on any disease. Food processing Phytochemicals in freshly harvested plant foods may and phytochem- be destroyed or removed by modern processing techicals niques, including cooking. For this reason, industrially processed foods likely contain fewer phytochemicals and may thus be less beneficial than unprocessed foods. Absence or deficiency of phytochemicals in processed foods may contribute to increased risk of preventable diseases. A converse example may exist in which lycopene, a phytochemical present in tomatoes, is either unchanged in content or made more concentrated by processing to juice or paste, maintaining good levels for bioavailability. The Human Gastrointestinal Tract (Digestive System) Mouth breaks down food into small pieces and mixes it with saliva Liver produces bile and processes nutrients obtained from food Gall bladder stores bile Rectum stores the waste until it leaves the body through the anus Esophagus is a muscular tube down which food travels from the mouth to the stomach Stomach secretes juices that get digestion under way Pancreas secretes enzymes into the small intestine Small intestine is the main site where food is digested Large intestine absorbs water from digestive waste Anus The Human Cardio-vascular System VEINS ARTERIES Ascending aorta Superior vena cava Heart Inferior vena cava Femoral vein Abdominal aorta Iliac artery Femoral artery Popliteal artery Greater saphenous vein Blood circulation: red stands for oxygenated, blue stands for deoxygenated The Human Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Cerebellum Brachial plexus Musculocutaneous nerve Radial nerve Median nerve Iliohypogastric nerve Genitofemoral nerve Obturator nerve Ulnar nerve Common peroneal nerve Deep peroneal nerve Superficial peroneal nerve Intercostal nerves Subcostal nerve Lumbar plexus Sacral plexus Femoral nerve Pudental nerve Sciatic nerve Muscular branches of femoral nerve Saphenous nerve Tibial nerve Baacterial In nfection and a Main Species Involved Overview of Bacterial infections o Viral Infeection and d Main Sp pecies Invvolved Overview v of n Viral infections Health Effects of Pollution 48 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY PART II BIOTECHNOLOGY UNIT V BIOTECHNOLOGY TEXT A. BIOTECHNOLOGY Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. According to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, biotechnology is any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production and medicine. The term itself is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky. In the late 20th and early 21st century, biotechnology has expanded to include new and diverse sciences such as genomics, recombinant gene technologies, applied immunology, and development of pharmaceutical therapies and diagnostic tests. The concept of “biotech” or “biotechnology” encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms according to human purposes – going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and “improvements” to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. Biotechnology also draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology). And in many instances it is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology Unit V. Biotechnology 49 including: chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, bioinformatics, a new brand of information technology, and biorobotics. Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and heavily dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry. Biotechnology is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, exploitation and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis, for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using the products). By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules. This can be considered as the use knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. TEXT B. HISTORY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the broad definition of “using a biotechnological system to make products”. Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best suited crops, having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their 50 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY by-products could effectively fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants – one of the first forms of biotechnology. These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer. In brewing, malted grains (containing enzymes) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form. For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops. In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I. Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley, penicillin. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans. The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg’s (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. Unit V. Biotechnology 51 TEXT C. APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, nonfood (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons. A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology; for example: bioinformatics, blue biotechnology, green biotechnology, red biotechnology, and white biotechnology. Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, “conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale”. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. 52 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation. White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous or polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods. The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy. Biotechnology is applied in medicine and pharmacogenetics. In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as drug production, pharmacogenomics, gene therapy, and genetic testing (or genetic screening), i.e. techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his body’s response to drugs. It is a compound derived from the root of the word “pharmacology” plus the word “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup. Pharmacogenomics results in the following four benefits. 1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells. 2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose. 3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process. Unit V. Biotechnology 53 4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once. TEXT D. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular targets and either activate or deactivate biological processes. Small molecules are typically manufactured through traditional organic synthesis, and many can be taken orally. In contrast, biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules such as proteins that are developed to address targets that cannot easily be addressed by small molecules. Some examples of biopharmaceutical drugs include: 1) Infliximab, a monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases; 2) Etanercept, a fusion protein used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases; and 3) Rituximab, a monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of cancer. Due to their larger size, and corresponding difficulty with surviving the stomach, colon and liver, biopharmaceuticals are typically injected. Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites is expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets. 54 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT V Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What is the term for conceptualizing biology applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with molecules? 2. What is bioremediation? 3. What study is used to recycle, treat waste, and also to produce biological weapons? 4. What for was designed medicine known as the first genetically engineered product? 5. Give three examples of biopharmaceutical drugs. Ex. II. Name the word. 1. Relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular targets and either activate or deactivate biological processes. 2. The study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his body’s response to drugs. 3. The use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. 4. Large biological molecules such as proteins that are developed to address targets that cannot easily be addressed by small molecules. 5. Type of medicine that elicits the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. … is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products. 2. Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind to particular molecular targets and either activate or … biological processes. 3. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to … human diseases. 4. In brewing, malted grains convert … from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. Unit V. Biotechnology 55 5. In …, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as drug production, pharmacogenomics, gene therapy, and genetic testing. Deactivate, medicine, treat, starch, one application of biotechnology. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) blue biotechnology a) biotechnology applied to agricultural processes; 2) white biotechnology b) a term used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology; 3) bioinformatics c) biotechnology applied to medical processes, such as the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics; 4) red biotechnology d) biotechnology applied to industrial processes and also known as industrial biotechnology; 5) green biotechnology e) an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine (Appendix B) and speak on their application. Ex. VI. Translate into English. Биотехнология – дисциплина, изучающая возможности использования живых организмов, их систем или продуктов их жизнедеятельности для решения технологических задач, а также возможности создания живых организмов с необходимыми свойствами методом генной инженерии. С помощью современных методов традиционные биотехнологические производства получили возможность улучшить качество пищевых продуктов и увеличить продуктивность живых организмов. Биотехнология основана на генетике, молекулярной биологии, биохимии, эмбриологии и клеточной биологии, а также прикладных дисциплинах – химической и информационной технологиях и робототехнике. Фармацевтическая химия (др.-греч. φάρμακον – лекарство), или химия лекарственных средств, – это наука о химических свойствах и превращениях лекарственных веществ, методах их разработки и получения, качественного и количественного анализа. 56 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY Фармацевтическая химия изучает химические процессы при создании лекарственных средств, установлении их подлинности, определении действующего вещества и примесей, а также химические превращения при их хранении. Фармацевтическая химия является важным разделом химической науки и тесно связана с ее отдельными дисциплинами: неорганической химией, органической химией, физической и коллоидной химией, аналитической химией и биохимией. Фармацевтическая химия изучает органические лекарственные вещества (альдегиды, амины сульфаниловой кислоты, амины угольной кислоты, аминокислоты, аминопроизводные ароматического ряда, ароматические аминокислоты и аминоспирты, ароматические кислоты, галогенпроизводные углеводородов жирного ряда, гетероциклические соединения, карбоновые кислоты, спирты). Unit VI. Microorganisms 57 UNIT VI MICROORGANISMS TEXT A. MICROORGANISM A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be a single cell or multicellular organism. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design. Microorganisms are very diverse; they include all of the prokaryotes, namely the bacteria and archaea; and various forms of eukaryote, comprising the protozoa, fungi, algae, microscopic plants (green algae), and animals such as rotifers and planarians. Some microbiologists also classify viruses as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. Most microorganisms are microscopic, but there are some like Thiomargarita namibiensis, which are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye. Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere including soil, hot springs, on the ocean floor, high in the atmosphere and deep inside rocks within the Earth’s crust. Microorganisms are critical to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent studies indicate that airborne microbes may play a role in precipitation and weather. Microbes are exploited by people in biotechnology, both in traditional food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. However there are many pathogenic microbes which are harmful and can even cause death in plants and animals. TEXT B. CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF MICROORGANISMS Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on the planet. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, 58 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY including most protists, some fungi, as well as some animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microbes, although the field of microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses. Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a cell nucleus and the other membrane bound organelles. They are almost always unicellular, although some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate into complex structures as part of their life cycle. Consisting of two domains, bacteria and archaea, the prokaryotes are the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on Earth and inhabit practically all environments where the temperature is below +140°C. They are found in water, soil, air, animals’ gastrointestinal tracts, hot springs and even deep beneath the Earth’s crust in rocks. Practically all surfaces that have not been specially sterilized are covered by prokaryotes. Bacteria. Almost all bacteria are invisible to the naked eye, with a few extremely rare exceptions, such as Thiomargarita namibiensis. They lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, and can function and reproduce as individual cells, but often aggregate in multicellular colonies. Bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by binary fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo sexual reproduction. Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow extremely rapidly and can double as quickly as every 20 minutes. Archaea. Archaea are also single-celled organisms that lack nuclei. In the past, the differences between bacteria and archaea were not recognized and archaea were classified with bacteria as part of the kingdom Monera. However, in 1990 the three-domain system that divided living things into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes was proposed. Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and biochemistry. For example, while bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, achaea membranes are made of ether lipids. Eukaryotes. Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. Unicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is Unit VI. Microorganisms 59 significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple cell nuclei. Protists. Of eukaryotic groups, the protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. This is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify. Several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. The number of species of protists is unknown since we may have identified only a small proportion. Micro-animals Most animals are multicellular, but some are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopic arthropods include dust mites and spider mites. Microscopic crustaceans include copepods and the cladocera, while many nematodes are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Another particularly common group of microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in fresh water. Micro-animals reproduce both sexually and asexually and may reach new habitats as some eggs can survive harsh environments that would kill the adult animal. Fungi. The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others. Fungi reproduce both asexually, by budding or binary fission, as well by producing spores, which are called conidia when produced asexually. Plants. The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. There are about 6000 species of green algae. Habitats and ecology. Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature. Even in hostile environments such as the 60 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY poles, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. Some types of microorganisms have adapted to the extreme conditions and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometers below the Earth’s surface, and it has been suggested that the amount of living organisms below the Earth’s surface may be comparable with the amount of life on or above the surface. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation, which may even allow them to survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to the host organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens and then they are usually referred to as microbes. Symbiotic microorganisms. Symbiotic microbes such as fungi and algae form an association in lichen. Certain fungi form mycorrhizal symbioses with trees that increase the supply of nutrients to the tree. TEXT C. MICROORGANISMS’ IMPORTANCE FOR HUMAN HEALTH Microorganisms are vital to humans and the environment, as they participate in the Earth’s element cycles such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle, as well as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all ecosystems, such as recycling other organisms’ dead remains and waste products through decomposition. Microorganisms also have an important place in most higher-order multicellular organisms as symbionts. Human Bacterial Flora and Human Health Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms. For example, the bacteria that live within the human digestive system contribute to gut immunity, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates. Diseases Caused By Microbes Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as Unit VI. Microorganisms 61 plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. No clear examples of archaea pathogens are known, although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some archaea methanogens and human periodontal disease. Hygiene Hygiene is the avoidance of infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, the levels of harmful microorganisms can be reduced to acceptable levels. However, in some cases, it is required that an object or substance be completely sterile, i.e. devoid of all living entities and viruses. A good example of this is a hypodermic needle. In food preparation microorganisms are reduced by preservation methods (such as the addition of vinegar), clean utensils used in preparation, short storage periods, or by cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two most common methods are irradiation and the use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker. There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in a sample of food, drinking water, and equipment. Water samples can be filtrated through an extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed in a nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Harmful microorganisms can be detected in food by placing a sample in a nutrient broth designed to enrich the organisms in question. The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be tested by touching them with a solid piece of nutrient medium and then allowing the microorganisms to grow on it. There are no conditions where all microorganisms would grow, and therefore often several different methods are needed. For example, a food sample might be analyzed on three different nutrient mediums designed to indicate the presence of “total” bacteria (conditions where many, but not all, bacteria grow), molds (conditions where the growth of bacteria is prevented by antibiotics) and coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage contamination). 62 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT VI Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What is classification of microorganisms? 2. The presence of what is indicated by three different nutrient mediums, used to analyze a food sample? 3. What do microscopic arthropods include? 4. What is the difference between soil microorganisms and symbiotic microorganisms? 5. What is the habitat of microorganisms in nature? Ex. II. Name the word. 1. Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form. 2. A highly diverse group of organisms that are most commonly unicellular and microscopic and belong to eukaryotic groups. 3. They are surrounded by a cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. 4. Single-celled organisms that lack nuclei. 5. A microscopic organism, which may be a single cell or multicellular organism. 6. The study of microorganisms is called. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. Hygiene is the avoidance of … or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. 2. Microorganisms are the … of many infectious diseases. 3. The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric … 4. Influenza and yellow fever are caused by …, which are not usually classified as living organisms. 5. Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a … and can be highly resistant to radiation. Cause, nitrogen, pathogenic viruses, vacuum, infection. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the cases of use of microorganisms on the left: Unit VI. Microorganisms 63 1) use in digestion a) Some forms of bacteria that live in animals’ stomachs help in their digestion. For example, cows have a variety of different microbes in their stomachs that aid them in their digestion of grass and hay. 2) use in science b) Microorganisms are used in brewing, winemaking, baking, pickling and other foodmaking processes. They are also used to control the fermentation process in the production of cultured dairy products such as yogurt and cheese. The cultures also provide flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms. 3) use in energy c) The majority of all oxidative sewage treat(algae fuel, celment processes rely on a large range of milulosic ethanol, croorganisms to oxidize organic constituents and ethanol ferwhich are not amenable to sedimentation or flotation. Anaerobic microorganisms are also mentation) used to reduce sludge solids producing methane gas, (amongst others) and a sterile mineralized residue. In potable water treatment one method, the slow sand filter, employs a complex gelatinous layer composed a wide range of microorganisms to remove both dissolved and particulate material from raw water. 4) use in water d) Microbes are used in fermentation to produce treatmentt ethanol, and in biogas reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels. 5) use in food e) Microbes are also essential tools in biotech(fermentation) nology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are important model organisms in science, since they are simple eukaryotes that 64 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated. They are particularly vauable in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution. Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the texts on bacterium, bacteria, replication cycle of viruses, and fungus (Appendix A) and speak on them. Ex. VI. Translate into English. Фармаци́я (англ. pharmacy – применение лекарства) – комплекс научно-практических дисциплин, изучающих проблемы создания, безопасности, исследования, хранения, изготовления, отпуска и маркетинга лекарственных средств, а также поиска природных источников лекарственных субстанций. В комплексе с фармакологией составляет науку о лекарствах. Фармакология (греч. φάρμακον – лекарство, яд и λόγος – учение) – медико-биологическая наука о лекарственных веществах и их действии на организм; в более широком смысле – наука о физиологически активных веществах вообще и их действии на биологические системы. Если вещества используются в фармакотерапии, их называют лекарственные средства. Фармацевтика – часть фармации, связанная непосредственно с проблемами производственно-технологического процесса производства лекарственных средств и субстанций. Известно, что многие химические соединения, обладающие фармакологическими свойствами, в необработанном состоянии бесполезны либо вредны. Фармацевтика придает подобному веществу уникальную дозированную форму, пригодную для проведения лечения конкретной группы больных при определенном пути его введения и режиме применения. Термин «фармацевтика» не является синонимом понятия «фармация». Фармацевтическая промышленность – отрасль промышленности, связанная с исследованием, разработкой, массовым производством, изучением рынка и распределением лекарственных средств, преимущественно предназначенных для профилактики, облегчения и лечения болезней. Unit VI. Microorganisms 65 Ex. VII. Speak on the history of discovery of microorganisms using the cards below. Pre-microbiology. The possibility that microorganisms exist was discussed for many centuries before their actual discovery in the 17th century. The existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism, which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BC. Mahavira asserted existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air and fire. Jain scriptures also describe nigodas, which are sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and having a very short life and are said to pervade each and every part of universe, even in tissues of plants and flesh of animals. In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or even without contact over long distances. All these early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative and were not based on any data or science. Microscope. Microorganisms were neither proven, observed, nor correctly and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason for this was that all these early studies lacked the microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, the first microbiologist, was the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope of his own design, thereby making one of the most important contributions to biology. Robert Hooke was the first to use a microscope to observe living things; his 1665 book “Micrographia” contained descriptions of plant cells. Microorganism’s discovery. Before Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food would spoil. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but using a microscope, he did establish that there were forms of life that were not visible to the naked eyel. Leeuwenhoek’s discovery, along with subsequent observations by Spallanzani and Pasteur, ended the long-held belief that life spontaneously appeare d from non-living substances during the process of spoilage. Stalinization. Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) found that boiling broth would sterilise it, killing any microorganisms in it. He also found that new microorganisms could only settle in a broth if the broth was exposed to air. Lazzaro Spallanzani showed that boiling a broth stopped it from decaying. 66 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY Germ theory. Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) showed that Spallanzani’s findings held even if air could enter through a filter that kept particles out. He expanded upon Spallanzani’s findings by exposing boiled broths to the air, in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the growth medium, and also in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a curved tube that would not allow dust particles to come in contact with the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment. Nothing grew in the broths i n the course of Pasteur’s experiment. This meant that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the death blow to the theory of spontaneous generation and supported germ theory. Koch’s postulates. In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microbes can cause disease. He found that the blood of cattle, infected with anthrax, always had large numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become sick. He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, and then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microbe and a disease and these are now known as Koch’s postulates. Although these postulates cannot be applied in all cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought and are still being used today. Experimental evolution of microorganisms. Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between widely divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and many other means of genetic variation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the recent development of “super-bugs”, pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to modern antibiotics. Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances 67 UNIT VII TECHNOLOGY OF PROTEINS AND BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES TEXT A. PROTEIN Proteins are large biological molecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acids. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within living organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in folding of the protein into a specific three-dimensional structure that determines its activity. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by posttranslational modification, which alters the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity, and ultimately, the function of the proteins. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors. Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell signalling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Proteins are also necessary in animals’ diets, since animals cannot synthesize all 68 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food. Through the process of digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then used in metabolism. Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such as ultracentrifugation, precipitation, electrophoresis, and chromatography. Methods commonly used to study protein structure and functions include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry. History and Etymology Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others, distinguished by the molecules’ ability to coagulate or flocculate under treatments with heat or acid. The noted examples at the time included albumin from egg whites, blood serum albumin, fibrin, and wheat gluten. Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist Gerardus Johannes Mulder and named by the Swedish chemist Jцns Jacob Berzelius in 1838. Mulder carried out elemental analysis of common proteins and found that nearly all proteins had the same empirical formula, C400H620N100O120P1S1. He came to the erroneous conclusion that they might be composed of a single type of (very large) molecule. The term “protein” to describe these molecules was proposed by Mulder’s associate Berzelius; protein is derived from the Greek word proteios, meaning “primary” or “standing in front”. Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the amino acid leucine for which he found a (nearly correct) molecular weight of 131 atomic mass unit (Da). Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body, because it was generally believed that “flesh makes flesh”. The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was not fully appreciated until 1926, when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein. The difficulty in purifying proteins in large quantities made them very difficult for early protein biochemists to study. Hence, early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities, e.g. those of blood, egg white, various toxins, and digestive or metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses. In the 1950s, the Armour Hot Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances 69 Dog Co. purified 1 kg of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and made it freely available to scientists; this gesture helped ribonuclease A become a major target for biochemical study for the following decades. The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger, in 1949. Sanger correctly determined the amino acid sequence of insulin, thus conclusively demonstrating that proteins consisted of linear polymers of amino acids rather than branched chains, colloids, or cyclols. He won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958. The first protein structures to be solved were hemoglobin and myoglobin, by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew, respectively, in 1958. The first atomic-resolution structures of proteins were solved by X-ray diffraction analysis in the 1960s (Perutz and Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for these discoveries) and by protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) in the 1980s. As of 2013, the Protein Data Bank has nearly 90,000 atomic-resolution structures of proteins. In more recent times, cryo-electron microscopy of large macromolecular assemblies and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains are two methods approaching atomic resolution. TEXT B. PROTEIN BIOCHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS Biochemistry Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids. All proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this basic structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group, which forces the CO–NH amide moiety into a fixed conformation. The side chains of the standard amino acids have a great variety of chemical structures and properties; it is the combined effect of all of the amino acid side chains in a protein that ultimately determines its three-dimensional structure and its chemical reactivity. The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the protein chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms are known as the main chain or protein backbone. 70 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY The peptide bond has two resonance forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar. The other two dihedral angles in the peptide bond determine the local shape assumed by the protein backbone. The end of the protein with a free carboxyl group is known as the C-terminus or carboxyl terminus, whereas the end with a free amino group is known as the N-terminus or amino terminus. The words protein, polypeptide, and peptide are a little ambiguous and can overlap in meaning. Protein is generally used to refer to the complete biological molecule in a stable conformation, whereas peptide is generally reserved for short amino acid oligomers often lacking a stable threedimensional structure. However, the boundary between the two is not well defined and usually lies near 20–30 residues. Polypeptide can refer to any single linear chain of amino acids, usually regardless of length, but often implies an absence of a defined conformation. Protein Biosynthesis Proteins are assembled from amino acids using information encoded in genes. Each protein has its own unique amino acid sequence that is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding this protein. The genetic code is a set of three-nucleotide sets called codons and each three-nucleotide combination designates an amino acid, for example AUG (adenine-uracil-guanine) is the code for methionine. Because DNA contains four nucleotides, the total number of possible codons is 64; hence, there is some redundancy in the genetic code, with some amino acids specified by more than one codon. Genes encoded in DNA are first transcribed into pre-messenger RNA by proteins such as RNA polymerase. Most organisms then process the pre-mRNA (also known as a primary transcript) using various forms of post-transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA, which is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome. In prokaryotes the mRNA may either be used as soon as it is produced, or be bound by a ribosome after having moved away from the nucleoid. In contrast, eukaryotes make mRNA in the cell nucleus and then translocate it across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis then takes place. The rate of protein synthesis is higher in prokaryotes than eukaryotes and can reach up to 20 amino acids per second. Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances 71 The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation. The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time by matching each codon to its base pairing anticodon located on a transfer RNA molecule, which carries the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes. The growing polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain. Proteins are always biosynthesized from N-terminus to C-terminus. Chemical Synthesis Short proteins can also be synthesized chemically by a family of methods known as peptide synthesis, which rely on organic synthesis techniques such as chemical ligation to produce peptides in high yield. Chemical synthesis allows for the introduction of non-natural amino acids into polypeptide chains, such as attachment of fluorescent probes to amino acid side chains. These methods are useful in laboratory biochemistry and cell biology, though generally not for commercial applications. Chemical synthesis is inefficient for polypeptides longer than about 300 amino acids, and the synthesized proteins may not readily assume their native tertiary structure. Most chemical synthesis methods proceed from C-terminus to N-terminus, opposite the biological reaction. TEXT C. PROTEIN STRUCTURE Most proteins fold into unique 3-dimensional structures. The shape into which a protein naturally folds is known as its native conformation. Although many proteins can fold unassisted, simply through the chemical properties of their amino acids, others require the aid of molecular chaperones to fold into their native states. Biochemists often refer to the following distinct aspects of a protein’s structure. Primary structure: the amino acid sequence. A protein is a polyamide. Secondary structure: regularly repeating local structures stabilized by hydrogen bonds. The most common examples are the alpha helix, beta sheet and turns. Because secondary structures are local, many regions of different secondary structure can be present in the same protein molecule. Tertiary structure: the overall shape of a single protein molecule; the spatial relationship of the secondary structures to one another. Tertiary 72 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY structure is generally stabilized by nonlocal interactions, most commonly the formation of a hydrophobic core, but also through salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, disulphide bonds, and even posttranslational modifications. The term “tertiary structure” is often used as synonymous with the term fold. The tertiary structure is what controls the basic function of the protein. Quaternary structure: the structure formed by several protein molecules (polypeptide chains), usually called protein subunits in this context, which function as a single protein complex. Proteins are not entirely rigid molecules. In addition to these levels of structure, proteins may shift between several related structures while they perform their functions. In the context of these functional rearrangements, these tertiary or quaternary structures are usually referred to as conformations, and transitions between them are called conformational changes. Such changes are often induced by the binding of a substrate molecule to an enzyme’s active site, or the physical region of the protein that participates in chemical catalysis. In solution proteins also undergo variation in structure through thermal vibration and the collision with other molecules. Proteins can be informally divided into three main classes, which correlate with typical tertiary structures: globular proteins, fibrous proteins, and membrane proteins. Almost all globular proteins are soluble and many are enzymes. Fibrous proteins are often structural, such as collagen, the major component of connective tissue, or keratin, the protein component of hair and nails. Membrane proteins often serve as receptors or provide channels for polar or charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane. A special case of intermolecular hydrogen bonds within proteins poorly shielded from water attack and hence promoting their own dehydration, are called dehydrons. Structure Determination Discovering the tertiary structure of a protein, or the quaternary structure of its complexes, can provide important clues about how the protein performs its function. Common experimental methods of structure determination include X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy, both of which can produce information at atomic resolution. However, NMR experiments are able to provide information from which a subset of distances between pairs of atoms can be esti- Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances 73 mated, and the final possible conformations for a protein are determined by solving a distance geometry problem. Dual polarisation interferometry is a quantitative analytical method for measuring the overall protein conformation and conformational changes due to interactions or other stimulus. Circular dichroism is another laboratory technique for determining internal beta sheet/helical composition of proteins. Cryoelectron microscopy is used to produce lowerresolution structural information about very large protein complexes, including assembled viruses; a variant known as electron crystallography can also produce high-resolution information in some cases, especially for two-dimensional crystals of membrane proteins. Solved structures are usually deposited in the Protein Data Bank (PDB), a freely available resource from which structural data about thousands of proteins can be obtained in the form of Cartesian coordinates for each atom in the protein. TEXT D. PROTEIN METHODS As some of the most commonly studied biological molecules, the activities and structures of proteins are examined both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro studies of purified proteins in controlled environments are useful for learning how a protein carries out its function: for example, enzyme kinetics studies explore the chemical mechanism of an enzyme’s catalytic activity and its relative affinity for various possible substrate molecules. By contrast, in vivo experiments on proteins activities within cells or even within whole organisms can provide complementary information about where a protein functions and how it is regulated. Protein Purification To perform in vitro analysis, a protein must be purified away from other cellular components. This process usually begins with cell lysis, in which a cell’s membrane is disrupted and its internal contents released into a solution known as a crude lysate. The resulting mixture can be purified using ultracentrifugation, which fractionates the various cellular components into fractions containing soluble proteins; membrane lipids and proteins; cellular organelles, and nucleic acids. Precipitation by a method known as salting out can concentrate the 74 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY proteins from this lysate. Various types of chromatography are then used to isolate the protein or proteins of interest based on properties such as molecular weight, net charge and binding affinity. The level of purification can be monitored using various types of gel electrophoresis if the desired protein’s molecular weight and isoelectric point are known, by spectroscopy if the protein has distinguishable spectroscopic features, or by enzyme assays if the protein has enzymatic activity. Additionally, proteins can be isolated according their charge using electrofocusing. For natural proteins, a series of purification steps may be necessary to obtain protein sufficiently pure for laboratory applications. To simplify this process, genetic engineering is often used to add chemical features to proteins that make them easier to purify without affecting their structure or activity. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT VII Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What techniques are used to purify proteins from other cellular components? 2. What is defined in a protein by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code? 3. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by posttranslational modification. What does it alter? 4. How many standard amino acids does the genetic code specify in general? 5. What is the way to assemble proteins from acids? Ex. II. Name the word. 1. Being essential parts of organisms, these biological macromolecules participate in virtually every process within cells. Unit VII. Technology of proteins and biologically active substances 75 2. It has two resonance forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar. 3. To simplify this process, genetic engineering is often used to add chemical features to proteins that make them easier to purify without affecting their structure or activity. 4. A protein with is the amino acid sequence. 5. The structure formed by polypeptide chains, which function as a single protein complex. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. ... can work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. 2. Proteins perform a vast ... within living organisms. 3. Most chemical ... methods proceed opposite the biological reaction. 4. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the ... sequence of their genes. 5. In certain organisms the genetic code can include ... and pyrrolysine. Synthesis, proteins, selenocysteine, array of functions, nucleotide. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) cofactors a) a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues; 2) proteins b) non-peptide groups attached that proteins have; 3) the Protein c) large biological molecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acids; Data Bank 4) primary d) a freely available resource from which structural data about thousands of proteins can be obtained structure in the form of Cartesian coordinates for each atom in the protein; 5) polypeptide e) the amino acid sequence of protein. Ex. V. Translate into English. Фармакопея (др.-греч. φαρμακον – лекарство; ποιη – изготовляю) – это сборник официальных документов (свод стандартов и положений), устанавливающих нормы качества лекарственного сырья, т. е. медицинских субстанций, вспомогательных 76 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY веществ, диагностических и лекарственных средств, и изготовленных из них препаратов. Положения фармакопеи основаны на достижениях фармацевтической химии, ее фармацевтического анализа (его критериев, способов и методов). Этот документ включает указания по изготовлению и проверке качества лекарств, определяет высшие дозы препаратов, устанавливает требования к лекарственному сырью. Государственная фармакопея – это фармакопея, находящаяся под государственным надзором. Государственная фармакопея является документом общегосударственной законодательной силы, его требования обязательны для всех организаций данного государства, занимающихся изготовлением, хранением и применением лекарственных средств, в том числе растительного происхождения. Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils 77 UNIT VIII TECHNOLOGY OF FATS AND ESSENTIAL OILS TEXT A. FATS Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are triglycerides triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words “oils”, “fats”, and “lipids” are all used to refer to fats, in reality, fat is a subset of lipid. “Oils” is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while “fats” is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. “Lipids” is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats, along with other related substances, usually in a medical or biochemical context. The word “oil” is also used for any substance that does not mix with water and has a greasy feel, such as petroleum (or crude oil), heating oil, and essential oils, regardless of its chemical structure. Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical structure and physical properties. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life, serving both structural and metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans). Fats or lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Examples of edible animal fats are lard, fish oil, butter or ghee and whale blubber. They are obtained from fats in the milk and meat, as well as from under the skin, of an animal. Examples of edible plant fats include peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut and olive oils, and cocoa butter. Vegetable shortening, used mainly for baking, and margarine, used in baking and as a spread, can be derived from the above oils by hydrogenation. These examples of fats can be categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be further divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats, which are rare in nature but present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils. The following types of fats are differed: unsaturated fat (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, omega fatty acids) and saturated fat. 78 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY TEXT B. TRIGLYCERIDE Triglyceride is an example of a natural triglyceride with three different fatty acids. Some fatty acids is saturated, another contains one double bond within the carbon chain. The third fatty acid (a polyunsaturated fatty acid) contains three double bonds within the carbon chain. All carbon-carbon double bonds are cis-isomers. There are many different kinds of fats, but each is a variation on the same chemical structure. All fats are derivatives of fatty acids and glycerol. The molecules are called triglycerides, which are triesters of glycerol (an ester being the molecule formed from the reaction of the carboxylic acid and an organic alcohol). As a simple visual illustration, if the kinks and angles of these chains were straightened out, the molecule would have the shape of a capital letter E. The fatty acids would each be a horizontal line; the glycerol “backbone” would be the vertical line that joins the horizontal lines. Fats therefore have “ester” bonds. The properties of any specific fat molecule depend on the particular fatty acids that constitute it. Different fatty acids are composed of different numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms, each bonded to two neighboring carbon atoms, form a zigzagging chain; the more carbon atoms there are in any fatty acid, the longer its chain will be. Fatty acids with long chains are more susceptible to intermolecular forces of attraction, raising its melting point. Long chains also yield more energy per molecule when metabolized. Saturated and Unsaturated Fats A fat’s constituent fatty acids may also differ in the C/H ratio. When all three fatty acids have the formula CnH(2n+1)CO2H, the resulting fat is called “saturated”. Values of n usually range from 13 to 17. Each carbon atom in the chain is saturated with hydrogen, meaning they are bonded to as many hydrogens as possible. Unsaturated fats are derived from fatty acids with the formula CnH(2n–1)CO2H. These fatty acids contain double bonds within carbon chain. This results in an unsaturated fatty acid. More specifically, it would be a monounsaturated fatty acid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids would be fatty acids with more than one double bond; they have the formula, CnH(2n–3)CO2H and CnH(2n–5)CO2H. Unsaturated fats can be converted to saturated ones by the process of hydrogenation. This technology underpinned the development of margarine. Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils 79 Saturated and unsaturated fats differ in their energy content and melting point. Since unsaturated fats contain fewer carbon-hydrogen bonds than saturated fats with the same number of carbon atoms, unsaturated fats will yield slightly less energy during metabolism than saturated fats with the same number of carbon atoms. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can freeze easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids. Olive and linseed oils on the other hand are highly unsaturated and are oily. Trans Fats There are two ways the double bond may be arranged: the isomer with both parts of the chain on the same side of the double bond (the cis-isomer), or the isomer with the parts of the chain on opposite sides of the double bond (the trans-isomer). Most trans-isomer fats (commonly called trans fats) are commercially produced. Trans fatty acids are rare in nature. The cis-isomer introduces a kink into the molecule that prevents the fats from stacking efficiently as in the case of fats with saturated chains. This decreases intermolecular forces between the fat molecules, making it more difficult for unsaturated cis-fats to freeze; they are typically liquid at room temperature. Trans fats may still stack like saturated fats, and are not as susceptible to metabolization as other fats. Trans fats may significantly increase the risk of coronary heart disease. TEXT C. ESSENTIAL OILS An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, or aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. Oil is essential in the sense that it carries a distinctive scent, or essence, of the plant. Essential oils do not form a distinctive category for any medical, pharmacological, or culinary purpose. Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression or solvent extraction. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and 80 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils have been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries. As the use of essential oils has declined in evidence-based medicine, one must consult older textbooks for much information on their use. Modern works are less inclined to generalize; rather than refer to “essential oils” as a class at all, they prefer to discuss specific compounds, such as methyl salicylate, rather than “oil of wintergreen”. Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that claims that essential oils and other aromatic compounds have curative effects. Oils are volatilized or diluted in carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense. Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil. Eucalyptus oil. Apart from essential oils used mainly in foods, the best-known essential oil worldwide might be eucalyptus oil, produced from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus. Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning or disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties. Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do the products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly. Rose oil. The second most well-known essential oil is probably rose oil, produced from the petals of Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia. Steam-distilled rose oil is known as “rose otto”, while the solvent extracted product is known as “rose absolute”. Lavender essential oil. One of the most popular essential oils in the world, lavender essential oil has a reputation of being mild, relaxing and appropriate for all ages and genders. Lavender essential oil is also an insect repellant. Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils 81 TEXT D. PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS Distillation Today, most common essential oils – such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus – are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel. Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), which takes 22 hours to complete through a fractional distillation. The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, herbal distillate or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Expression Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils that are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry are even cheaper. Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing. Solvent Extraction Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression; their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvent are called concretes (perfumery), which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil soluble) plant material. Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, which is more polar in nature, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol is removed by evaporation, leaving behind the absolute fragrance. Supercritical 82 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method has many benefits including avoiding petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some “top notes” when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue. Supercritical carbon dioxide is also used for making decaffeinated coffee. Although it uses the same basic principles, it is a different process because of the difference in scale. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT VIII Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What types of fats are differed? 2. Into what two groups can unsaturated fats be further divided? 3. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? 4. What fats may significantly increase the risk of coronary heart disease? 5. Name constituents part of a raw plant material. Ex. II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Lard, fish oil, butter/ghee and whale blubber are examples of ... animal fats. 2. An oil is “essential” in the sense that it carries a distinctive scent of the … 3. As the use of essential oils has declined in evidence-based medicine, one must consult ... for much information on their use. Unit VIII. Technology of fats and essential oils 83 4. Most trans-isomer fats are ... produced. 5. The best-known essential oil worldwide might be ... oil. Plant, edible, commercially, eucalyptus, older textbooks. Ex. III. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) cis fats a) an example of a natural triglyceride with three different fatty acids; 2) triglyceride b) monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, trans, and omega fatty acids; 3) trans fats c) fats, the most common in nature; 4) essential oil d) fats, rare in nature but present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils; 5) unsaturated e) a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing fats volatile aroma compounds from plants. Ex. IV. Topics for discussion. Look through the text on importance of fats for living organisms (Appendix A) and speak on their application. Ex. V. Translate into English. Отвар, устаревшее Декокт (лат. Decуctum) – недозированная жидкая лекарственная форма, представляющая собой водное извлечение из лекарственного растительного сырья, специально приготовленная для этой цели. Предназначается для внутреннего или наружного применения. Технология настоев и отваров во многом похожа. Основное отличие состоит в применяемом лекарственном растительном сырье и более жестких условиях экстракции. Для отваров используются корни, кора, корневища и иногда толстые жесткие листья (например, листья брусники или толокнянки). 84 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY UNIT IX TECHNOLOGY OF PERFUME-COSMETICS PRODUCTS TEXT A. PERFUME Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living spaces “a pleasant scent”. Perfumes have been known to exist in some of the earliest human civilizations, either through ancient texts or from archaeological digs. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics alone. Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil. Applying Fragrances The conventional application of pure perfume in Western cultures is at pulse points, such as behind the ears, the nape of the neck, and the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the perfume and release fragrance continually. The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening. Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up to six hours. A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer’s own physiology and affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of a fragrance. The use of medications can also impact the character of Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products 85 a fragrance. The relative dryness of the wearer’s skin is important, since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin with more oil. Fragrance Wheel The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the individual classes. The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougиre, and Fresh, with the former four families being more “classic” while the latter consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. Each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups and arranged around a wheel. TEXT B. AROMATICS SOURCES Plant Sources Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petit grain, neroli, and orange oils. Bark. Commonly used barks include cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds. Flowers and blossoms are undoubtedly the largest and most common source of perfume aromatics. They include the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, 86 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery. Fruits. Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell. Leaves and twigs. Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the “green” smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf. Resins. Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resincontaining perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers. Roots, rhizomes and bulbs are commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, and various rhizomes of the ginger family. Seeds. Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise. Woods are highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms. Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products 87 Animal Sources Ambergris is lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Ambergris should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few animalic fragrance agents around which little controversy now exists. Castoreum is obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver. Civet, also called Civet Musk, is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. Honeycomb is obtained from the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute. Deer musk, originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, has been replaced by the use of synthetic musks known as “white musk”. Synthetic Sources Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylic acid) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids. One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatic by far are the white musks. These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting “clean” scent. The majority of the world’s synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include: International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF), Givaudan, Firmenich, Takasago, and Symrise. Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually. 88 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY TEXT С. OBTAINING NATURAL ODORANTS Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless. Maceration Maceration, or solvent extraction, is the most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat. Commonly used solvents for maceration or solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether. The product of this process is called a “concrete”. Supercritical fluid extraction is a relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs supercritical carbon dioxide. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material. Ethanol extraction is a type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or effleurage. Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials since these contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol. Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products 89 Distillation Distillation is a common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapour. Steam distillation. Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate from distillation is settled in a Florentine flask. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems. Dry or destructive distillation. The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional “burned” or “toasted” odor is desired. Fractionation. Through the use of a fractionation column, different fractions distilled from a material can be selectively excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the product is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control over their composition process. Expression Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible. Effleurage Effleurage is absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extraction of odorous oils with ethyl alcohol. Extraction by effleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in the modern industry due to prohibitive costs and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods. 90 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY TEXT D. FRAGRANT EXTRACTS Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term “essential oils”, a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes. Absolute fragrant materials are purified from a pomade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. By using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid. Concrete fragrant materials have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids. Tincture fragrant materials are produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. Tinctures are typically thin liquids. Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance, orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent extraction produces “orange blossom absolute” but that which have been steam distilled is known as “neroli oil”. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT IX Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What for are absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures directly used? 2. What are commonly used resins in perfumery? Unit IX. Technology of perfume-cosmetics products 91 3. What compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are all aromatics from animal sources? 4. Why does the harvesting of ambergris remain one of the few animalic fragrance agents around which little controversy now exists? 5. Name three fresh fruits that unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted. Ex. II. Name the word. 1. A mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living spaces “a pleasant scent”. 2. The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. 3. A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs supercritical carbon dioxide. 4. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce it. 5. Plants aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against them. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. Absolute … materials are purified from a pomade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. 2. Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their … fragrant compounds. 3. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous …, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds. 4. Commonly used solvents for maceration or solvent extraction include hexane, and … ether. 5. Synthetic … are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Volatile, pyrolysis, dimethyl, odorants, fragrant. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) distillation a) absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extraction of odorous oils with ethyl alcohol; 2) ambergris b) a common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses; 3) iris rhizomes c) commonly used barks include them; 92 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY 4) cinnamon and d) lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose cascarilla precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale; 5) effleurage e) commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery. Ex. V. Topics for discussion. Look through the texts on composing perfumes, parfume fragrance notes, characteristics of natural and synthetic aromatics sources, and dangers of essential oils (Appendix A) and speak on them. Ex. VI. Translate into English. Экстракт, вытяжка (лат. Extractum) – концентрированное извлечение из лекарственного растительного сырья или сырья животного происхождения, представляющее собой подвижные, вязкие жидкости или сухие массы. В медицине термин «экстракт» означает лекарственную форму, приготовленную с помощью экстрагирования. Экстрагентами могут быть вода, спирт, эфир, углекислота (и другие вещества в сверхкритическом состоянии). Следовательно, экстракты разделяют на водные, спиртовые, эфирные, СО2-экстракты и др. Различают жидкие экстракты (подвижные жидкости); густые экстракты (вязкие массы с содержанием влаги не более 25%); сухие экстракты (сыпучие массы с содержанием влаги не более 5%). Процесс приготовления экстракта называют экстракцией, или экстрагированием. В промышленных экстрактах 1 г экстракта соответствует 1 г исходного сырья. Для приготовления подобной формы необходимо заводское оборудование; в домашних условиях экстракты приготовить невозможно. Поэтому заменять заводские экстракты домашними нельзя. В народной медицине под термином «экстракты» понимают упаренные водные или водно-спиртовые вытяжки из высушенного сырья, иногда сырье используют свежее. Unit X. Ferments and vitamins 93 UNIT X FERMENTS AND VITAMINS TEXT A. FERMENTATION The word fermentation is derived from the Latin verb fervere, which means to boil (same root as effervescence). The term is thought to have been first used in the late fourteenth century in alchemy, but only in a broad sense. It was not used in the modern scientific sense until around 1600. The word yeast is derived from jes, the Proto-IndoEuropean language (PIE) word meaning boil (cf. Greek zein, Welsh ias, and Sanskrit yasyati). Fermentation (disambiguation) is a metabolic process converting sugar to acids, gases and/or alcohol using yeast or bacteria. In its strictest sense, fermentation is the absence of the electron transport chain and takes a reduced carbon source, such as glucose, and makes products like lactic acid or acetate. No oxidative is used, only substrate level phosphorylation, which yields a much lower amount of ATP. Fermentation is also used much more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of microorganisms on a growth medium. The science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation is often used to produce wine and beer, but it is also employed in preservation to create lactic acid in sour foods such as pickled cucumbers and yogurt. Fermentation is a form of anaerobic digestion that generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the process of substrate-level phosphorylation. The energy for generating ATP comes from the oxidation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates. In contrast, during respiration is where electrons are donated to an exogenous electron acceptor, such as oxygen, via an electron transport chain. Fermentation is important in anaerobic conditions when there is no oxidative phosphorylation to maintain the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). History The use of fermentation, particularly for beverages, has existed since the Neolithic and has been documented dating from 7000–6600 BCE in China, 6000 BC in Georgia, 3150 BC in ancient Egypt, 3000 BC in Babylon, 2000 BC in pre-Hispanic Mexico, and 1500 BC in Sudan. 94 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY The first solid evidence of the living nature of yeast appeared between 1837 and 1838 when three publications appeared by C. Cagniard de la Tour, T. Swann, and F. Kuetzing, each of whom independently concluded as a result of microscopic investigations that yeast is a living organism that reproduces by budding. It is perhaps because wine, beer, and bread were each basic foods in Europe that most of the early studies on fermentation were done on yeasts, with which they were made. Soon, bacteria were also discovered; the term was first used in English in the late 1840s, but it did not come into general use until the 1870s, and then largely in connection with the new germ theory of disease. Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), during the 1850s and 1860s, showed that fermentation is initiated by living organisms in a series of investigations. In 1857, Pasteur showed that lactic acid fermentation is caused by living organisms. In 1860, he demonstrated that bacteria cause souring in milk, a process formerly thought to be merely a chemical change, and his work in identifying the role of microorganisms in food spoilage led to the process of pasteurization. In 1877, working to improve the French brewing industry, Pasteur published his famous paper on fermentation “Studies on Fermentation” in 1879. He defined fermentation (incorrectly) as “Life without air”, but correctly showed that specific types of microorganisms cause specific types of fermentations and specific end-products. Although showing fermentation to be the result of the action of living microorganisms was a breakthrough, it did not explain the basic nature of the fermentation process, or prove that it is caused by the microorganisms that appear to be always present. Many scientists, including Pasteur, had unsuccessfully attempted to extract the fermentation enzyme from yeast. Success came in 1897 when the German chemist Eduard Buechner ground up yeast, extracted a juice from them, then found to his amazement that this “dead” liquid would ferment a sugar solution, forming carbon dioxide and alcohol much like living yeasts. The “unorganized ferments” behaved just like the organized ones. From that time on, the term enzyme came to be applied to all ferments. It was then understood that fermentation is caused by enzymes that are produced by microorganisms. In 1907, Buechner won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work. Advances in microbiology and fermentation technology have continued steadily up until the present. For example, in the late 1970s, it was discovered that microorganisms could be mutated with physical Unit X. Ferments and vitamins 95 and chemical treatments to be higher-yielding, faster-growing, tolerant of less oxygen, and able to use a more concentrated medium. Strain selection and hybridization developed as well, affecting most modern food fermentations. TEXT B. FERMENTATION FOR MEDICINE Fermentation does not necessarily have to be carried out in an anaerobic environment. For example, even in the presence of abundant oxygen, yeast cells greatly prefer fermentation to aerobic respiration, as long as sugars are readily available for consumption (a phenomenon known as the Crabtree effect). The antibiotic activity of hops also inhibits aerobic metabolism in yeast. Fermentation uses an endogenous, organic electron acceptor. A widely used endogenous electron acceptor is pyruvate. During fermentation, pyruvate is metabolized to various compounds through several processes: 1) ethanol fermentation, also referred to as alcoholic fermentation; 2) lactic fermentation (short for lactic acid fermentation). Ethanol fermentation is the conversion of pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Lactic fermentation refers to two means of producing lactic acid: heterolactic fermentation (the production of lactic acid as well as other acids and alcohols) and homolactic fermentation (the production of lactic acid from pyruvate). Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of fermentation products are ethanol, lactic acid, lactose, and hydrogen gas (H2). However, more exotic compounds can be produced by fermentation, such as butyric acid and acetone. Yeast carries out fermentation in the production of ethanol in beers, wines, and other alcoholic drinks, along with the production of large quantities of carbon dioxide. Fermentation occurs in mammalian muscle during periods of intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited, resulting in the creation of lactic oil. Lactic Acid Fermentation Lactic acid fermentation is the simplest type of fermentation. In essence, it is a redox reaction. In anaerobic conditions, the cell’s primary mechanism of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production is glycolysis. Glycolysis reduces (i.e. transfers electrons to) nicotinamide adenine 96 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY dinucleotide (NAD+), forming NADH. However there is a limited supply of NAD+ available in any given cell. For glycolysis to continue, NADH must be oxidized (i.e. have electrons taken away) to regenerate the NAD+ that is used in glycolysis. In an aerobic environment, where oxygen is available, oxidation of NADH is usually done through an electron transport chain in a process called oxidative phosphorylation, but oxidative phosphorylation cannot occur in anaerobic environments because oxygen is absent due to the pathway’s dependence on the terminal electron acceptor of oxygen. Instead, the NADH donates its extra electrons to the pyruvate molecules formed during glycolysis. Since the NADH has lost electrons, NAD+ regenerates and is again available for glycolysis. Lactic acid, for which this process is named, is formed by the reduction of pyruvate. In heterolactic acid fermentation, one molecule of pyruvate is converted to lactate; the other is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide. In homolactic acid fermentation, both molecules of pyruvate are converted to lactate. Homolactic acid fermentation is unique because it is one of the only respiration processes to not produce a gas as a byproduct. Homolactic fermentation breaks down the pyruvate into lactate. It occurs in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the blood can supply oxygen. It also occurs in some kinds of bacteria (such as lactobacilli) and some fungi. It is this type of bacteria that converts lactose into lactic acid in yogurt, giving it its sour taste. These lactic acid bacteria can be classed as homofermentative, where the end-product is mostly lactate, or heterofermentative, where some lactate is further metabolized and results in carbon dioxide, acetate, or other metabolic products. In heterolactic fermentation, the reaction proceeds as follows, with one molecule of glucose being converted to one molecule of lactic acid, one molecule of ethanol, and one molecule of carbon dioxide. Before lactic acid fermentation can occur, the molecule of glucose must be split into two molecules of pyruvate. This process is called glycolysis. Glycolysis To extract chemical energy from glucose, the glucose molecule must be split into two molecules of pyruvate. This process generates two molecules of NADH and also four molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), yet there is only net gain of two ATP molecules considering the two initially consumed: Unit X. Ferments and vitamins 97 C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2CH3COCOO− + 2ATP + + 2NADH + 2H2O + 2H+ As shown by the reaction equation, glycolysis causes the reduction of two molecules of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NADH. In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate produced by glycolysis is oxidized completely, generating additional ATP and NADH in the citric acid cycle and by oxidative phosphorylation. However, this can occur only in the presence of oxygen. Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are obligate anaerobes, and are not required by facultative anaerobic organisms. In the absence of oxygen, one of the fermentation pathways occurs in order to regenerate NAD+; lactic acid fermentation is one of these pathways. TEXT C. FERMENTS OR ENZYMES Proteins that have catalytic properties are called enzymes (i.e. enzymes are biological catalysts of protein nature). Some enzymes have full catalytic reactivity per se; these are considered simple proteins because they do not have a nonprotein moity. Other enzymes are conjugated proteins, and the nonprotein structural components are necessary for reactivity. Occasionally, enzymes require metallic ions. Conditions that affect denaturation of proteins usually have an adverse effect on the activity of the enzyme. Zymogens, also called proenzymes, are enzyme precursors. These proenzymes are said to be activated when they are transformed to the enzyme. Activation usually involves catalytic action by some proteolytic enzyme. Occasionally, the activators merely effect a reorganization of the tertiary structure (conformation) of the protein so that the groups involved within the reactive center become functional (i.e. unmasked). Exportable proteins (enzymes), such as amylase, ribonuclease, chymotrypsin(ogen), trypsin(ogen), and insulin, are synthesized on the ribosomes. They pass across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum into the cisternae and directly into a smooth vesicular structure, which effects further transportation. They are finally stored in highly concentrated form within membrane-bound granules called zymogen granules. The exportable protein content of zymogen granules may 98 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY reach a value of 40% of the total protein of the gland cell. In these enzyme sequences, the newly synthesized exportable protein (enzyme) is not free in the cell sap. The stored exportable digestive enzymes are released into the extracellular milieu and the hormones into adjacent capillaries. Release of these proteins is initiated by specific inducers. There are various systems for the classification of enzymes. The International Union of Biochemistry system includes some of the terminology used in the literature of medicinal chemistry, and in many instances the terms are self-explanatory. For example, transferases catalyze transfer of a group; hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions; and lyases catalyze nonhydrolytic removal of groups, leaving double bonds. There are also oxidoreductases, isomerases, and ligases. Other systems are sometimes used to classify and characterize enzymes, and the following terms are frequently encountered: lipase, peptidase, protease, phosphatase, kinase, synthetase, dehydrogenase, oxidase, and reductase. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT X Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. Before lactic acid fermentation can occur, the molecule of glucose must be split into two molecules of pyruvate. Name this process. 2. What is the simplest type of fermentation? 3. To what is one molecule of pyruvate converted in heterolactic acid fermentation? 4. In the absence of what substance does lactic acid fermentation occur? 5. In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate produced by glycolysis is oxidized completely. What does it generate? Ex. II. Name the word. 1. Type of fermentation, a redox reaction. 2. The cell’s primary mechanism of adenosine triphosphate production in anaerobic conditions. Unit X. Ferments and vitamins 99 3. Type of fermentation that breaks down the pyruvate into lactate. 4. Substance, toxic to organisms that are obligate anaerobes, and are not required by facultative anaerobic organisms. 5. To extract chemical energy from glucose, the glucose molecule must be split into two molecules of this substance. Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. The first solid evidence of the living nature of yeast appeared in 1837 when three publications appeared by C. Cagniard de la Tour, T. Swann, and F. Kuetzing, each of whom independently concluded as a result of microscopic investigations that ... is a living organism that reproduces by budding. 2. During the 1850s and 1860s, Louis Pasteur showed that ... is initiated by living organisms. 3. In 1857, Pasteur showed that ... is caused by living organisms. 4. In 1877, working to improve the French ... industry, Pasteur published his famous paper on fermentation “Studies on Fermentation” in 1879. 5. He incorrectly defined fermentation as “life without …”, but correctly showed that specific types of microorganisms cause specific types of fermentations. 6. In 1897 Eduard Buechner ground up yeast, extracted juice from them, and then found that this “dead” liquid would ferment ..., forming carbon dioxide and alcohol much like living yeasts. Fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, brewing, yeast, sugar solution, air. Ex. IV. Find synonyms on the right to the words on the left: 1) heterolactic fermenta- a) a metabolic process converting sugar tion to acids, gases and/or alcohol using yeast or bacteria; 2) sugars b) the science of fermentation; 3) homolactic fermenta- c) the production of lactic acid as well as tion other acids and alcohols; 4) disambiguation d) the production of lactic acid from pyruvate; 5) zymology e) ethanol, lactic acid, lactose, and hydrogen gas; 6) fermentation products f) the most common substrate of fermentation. 100 PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY Ex. V. Translate into English. Настой (лат. Infusum) – это недозированная жидкая лекарственная форма, представляющая собой водное извлечение из лекарственного растительного сырья или водный раствор, специально приготовленный для этой цели. Настой предназначен для внутреннего или наружного применения. Большое распространение данная лекарственная форма получила в народной медицине. Настои могут применяться внутренне, наружно или вдыхаться с разогретыми парами. Первый документально зафиксированный факт приготовления и лечения данной лекарственной формой относится к X веку, когда персидский ученый Авиценна описал рецепт настоя на масляной основе. Существуют три способа приготовления настоя: холодный, горячий и смешанный. При холодном способе измельченные части сырья заливают холодной основой и настаивают в закрытом сосуде некоторое время. В случае горячего способа сырье заливают кипятком или маслом и парят, не доводя до кипения, или готовят на водяной бане. При кипении могут разрушиться полезные вещества, точки кипения обычно достигают при отварах. Также некоторые горячие настои можно приготовить в термосе. При смешанном способе сырье сначала настаивают, настой сцеживают, а с остатками сырья поступают как при горячем способе, потом оба настоя смешивают. Такой способ является наиболее эффективным. Напаривание – это народный способ приготовления настоев. Обычно напар готовят из наиболее нежных частей (цветков, травы, листьев и плодов). Традиционный способ приготовления напара практически утрачен в наше время, поскольку в деревенских условиях напар получали в остывающей за ночь русской печи. В наше время измельченное растительное сырье помещают в фарфоровую или глиняную посуду и заливают кипятком, поставив его на ночь остывать. Однако при таком способе приготовления лечебный эффект частично теряется. В случае приготовления напара для приема внутрь из одной весовой части (в граммах) сырья получают 10 объемных (в миллилитрах) частей напара. Для наружного применения концентрация напара должна быть в 2–3 раза больше. Напар быстро портится, поэтому желательно его готовить каждодневно. Допустимо хранение напара в холодильнике в течение 2–3 дней, в этом случае перед употреблением его необходимо разогреть, не доводя до кипения. Phylogenetic Tree P T (showing the t diversity off bacteria, com mpared to other organisms)) Industrial Biotechnology Industrial Biotechnology Production Platforms Fermentation Enzymes Products of Alkohol F Fermentation Biotechnology Unit XI. Wastewater treatment 101 PART III BIOECOLOGY UNIT XI WASTEWATER TREATMENT TEXT A. METHODS FOR TREATING WASTEWATERS FROM INDUSTRY Technologies for treating industrial wastewaters can be divided into three categories: chemical methods, physical methods, and biological methods. Chemical methods include chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction, formation of an insoluble gas followed by stripping, and other chemical reactions that involve exchanging or sharing electrons between atoms. Physical treatment methods include sedimentation, flotation, filtering, stripping, ion exchange, adsorption, and other processes that accomplish removal of dissolved and nondissolved substances without necessarily changing their chemical structures. Biological methods are those that involve living organisms using organic or, in some instances, inorganic substances for food. In so doing, the chemical and physical characteristics of the organic and/or inorganic substances are changed. Most substances found as pollutants in industrial wastewaters can be classified according to the most appropriate method of treatment: chemical, physical, or biological treatment. For instance, dairy wastewater should most appropriately be treated by biological means, because the bulk of the pollution from a typical dairy is organic material from whole milk, which is readily biodegradable. As a general rule, biological treatment is more economical than any other type of treatment where reasonably complete treatment is required and wherever it can be made to work successfully. 102 PART III. BIOECOLOGY It is very often possible to make preliminary selections of candidate treatment technologies based on fundamental properties of the pollutants and experience. For instance, when candidate treatment technologies to treat wastewaters from metal plating operation are being considered, none of the biological treatment technologies would be appropriate, since metal ions are not biodegradable. However, both chemical precipitation (a chemical treatment technology) and ion exchange (a physical treatment technology) should work well, based on the fundamental properties of the substances to be removed (dissolved inorganic cations and anions). The question then reduces to a comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of these two technologies, and experience provides much of the information appropriate to this evaluation. For example, experience has shown that, for most metal plating wastewaters, chemical precipitation is far less costly than ion exchange; however, chemical precipitation is not readily capable of reducing metal concentrations to less than approximately 5 mg/l, principally because the process of removing precipitated metals by settling in a clarifier typically does not remove the very small particles of precipitate. Sand (or other) filtration effectively removes most of the particles of metal precipitate that will not settle. The concentrations of dissolved metals even after chemical precipitation and sand filtration are still no lower than 1 to 2 mg/l, at best. Furthermore, ion exchange can “polish” the effluent from chemical precipitation and sand filtration to very low concentrations (20 to 50 ppb). Ion exchange could do the entire job of removing metals from industrial wastewater to very low concentrations without being preceded by chemical precipitation and sand filtration, but usually the cost of doing so is much higher than the cost of the three processes in combination. The pollutants in these wastewaters are not organic and therefore not biodegradable; extensive experience has shown that: 1) chemical precipitation is the most cost-effective method for removing the bulk of the dissolved metals; 2) sand, diatomaceous earth, or other media filtration is the most cost-effective “next step” to follow the chemical precipitation process; and 3) if still further reduction in metals concentration is required, ion exchange is the best candidate. In many cases there will be substances in certain metal plating wastewaters that require more than straightforward alkaline precipitation, filtration, and ion exchange. For instance, if chelating agents are Unit XI. Wastewater treatment 103 present, it may be necessary to destroy or otherwise inactivate them, in order to expose the metal ions to the full effect of the precipitating anions. In other cases, if the concentration of organic matter is high, it may interfere with the precipitation process and have to be removed by biological or other treatment, prior to the metals removal steps. Raw materials, water, and air enter “the industrial waste system” and, as a result of the industrial process, products and by-products exit the system, along with airborne wastes, waterborne wastes, and solid wastes. Since discharge permits are required for each of the wastebearing discharges, treatment systems are required. Each of the treatment systems has an input, the waste stream, and one or more outputs. The output from any of the treatment systems could be an air discharge, a waterborne discharge, and/or a solid waste stream. TEXT B. BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT Biological treatment of industrial wastewater is a process whereby organic substances are used as food by bacteria and other microorganisms. Almost any organic substance can be used as food by one or more species of bacteria, fungi, ciliates, rotifers, or other microorganisms. Complex organic molecules are systematically broken down, or “disassembled”, then reassembled as new cell protoplasm. In aerobic or anoxic systems, oxygen, which acts as an electron acceptor, is required in either the dissolved molecular form or in the form of anions such as nitrate and sulfate. The end result is a decrease in the quantity of organic pollutants and an increase in the quantity of microorganisms, carbon dioxide, water, and other by-products of microbial metabolism. In anaerobic systems, substances other than oxygen act as the electron acceptor. Equation below describes the aerobic or anoxic biological treatment process. Organic Matter, Microorganisms, Oxygen, Nutrients, More Microorganisms, CO2, H2O, and Oxidized Organic Matter Organic matter is regarded as pollution prior to the treatment process, is used as food by the microorganisms, and might have been formed by a natural process, by a living plant or animal, or might have 104 PART III. BIOECOLOGY been formed synthetically by a chemical manufacturing process. It is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and many additional elements in much smaller amounts. These elements are connected by chemical bonds, each of which is characterized by a certain quantity of energy called “bond energy”. As the microorganisms disassemble the organic matter, they are able to capture much of this energy and use it to make new chemical bonds, in the synthesis of new protoplasm. However, the process is less than 100% efficient. Fewer chemical bonds can be assembled in the process of cell synthesis than were disassembled during the microbial degradation process. Because of this, the microorganisms need a way to get rid of carbon, hydrogen, and other atoms that result from the process of degradation but for which there is not sufficient energy to form carboncarbon and other high-energy bonds required in the cell synthesis process. Because relatively low energy bonds can be formed with oxygen, the microorganisms get rid of excess carbon atoms as CO2 and excess hydrogen atoms as H2O. Other elements, if in excess, can be combined with oxygen as well and passed off into solution as the oxide. Nitrate and sulfate are examples. Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, and worms. They also exist in a hierarchical food chain within which bacteria and fungi feed directly on the organic matter (pollutants), and the higher life forms (protozoa, nematodes, etc.) feed on the bacteria. Oxygen is referred to as: 1) a hydrogen acceptor, 2) an electron acceptor. Nutrients include the following: nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, micronutrients. More microorganisms are the result of growth of the microorganisms originally present. They must be handled and disposed of as waste sludge. And they typically amount, in mass, to one-third to one-half the amount of organic matter (pollutants) originally present in the untreated wastewater, when microorganisms are measured as dried solids. CO2 is a waste product, in that it is a method used by the microorganisms to get rid of carbon atoms that have resulted from the degradation of the organic pollutants, but for which there is not sufficient energy to make carbon-carbon and other higher-energy bonds needed to make new cell material in the cell growth process. Microorganisms do not disassemble organic molecules for the fun of it. They do it because they have a compulsion to grow (i.e. increase in numbers). Unit XI. Wastewater treatment 105 H2O is a waste product and the mechanism used by microorganisms to get rid of excess hydrogen atoms derived during the process of disassembling organic matter. Oxidized organic matter in the untreated wastewater may contain some organic molecules that the microorganisms are unable to degrade. The degradation of organic matter by the microorganisms is not 100% complete. All biological treatment processes – aerobic, anaerobic, suspended growth, and fixed growth – are accurately represented by this relationship. The differences in the various configurations of processes are in the speed of reaction; the form of oxygen used; the relative amounts of “more microorganisms” and “oxidized organic matter” produced; and the types of tankage and equipment and amount of land required. The overall process involves diffusion of the molecules of organic matter through the aqueous medium (the wastewater itself), and adsorption (or other type of attachment) of these organic molecules onto the surface of the microorganisms. Then, the microorganisms to which the molecules, or particles, of organic matter are attached, must manufacture enzymes capable of breaking the organic molecules or particles down into elementary segments that can pass through the microorganism’s cell membranes. Then, the cells’ metabolic machinery “metabolizes” the elementary segments of organic material, rearranging molecular structures and building more cell protoplasm in order to grow by binary fission and “wasting” a certain amount of the food as carbon dioxide, water, and some low-molecular-weight organics (“oxidized organic material”). Bacteria and fungi are the primary converters of organic materials in the wastewater to new cell protoplasm and waste materials. However, these single-celled microorganisms make up only a portion of the multitudinous diverse life forms that populate a biological treatment system. In a mature treatment system, a food chain hierarchy becomes established, ranging from the single-celled primary converters through a number of species of protozoa, rotifers, worms, and in some cases algae and many other types of microscopic life forms. The rotifers and higher life forms feed on one or more of the lower life forms (the primary converters). To manage a well-operating biological treatment system is to manipulate the “feeding” of the microorganisms and remove certain quantities of the microorganisms in such a way as to maintain 106 PART III. BIOECOLOGY optimum relative numbers of the various life forms. In activated sludge systems, this is best done by controlling sludge age to within a range that works best for each individual system. TEXT C. DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES Two equations are used to mathematically describe the fundamental kinetics of the “treatment” that takes place as a result of microorganisms converting organic material to new cell mass, carbon dioxide, water, and residual material (referred to as “oxidized organic material”, “other lowmolecular-weight compounds”, or “refractory organics”). These equations are empirical and applicable to the treatment of wastes in all environmental media (e.g. activated sludge treatment of wastewater containing organics; biofiltration of air streams containing hydrogen sulfide; and biodegradation of organics in landfilled sludge) and are stated as follows: dx dF =Y − kd X , dt dt (1) dF kXSe = , dt ks + Se (2) where X stands for mass of microorganisms (grams or pounds). F stands for mass of organic matter used as food by the microorganisms (normally expressed as BOD) (milligrams or pounds). Y stands for constant, represents the proportion of organic matter that is converted to new microorganisms cell material (dimensionless). kd stands for constant, represents the proportion of the total mass of microorganisms that self-degrade (endogenous respiration) per unit time. k stands for maximum rate at which the microorganisms represented by the symbol X are able to degrade the organic matter, no matter how much organic matter is present. S e stands for mass of F at the conclusion of the degradative process; equivalent to mass of BOD in the treated effluent. k s stands for mass of organic matter, F, that induces the microorganisms, X, to degrade that organic matter at a rate equal to one-half the maximum possible rate, k. Unit XI. Wastewater treatment 107 Two additional parameters are defined as follows: Θc = X = mean cell residence time = sludge age, ΔX / day (3) where Θc stands for the average amount of time a component of the microbial population spends in the reactor before exiting as effluent solids or being removed as daily wasting, in order to maintain a constant amount of microorganisms in the reactor U= dF / dt . X (4) When the concentration of food or substrate is very low, it is limiting, and an increase in concentration of food will result in a proportionate increase in utilization (eating) rate. Once the concentration of substrate reaches a certain level, food is not limiting, and the microorganisms utilize the food at their maximum rate, k. The value of k will have a direct effect on the size of treatment system and, therefore, its cost. Values of k range from 0.01 to 5.0. It is always necessary to understand the conditions under which a value of k was determined before using that value for any kind of calculation of size of treatment facility. In the case of a mixture of substances such as is typical of industrial wastewater, there is a k rate that is applicable to each individual substance. Moreover, when a mixture of substances is utilized by a population of microbes, the substances that are most readily utilized (glucose, for instance) exhibit the highest value of k. As each of the more easily utilized substances in the original mixture is depleted, the apparent value of k decreases. The apparent value of k changes with time, as a mixture of substances is utilized. As a population of microorganisms begins utilizing a mixture of substances, the apparent value of k for the mixture is relatively high. As the most easily utilized substance becomes scarce, the microorganisms begin utilizing, successively, those substances that are more difficult to utilize, and the apparent value of k decreases. The rate constants are specific for the particular population or mix of the microbes present at any given time, as well as for the type or mixture of types of organic matter. 108 PART III. BIOECOLOGY REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT XI Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What are the three main types of industrial wastewater treatment? 2. What is the most economical type of treatment? 3. What method uses living organisms for the treatment of wastewaters? 4. What is organic matter composed of? 5. What do nutrients include? 6. What are the types of biological treatment process? 7. What is the difference between them? 8. What do microorganisms convert organic material into? 9. What substances are most readily utilized by microbes? 10. What influences the rate with which microorganisms degrade the organic matter? Ex. II. Name the word according to its definition. 1. A substance that makes land, water air, etc. dirty and not suitable to use. 2. Water that has been used (as in a manufacturing process). 3. Some form that is capable of responding to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development. 4. The techniques or actions applied in a specified situation. 5. Capable of being slowly destroyed and broken down into very small parts by natural processes. 6. A tank used to remove solid particulates or suspended solids from liquid. 7. Water that falls to the ground as rain, snow, etc. Or the process of separating a solid substance from a liquid. 8. Complex compound which is formed by the combination of ion metals with ligands. 9. Something that is produced during the production or destruction of something else. 10. The things that people and animals eat. Unit XI. Wastewater treatment 109 Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. Biological ... is more economical than any other type of treatment. 2. Chemical methods ... chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction and other chemical reactions. 3. Biological methods involve ... for degradation of organic materials. 4. Technologies for treating industrial ... can be divided into three categories. 5. Each of the treatment systems has an input, the waste stream and one or more ... 6. Almost any organic substance can be used as ... by bacteria, fungi, etc. 7. The end result of wastewater treatment is a ... in the quantity of organic pollutants. 8. ... is used as food by microorganisms. 9. Organic matter is regarded as ... prior to the treatment process. 10. Microorganisms are unable to ... some organic molecules in the untreated wastewater. Ex. IV. Match the words to their definitions: 1) oxidation a) matter composed of organic compounds that come from the remains of once living organisms, such as plants and animals; 2) effluent b) the organisms inhabiting a particular locality; 3) food chain c) an extremely small living thing that can only be seen with a microscope; 4) organic material d) the process of the loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion; 5) microbe e) a combination of different things; 6) aerobic f) living or occuring in the presence of oxygen; 7) metabolism g) a series of types of living things in which each one uses the next lower member as a source of food; 8) conversion h) the act or process of changing from one form or state to another; 9) population i) liquid (such as sewage or industrial chemicals) that is released as waste; 110 PART III. BIOECOLOGY 10) mixture j) chemical processes by which a plant or an organism uses food, water, etc. to grow and make energy. Ex. V. Get meaningful sentences. 1. Should, by, dairy, biological, wastewater, be, means, treated. 2. Which, is, pollution, biodegradable, the, readily, from, material, dairy, a, organic, typical, is. 3. Inorganic, living, which, for, biological, organisms, food, use, involve, or, substances, methods, organic. 4. Process, substances, organic, biological, as, is, microorganisms, a, food, treatment, by, which, are, in, used. 5. Small, is, of, many, in, organic, additional, nitrogen, matter, hydrogen, oxygen, and, composed, elements, carbon, amounts. 6. Get, of, carbon, microorganisms, and, atoms, rid, excess, hydrogen, excess, atoms. 7. Matter, exist, and, in, organic, microorganisms, a, an, chain, hierarchical, the, bacteria, food, feed, which, in, fungi. 8. Into, are, converters, bacteria, of, waste, primary, and, organic, the, materials, fungi, materials. 9. Molecules, are, wastewater, microorganisms, the, degrade, untreated, some, unable, in, to, organic. 10. Complete, not, 100%, organic, the, microorganisms, matter, degradation, is, the, by, of. Ex. VI. Topics for discussion. 1. Three categories of technologies for treating industrial wastewaters and their characteristics. 2. Biological methods of wastewater treatment. 3. Conditions necessary for successful wastewater treatment. Ex. VII. Translate into English. 1. Существует три метода очистки промышленных сточных вод. 2. Биологические методы очистки сточных вод используют живые организмы для разложения органических веществ. 3. Биологический метод очистки сточных вод является самым экономичным по сравнению с другими методами. 4. Химическое осаждение – наиболее эффективный и экономичный метод для удаления растворенных металлов. 5. Каждая система очистки включает устройство ввода, сток и одно или более выходных устройств. Unit XI. Wastewater treatment 111 6. Почти любое органическое вещество может использоваться одним или несколькими видами бактерий, грибов в качестве пищи. 7. В результате биологического метода очистки сточных вод происходит уменьшение количества органических загрязнителей и увеличение количества микроорганизмов, диоксида углерода, воды и других продуктов метаболизма. 8. До процесса очистки органическое вещество рассматривается как загрязнение. 9. Микроорганизмы существуют в пищевой цепочке, внутри которой бактерии и грибы питаются органическим веществом, а более высокие формы жизни питаются бактериями. 10. В необработанной сточной воде микроорганизмы не способны разложить некоторые органические молекулы, входящие в состав органических веществ. 112 PART III. BIOECOLOGY UNIT XII TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TEXT A. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES It is convenient to classify biological treatment processes as either aerobic or anaerobic. Within each of those two major categories, there are two principal types of systems: suspended growth and attached growth. The suspended growth systems all have diverse populations of microbes suspended in a mixture of liquid that includes the wastewater being treated. When the concentration of microbes is relatively high, as in the case of activated sludge, the mixture of suspended microbes, wastewater being treated, and other substances, both dissolved and suspended, is referred to as “mixed liquor suspended solids” (MLSS). The term MLVSS is used to designate that portion of the MLSS that is active microbes (the V in this term stands for “volatile”). The MLVSS concentration is only an approximate indicator of the actual concentration of active microbes in a mixture of activated sludge. Attached growth systems all have masses of microbes attached to a medium. Wastewater to be treated flows in contact with this medium and, especially, the attached microorganisms. The microbes are able to access the organic matter in the wastewater as a result of the wastewater flowing over, around, and through the media to which the microbes are attached. The trickling filter and the rotating biological contactor are familiar examples of fixed-growth systems. Aerobic wastewater treatment systems require that dissolved molecular oxygen be present and available to the microbes as they disassemble organic pollutant molecules. It is convenient to categorize aerobic wastewater treatment systems according to their relative “intensity of treatment”. A treatment system of high intensity is one in which the concentrations of both pollutants and microorganisms are high. Oxygen must be added in high quantity to maintain aerobic conditions, and the system is said to be relatively highly stressed. Aerobic biological treatment systems range in intensity from high-rate activated sludge, which has MLVSS concentrations as high as 10,000 mg/l and Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater 113 hydraulic retention times as low as a few hours, to very low stressed aerobic or facultative nonaerated lagoons, which have MLVSS concentrations of less than 100 mg/l and hydraulic retention times of over 100 days. Fixed growth systems also vary in treatment intensity, but normally over a smaller range than suspended growth systems. Development of the most cost-effective suspended growth systems is usually a matter of tradeoff between capital cost and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs. High-intensity systems require more skilled operators and significantly more oxygen supplied by mechanical means but smaller tankage and land area. TEXT B. ACTIVATED SLUDGE An activated sludge wastewater treatment system has at least four components: an aeration tank and a settling tank (clarifier); a return sludge pump; and a means of introducing oxygen into the aeration tank. Wastewater, sometimes pretreated, enters the aeration tank (and is therefore the “influent”); it is mixed with a suspension of microbes in the presence of oxygen. This mixture is referred to as “mixed liquor”. The microbes “metabolize” the organic pollutants in the wastewater, converting them to more microbes, carbon dioxide, water, and some low-molecular-weight organics. After spending, on the average, an amount of time equal to the hydraulic residence time in the aeration tank, the mixed liquor flows into the clarifier, where the solids (MLSS) separate from the bulk liquid by settling to the bottom. The clarified “effluent” then exits the system. The settled solids are harvested from the clarifier bottom and are either returned to the aeration tank or are “wasted”. The MLVSS solids that are returned to the aeration tank are microbes in a starved condition, having been separated from untreated wastewater for an extended period of time, and are thus referred to as “activated”. It is this process of returning microbes from the clarifier to the aeration tank that enables buildup of their concentrations to high levels (1800 to 10,000 mg/l), and that, indeed, characterizes the activated sludge process itself. The MLSS solids that are taken out of the system and therefore referred to as “wasted” represent the main means of controlling the “mean cell residence time” or “sludge age”. Sludge age is an extremely important parameter in the successful operation of an activated sludge 114 PART III. BIOECOLOGY treatment system. Activated sludge systems that are maintained at a very low sludge age, on the order of two days or so, will contain what is known as a very young population, which is typically highly active and mobile and difficult to induce to settle well in the clarifier. Activated sludges with somewhat longer sludge ages, between 7 and 15 days, have many more microorganisms per unit of organic “food”. They are, therefore, in a much more starved condition than sludge of young sludge age and tend to predation and cannibalism. When food becomes very scarce, the microorganisms themselves become food. The live bacteria and fungi are food for higher life forms, and those that die break apart and spew their cell contents into the fluid medium, providing food for other bacteria and fungi. To defend themselves against predation and cannibalism, some microbial species are able to exude and surround themselves with a protective mass of polysaccharide material. In addition to affording protection, this gelatinous material helps to flocculate the microbes that make up the MLVSS, enabling better settling characteristics in the clarifier. When the sludge age increases to over 20 days or so, the microbes become so advanced in predatory behavior that they develop the ability to manufacture enzymes that can break down the polysaccharide protective material. The sludge thus loses its excellent flocculent nature and, consequently, its good settling characteristics. The best settling activated sludge, and therefore the system that produces the clearest effluent, will be the system in which the gelatinous polysaccharide protective material is maintained in optimum amounts. In terms of treated effluent quality, the effluent from activated sludge systems with very low sludge ages is typically high in suspended solids; those with sludge ages of around ten days have low suspended solids, and those with a very high sludge age are often very high in suspended solids. An excellent tool for use in maintaining an optimum activated culture (in terms of treatment performance, settleability, and low concentration of solids in the effluent) is the microscope. The usefulness of microscopic examination of activated sludge as an aid for process control can be explained as follows. Consider a container of fresh, biodegradable wastewater, inoculated with a “seed” of activated sludge from a well-operating treatment Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater 115 system. The container is aerated, mixed well, and provided with a steady supply of biodegradable organics, but at a rate that is slower than the growth rate of the microbial population that develops. Initially, there is a very high concentration of “food” compared with the numbers of microorganisms. Under this condition, bacteria will multiply at their maximum rate. Each individual bacterial cell will “grow”, and through the process of binary fission, become two cells within a time period corresponding to the maximum attainable growth rate of that particular species, which can be as short a time as 20 minutes. A logarithmic increase in numbers of the fastest growing bacteria that can readily metabolize the organics in the wastewater takes place, and those bacteria dominate the population during the first few hours. Examination of a sample of the contents of the container, using a microscope, will show this to be the case. During the initial hours, there will not be much growth of anything while the microbes with which the container was “seeded” become adjusted to the new environment. They need to manufacture the appropriate enzymes for the particular molecules of food available. This period of time is referred to as the “lag phase of growth”. As the first individual bacteria develop these enzymes and begin to grow, the phase of increasing growth rate occurs, and eventually, full logarithmic growth takes place and continues as long as food is unlimited and predation does not occur. Sooner or later, within any biological system food will become limiting and the rate of growth will decline. Some individual microbes will grow and some will die. Normally, there will be a period of time when the growth rate equals the death rate, and the population will be stable. Finally, as the food supply runs out, and/or predation exceeds growth, the population will decline. As the bacteria that first begin growing reach high numbers, microbes that prey on them begin to grow. Then, in succession, higher forms of microorganism that can feed upon the microorganisms that grow earlier (and are thus said to be higher on the food chain) go through their own growth process. In a biological treatment system, that succession is typically flagellated bacteria (bacteria equipped with a “tail” that propels them), free-swimming ciliates, stalked ciliates, rotifers, and finally worms. Microscopic examination of a sample of the microbial population from a given treatment system, then, can reveal the current stage of development of the system, in terms of “young sludge” or “old sludge”. 116 PART III. BIOECOLOGY When activated sludge is in a young condition, the relative numbers of flagellated bacteria and free-swimming bacteria are high, and there are almost no stalked ciliates. The effluent from the secondary clarifier will be high in suspended solids, and many of those solids will consist of long, thin bits and pieces of ill-formed activated sludge, referred to as “stragglers”. The cure for this condition is to decrease the food-to-microorganism ratio by wasting less sludge and allowing the concentration of MLVSS in the aeration tank to increase. When the relative proportions of rotifers, stalked ciliates, and nematodes become high compared with the flagellated bacteria and freeswimming ciliates, there will again be high solids in the effluent from the secondary clarifier. In this case, the solids will appear as tiny, more or less spherical bits and pieces of activated sludge. The cure for this condition is to increase the rate of sludge wasting, thus increasing the food-to-microorganism ratio. Unfortunately, it is not always the case that adjusting the rate of sludge wasting will cure problems of high suspended solids in the treatment system effluent. Conditions other than sludge age that can affect effluent quality are: concentration of dissolved oxygen in the aeration tank, degree of mixing, the changing nature of the influent to the aeration tank, temperature, and the presence of toxic materials. TEXT C. AERATION SYSTEMS FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE Air must be supplied to activated sludge systems to provide oxygen for microbial respiration. A wide range of alternative air supply systems is available, and there can be as much as a 150% difference in total annual costs from one system to another. Mixing is also required in activated sludge systems, and aeration can often provide all of the mixing that is necessary. Sometimes, however, supplemental mixing is more economical. The two principal types of aeration devices are mechanical and diffuser. The basic difference between the two is that the mechanical aerators cause small droplets of the mixed liquor to be thrown up out of the aeration tank, through the air above the tank, and back down into the tank. These mechanical devices also mix the contents of the aeration tank, with the objectives of: 1) there being no “dead zones” and 2) each portion of the liquid mass in the aeration tank being thrown into Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater 117 the air every few minutes. Oxygen transfer takes place through the surface of each droplet. For this reason, the more efficient mechanical aerators are those that create the largest surface-to-volume ratio of the activated sludge mass per unit of energy expended per unit of time. It should also be noted that in cold climates, mechanical aeration tends to cool the MLVSS, and diffused aeration tends to heat it. This may be a factor to consider during selection. The driving force for oxygen transfer in the case of mechanical aerators is the gradient between the oxygen concentration in the air and the concentration of dissolved oxygen within a given droplet. The transfer of oxygen from the air into a droplet is a four-step process. First, oxygen diffuses through the bulk air medium to the surface of the droplet. Next, each oxygen molecule must diffuse through the doublelayered “skin” of the droplet, which consists of a layer of nitrogen and oxygen molecules covering a layer of water molecules. This diffusion through the two layers can be considered one step, and is thought to be the rate-limiting step for the process as a whole. The final two steps are diffusion of oxygen into the bulk liquid of the droplet, followed by diffusion into the bulk liquid contents of the aeration tank, once the droplet returns to the tank. Diffusion through the double “membrane” at the surface of the droplet is the rate-limiting step. Within either the bulk air or the bulk liquid, each molecule of the medium is attracted to other molecules equally in all directions (across the entire surface area of the molecule). At the interface between liquid and air, however, each molecule of the medium is attracted to other like molecules in only the directions where the like media are present. Therefore, since the total attractive force is the same as in the bulk medium, but the force is distributed over only half the area, the effective attraction is essentially doubled. This causes the molecules of both gas and liquid to be more dense and, therefore, to be less permeable to the passage of other molecules. Air diffusers introduce bubbles of air into the bulk liquid within the aeration tank. In this case, as opposed to the case for mechanical aerators, the oxygen transfer process is from a more or less spherical “container” of air directly to the bulk liquid. Again, the driving force for oxygen transfer is the difference in concentration between oxygen molecules in the air bubble and the concentration in the bulk liquid. There is still the process of diffusion of oxygen molecules through, first, the air, except that here, the air is contained in a small “package”, 118 PART III. BIOECOLOGY which is the bubble. Next, the oxygen molecules must diffuse through the double “membrane” of gas, then through liquid molecules that surround the bubble, then into the bulk liquid. Here, the process has four steps rather than five, and the rate-limiting step is still considered to be the rate of diffusion through the double-layered membrane. Air diffusers manufactured for the purpose of supplying air to activated sludge wastewater treatment systems are divided into two categories: coarse bubble diffusers and fine bubble diffusers (also called “fine pore diffusers”). In general, coarse bubble diffusers require less maintenance than fine bubble diffusers and require somewhat less air pressure to pass a given flow rate of air (therefore less power per unit of air supplied), but achieve a lower degree of oxygen transfer efficiency (OTE). Fine bubble diffusers characteristically provide higher OTE values than coarse bubble diffusers, owing to the significantly higher surface-to-volume ratio of the smaller air bubbles. Since the ratelimiting step of the oxygen transfer process is diffusion through the double layered “membrane” surrounding each air bubble, and since the flux of oxygen, in terms of pounds of oxygen per unit area of bubble surface, will be the same regardless of bubble size, increasing the bubble surface area will directly increase the transfer of oxygen. Fine bubble diffusers have significant disadvantages compared with coarse bubble diffusers or mechanical aerators in certain specific instances, due to a higher tendency to cause foaming and a tendency to clog or otherwise become fouled. If foaming occurs and antifoam agents are added, the antifoam agents act to cause the fine bubbles to coalesce and become large bubbles. The tendency for fine pores to clog or become otherwise fouled results in the necessity for periodic cleaning or replacement. In addition, the lower air supply rate needed by fine bubble diffusers for the required oxygen transfer results in less air for mixing, an important component of aeration. The addition of one or more alternatives to satisfy mixing requirements, for instance, by supplying more air than is required for oxygen transfer, or making use of mechanical mixers along with the fine bubble aerators, sometimes results in the long-term economics favoring coarse bubble diffusers. Some industrial wastes have chemical or physical characteristics that make them bad candidates for fine bubble diffusers. Sometimes, the reason is obvious. Treatment systems for potato starch processing wastewater, which foams copiously due to the types of proteins Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater 119 present, and treatment of pulp mill wastewaters, which contain chemical components (possibly including sulfonated remnants of lignin) that cause small bubbles to coalesce, are examples. TEXT D. TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATERS USING ANAEROBIC TECHNOLOGIES Anaerobic wastewater treatment, accomplished through microbiological degradation of organic substances in the absence of dissolved molecular oxygen, has undergone a complete change since the mid1980s. Used for decades as a slow-rate process requiring long retention times and elevated temperatures, it was considered economically viable on only wastes of high organic strength. Its principal role in wastewater treatment was for stabilization of waste biosolids from aerobic treatment processes. It was also used as a treatment step preceding aerobic treatment, in which large, complex molecules were broken down to more readily biodegradable substances. It is now used routinely at ambient temperatures on industrial wastewaters with organic strengths as low as 2000 to 5000 mg/l COD. In fact, the economic attractiveness of treating wastewaters by first using anaerobic technology and then polishing with one of the aerobic technologies certainly has the potential to turn the wastewater treatment world upside down. More recent developments have enabled use of anaerobic treatment at cold temperatures for wastewaters with COD values as low as 100 to 200 mg/l. Research conducted since the mid-1970s has shown that, by addressing the fundamental reasons for the slow treatment capability of anaerobic systems, modifications could be developed to overcome them. The result has been the development of anaerobic technologies that are capable of treatment comparable to aerobic systems, at significantly lower overall cost. Additionally, anaerobic systems are capable of treating some substances that are not readily treated by aerobic systems, such as cellulosic materials, certain aromatic compounds, and certain chlorinated solvents. All microbiological mechanisms carried out in the absence of dissolved molecular oxygen, whether anoxic or truly anaerobic, are referred to as anaerobic. In this sense, the term anaerobic simply means “in the absence of free, molecular oxygen”. 120 PART III. BIOECOLOGY It is useful to assume that the fundamental reason for the apparently slow kinetics of anaerobic treatment is that it is a slow microbiological process. On an individual microorganism-to-organic-molecule basis, anaerobic degradation is slower than aerobic degradation. The method by which anaerobic treatment has been made capable of competing with aerobic treatment has been to greatly increase the numbers of anaerobic organisms per unit of organic matter to be treated. For instance, if aerobic metabolism is 10 times faster than anaerobic metabolism, then the time required for complete treatment by either process can be made nearly equal by increasing the number of active anaerobic organisms to ten times the number of aerobic organisms, for a given volume of wastewater. The active microorganisms can be found within only a limited thickness of active biofilm on the surface. Since the surface-to-volume ratio is small, the total number of active anaerobic microorganisms is small for a given volume of reactor. What can make aerobic treatment even faster? The answer is that for aerobic treatment, the rate-limiting step becomes oxygen transfer, or getting oxygen from the outside air (or in some cases from a source of pure oxygen) to the inside of each microbe. There is no such limitation in the case of anaerobic treatment. For anaerobic treatment, the sources of oxygen are nitrate, sulfate, and other anions, already present in the wastewater and in water itself. The principal cost-saving characteristics of the newer anaerobic treatment technologies, compared with aerobic technologies such as activated sludge, are: 1) the absence of need for aeration, which represents the largest portion of O&M costs for aerobic systems, and 2) the fact that the amount of waste biosolids (sludge) that must be handled, dewatered, and disposed of is less than that for aerobic systems by approximately a factor of ten. Added to these advantages is the cost recovery capability represented by methane. Methane recovered from anaerobic treatment processes has routinely been used as a source of energy to operate motors for pumps or for space heating, either at the treatment plant itself or in another location. As a general rule, about 5.62 ft3 of methane can be harvested as a result of anaerobic degradation of one pound of COD. The reason for the smaller quantity of waste bio-solids is that anaerobic metabolism is much less efficient, in terms of units of cell growth per unit of organic matter metabolized, than is aerobic metabolism. Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater 121 Consequently, more of the organic matter being treated is used for energy, and correspondingly less is used for cell growth. For the same reason, correspondingly less nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients are needed per unit of organic matter removed for treatment to take place. For most anaerobic treatment applications approximately 80 to 90% of the COD removed is converted to methane and carbon dioxide. Five percent or less becomes incorporated into new cell protoplasm, and the balance is lost as heat or refractory organic “junk”. In many anaerobic treatment systems, mean cell residence times, otherwise known as sludge age, are on the order of 100 to 200 days or more. Two important characteristics of industrial wastewaters regarding their suitability as candidates for treatment by one of the anaerobic technologies are alkalinity and sulfur content. The anaerobic degradation of organic substances in industrial wastewaters includes conversion of complex materials to organic acids. If the alkalinity within the treatment system is insufficient, the pH will decrease to the point of toxicity to the system’s microbial population. Similarly, if the sulfate content of an industrial wastewater is more than about 200 mg/l, the concentration of hydrogen sulfide, which is a by-product of the anaerobic degradation process, will increase to the range of toxicity to the system’s microbial population. TEXT E. MECHANISMS OF ANAEROBIC METABOLISM Anaerobic treatment of organic wastes can be described as a progression of events that starts with hydrolysis, proceeds through acidogenesis, and ends with methanogenesis. These processes are symbiotic in the sense that none can proceed for very long without one or more of the others. Complex organics, such as lipids (fats), proteins, polysaccharides, polynucleotides, and aromatics, are first broken down to their elemental building blocks. Hydrolysis is the principal mechanism for this process, and there is no reduction of COD. Exoenzymes, secreted by a variety of anaerobes carry out this hydrolysis. The basic building blocks include fatty acids in the case of lipids, amino acids in the case of proteins, simple sugars for polysaccharides, nucleic acids for nucleotides, and benzene derivatives for aromatic compounds. These basic building 122 PART III. BIOECOLOGY materials are further broken down, again by hydrolysis, to alcohols and then to fatty acids of relatively small molecular size. Acetic acid, plus smaller amounts of propionic, butyric, and valeric acids, is the product of this process, which is known as acidogenesis. Molecular hydrogen is also produced during this process. The final steps include conversion of the products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis to methane and carbon dioxide. This process is known as methanogenesis. Some of the intermediate and some of the final products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis are diverted to various metabolic pathways of cell material construction. Most likely, the new cell material is made via the two-carbon precursor of acetate, which is ethanol, being carried into the cell. It is then acted upon by the cell’s construction machinery, which includes the RNA, the DNA, and the mitochondria. The primary product of the hydrolytic breakdown of complex organic substances is ethanol. At this point, very little, if any, COD has been removed from the wastewater, and very little, if any, energy has been captured by the anaerobes for use in reassembling some of the organic breakdown products into new cell protoplasm. The method used by most anaerobes to liberate this needed energy is to convert the ethanol to methane and carbon dioxide. This process releases almost 21 kcal per mole of ethanol converted. The anaerobes cannot convert ethanol directly to methane and carbon dioxide, however, but must first convert ethanol to acetic acid, with the consequent release of molecular hydrogen. The acetic acid that is produced directly by hydrolysis and acidogenesis is converted to methane and carbon dioxide. The energy made available by this transformation, 6.77 kcal/mole of acetate converted (minus losses due to inefficiencies), is used by the anaerobes to make new chemical bonds in the assembly of new cell protoplasm. There are many products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis other than acetic acid, however, including ethyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, propionic acid, butyl alcohol, and others. Many of these substances cannot be converted directly to methane and carbon dioxide. Current thinking is that at least three species of anaerobic organisms are involved in a three- (or more) step process, at least one of which is an energy-consuming process. First ethanol is converted to acetate and molecular hydrogen, a process that consumes 1.42 kcal of energy per mole of ethanol converted. Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater 123 Then, both the acetate and the hydrogen are converted to methane and carbon dioxide, each by a different species of anaerobe. 6.77 kcal of energy per mole of acetate converted is made available (minus losses due to inefficiencies) from the conversion of acetate to methane and carbon dioxide. Two and a half times more than that, 15.63 kcal/mole, is made available by the conversion of hydrogen and carbon dioxide to methane and water. As is the case with many microbiological metabolic processes, one of the products of metabolism is highly toxic to the species that carries out the process. The substance that is toxic to the species that carries out that reaction is molecular hydrogen. Consequently, in order for the process to continue in an anaerobic reactor, the hydrogen must be removed by the species responsible for the reaction. The two anaerobic species are thus symbiotic, since one depends on the other for food (molecular hydrogen) and the other depends upon the first to remove the hydrogen, which is toxic to it. In addition, the two species are symbiotic in that, some of the energy released by the reaction is made available and used by the species that carries out the reaction. Propionic, butyric, and other alcohols and acids are converted to methane and carbon dioxide with the release of energy that can be used for cell synthesis. Propionate breaks down to acetate and hydrogen, which are then converted to methane and carbon dioxide. REVISION EXERCISES ON UNIT XII Ex. I. Answer the following questions: 1. What are two main types of biological treatment processes? 2. What do mixed liquor suspended solids include? 3. What treatment system is regarded as a system of high intensity? 4. What does an activated sludge wastewater treatment system consist of? 5. What do microbes convert the organic pollutants into? 124 PART III. BIOECOLOGY 6. What is the best activated sludge? 7. What influences the amount of suspended solids in the effluent from activated sludge systems? 8. What are two principal types of aeration devices? 9. What does the term “anaerobic” mean? 10. What are the main steps of anaerobic treatment of organic wastes? Ex. II. Name the word according to its definition. 1. Living, active, occuring or existing in the absence of free oxygen. 2. The state of a substance when its particles are mixed with but undissolved in a fluid or solid. 3. Thick, soft, wet mud. A soft, thick material that is produced in various industrial processes (such as in treatment of sewage). 4. Mixed with a liquid becoming part of it. 5. A chemical that is found in the air, in water, in most rocks and minerals, that has no colour, taste or smell, and that is necessary for life. 6. The characteristic time during which a particular analyte passes through the system under set conditions. 7. The capacity of a tank. 8. The act of killing and eating other animals. 9. Deficient in quantity or number compared with the demand; not plentiful or abundant. 10. A chemical substance in animals and plants that helps to cause natural processes (such as digestion). Ex. III. Fill in the blanks. 1. The ... growth systems have diverse populations of microbes suspended in a mixture of liquid. 2. ... must be added in high quantity to maintain aerobic conditions. 3. An activated ... wastewater treatment system has four components. 4. Wastewater enters the aeration ... and mixes with a suspension of microbes. 5. To defend themselves from ... some microbes surround themselves with a protective mass of polysaccharide material. 6. The fastest growing bacteria can readily ... the organics in the wastewater. 7. Sludge age can affect ... quality. 8. The transfer of oxygen from the air into a ... is a four-step process. Unit XII. Treatment of industrial wastewater 125 9. ... degradation is slower than aerobic degradation. 10. The ... of the products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis to methane and carbon dioxide is known as methanogenesis. Ex. IV. Match the words to their definitions: 1) aeration a) the speed at which something happens or is done during a particular period of time; 2) residence time b) the process in which particles of liquids, gas or solids mix and in dissolved substances move from a region of higher to a region of lower concentration; 3) rate c) a reservoir for biochemical treatment of wastewater; 4) microscope d) a mass of small bubbles that are formed in or on a liquid; 5) succession e) a device used for producing a much larger view of very small objects so that they can be seen clearly; 6) influent f) the duration of persistence of a mass or substance in a medium or place; 7) diffusion g) a series of things that come one after the other; 8) interface h) a place or area at which different things meet and communicate with or affect each other; 9) foam i) a chemical process of decomposition involving the splitting of a bond and the addition of the hydrogen cation and the hydroxide anion of water; 10) hydrolysis j) something that flows in: as fluid input into a reservoir or process. Ex. V. Get meaningful sentences: 1. Conversion, acidogenesis, the, methanogenesis, methane, is, products, of, hydrolysis, of, the, and, to. 2. Organic, the, breakdown, ethanol, of, product, is, complex, primary, the, substances, of, hydrolytic. 3. Ethanol, the, acid, first, acetic, anaerobes, to, convert. 4. Alkalinity, are, important, as, industrial, wastewaters, treatment, and, content, characteristics, candidates, sulfur, for, two, of. 5. Is, degradation, by-product, hydrogen, anaerobic, of, sulfide, a, of, the. 126 PART III. BIOECOLOGY 6. From, as, processes, a, methane, energy, treatment, recovered, is, of, source, used, anaerobic. 7. That, aerobic, systems, are, anaerobic, some, by, can, substances, treat, systems, readily, not, treated. 8. Divided, categories, diffusers, into, air, two, are. 9. Aeration, introduce, liquid, air, into, the, within, diffusers, bubbles, air, tank, of, the. 10. Growth, end, food, predation, comes, as, exceeds, the, to, and, population, an, the, supply, declines. Ex. VI. Topics for discussion. 1. Biological treatment technologies. 2. Activated sludge. 3. Treatment of industrial wastewaters using aerobic technologies. 4. Treatment of industrial wastewaters using anaerobic technologies. 5. Mechanisms of anaerobic metabolism. Ex. VII. Translate into English. 1. Процессы биологической очистки сточных вод классифицируются на аэробные и анаэробные. 2. Системы с суспензированной культурой включают разнообразные популяции микробов в смеси со сточной водой. 3. Система обработки высокой интенсивности – это система, в которой высока концентрация загрязняющих веществ и микроорганизмов. 4. Активный ил, возраст которого 7–15 дней, имеет больше микроорганизмов на единицу органической пищи. 5. Условия, которые влияют на качество очищенных сточных вод: концентрация растворенного кислорода в аэротенке, степень перемешивания, температура, присутствие токсичных веществ и т. д. 6. Движущей силой для переноса кислорода является разница в концентрации между молекулами кислорода в пузырьках воздуха и в жидкости. 7. Мелкопузырчатый рассеиватель имеет значительные недостатки по сравнению с крупнопузырчатым рассеивателем из-за повышенной тенденции к пенообразованию и загрязнению. A. It is interesting to know 127 APPENDIX A. IT IS INTERESTING TO KNOW BACTERIUM (genus) The genus Bacterium was a taxon described in 1828 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. The type species was later changed from Bacterium triloculare to Bacterium coli (now Escherichia coli) as it was lost. In 1951 and then in 1954 it was recognised as a rejected generic name, also applied to its family Bacteriaceae. This genus included non-spore forming rods whose relation to other species was obscure (a “taxonomy dumping group”). This is different to the genus Bacillus, whose members were spore forming rods (sensu Cohn 1872). Bacterium species. Many species were placed under the genus. Given that the genus was abolished in the process of forming the Bacteriological Code there is no such thing as an official list of species present. These are those accepted by Breed and Conn in 1935: Bacterium radiobacter, then Agrobacterium tumefaciens, now Rhizobium radiobacter; Bacterium aerogenes, now Aerobacter aerogenes; Bacterium violaceum, now Chromobacterium violaceum; Bacterium amylovorum, now Erwinia amylovora; Bacterium zopfii, now Kurthia zopfii; Bacterium monocytogenes, now Listeria monocytogenes; and Bacterium pneumoniae, now Klebsiella pneumoniae. BACTERIA Bacteria (singular: bacterium) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. 128 APPENDIX Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most habitats on the planet, growing in soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and deep in the Earth’s crust, as well as in organic matter and the live bodies of plants and animals, providing outstanding examples of mutualism in the digestive tracts of humans, termites and cockroaches. There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a milliliter of fresh water; in all, there are approximately five nonillion (5 · 1030) bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass that exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients, with many steps in nutrient cycles depending on these organisms, such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and putrefaction. In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and methane. Most bacteria have not been characterized, and only about half of the phyla of bacteria have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology. VIRUS The word is from the Latin virus referring to poison and other noxious substances, first used in English in 1392. Virulent, from Latin virulentus (poisonous), dates to 1400. The meaning of “agent that causes infectious disease” is first recorded in 1728, before the discovery of viruses by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. The plural is viruses. The adjective viral dates back to 1948. The term virion (plural virions), which dates back to 1959, is also used to refer to a single, stable infective viral particle that is released from the cell and is fully capable of infecting other cells of the same type. A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses can infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea. The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene A. It is interesting to know 129 transfer, which increases genetic diversity. Viruses are considered to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through natural selection. However they lack key characteristics (such as cell structure) that are generally considered necessary to count as life. Viruses spread in many ways; viruses in plants are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; viruses in animals can be carried by blood-sucking insects. These disease-bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing. REPLICATION CYCLE OF VIRUSES Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble in the cell. The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses. Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range of a virus. This mechanism has evolved to favour those viruses that infect only cells in which they are capable of replication. Attachment to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein to undergo changes that results in the fusion of viral and cellular membranes, or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins that allow the virus to enter. Penetration follows attachment. Virions enter the host cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion. This is often called viral entry. The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall. However, nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called plasmodesmata. Uncoating is a process in which the viral capsid is removed. This may be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation; the end-result is the releasing of the viral genomic nucleic acid. 130 APPENDIX Replication of viruses involves primarily multiplication of the genome. Replication involves synthesis of viral messenger RNA from “early” genes (with exceptions for positive sense RNA viruses), viral protein synthesis, possible assembly of viral proteins, then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression. This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: “late” gene expression is, in general, of structural or virion proteins. Following the structure-mediated self-assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs. In viruses such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell. Viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis, a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present. This is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses. Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome is incorporated by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host’s chromosome. FUNGUS The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom). This in turn (derived from Greek for sponge) refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German sponge and mold. The use of the word mycology (derived from Greek for mushroom and discourse) to denote the scientific study of fungi is thought to have originated in 1836 with English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley’s publication “The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith”. A fungus (plural: fungi or funguses) is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds (British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants, which contain cellulose. These and other differences show that the fungi form a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (a monophyletic group). This fungal group is distinct from the structurally simi- A. It is interesting to know 131 lar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from Greek for fungus). Mycology has often been regarded as a branch of botany, even though it is a separate kingdom in biological taxonomy. Genetic studies have shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange. IMPORTANCE OF FATS FOR LIVING ORGANISMS Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. Fats also serve as energy stores for the body, containing about 37 kilojoules per gram (8.8 kcal/g). They are broken down in the body to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy. Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic – reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute – or at least maintain equilibrium of – the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized and/or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth. While it is nearly impossible to remove fat completely from the diet, it would also be unhealthy to do so. Some fatty acids are essential nutrients, meaning that they can’t be produced in the body from other compounds and need to be consumed in small amounts. All other fats required by the body are non-essential and can be produced in the body from other compounds. 132 APPENDIX DANGERS OF ESSENTIAL OILS The potential danger of an essential oil is generally relative to its level or grade of purity. Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted or neat form. Some can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove hepatotoxic. Non-therapeutic grade essential oils are never recommended for topical or internal use. Essential oils should not be used with animals, as they possess extreme hepatotoxicity and dermal toxicity for animals, especially for cats. Instead, essential oils should be blended with vegetable-based carrier oil (as a base, or “fixed” oil) before being applied. Common carrier oils include olive, almond, hazelnut and grape seed. Only neutral oils should be used. A common ratio of essential oil disbursed in a carrier oil is 0.5–3.0% (most under 10%), depending on its purpose. Some essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing the skin’s vulnerability to sunlight. Handling Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe has a seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall. This improves accuracy, and the inside of the pipette is easy to clean and reuse immediately. Chemistry pipetting syringes are equal in accuracy to the best laboratory equipment and are available in sizes from 1 ml through 25 ml. Pesticide Residues There is some concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically. For this reason, many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is A. It is interesting to know 133 a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not whether the material is alleged to be organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content. PARFUME FRAGRANCE NOTES Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume. Top notes are the scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person’s initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. These are called the head notes. Middle notes are the scents of a perfume that emerges just prior to the dissipation of the top note. The middle note compounds form the “heart” or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. They are also called the heart notes. Base note are the scents of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and “deep” and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application. The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes as well the scents of the base notes will be altered by the type of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms. Olfactive Families Grouping perfumes, like any taxonomy, can never be a completely objective or final process. Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as “single flower”, however subtle, 134 APPENDIX will have undertones of other aromatics. True unitary scents can rarely be found in perfumes as it requires the perfume to exist only as a singular aromatic material. Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific characteristic of that perfume. Traditional Classification The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories: Single Floral. Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a soliflore (e.g. Serge Lutens Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose). Amber or “Oriental”. A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and woods. It can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East. Traditional examples include Yves Saint Laurent’s Opium. Woody. Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and cedar wood. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. A traditional example here would be Chanel Bois-des-Оles. A modern example would be Balenciaga Rumba. Leather. A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples include Pierre Balmain’s Jolie Madame. Modern Scents Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i.e. compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents: Green. a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Examples include Calvin Klein’s Eternity. Aquatic, Oceanic, or Ozonic. The newest category in perfume history, first appearing in 1988, Davidoff Cool Water (1988), Christian Dior’s Dune (1991), and many others. It is a clean smell reminiscent A. It is interesting to know 135 of the ocean, leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes. It generally contains calone, a synthetic scent discovered in 1966, or other more recent synthetics. Also it used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances. Citrus. An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of “freshening” eau de colognes, due to the low tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances. A good example here would be Faberge Brut. Fruity. Featuring the aromas of fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. A modern example here would be Ginestet Botrytis. Gourmand scents with “edible” or “dessert”-like qualities. These often contain notes like vanilla, tonka bean and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. COMPOSING PERFUMES Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell (olfaction) and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing. Basic Framework Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups. Primary scents (Heart). Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as “rose”. Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an “abstract” primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. 136 APPENDIX Modifiers. These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus scents can be added to create a “fresher” floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier. Blenders. A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different “layers” or bases. These themselves can be used as a major component of the primary scent. Common blending ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal. Fixatives. Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins, wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives. The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume’s fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to, respectively allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles. Perfume Concentration Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds (natural essential oils/perfume oils) used. As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent created. Specific terms are used to describe a fragrance’s approximate concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil, which are typically vague or imprecise. A list of common terms (Perfume-Classification) is as follows: 1. Perfume extract, or simply perfume (extrait): 15–40% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds. 2. Esprit de Parfum (ESdP): 15–30% aromatic compounds, a seldom used strength concentration in between EdP and perfume. 3. Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10–20% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds, sometimes listed as “eau de perfume”. Parfum de Toilette is a less common term that is generally analogous to Eau de Parfum. A. It is interesting to know 137 4. Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5–15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds. A “Classical cologne” describes male and female fragrances which are basically citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent. Classical colognes are different from modern colognes, where the fragrance is typically a lighter, less concentrated interpretation of a perfume. PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED AS HERBAL MEDICINE Plants have the ability to synthesize a wide variety of chemical compounds that are used to perform important biological functions, and to defend against attack from predators such as insects, fungi and herbivorous mammals. Many of these phytochemicals have beneficial effects on long-term health when consumed by humans, and can be used to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds have been isolated so far; a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. These phytochemicals are divided into: 1) primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants; and 2) secondary metabolites – compounds which are found in a smaller range of plants, serving a more specific function. For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination. Chemical compounds in plants mediate their effects on the human body through processes identical to those already well understood for the chemical compounds in conventional drugs; thus herbal medicines do not differ greatly from conventional drugs in terms of how they work. This enables herbal medicines to be as effective as conventional medicines, but also gives them the same potential to cause harmful side effects. Most cultures have a tradition of using plants medicinally. In Europe, apothecaries stocked herbal ingredients for their medicines. 138 APPENDIX B. TOXICOLOGY OF ESSENTIAL OILS The following table 1 lists the medial lethal dose (LD50) or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population. LD50 is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions. Table 1 Toxicology of essential oils Common name Oral LD50 Dermal LD50 14 g/kg >2 g/kg Lemon myrtle 2.43 g/kg 2.25 g/kg Frankincense >5 g/kg >5 g/kg Boswellia carterii Frankincense >2 g/kg >2 g/kg Boswellia sacra Indian frankincense >2 g/kg >2 g/kg Boswellia serrata Ylang-ylang >5 g/kg >5 g/kg Cedarwood >5 g/kg >5 g/kg Roman chamomile >5 g/kg >5 g/kg White camphor >5 g/kg >5 g/kg Cinnamomum camphora, extracted from leaves Yellow camphor 3.73 g/kg >5 g/kg Cinnamomum camphora, extracted from bark Hot oil 3.80 g/kg >5 g/kg Cinnamomum camphora, oil extracted from leaves Cassia 2.80 g/kg 0.32 g/kg Neem Notes It is important to understand that the foregoing figures are far less relevant in everyday life than far smaller, often localized levels of exposure. For example, a dose of many an essential oil that would do no harm if swallowed in diluted solution or emulsion, could do serious damage to eyes or lungs in a higher concentration. The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine 139 LISTS OF HERBS THE LIST OF PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED AS HERBAL MEDICINE A Alfalfa (Medicago sativa, люцерна посевная) leaves are used to lower cholesterol, as well as for kidney and urinary tract ailments. Arnica (Arnica Montana, арника горная) is used as an antiinflammatory and for osteoarthritis. Asthma weed (Euphorbia hirt, молочай) has been used traditionally in Asia to treat bronchitis asthma and laryngeal spasm. It is used in the Philippines for dengue fever. B Barberry (Berberis vulgaris, барбарис обыкновенный) has a long history of medicinal use, dating back to the Middle Ages. Uses have included skin ailments, scurvy and gastro-intestinal ailments. Belladonna (Atropa belladonna, красавка, белладонна) was used in Italy by women to enlarge their pupils, although being toxic. It also has a sedative use. The name itself means “beautiful woman” in Italian. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus, черника) used to treat diarrhea, scurvy, and other conditions. Blueberries (genus Vaccinium, голубика) are of current medical interest as an antioxidant and for urinary tract ailments. Burdock (Arctium lappa, лопух, репейник) has been used traditionally as a diuretic and to lower blood sugar and, in traditional 140 LISTS OF HERBS Chinese medicine as a treatment for sore throat and symptoms of the common cold. C Cayenne (Capsicum annuum, перец красный) is a type of chili that has been used as both food and medicine for thousands of years. Uses have included pain relief and treating fever, cold, and diarrhea, among other conditions. Celery (Apium graveolens, сельдерей корневой) seed is used only occasionally in tradition medicine. Modern usage is primarily as a diuretic. Chamomile (Matricaria recutita and Anthemis nobilis, ромашка аптечная, ромашка римская) has been used over thousands of years for a variety of conditions, including sleeplessness, anxiety, and gastrointestinal conditions such as upset stomach, gas, and diarrhea. Chili’s (Capsicum frutescens, перец сладкий) active ingredient, capsaicin, is the basic of commercial pain-relief ointments in Western medicine. The low incidence of heart attack in Thais has been shown to be related to capsaicin’s fibronolytic action (dissolving blood clots). Clove (Syzygium aromaticum, гвоздичное дерево) is used for upset stomach and as an expectorant. The oil is used topically to treat toothache. Coffee senna (Cassia occidentalis, кассия западная, александрийский лист) is used in a wide variety of roles in traditional medicine, including in particular as a broad-spectrum internal and external antimicrobial, for liver disorders, for intestinal worms and other parasites and as an immune-system stimulant. Comfrey (Symphytum officinale, окопник лекарственный) has been used as a vulnerary and to reduce inflammation. It was also used internally in the past, for stomach and other ailments, but its toxicity has led a number of other countries, including Canada, Brazil, Australia, and the United Kingdom, to severely restrict or ban the use of comfrey. Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon, клюква крупноплодная) is used historically as a vulnerary and for urinary disorders, diarrhea, diabetes, stomach ailments, and liver problems. Modern usage has concentrated on urinary tract related problems. The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine 141 D Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, одуванчик лекарственный) was most commonly used historically to treat liver diseases, kidney diseases, and spleen problems. Digitalis (Digitalis lanata, наперстянка шерстистая), or foxglove, came into use in treating cardiac disease in late 18th century England in spite of its high toxicity. Its use has been almost entirely replaced by the pharmaceutical derivative Digoxin, which has a shorter half-life in the body, and whose toxicity is therefore more easily managed. Digoxin is used as an antiarrhythmic agent and inotrope. E Elderberry (Sambucus nigra, бузина черная) berries and leaves have traditionally been used to treat pain, swelling, infections, coughs, and skin conditions and, more recently, flu, common cold, fevers, constipation, and sinus infections. Ephedra (Ephedra sinica, хвойник китайский, эфедра китайская) has been used for more than 5000 years in traditional Chinese medicine for respiratory ailments. Products containing ephedra for weight loss, energy and athletic performance, particularly those also containing caffeine, have been linked to stroke, heart arrhythmia, and even death. Evening primrose (Oenothera spp., энотера, примула) oil has been used since the 1930s for eczema, and more recently as an antiinflammatory. F Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium, пиретрум девичий) has been used for centuries for fevers, headaches, stomach aches, toothaches, insect bites and other conditions. Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum, лён-кудряш) is most commonly used as a laxative. Flaxseed oil is used for different conditions, including arthritis. 142 LISTS OF HERBS G Garlic (Allium sativum, чеснок) is widely used as an antibiotic and, more recently, for treating cardiovascular disease. Ginger (Zingiber officinale, имбирь лекарственный) is used to relieve nausea. Gingko (Gingko biloba, гинкго билоба) leaf extract has been used to treat asthma, bronchitis, fatigue, and tinnitus. Grape (Vitis vinifera, виноград культурный) leaves and fruit have been used medicinally since the ancient Greeks. H Hawthorn (specifically Crataegus monogyna and Crataegus laevigata, боярышник однопестичный или боярышник гладкий) fruit has been used since the first century for heart disease. Other uses include digestive and kidney problems. Horsetail (Equisetum arvense, хвощ полевой) dates back to ancient Roman and Greek medicine, when it was used to stop bleeding, heal ulcers and wounds, and treat tuberculosis and kidney problems. K Konjac (Amorphophallus konjac, аморфофаллюс коньяк) is a significant dietary source of glucomannan, which is used in treating obesity, constipation, and reducing cholesterol. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa, кратом) is known to prevent or delay withdrawal symptoms in an opiate dependent individual, and it is often used to mitigate cravings thereafter. It can also be used for other medicinal purposes. L Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia, лаванда узколистная) was traditionally used as an antiseptic and for mental health purposes. The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine 143 It was also used ancient Egypt in mummifying bodies. There is little scientific evidence that lavender is effective for most mental health uses. Lemon (Citrus limon, лимон), along with other citruses, has a long history of use in Chinese and Indian traditional medicine. In contemporary use, honey and lemon is common for treating coughs and sore throat. Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra, лакричник обыкновенный) has a long history of medicinal usage for stomach ulcers, bronchitis, and sore throat, as well as infections caused by viruses, such as hepatitis. M Marigold (Calendula officinalis, календула лекарственная), or calendula, has a long history of use in treating wounds and soothing skin. Milk thistle (Silybum marianum, расторо́пша пятни́стая) has been used for thousands of years for a variety of medicinal purpos es, in particular liver problems. N Noni (Morinda citrifolia, моринда лимонолистная) has a history of use as for joint pain and skin conditions. O Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum, мак сонный) is the plant source of morphine, used for pain relief. Morphine made from the refined and modified sap is used for pain control in terminal patients. Dried sap was used as a traditional medicine until the 19th century. Oregano (Origanum vulgare, душица обыкновенная) is used as an abortificant in folk medicine in some parts on Bolivia and other north western South American countries, though no evidence of efficacy exists in Western medicine. Hippocrates used oregano as an antiseptic, as well as a cure for stomach and respiratory ailments. Cretan 144 LISTS OF HERBS oregano (O. dictamnus) is still used today as a palliative for sore throat. Evidence of efficacy in this matter is also lacking evidence. P Papaya (Carica papaya, дынное дерево) is used for treating wounds. Passion Flower (Passiflora, пассифлора, страстоцвет), thought to have Anti-depressant properties, is used in traditional medicine to aid with sleep or depression. Peppermint (Mentha piperita, мята перечная) oil, from a cross between water mint and spearmint, has a history of medicinal use for a variety of conditions, including nausea, indigestion, and symptoms of the common cold. Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea, эхинацея пурпурная) and other species of Echinacea have been used for at least 400 years to treat infections and wounds, and as a general “cure-all” (panacea). It is currently used for symptoms associated with cold and flu. R Red clover (Trifolium pratense, клевер луговой) has been used historically to treat cancer and respiratory problems. More recently, it has been used for women’s health issues. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, розмарин лекарственный) has been used medicinally from ancient times. Rosemary essential oil was shown to improve cognitive performance and mood in a recent study. S Sage (Salvia officinalis, шалфей лекарственный) shown to improve cognitive function in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease. The list of plants that have been used as herbal medicine 145 St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum, зверобой пронзеннолистный) is evaluated for use as an antidepressant, but with ambiguous results. T Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia, чайное дерево, мелалеука) has been used medicinally for centuries by Australian aboriginal people. Modern usage is primarily as an antibacterial or antifungal agent. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, тимьян обыкновенный (чабрец)) is used to treat bronchitis and cough. It serves as an antispasmotic and expectorant in this role. It has also been used in many other medicinal roles in Asian medicine, although it has not been shown to be effective in non-respiratory medicinal roles. Turmeric (Curcuma longa, дикий имбирь) a spice that lends its distinctive yellow color to Indian curries, has long been used to aid digestion and liver function, relieve arthritis pain, and regulate menstruation. U Umckaloabo, or South African Geranium (Pelargonium sidoides, пеларгония, герань), is used in treating acute bronchitis. V Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, валериана лекарственная) has been used since at least ancient Greece and Rome for sleep disorders and anxiety. W White willow (Salix alba, ива белая) is a plant source of salicylic acid, a chemical related to aspirin, although more likely to cause stomach upset as a side effect than aspirin itself. Used from ancient times for the same uses as aspirin. Medicinal Herbs Asthma weed (Euphorbia hirt, молочай) Astragalus (Astragalus propinquus, астрагал сходный) Belladonna (Atropa belladonna, красавка, белладонна) Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium, померанец, горький апельсин) Chaste berry (Vitex agnus-castus, авраамово дерево) Clove (Syzygium aromaticum, гвоздичное дерево) Coffee senna (Cassia occidentalis, кассия западная, александрийский лист) Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, одуванчик лекарственный) Ephedra (Ephedra sinica, хвойник китайский, эфедра китайская) Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, эвкалипт шаровидный) Evening primrose (Oenothera spp., энотера, примула) Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium, пиретрум девичий) Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum, лён-кудряш) Ginger (Zingiber officinale, имбирь лекарственный) Gingko (Gingko biloba, гинкго билоба) Hawthorn (specifically Crataegus monogyna or Crataegus laevigata, боярышник однопестичный или боярышник гладкий) Horsetail (Equisetum arvense, хвощ полевой) Jamaica dogwood (Piscidia erythrina or Piscidia piscipula, писцидиевое дерево) Konjac (Amorphophallus konjac, аморфофаллюс коньяк) Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa, кратом) Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia, лаванда узколистная) Marigold (Calendula officinalis, календула лекарственная) Neem (Azadirachta indica, ним или азадирахта индийская) Oregano (Origanum vulgare, душица обыкновенная) Passion Flower (Passiflora, пассифлора, страстоцвет) Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea, эхинацея пурпурная) Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, розмарин лекарственный) Sage (Salvia officinalis, шалфей лекарственный) Syrian Rue (Peganum harmala, гармала обыкновенная) Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia, чайное дерево, мелалеука) Thunder God Vine (Tripterygium wilfordii, крылоорешник Вильфорда) Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, тимьян обыкновенный (чабрец)) Umckaloabo (Pelargonium sidoides, пеларгония, герань) Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, валериана лекарственная) White willow (Salix alba, ива белая) Yerba santa (Eriodictyon crassifolium, эриодиктион войлочный (клейкий)) 146 LISTS OF HERBS THE PARTIAL LIST OF HERBS AND HERBAL TREATMENTS WITH KNOWN OR SUSPECTED ADVERSE EFFECTS This is a partial list of herbs and herbal treatments with known or suspected adverse effects, either alone or in interaction with other herbs or drugs. Non-inclusion of any herb in this list does not imply that it is free of adverse effects. In general, the safety and effectiveness of alternative medicines have not been scientifically proven and remain largely unknown. Beyond adverse effects from the herb itself, adulteration, inappropriate formulation, or lack of understanding of plant and drug interactions have led to adverse reactions that are sometimes life threatening or lethal. Most of the adverse effects stated in this list are associated with only a small percentage of cases; they should be understood as potential risks (tables 2, 3). Table 2 Herbal plants associated with allergic reactions Name Aniseed Apricot Arnica Cassia Celery Cinnamon Cowslip Dandelion Euphorbia Feverfew Hops Russian name Анис Абрикос Арника Кассия Сельдерей Корица Первоцвет Одуванчик Молочай Пижма Хмель Name Hydrangea Juniper Lady’s Slipper Motherwort Parsley Pilewort Plantain Rosemary Tansy Thistle Yarrow Russian name Гортензия Можжевельник Венерин башмачок Пустырник Петрушка Лютик весенний Подорожник Розмарин Пижма Чертополох Тысячелистник The partial list of herbs and herbal treatments 147 148 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Abbreviation 149 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY ABBREVIATION ACE (Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor) – ингибитор ангиотензинпревращающего фермента (АПФ) ADME (Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of chemicals) – абсорбция, распределение, обмен и выведение химических веществ AIDS (Human immunodeficiency virus infection) – синдром приобретенного иммунодефицита (СПИД) ATC system (Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System) – анатомо-терапевтическо-химическая классификация (АТХ) ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) – аденилпирофосфорная кислота, аденозилтрифосфат AUG (Adenine-uracil-guanine) – аминопуринурацилгуанин BAGF (Bay Area Gardeners Foundation) – Фонд садоводов зоны залива BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand) – биологическая потребность в кислороде; биологическое потребление кислорода BT (Bleeding time) – время кровотечения BTMs (Behind-the-counter medications) – препараты, которые могут быть отпущены без рецепта, но только в аптеках (фармацевтом) и не подлежащие открытой выкладке CAM (Complementary and alternative medicines) – дополнительные и альтернативные лекарственные средства CCC (Countercurrent chromatography) – противоточная хроматография CNS actions (Central nervous system) – действия центральной нервной системы (ЦНС) COD (Chemical oxygen demand) – химическая потребность в кислороде; химическое потребление кислорода 150 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY COX (Cyclooxygenase enzyme) – фермент циклооксигеназы (ЦОГ) Da (Dopamine) – допамин EPPP (Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants) – экологически стойкие фармацевтические загрязнители HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) – вирус иммунодефицита человека (ВИЧ) HPLC (High-performance liquid chromatography) – высокоэффективная жидкостная хроматография HRT (Hormone Replacement Therapy) – заместительная гормональная терапия (ЗГТ) IFF (International Flavors and Fragrances) – международные ароматизаторы и ароматы INCB (The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations) – международный совет по контролю над наркотическими средствами Организации Объединенных Наций ISDE (The International Society of Doctors for the Environment) – международное общество врачей за сохранение окружающей среды kcal (kilocalorie) – килокалория LHRH (Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone gamolenic (gammalinolenic) acid) – лютенизирующий гормон, высвобождающий гормон гамма-линоленовой кислоты MAPs (Medicinal and aromatic plants) – лекарственные и ароматические растения mg/l (milligram/liter) – мг/л MLSS (Mixed liquor suspended solids) – взвешенные вещества в смеси сточных вод с активным илом MLVSS (Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids) – взвешенные летучие вещества в смеси сточных вод с активным илом mRNA (Messenger Ribonucleic acid) – матричная рибонуклеиновая кислота MS (Mass spectrometry) – масс-спектрометрия NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) – никотинамидадениндинуклеотид NADH (type of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) – никотинамидадениндинуклеотид восстановленный NMDA – N-метил-D-аспартат NMR spectroscopy (Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy) – ядерная магнитно-резонансная спектроскопия Abbreviation 151 NSAID (Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, i.e. any of a class of drugs reducing inflammation and pain in rheumatic diseases) – нестероидное противовоспалительное средство (НПВП) O&M (Operation and maintenance) – эксплуатация и техническое обслуживание OTC (Over-the-counter drugs) – безрецептурные препараты OTE (Oxygen transfer efficiency) – эффективность переноса кислорода PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) – цепная реакция полимеризации PDB (Protein Data Bank) – банк данных 3D-структур белков и нуклеиновых кислот POM (Prescription only medicine) – препараты, отпускаемые только по рецепту врача ppb (parts per billion) – частей на миллиард PPCPs (Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products) – фармацевтические препараты и средства личной гигиены PPIs (Proton pump inhibitors) – ингибиторы протонной помпы (ИПП) RNA (Ribonucleic acid molecules) – молекулы рибонуклеиновой кислоты RNA (Ribonucleic acid) – рибонуклеиновая кислота (РНК) SAICM (Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management) – стратегический подход к международному регулированию химических веществ SNRI (Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) – ингибиторы обратного захвата серотонина и норадреналина SSRIs (Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) – селективные ингибиторы обратного захвата серотонина (СИОЗС) TCM plants (Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine) – растения, используемые в традиционной китайской медицине ТСХ (Thin-layer chromatography) – тонкослойная хроматография TETriglyceride (Natural triglyceride with three different fatty acids) – природный триглицерид с тремя различными жирными кислотами THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) – тетрагидроканнабинол (ТГК) VLC (Vacuum-liquid chromatography) – вакуумно-жидкостная хроматография WHO (The World Health Organization) – Всемирная организация здравоохранения (ВОЗ) 152 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY GLOSSARY TERMS FOR UNITS А Abnormal biochemical function – аномальные биохимические функции Absolute fragrance – абсолютный аромат Acetic acid – уксусная кислота Achieve analgesia, relief from pain – достигать обезболивания, облегчения от боли Acid-base extraction – кислотно-щелочная экстракция Acidogenesis – кислотогенез Act peripherally in nerve endings – воздействовать на периферические нервные окончания Activated sludge – активный ил Acute condition – обострение болезни Addictive – привыкание Adjacent amino acid residue – смежный остаток аминокислоты Adjust – приспосабливать Adjuvant analgesic (atypical analgesic) – вспомогательное болеутоляющее средство Administer herb – применять лекарственную траву Adrenergic agonists – адреномиметики (группа биологически активных веществ природного или синтетического происхождения, вызывающих различные метаболические и функциональные изменения в организме) Adrenergic neurone blocker – блокатор адренергических нейронов Adrenoreceptor agonists (ketamine, clonidine) – адренорецепторы (кетамин, клофелин) Adulteration – добавка, примесь, подмешивание Adverse effects of pharmaceuticals – побочные эффекты фармацевтических препаратов Adverse events (accidental overdoses) – неблагоприятные события (случайные передозировки) Aerated – насыщенный кислородом, аэрированный Glossary terms for units 153 Aeration tank – аэрационный бассейн Aerobic respiration – клеточное или тканевое дыхание (совокупность биохимических реакций в клетках живых организмов, в ходе которых происходит окисление углеводов, липидов и аминокислот до углекислого газа и воды) Aesthetic – эстетический, чувственный, связанный с ощущениями Aetherolea – эфирный Affect pain and consciousness – обезболивать и влиять на сознание Agarwood, bearwood – крушина (лекарственное растение) Aggregate in multicellular colonies – соединиться в многоклеточные колонии Albumin – альбумин, белок Alcohol baths – емкость для спирта Alcoholic extract of herbs – спиртовой экстракт трав Alembic (distillation apparatus) – дистиллятор Aleuronic – протеиновый Alkalinity – щелочность, щелочные свойства Alkalising agent – щелочной компонент, препарат Alkaloid (group of nitrogenous basic compounds found in plants, typically insoluble in water and physiologically active, e.g. morphine, strychnine, quinine, nicotine, and caffeine) – алкалоид (класс химических соединений, содержащих азотные кольца) Alleviate neuropathy – облегчать нервное заболевание All-liquid separation technique – метод разделения жидкостей Alpha carbons – альфа-углерод Alter properties – изменять свойства Amber – зверобой пронзенный, амбра Ambergris – серая амбра Ambient temperature – комнатная температура Ambiguous – неоднозначный Ambrette – мускатный орех, амбретт Aminoglycoside (compound isolated from living organisms) – аминогликозид (соединение, выделенное из живых организмов) Amitriptyline (a tricyclic antidepressant drug; C20H23N) – амитриптилин Amoebicide – амебицид (препарат для лечения заболеваний, передающихся одноклеточными организмами) 154 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Amoeboid – амебовидный Anabolic drug – анаболик Anaerobe (an organism that does not require oxygen for respiration) – анаэроб Anaesthetic – анестетик, болеутоляющее средство Analgesic, analgesic drug, painkiller – анальгетик (болеутоляющее) Androgen (androgenic hormone or testoid) – андроген (группа стероидных гормонов, производимых половыми железами и корой надпочечников, которые повышают синтез белков и тормозят их распад) Angiotensin receptor blocker – блокаторы рецепторов ангиотензина (стойкое повышение артериального давления) Animalic fragrance agent – аромат животного происхождения Anoxic – аноксидный, бескислородный Antacid – антацид Antagonistic to growth of microorganisms in high dilution – антагонистичный рост микроорганизмов в сильном разбавлении Anthelmintic – антигельминтик (противоглистный препарат) Anthocyanin – антоциан (пирилиевая соль) Anthrax – сибирская язва Antiandrogen – антиандроген Antianginals – антиангинальные средства Antiarrhythmics – антиаритмические препараты Antiasthma therapeutic ephedrine – терапевтический эфедрин от астмы Antibacterial properties – антибактериальные свойства Antibiotics (inhibiting germ growth) – антибиотики (блокирующие/ингибирующие размножение бактерий) Anticancer vincristine (a cytotoxic drug used in the treatment of leukemia, derived from the tropical shrub Madagascar periwinkle) – противораковый препарат винкристин Anticholinergic – антихолинергический препарат (мочегонное, слабительное, рвотное) Anticholinergic – антихолинергический Anticholinesterase (AChE) – ацетилхолинэстераза (один из самых быстрых ферментов, при гидролизе разлагает ацетилхолин на холин и ацетатную группу, способствует расслаблению мышечной клетки) Glossary terms for units 155 Anticoagulant – антикоагулянт Anticonvulsants (antiepileptics) – противосудорожные препараты Antidepressants – антидепрессанты Antidiarrhoeal – противодиарейнoе средствo Antidopaminergic – противорвотное средство Antiemetics – противорвотные средства Antifibrinolytics – антифибринолитики (препараты, разжижающие кровь и препятствующие образованию тромбов) Antiflatulent – антифлатулент (препарат, препятствующий скоплению газов в кишечнике и метеоризму) Antifungal – противогрибковые препараты Antihelminthic – противоглистное средство Antihemophilic drug – антигемофилический препарат Antihistamine drugs, antihistamines (for allergy sufferers) – антигистаминные препараты (для аллергиков) Antihistamines (for nasal allergies) – антигистаминные препараты (дословно – «для лечения аллергического насморка») Antihypertensive drug (affecting blood pressure) – гипотензивное средство (снижающее артериальное давление) Antiinflammatory – противовоспалительное средство Antileprotic – противолепрозное средство (антибиотик от проказы) Antimalarial drugs, antimalarials (treating malaria) – противомалярийные препараты Antimicrobial compounds – антибактериальные соединения Antiobesity drugs – лекарства против ожирения Antiplatelet drugs – антиагрегантные препараты при синдроме Пиквика (состояние, при котором люди с крайней степенью ожирения не способны дышать достаточно глубоко и быстро, что ведет к низкому уровню кислорода и высокому уровню углекислого газа в крови) Antiprotozoal – противопротозойное средство (от малярии) Antipruritic – противозудный препарат Antipsychotic – нейролептический препарат Antipyretic (reducing fever) – жаропонижающее средство Antiseptics (preventing germ growth near burns, cuts and wounds) – антисептики (предотвращающие размножение бактерий в области ожогов, порезов и ран) Antispasmodic in the lungs – спазмолитик в легких 156 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Antituberculous drug – противотуберкулезнoе средствo Antitussive – отхаркивающее средство Antiviral drug – противовирусный препарат Anxiolytics – седативные средства (лекарственные вещества растительного или синтетического происхождения, вызывающие успокоение или уменьшение эмоционального напряжения без снотворного эффекта) Apparent value – истинная/несомненная ценность Applied immunology – прикладная иммунология Apply topically to the skin – для местного наружного применения Approved drug – одобренный препарат Aquatic application – растворенный в воде; водный раствор Archaea – архей (одноклеточные микроорганизмы, не имеющие ядра) Archaea membrane – клеточная стенка Archetypal opioid – основной синтетический наркотический препарат Aromatase inhibitors – ингибиторы аромата Ascertain – для выяснения Assay – проба, анализ Assert – утверждать, заявлять, декларировать Assess content of products before use – для оценки содержания продуктов перед использованием Assessing the medical value of plant – оценка медицинской ценности растения Astringency – терпкость Astringent – вяжущий препарат Atharvaveda – сборник древнеиндийских религиозных гимнов («веды») Atherosclerosis/cholesterol inhibitors – атеросклеротические препараты/ингибиторы синтеза холестерина Atomic resolution structures of proteins – атомное разрушение структуры белков Atrial fibrillation – сердечная аритмия Atrial flutter – сердечная вибрация Attached growth treatment system – система очистки при помощи закрепленных организмов Attainable – достижимый Glossary terms for units 157 Attract insects for pollination – привлекать насекомых для опыления Attract pollinator – привлекать опылителей Attractive force – сила притяжения Autoclave – автоклав Autoimmune disease – аутоиммунное заболевание (вызвано нарушением функции иммунной системы) Autumn crocuses – осенние крокусы Ayurvedic medicine, ayurveda – древнеиндийская медицина (на основе растительных препаратов) B Bacterial conjugation – бактериальная конъюгация (слияние) Bacteriostatic agents (slow down or stall bacterial growth) – бактериостатические агенты (замедляют или останавливают рост бактерий) Baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) – дрожжи для выпечки Ban – запретить Bark – кора Be the case – так и есть Benzocaine – бензокаин Beta blockers – бета-адреноблокаторы Beta lactam antibacterial – бета-лактамные антибактериальные средства Bewildering variety – огромное разнообразие Biguanide (class of compounds used in the treatment of diabetes) – бигуанид Bile – желчь Bile acid sequestrants – изоляторы желчных кислот Bioassay guided fractionation – проводить деление на фракции биопробы Biodegradable – биологически разлагаемый Biological diversity – разнообразие биологических видов Biopharmaceutical – биологические фармпрепараты Biotin – биотин, витамин H Bitten by herbivore – укушенный травоядным животным Bitter orange – горький апельсин 158 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Blockbuster drug (generates more than $1 billion of revenue for its owner each year) – лекарственные препараты, являющиеся лидерами продаж (лекарства, годовой объем продаж которых составляет более 1 млрд. дол. США) Blood serum albumin – сывороточный альбумин крови Blood thinner – разбавитель крови Blunt termini – «тупые» концы Bone regulator – регуляторы костного метаболизма Bound to sugar molecules – связанный с молекулами сахарозы Bovine – бычий, телячий Break apart – разъединять; разбить на составляющие части Break down – разрушать, разлагать Break down carbohydrates into alcohols (such as ethanol) – преобразовать углеводы в спирты (например, этанол) Break down ingested protein into free amino acids – расщеплять поглощенный белок на свободные аминокислоты Brewing – производить что-либо сбраживанием; пивоварение Bronchodilator (drug that causes dilation of the bronchial tubes by relaxing bronchial muscle) – бронходилататор, бронхорасширитель Bubble diffuser – пузырчатый аэратор, распылитель Budding – почкование, окулирование, бутонизация Buildup – увеличение Bulb – луковицеобразное утолщение, луковица; шарик; клубень Bulk air medium – основная часть воздушной среды Bulk liquid – основная часть жидкости; жидкость; жидкие продукты Burn as incense – гореть как ладан, фимиан Burn the skin – сжечь кожу Butyric acid – масляная кислота By a factor of ... – на порядок; в n раз By-product – побочный продукт C Caffeine – кофеин Calcitonin – кальцитонин (у млекопитающих гормон, вырабатываемый клетками щитовидной железы, называется тиреокальци- Glossary terms for units 159 тонином; но у остальных аналогичный по функциям гормон производится не в щитовидной железе и называется кальцитонином) Calcium channel blockers – блокаторы кальциевых каналов Calone – продукт синтетического происхождения Candidate treatment – подходящая/возможная обработка Candidiasis – кандидоз, кандидамикоз, дрожжевой микоз, монилиаз Cannabinoid – каннабиноид (группа соединений в растениях семейства Коноплевые) Cannabis sativa plant – растения конопли Capital cost – капитальные затраты Capsaicin (a colourless crystalline bitter alkaloid found in capsicums and used as a flavouring in vinegar and pickles) – капсаицин (бесцветный кристаллический горький алкалоид, содержащийся в перце, используется как ароматизатор уксуса и в соленьях) Captive breed sources – размножение в неволе Capture – захватывать, поглощать Caraway – тмин обыкновенный Carbapenems – карбапенемы (класс антибиотиков с широким спектром действий, имеющих структуру, которая обусловливает их высокую устойчивость к бета-лактамазам) Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/hyperosmotics – гиперосмотические препараты Cardiac glycoside – сердечный гликозид (органические вещества растительного или синтетического происхождения, которые при кислотном, щелочном, ферментативном гидролизе расщепляются на два компонента: агликон и углевод) Cardiovascular system – сердечно-сосудистая система Carotenoid – каротиноид (природный органический пигмент оранжевого или красного цвета, синтезируемый бактериями, высшими растениями) Carrier oil – масляной резервуар Cartesian coordinates – декартовы координаты Cascarilla – кротоновое дерево (его горькая ароматная кора применяется как тонизирующее средство) Cassie – кассия (благовонное растение, дикая корица), род многолетних растений семейства Бобовые Castoreum – кастореум (бобровая струя) Catalyse metabolic reactions – ускорять реакции обмена веществ 160 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Causative agents of various infectious diseases – возбудители различных инфекционных заболеваний Cause adverse effects – вызывать побочные эффекты Cause agranulocytosis – вызвать агранулоцитоз (отсутствие или уменьшение количества гранулоцитов в крови) Cause gastrointestinal hemorrhage – вызвать желудочнокишечные кровотечения Cause toxicity to the patient – вызывать токсичность у пациента Cedar – кедр Celecoxib – целекоксиб (нестероидный противовоспалительный препарат для лечения ревматоидного артрита, при острых болях) Cell adhesion – клеточное сцепление Cell biology – цитология (раздел биологии, изучающий живые клетки) Cell lysis – клеточный лизис (1) медленное падение температуры тела при лихорадочных заболеваниях и ослабление явлений болезни в течение нескольких суток в результате таких инфекционных болезней, как брюшной тиф, скарлатина, корь и др.; 2) разрушение клеток и нарушение структуры тканей под действием ферментов) Cerebral opioid receptor system – церебральная опиоидная рецепторная система Charales (algae most closely related to higher plants) – морская водоросль Chemotherapeutic agents – цитостатики (противоопухолевые препараты, которые вызывают некроз раковых клеток) Cherry pits – вишневые косточки Chimeric monoclonal antibody – гибридное моноклональное антитело Cholinergics – холинергики (препараты для лечения расстройства опорно-двигательного аппарата, вызванного приемом нейролептиков) Chop plant – разрушать растение Chromatography – хроматография Chronic condition/illness – хроническое медицинское заболевание Ciliates – инфузории Cimetidine – циметидин (лекарственное средство, которое усиливает защитные механизмы слизистой оболочки желудка Glossary terms for units 161 и способствует заживлению ее повреждений путем увеличения образования желудочной слизи) Cinnamon – корица Circular dichroism – круговой дихроизм оптически активных молекул (зависимость коэффициента поглощения света от направления круговой поляризации, «эффект Коттона») Cis-isomers (carbon-carbon double bonds) – цис-изомеры Citric acid cycle – цикл лимонной кислоты Citrus aurantium – померанец Civet Musk – мускус циветты Claims for the efficacy of medical treatment – требования к эффективности лечения Clarifier – очистная установка Clary sage – шалфей мускатный Clean utensils – чистая посуда Cleanse the skin on a deeper level (steam inhalation) – чистить кожу на более глубоком уровне (паровая ингаляция) Clinical pharmacy – клиническая фармация Clinical setting – клиническая установка, параметры Clinical trial – клиническое испытание Clog – засорять, закупоривать Clomiphene (used to treat infertility in women) – кломифен (препарат от бесплодия) Coagulate (flocculate under treatments with heat or acid) – коагулировать, свертываться; коагулят, сгусток Coalesce – соединяться, слипаться Coarse bubble diffuser – крупнопузырчатый диффузор Coccoid – коккоподобный (форма возбудителя туберкулеза) Codeine preparations – препараты кодеина Codon – кодон, кодирующий тринуклеотид (единица генетического кода, тройка нуклеотидных остатков в ДНК или РНК) Cofactor (prosthetic groups) – кофактор (простетическая группа); кофермент, коэнзим Cohesive termini – «липкие» концы Coliform bacteria (these indicate a sewage contamination) – колиподобная бактерия (индикатор загрязнения сточных вод) Combat pain at multiple sites of action – бороться с болью в нескольких местах Compounding of metals – состав/компоненты металлов 162 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Compulsion – импульсивное желание; принуждение Computational biology – молекулярный драг дизайн Concentrated medium – концентрированная среда Concrete (a product of solvent extraction) – твердый цветочный экстракт, экстрактовое эфирное масло, продукт экстракции несущих ароматические вещества частей растения неполярными растворителями Conduct research – проводить исследование Conformational change – конформационное изменение Confusion – беспорядок Conifers – хвойные Conjecture – конъектура Constipation – запор Constituent – компонент Consume diets – использовать диету Contactor – замыкатель Contaminated – загрязненный Contemporary perfumes – современные духи Content – содержимое, объем Contraindications (reasons not to prescribe drugs) – противопоказания (причины, по которым не стоит применять лекарственные средства) Controversy – спор, дискуссия Conventional drug – лекарства, удовлетворяющие техническим условиям Convert starch from grains into sugar – преобразовать крахмал из зерна в сахар Converter – преобразователь Copal – копал, копаловая смола Cope – справиться, совладать Copiously – обильно Coplanar – компланарный Corroborating evidence – подкрепляющее доказательство Corticosteroids (for inflammation) – кортикостероиды (для снятия воспаления) Cost recovery – окупаемость/возмещение убытков Cost-effective – эффективный и экономичный Cost-saving – требующий меньших издержек Coumarin – кумарин (гликозид, содержащийся во многих растениях семейства Астровые, применяется как душистое вещество в парфюмерной промышленности) Glossary terms for units 163 Counter diseases with plant-based medication – лечить заболевания растительными препаратами COX-1 (constitutive) enzyme – образующий фермент ЦОГ-1 COX-2 (inducible) enzyme – адаптивный фермент ЦОГ-2 Crabtree effect – эффект Крэбтри Critical to nutrient recycling – требование к переработке питательных отходов Cropping – обрезка Cross-pollination issues – проблемы перекрестного опыления Crude drug – сырой препарат Crude extract – необработанный экстракт Crude lysate – сырой клеточный лизат Crude oil (petroleum) – сырая нефть Crush herb – измельчать растение Cryoelectron microscopy – криоэлектронная микроскопия Curative effect – целебное действие Cyan glycoside – голубая гликозида Cyclobenzaprine – циклобензаприн Cycloplegic – мидриатик (используется в офтальмологии для исследования глазного дна) Cyclopyrrole – циклопиррол Cytoplasm – цитоплазма (внутренняя среда живой или умершей клетки, кроме ядра, ограниченная плазматической мембраной) Cytoprotectants – цитопротекторные препараты Cytotoxic drugs – цитотоксические средства (противоопухолевые препараты, которые запускают процесс самоуничтожения внутри злокачественной клетки) D Dahlias – георгины Dakin’s solution (germicide which helps to prevent gangrene) – раствор Дайкина (бактерицидное средство для профилактики гангрены) Datura stramonium (effective treatment for asthma symptoms when smoked) – дурман страмония Daunting – трудный Debated issue – обсуждаемый вопрос 164 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Decaffeinated coffee – кофе без кофеина Decoction (long-term boiled extract) – отвар (длительно вареный экстракт) Decongestants corticosteroid – противозастойные/противоотечные кортикостероиды Decrease likelihood of overdose – снизить вероятность передозировки Deer musk – мускус оленя Dehydron – дегидрин (внутримолекулярная водородная связь) Denaturation – денатурация Denature through high heat – изменять естественные свойства при повышении температуры Derivatives of biochemical motifs – производные биохимических мотивов Derive drug from – получить препарат из Derive from – выводить из Desloughing agents – моющие средства Destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals – уничтожать вредные химикаты Detection – выявление, обнаружение, открытие; регистрация Deter predation – измельчить траву Determine the safety and efficacy of drugs – определить безопасность и эффективность наркотиков Devoid of activity on dopamine, serotonin or histamine receptors – избежать воздействия на рецепторы дофамина, серотонина и гистамина Dewatered – обезвоженный Dextroamphetamine – декстроамфетамин Diatomaceous earth – гидравлическая добавка Diffuse – рассеивать Diffuser – диффузор, распыливатель, рассеиватель Digestion – пищеварение Digestive system – пищеварительная система Digoxin (a purified cardiac glycoside extracted from the foxglove plant) – дигоксин (очищенный сердечный гликозид, экстрагируемый из наперстянки) Dihedral angles in the peptide bond – двугранные углы в пептидной связи Glossary terms for units 165 Dihydromorphine – дигидроморфин Dilute in – разбавлять; разводить до Diluted plant extract – разбавленный растительный экстракт Dimensionless – безразмерный, бесконечно малый Dimethyl ether – диметиловый эфир Diphosponate – бисфосфонат/дисфосфонат Diploid – диплоид (с двойным набором хромосом) Direct patient care (for pharmacy practice) – прямой уход за больным Disassemble – разбирать на части Discharge permit – разрешение на сброс Disinfectants – дезинфицирующие средства Dispensing – распределение Dispose of – избавляться, ликвидировать, уничтожать Dissect drugs – разводить лекарства Dissolved – растворенный Distinct from – быть отличным от Diuretics – диуретики (мочегонные средства) Diverse species (chickens, sheep, butterflies) – разнообразные виды Divert – направлять Domestication of plants – доместикация растений Dopamine agonists – агонисты допамина (гормон, вырабатываемый мозговым веществом надпочечников, биохимический предшественник адреналина) Dopamine antagonists – антагонисты допамина Dosage – дозировка Dose ceiling – максимальная доза Driving force – движущая сила Drug administration (delivery of a pharmaceutical drug to a patient) – применение препарата Drug substance – лекарственное вещество Drug synergism – синергизм препарата (совместное действие препарата) Drug tolerance – медикаментозная зависимость Drug’s enhancing effect – эффект усиления препарата Drug’s final effect – заключительный эффект препарата Drug’s moderating effect – препарат смягчающего действия Drugs for off-label use – использование препарата вне зарегистрированных показаний 166 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Dry/destructive distillation – сухая перегонка Dry extracts – сухие экстракты Dry-distilled (rectified) form – форма, полученная путем сухой перегонки (очищенная) D-tubocurarine – тубокурарина хлорид Dual polarisation interferometry – интерферометрия двойной поляризации Duloxetine – дулоксетин (антидепрессант) E Economics – экономический расчет/оценка/анализ Eco-pharmacology – экофармакология Eco-pharmacovigilance – надзор в сфере экофармакологии/фармаконадзор Effleurage – экстракция раствора Effluent – сток; сточные воды Electrofocusing – электрофокусирование Electron crystallography – электронная кристаллография Electrophoresis – электрофорез Elevate mood – поднять настроение Eliminate sensation – устранить ощущения Elimination from – выведение из Elixir – эликсир Elucidate chemical structure – объяснять химическую структуру Embryology – эмбриология Embryophyte plant – початок, саженец Emetic – вызывающий рвоту; рвотное средство Emollients – смягчающие средства Encode protein – кодировать Encompass – окружать; заключать Endanger – подвергать опасности Endogenous (organic electron acceptor) – эндогенный, внутренний Endogenous respiration – эндогенное дыхание (обмен газов внутри тканей организма) Endosymbiotic – эндосимбиотический препарат Energy consuming – энергоемкий Glossary terms for units 167 Enteral (taking medication orally) – применение препарата внутрь (перорально) Entheogenic – используемый для получения наркотических веществ, употребляемых во время религиозных обрядов (о растении); галлюциногенный Enzyme catalytic activity – каталитическая активность фермента Enzyme hydrolysis – ферментативный гидролиз Enzyme urease – гидролитический фермент уреаза (катализирует гидролиз мочевины до диоксида углерода и аммиака; обнаружен в бактериях, дрожжах, семенах сои, в организме человека и животных образуется бактериальной флорой) Ephedrine – эфедрин Erroneous conclusion – ошибочный вывод Essential oil – эфирное масло Ester bond – связь сложного эфира Ethanol extraction – выделение этилового спирта Ethanol fermentation – ферментация этанола Ether lipid – липиды эфира Ethereal oil – эфирное масло Ethnobotany (the study of traditional human uses of plants) – этноботаника Ethnomedical plant sources – этномедицинские растительные источники Ethnopharmacology – народная медицина Etoricoxib – эторикоксиб Eucalyptus globulus (lat.) – эвкалипт шаровидный Eukaryote – эукариот (домен живых организмов, клетки которых содержат ядра) Excess use – избыточное использование Exert a biochemical effect on smth – оказывать биохимическое воздействие на что-либо Exoenzyme – внеклеточный фермент Expand aroma – расширить аромат Expelle – вытеснять, изгонять, выбрасывать Extinction of medicinal plant species – вымирание видов лекарственных растений Extremophile (a microbe that lives in an environment once thought to be uninhabitable, for example in boiling or frozen water) – икстримофил 168 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Exudate – экссудат, выпот (жидкость, выделяющаяся в ткани или полости организма из мелких кровеносных сосудов при воспалении; процесс выделения экссудата называется экссудацией) Exude – источать, выделять F Facultative anaerobic organism – факультативно-анаэробный организм Facultative lagoon – аэробно-анаэробный накопитель Fast-acting serotonin releasing agent – быстродействующий агент, выпускающий серотонин Fatigue – выносливость; усталость; утомление Fatty acid – жирная кислота Favour the use of convergent information – одобрить использование сходящейся информации Feasible epidemiological studies – возможные эпидемиологические исследования Febrifuges – жаропонижающие Feed on (upon) – питаться (чем-то) Fermentation (disambiguation) – брожение Fertility medications – лекарства от бесплодия Fever reducer – редуктор лихорадки Fibrin – фибрин (высокомолекулярный белок, образующийся из фибриногена плазмы крови под действием фермента тромбина; имеет форму гладких или поперечно исчерченных волокон, сгустки которых составляют основу тромба при свертывании крови) Fibrinolytics – фибринолитические средства Fibrosing cardiomyopathy (has a devastating effect on captive animals) – фиброзная кардиомиопатия (имеет разрушительное воздействие на животных в неволе) Field biologist – полевой биолог Fight a sinus infection or cough – бороться с инфекцией пазух или кашлем Filamentous hyphae – волокнистые гифы (нитевидное образование у грибов, состоящее из многих клеток или содержащее множество ядер) Glossary terms for units 169 Filter feeder – фильтратор Fine bubble diffuser – мелкопузырчатый рассеиватель Fine-pored – мелкопористый Fir resin – смола ели (еловая смола) Fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) – дрожжи, которые размножаются почкованием Flagellate – бичевать, пороть, бить Flagellated – жгутиковый Flash chromatography – волновая хроматография Flocculate – выпадать в осадок; выпадать хлопьями; флоккулировать Flocculent – хлопьевидный; рыхлый Florentine flask – флорентийская колба Flotation – флотация Flow rate – скорость стока; расход потока Fluor quinolones – фторхинолоны Flupirtine – флупиртин (ненаркотический анальгетик центрального действия) Foaming – пенообразование; пенная флотация (отделение твердых частиц от жидкости путем всплывания) Folding – складной Folic acid – фолиевая кислота, витамин B6 Folklore cures – народная медицина Follicle stimulating hormone – фолликулостимулирующий гормон Food additives – пищевые добавки Food grade oil (e.g. Almond oil) – пищевое масло (например, миндальное масло) Food spoiling – испорченные продукты Food-borne pathogens – пищевые патогены For the fun of it – шутки ради; чтобы посмеяться Forage plants rich in secondary metabolites – кормовые растения, богатые вторичными метаболитами Fortuitous – случайный Fouled – загрязненный Fractional distillation – фракционная перегонка Fractionate extract – фракционировать Fractionation column – колонна фракционирования Fragrance – аромат 170 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Fragrance wheel – круг ароматов Fragrances in perfumery – ароматы в парфюмерии Fragrant essential oil – душистое эфирное масло Frankincense/olibanum – ладан Freeze drying – лиофилизация; сублимационная сушка Functional genomics – функциональная геномика (отрасль молекулярной генетики) Fungal and bee product – грибковые и паразитарные Fungi – грибы Fusion protein – встраивание белка G Gabapentin – габапентин (противоэпилептический препарат) Gain durable patents rights – получить долгосрочное право на патент Gastric juices – желудочный сок Gastrointestinal tract – желудочно-кишечный тракт Gel electrophoresis – гель-электрофорез (применяющийся в молекулярной биологии метод разделения смесей белков в полиакриламидном геле) Genera Rhizobium (any rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Rhizobium able to fix atmospheric nitrogen) – род организмов, усваивающих азот Generic – лекарство общего типа; непатентованное средство Genome – геном (совокупность наследственного материала, заключенного в клетке организма) Ginger plant – имбирь Ginseng – женьшень Ginsenoside (plant with high level of active constituents) – гинзенозид Give a pleasant scent – давать приятный запах Glycolysis – гликолиз (ферментативный процесс последовательного расщепления глюкозы в клетках) Glycoside – гликозид (органические соединения, молекулы которых состоят из углеводного остатка и агликона – неуглеводного фрагмента) Gonadotropin – гонадотропин (гормональный препарат) Glossary terms for units 171 Gout – подагра Gradient – уклон; градиент; подъем Green algae – зеленые водоросли Grow as single cells – вырасти как единственные клетки Grower – производитель, садовод Guide the referral process between pharmacist and doctor – выписать направление к фармацевту (о враче) Gum benzoin – бензойная смола Gut immunity – нарушить неприкосновенность H H2-receptor antagonists – блокаторы H2-гистаминовых рецепторов; H2-блокаторы; H2-антигистаминные средства (антисекреторные лекарственные препараты для лечения кислотозависимых заболеваний желудочно-кишечного тракта за счет снижения продукции соляной кислоты) Haematopoietic drugs – гематопоэтические средства (влияющее на кроветворение) Haemostatic drug – кровоостанавливающий препарат Hallucinogen – галлюциноген Handle – обращаться с; поступать; обрабатывать Haploid – гаплоид (ядро, клетка, организм с одним набором хромосом, представляющим половину полного набора (n), свойственного исходной форме (2n)) Harbor – укрывать, собирать, скапливать Harmful side effects – вредные побочные эффекты Have antipyretic effect – иметь жаропонижающее действие Have beneficial effects on – иметь благоприятные воздействия на Have corroborated efficacy – подтвердить эффективность Have therapeutic actions in humans – оказывать терапевтическое действие на человека Hay – сено Healer – целитель Heart conditions – болезни сердца Heart failure – остановка сердца Heat illness – тепловой удар 172 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Heating oil – печное топливо (мазут) Heavy sedation – сильное успокоительное Helical composition – спиральная структура Hemorrhage – кровоизлияние Heparin – гепарин Herb’s therapeutic effect – терапевтический эффект трав Herbal distillate – травяной дистиллят Herbal medicine, herbalism – растительное лекарственное средство Herbal remedies (e.g. aspirin, digitalis, quinine, and opium) – растительные лекарственные средства (например, аспирин, наперстянка, хинин и опиум) Herbal treatment – растительный препарат Herbal wine – травяное вино (мацерация трав в вино) Herbalist – знаток трав, травник; знахарь, лечащий травами; торговец лечебными травами Herbivore – травоядное (животное) Heterolactic acid fermentation – гетероферментативное молочнокислое брожение Heterotroph – гетеротроф Hexane – гексан (растворитель) High organic strength – высокая концентрация органических веществ High-yielding – высокодоходный; высокопродуктивный Hippocratic Oath – клятва Гиппократа His-tag – гистидиновый Histamine – гистамин Histidine – гистидин Histoplasmosis – гистоплазмоз, ретикулоэндотелиальный цитомикоз, болезнь Дарлинга Homolactic – гомоферментативный Honeycomb – медовые соты Hoodia (potential source of weight loss drugs) – потенциальный источник лекарств для похудения Hop – хмель Host organism (parasitism) – паразит Hot springs – горячий источник Human digestion – пищеварение человека Glossary terms for units 173 Human growth hormone – гормон роста человека Hybridization – гибридизация, скрещивание Hydraulic retention time – время гидравлического удержания (сточных вод на очистном сооружении) Hydrocodone level – уровень гидрокодона Hydrogen peroxide – перекись водорода Hydrogenation – гидрирование Hydrolate – гидролят Hydrophobic liquid (that containing volatile aroma compounds from plants) – гидрофобная жидкость (жидкость, содержащая летучие ароматические соединения из растений) Hydrosol – гидрозоль Hydroxyzine – гидроксизин Hygiene and disease prevention services – санитарно-профилактическое учреждение Hygiene of hard surfaces (e.g. cooking pots) – санитарное состояние твердых покрытий (кастрюль) Hypericin (plant with high levels of active constituents) – гиперицин (растение с высоким содержанием активных компонентов) Hypnotics – снотворные средства Hypodermic needle – шприц для подкожных впрыскиваний Hypolipidaemic agents – гиполипидемические препараты Hypothalamus (a neural control centre at the base of the brain, concerned with hunger, thirst, satiety, and other autonomic functions) – гипоталамус (нервный центр в основании мозга, отвечающий за чувство голода, насыщения, жажды и другие чувства нервной системы) I Ibuprofen – ибупрофен Ill formed – недостаточно/слабо сформированный Immune-suppressant ciclosporin – иммунодепрессант циклоспорин Immunohistochemistry – иммуногистохимия Immunosuppressant – иммуносупрессант 174 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Impose law of certain medications prohibition – вводить закон на запрет определенных препаратов Improve pain relief – усиливать боль In vitro (lat.) – в пробирке, в колбе (об опыте); в лабораторных условиях In vivo (lat.) – в нормальных условиях Incorporate – включать; задействовать Increase the pain-killing ability – увеличивать болеутоляющие способности Indigenous – свойственный, присущий Indigestible carbohydrates – неусваиваемые углеводы Induce – побуждать Inefficiency – неспособность; низкая производительность Infectious disease – инфекционное заболевание Influent – втекающий/поступающий поток жидкости Influenza – грипп Influenza vaccine – вакцина против гриппа Infusion (hot water extract of herbs) – вливание (экстракт горячей воды на травах) Ingest – глотать Ingest medicinal plants to treat illness – принимать внутрь лекарственные растения, чтобы вылечить болезнь Inhalation – ингаляция Inhaled cannabis – ингаляционные травы Inhibit aerobic metabolism in yeast – подавлять аэробный метаболизм в дрожжах Inhibit bacterial growth – подавлять рост бактерий Inhibit cyclooxygenases – подавлять циклооксигеназы Inhibit rotation – подавлять вращение Input – вход; входное устройство Interface – граница; поверхность раздела Interferon – интерферон Intimate symbiotic relationship – близкие симбиотические отношения Intravenous administration (into the blood through a vein) – внутривенное введение (введение в кровь через вену) Intravenous preparation – внутривенный препарат Introduce medication through inhalation and rectal means – вводить препарат в организм путем ингаляции и ректально Glossary terms for units 175 Introduce medication through intranasal means – вводить препарат в организм интраназально (через полость носа) Introduce medication through topical means – местное применение препарата In vitro activity consistent with traditional use – деятельность в лабораторных условиях в соответствии с традиционным использованием Invoke a bitter taste – придавать (иметь) горький вкус Irradiation – блеск, лучезарность, лучистость Irrespective – независимо Irreversible loss – необратимые потери Isoelectric point – изоэлектрическая точка Isoflavone – изофлавон (соя) Isolation of a pure substance – выделение чистого вещества J Juniper – можжевельник K Kahuna Gynecological Papyrus – «гинекологический папирус» из Кахуна (медицинский текст) Keep infections at bay – держать инфекции на расстоянии Keratolytics – кератолитики Ketoprofen – кетопрофен L Labdanum – ладанная камедь Lactate – лактат, соль молочной кислоты; продуцировать молоко Lactic acid fermentation – молочнокислое брожение Lactic fermentation (short for lactic acid fermentation) – молочная ферментация (сокращенно от «молочнокислое брожение») 176 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Lactic oil – молочное масло Lactulose – лактулоза Lag phase – стадия покоя; индукционный/латентный период Landfilled – захороненный Laxative – слабительное средство Lead to a decrease in prostaglandin production – привести к уменьшению образования простагландинов Lead to adverse reactions – привести к неблагоприятным реакциям Lead to life-threatening liver damage – привести к опасным для жизни повреждениям печени Lead to occasionally kidney damage – привести к повреждению почек Leavened bread – хлеб на дрожжевой закваске Lead to occasional shortages of antibiotics or vaccines – приводить к временному дефициту антибиотиков или вакцин Lemon balm – лимонный бальзам Licensed medical practitioner – лицензированный практикующий врач Lichen – лишай Lidocaine – лидокаин Limit survey to adults – ограничить осмотр взрослыми Linalool – линалоол (цветочный запах с оттенком розы) Lipase – липаза (водорастворимый фермент, который помогает переваривать, растворять и фракционировать жиры) Lipid – липид (гидрофобное органическое вещество, растворимое в органических растворителях) Liquor – раствор Lithium salts – соли лития Local anesthetic – местное анестезирующее средство Local anesthetic and stimulant – местное анестезирующее и стимулирующее средство Local anesthetic reaction – токсическая реакция на введение местного анестетика Long-term health – продолжительный период здоровья Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds – большое количество окисленных жирных соединений Luteinising hormone – лютеинизирующий гормон L-α-amino acid – L-α-аминокислота Glossary terms for units 177 M Macerate for a week – размачивать в течение недели Macerate(s) – вымачивание; вымачивать; размачивать Maceration (old infusion of plants with high mucilage-content) – мацерация (метод получения эфирных масел), старый настой растения с высоким содержанием слизи Macrogol – макрогол Magnolias (used as Chinese medicine for 5000 years to fight cancer, dementia and heart disease) – магнолия (используется в китайской медицине в течение 5000 лет для борьбы против рака, старческого слабоумия и болезней сердца) Maintenance cost – эксплуатационные расходы/затраты на техническое обслуживание Malt – солод; выращивать солод Malted grains (containing enzymes) – осахаренные с помощью ферментов зерна с целью получения солода Marine pharmacognosy – морская фармакогнозия Mass spectrometry – масс-спектрометрия Mass-loading – массовый расход Mast cell inhibitors – ингибиторы тучных клеток Mature system – хорошо продуманная система Mean residence time – среднее время пребывания/удержания Mediate adverse effects – стать причиной неблагоприятных последствий Mediate one’s effects on – добиться влияния на Medical ethnobotany – медицинская этноботаника Medical guidelines – медицинские рекомендации Medication – лекарство Medicinal cream and pill – лекарственный крем и таблетки Medicine – медицина Medicine derived from plants – лекарства, полученные из растений Membrane bound organelle – органелла/органоид перепонки мембраны Metabolic pathway – метаболический путь Metabolite – метаболит Metabolize to compounds – преобразовывать в соединения Metal plating – электроосаждение металлов; металлизация 178 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Metallurgy – металлургия Metamizole – метамизол Methanogenesis – метаногенез; образование метана Methionine – метионин Methyl salicylate – метилсалицилат Methylphenidate – метилфенидат Mexiletine – мексилетин Microscopic plants (green algae) – микроскопические зеленые водоросли Migraine – мигрень Mimosa – мимоза Minor medical procedures – малые медицинские процедуры Miotics – миотики Misprescription – неправильное назначение препарата Mixed liquor – иловая смесь Moderate to strong pain – выносить сильную боль Mold (conditions where growth of bacteria is prevented by antibiotics) – плесневой грибок (условия, при которых антибиотики мешают росту бактерий) Molecular diagnostics – молекулярная диагностика Monera (lat.) – назначение Mongoose – мангуст Monoamine oxidase inhibitors – ингибиторы моноаминоксидазы Monoclonal antibody – моноклональное антитело Monoterpene – монотерпен Mood changing treatment – изменение настроения лечением Morphinomimetics – морфиномания Mortality – смертность, летальность Mucolytics – муколитики Multicellular organism – многоклеточный организм Multiple sclerosis – рассеянный склероз Multitudinous – многочисленный, разнообразный Muscle relaxant – миорелаксант Muscle relaxant property – свойство миорелаксанта Muscular-skeletal disorder – нарушение со стороны скелетномышечной системы Musk deer – мускусный олень Musk sac – мускусный мешочек Mutually beneficial (mutualism) – взаимовыгодный (мутуализм) Glossary terms for units 179 Mycorrhizal symbiosis – микоризный симбиоз Mydriatic – мидриатик Myoclonic jerks – миоклонические судороги Myrrh – мирра (камедистая смола) Myxo/myxomatosis – множественная миксома, миксоматоз (инфекционное заболевание кроликов) N Nabumetone – набуметон Naproxen – напроксен Narcissus – нарцисс Narcotic analgesics – наркотические анальгетики Nascent chain – в стадии возникновения цепи Natural flavor additives for food – натуральные ароматические добавки Nausea – тошнота Nebulisation – распыление Nebulizer – распылитель Nefopam – нефопам Nematode – нематоды, круглые черви Neoplastic disorders – нарушения, связанные с опухолью Neroli oil – неролиевое масло Neuromuscular drug – препараты, блокирующие нервномышечную проводимость Neuropathic pain – нейропатическая боль Neutral-smelling oils (e.g. fractionated coconut oil, liquid waxes) – обычно пахнущие масла (например, фракционированное кокосовое масло, жидкие воски) Nibble – откусывание; небольшое количество еды Nimesulide – нимесулид Nitrate – нитрат Non-carbohydrate moiety – неуглеводный радикал Non-peptide group – непептидная группа Non-pharmacological treatment – немедикаментозная терапия Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor – ингибитор обратного захвата норадреналина Nosology – нозология 180 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Notable exceptions (litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry) – известные исключения (лицеа кубеба, ваниль и ягоды можжевельника) Novel antibiotics – новые антибиотики Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) – ядерный магнитный резонанс (ЯМР) Nucleic acids – нуклеиновые кислоты Numb a person’s feeling – притуплять чувства; вызывать чувство «онемения» Numb areas for dental work – сделать заморозку области для стоматологических работ Nutritional scientist – диетолог O Obstetrics – акушерство Ocular lubricant – смазывающее офтальмологическое средство Odor character – характерный аромат Odorant – ароматное/пахучее вещество Oestrogen – эстроген Oil of wintergreen – масло грушанки Open tank – емкость с нормальным атмосферным давлением Open-column chromatography – хроматография открытой колонки Open-earth – неукрывный Operation cost – эксплуатационные расходы Operative skills – хирургические навыки Opiates – опиаты Opioid toxicity – опиоидная токсичность Opioids – опиоиды (снотворное) Oppose psychiatry – противопоставлять психиатрии Oral administration (through the mouth) – пероральное применение (через рот) Orange blossom absolute – цветок апельсина Orange blossom water – вода цветков апельсина Orange oil – апельсиновое масло, оранжевое масло Orchid scents (e.g. salicylic acid) – запах орхидеи (например, салициловая кислота) Glossary terms for units 181 Organ/system mechanisms – механизмы органа/системы Organelles (e.g. cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria) – органоиды (например, ядро клетки, аппарат Гольджи и митохондрии) Ormeloxifene – ормелоксифен Orphans – орфанные препараты (для лечения редких заболеваний) Orphenadrine – орфенадрин Orphenadrine combat – лечение с помощью орфенадрина Osmanthus – османтус Output – выходное устройство; выход продукции Overall cost – полная/общая стоимость Overdose of tropane alkaloid – передозировка тропанового алкалоида Overlap in meaning – совпадать по смыслу Over-prescription – назначение избыточного количества лекарств Override an interleukin-induced increase in temperature – не принимать во внимание фактор, стимулирующий повышение температуры Oxazolidinones – оксазолидиноны Oxidative phosphorylation – окислительное фосфорилирование Oxycodone – оксикодон Oxygen flux – кислородный цикл (диффузия и усвоение кислорода) Ozonous metallic marine scent – легкий морской аромат P Package – блок; объект; масса Pain of neuropathic origin – боль нейропатического происхождения Pain reliever – обезболивающее, болеутоляющее Painful mouth sores – болезненные язвы рта Pancreas – поджелудочная железа Pancreatic ribonuclease – панкреатитная рибонуклеаза (РНКаза) Paracetamol (acetaminophen) – парацетамол (ацетаминофен) Parasympatholytics – парасимпатолитические вещества 182 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Parasympathomimetics – парасимпатомиметики Parental nutritional supplements – пищевые добавки для парентерального применения Parenteral (introducing the medication directly to the circulatory system) – парентеральное применение (введение препарата непосредственно в систему кровобращения) Partial agonist of the opioid receptor – частичные агонисты опиоидных рецепторов Pass on safety information and cautions – переходить к безопасной информации и предостережениям Passage – прохождение; проход Patchouli – пачули Pathogenic yeast (Candida albicans) – патогенные дрожжи Pathogens – болезнетворные микроорганизмы рода Archaea Pathway – путь Pediculicides – педикулициды Peel – кожура Penicillin – пенициллин Peptide bond – пептидная связь Performance – эффективность; характеристика; выполнение Periodontal disease – пародонтоз Perioperative setting – периоперационная установка Peripheral activators – активаторы периферических рецепторов Permeable – проницаемый Peru balsam – перуанский бальзам Petal – лепесток Pethidine – петидин Petit grain – мелкое зерно Pharmaceutical – фармацевтический Pharmaceutical drug (medicine or medication) – фармацевтический препарат (лекарство или лекарственное средство) Pharmacodynamics – фармакодинамика (одно из двух основных направлений фармакологии) Pharmacoenvironmentology – изучение влияния фармацевтических препаратов на окружающую среду Pharmacognosy – фармакогнозия (раздел фармации, изучающий лекарственное сырье растительного и животного происхождения) Pharmacokinetics – фармакокинетика (одно из двух основных направлений фармакологии) Glossary terms for units 183 Pharmacologist – фармаколог Pharmacology – фармакология Pharmacopoeia – фармакопея Pharmacotherapy – фармакотерапия/медикаментозное лечение Pharmacovigilance – фармакологический надзор/фармаконадзор Pharmacy – фармация Pharmacy – аптека Phenazone (antipyrine) – феназон (антипирин) Phenergan – фенерган Phenolic – фенольный Pheromones – феромоны Phosphoglyceride – фосфоглицерин Photosynthetic eukaryote – фотосинтетический эукариот Physical mean – физическое средство Physician – врач, доктор, терапевт Physostigmine – физостигмин Phytochemical – фитохимикат; фитохимический Phytochemistry – биохимия растений; фотохимия Phytoestrogen – фитоэстроген Phytopharmaceutical – растительный, лекарственный Pilocarpine – пилокарпин Pinpoint – точно определять, указывать Plague – чума Planarians – планарии Plant water essence – водная эссенция растений Plasmids – плазмиды (небольшие фрагменты ДНК) Platelet function – функция тромбоцитов Plausible case – правдоподобный случай Plumeria – плюмерия Polish – совершенствовать Pollutant – загрязнитель окружающей среды Polyamide – полиамид Polyenes – полиены Polymerase – полимераза Polypeptide chain – полипептидная цепь Poly-pharmacy – избыточное назначение лекарств (одновременное назначение больному нескольких препаратов) Polyphenols (phenolics) – полифенолы (фенолы) Polysaccharide – полисахарид 184 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Pomade – помада (для волос) Posttranslational modification – посттрансляционные модификации Potent antimicrobial – мощное антибактериальное средство Potentiate effects of analgesics – усиливать действие анальгетиков Potentiators – потенциаторы Poultice – припарка; компресс, обертывание Practice whole herb consumption – практиковать полное усвоение трав Prayer – молитва Precipitation – осаждение Precipitation by salting out – осаждение соли Precursor – исходный продукт, предшествующее вещество Predation – хищническое истребление Predator (e.g. insect, fungi, and herbivorous mammal) – хищник Predispose to peptic ulcers, renal failure, allergic reactions, hearing loss – приводить к язвенной болезни, почечной недостаточности, аллергическим реакциям, потере слуха Pregabalin – прегабалин Preparation of alkalis – приготовление щелочей Prescription drugs – рецепт лекарства Prescription practice – назначение лекарственных препаратов Prevalence of use – распространенность употребления Prey – жить за чужой счет Primary constituents – первичные составляющие Primary form of health care – основная форма здравоохранения Primary health care – первая помощь (при заболеваниях и несчастных случаях); первичная медико-санитарная помощь Primary metabolites – первичные метаболиты (сахара и жиры растительного происхождения) Primary structure – первичная структура Primary transcript – первичная расшифровка Primrose – первоцвет Pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance – прооксидантный и антиоксидантный баланс Produce spores – производить споры Products respecting their safety and nutritional value – продукты, отвечающие требованиям безопасности и пищевой ценности Glossary terms for units 185 Progestogen – прогестоген Prokaryote – прокариоты Promethazine – прометазин Propionate – пропионат Propionic acid – пропионовая кислота Prostaglandin – простагландин Prostaglandin agonists – агонисты простагландина Protease inhibitor – ингибитор протеазы Protective function – защитная функция Protein backbone – опора белка Proteinogenic amino acid – протеинсодержащая аминокислота Proteolytic – протеолитический, расщепляющий белки Proteomics (the branch of biochemistry concerned with the structure and analysis of the proteins occurring in living organisms) – протеомика, отрасль биохимии, изучающая структуру протеинов в живых организмах Protists – протисты Protozoa – простейшие Prudent – предусмотрительный; благоразумный Pruritus, itching – зуд Pseudoephedrine (for sinus-related preparations) – псевдоэфедрин (для препаратов, связанных с лечением носовой пазухи) Psilocin – псилоцин Psychedelic – галлюциногенное, психотомиметическое средство Psychotropic analgesic agents – психотропные анальгетики Pumpkin – тыква Purging intestinal parasites – очищение кишечника от паразитов Pyreticus (pertaining to fever) – пиретик (относящийся к лихорадке) Pyrexia/pyresis – пирексия/лихорадка Pyrolysis – пиролиз Pyruvate – пируват Q Quinidine – хинидин Quinine – противомалярийное лекарство хинин Quinine from the cinchona – хинин из хинной коры 186 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Quinolone (any of a group of synthetic antibiotics that inactivate an enzyme required for the replication of certain microorganisms) – хинолон (любой из группы искусственных антибиотиков, которые инактивируют фермент, необходимый для репликации определенных микроорганизмов) R Reassemble – повторно собирать Reassemble drug – повторно составлять лекарства Recipes – медицинские рецепты Recombinant gene technologies – технологии, связанные с рекомбинированием генов Recombinant interleukins – рекомбинантные интерлейкины Recreational drug – рекреационный наркотик (употребляют периодически не по медицинским показаниям или вследствие сформировавшейся зависимости) Reduce fever – снижать температуру Reduce inflammation – уменьшить воспаление Reduce opioid consumption – снизить потребление опиоидов Redundancy – избыточность Refine – усовершенствовать Refine to produce drug – очистить, чтобы произвести лекарство Reflux suppressants – супрессанты для подавления гастроэзофагеального рефлюкса Refractory – трудноперерабатываемый; стойкий Regenerate – восстанавливать Reject – отвергать, отказываться принимать Relative dryness of the wearer’s skin – относительная сухость кожи человека Release toxins – выпустить токсины Relieved by a short course of antiemetic – освобожденный, избавленный с помощью противорвотного Rely on traditional medicine – полагаться на традиционную медицину Remain dormant for long periods of time – оставаться в состоянии покоя в течение длительного времени Remnant – остаток; след Glossary terms for units 187 Remove – удалять; восстанавливать Render smth odorless – воспроизводить что-либо без запаха Replicate – повторять, тиражировать Replication – копирование, дублирование Reproduce asexually (by budding or binary fission) – размножаться бесполым путем: почкованием или бинарным делением Reproduce by binary fission – воспроизвести с помощью бинарного деления Reproductive system/urinary system – репродуктивная (половая) система/мочевая система Residence time – время пребывания и удерживания (органических отходов в системе дигерирования) Resilient spores – упругие споры Resin (used in incense and perfumery) – смола (которая используется в получении ладана и парфюмерии) Resistant to spoilage – устойчивый к порче Respiratory depression – угнетение дыхания Respiratory system – дыхательная система Result in hospitalization or death – привести к госпитализации или смерти Resultant liquid of extracting herbs into water – жидкость, полученная в результате добавления травяного экстракта в воду Retention time – срок хранения; время пребывания и удерживания Return sludge pump – насос возвратного ила Reversibly – обратимо Reye’s syndrome (severe liver disorder) – синдром Рейе (тяжелое расстройство печени) Rhizome – корневище Rigidity – жесткость Ringworm – стригущий лишай Risk of cardiovascular events – риск сердечно-сосудистых заболеваний Rofecoxib – рофекоксиб Rosa damascena (lat.) – дамасская роза Rose absolute (solvent extracted product) – роза абсолютная (продукт, экстрагированный растворителем) Rose otto, steam distilled rose oil – роза отто (перегнанное с паром розовое масло) 188 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Rosemary – розмарин Rotating biological contactor – вращающийся биологический контактор Rotifer – коловратка (микроорганизм, передвигающийся в воде с помощью вращения ресничек) Routinely – обычно; регулярно Run out – заканчиваться; иссякать S Sage – шалфей Salicylate – салицилат Salicylic acid – салициловая кислота Saturated fat – насыщенный жир Scabicide – противочесоточное средство Scaffolding – клеточный каркас Scented geranium – герань душистая Scopolamine – скополамин Secondary metabolite – вторичный метаболит (промежуточный продукт обмена веществ) Secrete – выделять, секретировать Sedimentation – осаждение Seizures – приступ Selective breeding – выборочное улучшение сорта Selective recovery – избирательное (селективное) восстановление Selenocysteine – селенитовый цистеин (заменимая в питании человека аминокислота) Self-medicate – заниматься самолечением Self-medication in the wild – самолечение в дикой природе Semi-pure mixture – неочищенная смесь Semisynthetic – полусинтетический Semisynthetic modifications – полусинтетические модификации Separation of minerals – разделение минералов Settle – осаждать; отстаивать Glossary terms for units 189 Settleability – осаждаемость Settling tank – отстойный бассейн, отстойник Shigellosis – шигеллез, бактериальная дизентерия Show beneficial synergistic effects – оказывать благотворное синергетическое воздействие Sick animals – больные животные Signal transduction – специфическая трансдукция (перенос бактериофагом определенных фрагментов ДНК от клетки-донора к клетке-реципиенту) Sildenafils – силденафилы Single loop of DNA – единственная петля ДНК Single-celled organism – одноклеточный организм Site-directed mutagenesis – сайт-специфический мутагенез (процесс направленного получения мутации в строго заданном месте полинуклеотида, гена или генома) Slaughterhouse – бойня, скотобойня; магазин по скупке продукции у мелких производителей по очень низким ценам Sleeping sickness – сонная болезнь Sludge – ил Sludge age – возраст ила Smell solely from smth – чувствовать запах исключительно чего-либо Snuff – лекарственный порошок для вдыхания через нос; вдыхание через нос, вдыхать через нос Soak smth in ethanol – впитывать что-либо в этиловом спирте Soaking herbs – всасывающие травы Soil microorganism – микроорганизм почвы Soil traits – особенности почвы Solid at room temperature – затвердеть, высохнуть при комнатной температуре Solvent extraction, effleurage – экстракция растворителя Solvent-solvent partitioning – разбиение/разделение растворителя Somatostatin inhibitors – ингибиторы соматостатина Soy – соя Space heating – отопление помещений Spasmolytic agent atropine – антиспазматический атропиновый агент 190 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Specimens of plant species – образцы видов растения Spectroscopy – спектроскопия Sperm whale – кашалот Spermicide – спермицид (средство, разрушающее сперматозоиды) Spew – изрыгать; выплескивать Spiced – пряный Spinal injury – травма спины Stalked ciliates – стебельковые инфузории Starting material – исходный материал Statins – статины Steam distillation – перегонка с водяным паром Steam-distilled oil – масло, перегнанное с (водяным) паром Stem – стебель Stimulant – стимулятор (вещество); стимулирующий; раздражитель Stimulant caffeine – стимулирующий кофеин Straggler – отставший; отбившийся Stripping – расчистка; удаление; отгонка; десорбирование Subsequent release in food – последующий отказ от пищи Suffer from viral illness – страдать от вирусных заболеваний Suffer with chronic pain – страдать от хронической боли Sugar manufacture – производство сахара Sulfonamides – сульфонамиды Sulfonated – сульфированный Sulfonylureas – препараты сульфонилмочевины Supercritical carbon dioxide – сверхкритическая углекислота; диоксид углерода в сверхкритическом состоянии Supercritical fluid extraction – сверхкритическая флюидная экстракция Supply – снабжать; поставлять; доставлять Surgery – хирургия Suspend – отлагать; находиться во взвешенном состоянии Suspended – взвешенный; суспендированный Suspended growth – рост во взвешенном слое Suspended growth system – система с суспендированной культурой Sustained use – устойчивое использование Glossary terms for units 191 Symbionts (i.e. higher-order multicellular organisms) – симбионты (т. е. многоклеточные организмы высшего порядка) Symbiotic microbes – симбиотические микробы Sympathomimetics – симпатомиметики Synergy – успешные, совместные усилия Synthesis and drug design – синтез и драг дизайн (разработка лекарства) Synthetic musk, white musk – синтетическое вещество с мускусным запахом; белый мускус Syrup (extract of herbs made with honey) – сироп Systemic absorption of alcohol – системная абсорбция спирта T Tailor-made medicine – лекарство, изготовленное по рецепту Take drug orally or rectally – принимать препарат перорально или ректально Take medicines for long periods – применять лекарственные препараты в течение длительного периода Tamoxifen – тамоксифен Tankage – вместимость резервуара; цистерна; отходы; осадок (сточных вод) Tannin – танин Tar products – продукты перегонки дегтя Tardive dyskinesia – поздняя дискинезия Terminus – конец (вектора); граница Terpenes – терпены Terpenoid – терпеноиды Tertiary structure – третичная структура The Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals – фармакотерапевтическая классификация The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations – Международный совет ООН по контролю над наркотическими средствами Therapeutic standard – терапевтический стандарт Therapeutic use – терапевтическое применение Thiazolidinediones – тиазолидинедионы 192 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Thin layer chromatography – тонкослойная хроматография Three-dimensional structure – трехмерная структура, пространственная структура, объемная структура, третичная структура Thrombotic events – тромботические заболевания Throw up – выбрасывать Thyme – тимьян Thyroid hormone – гормон щитовидной железы Tincture (alcoholic extract of herbs) – настойка (спиртовой экстракт из трав) Tincture fragrant materials – настойка ароматных веществ Tisane, herbal tea – отвар, травяной чай Tissue – ткань Tolerant of less oxygen – терпеть недостаток кислорода Tonka bean (a leguminous tree, having fragrant seeds used in the manufacture of perfumes and snuff) – диптерикс (бобовое растение с душистыми семенами, которые используются в производстве парфюмерных изделий и нюхательного порошка) Topical delivery mechanisms (salves, oils, balms, creams and lotions) – актуальные механизмы поставки (растворы, масла, бальзамы, сливки и лосьоны) Topical (systemic) analgesia – актуальное (системное) обезболивание Toxic to organism – быть ядовитым для организма Toxoplasmosis – токсоплазмоз Tradeoff – уступка; побочный эффект; соотношение; компромисс Tramadol – трамадол Trans fat – транс-жир (содержащий жирные кислоты типа «транс») Transfer – перенос; перемещение Translocate across the nuclear membrane – перемещаться сквозь ядерную мембрану Treat – обрабатывать Treat bacterial infection in humans – лечить вирусную инфекцию у людей Treat disease – лечить заболевание Treat infections – лечить инфекции Treating wounds with irrigation – лечение ран путем промывания Glossary terms for units 193 Treatment plant – очистное сооружение; водоочистная станция Trickling filter – бактериальный/биологический фильтр Tricyclic antidepressants – трициклические антидепрессанты Triglyceride – триглицерид Tripelennamine – трипеленнамин Tuberculosis – туберкулез Tuberose – тубероза Turn upside down – переворачивать с ног на голову Turpentine (produced from resin) – скипидар (произведенный из смолы) Twig – веточка U Ultimate function of the proteins – конечная функция белков Ultracentrifugation – ультрацентрифугирование Unattainable – недосягаемый, недостижимый Under optimal conditions – при оптимальных условиях Undergo anhydrous pyrolysis – подвергаться безводному пиролизу Underutilized resources – недостаточно использованные ресурсы Unicellular eukaryote – одноклеточный эукариот V Vacuum distilling tincture – настой/раствор, отогнанный под вакуумом Valdecoxib – валдекоксиб Valeric acid – валериановая кислота Value – значение; величина Vasoconstrictor drug/vasoconstrictor – сосудосуживающий препарат Vasodilators – сосудорасширяющие средства Vasopressin analogues – аналоги вазопрессина Venlafaxine – венлафаксин Vetiver roots – ветиверовый корень Via – посредством Via micropropagation – посредством микрораспределения 194 TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY Viable – целесообразный; возможный; успешный Vinegar – укус Violet – фиалка Vital to humans – быть жизненно важным для людей Viverridae (lat.) – хищное млекопитающее; плотоядное животное; насекомоядное растение Volatile hydrocarbons – летучие углеводороды Volatile oil – летучее масло; летучая смазка; эфирное масло Volatilized oil – растительное или минеральное испаряющееся масло Vomiting – рвота W Waste discharge – сброс/удаление отходов; сброс сточных вод Waste sludge – избыточный ил; удаляемый ил Waste stream – сток Wasted – отработанный Wastewaters – сточные воды Weeds (nettle, dandelion and chickweed) – сорняки (крапива, одуванчик и песчанка) Wheat gluten – клейковина пшеницы White musk – белый мускус Willow bark – кора ивы Worm – червь X Xanthine (for asthma) – ксантин (для лечения астмы) X-ray diffraction analysis – рентгеноструктурный анализ, рентгеноструктурное исследование Y Yeast – дрожжи Yellow fever – желтая лихорадка Glossary terms for units 195 Yew tree (bark is used for the cancer drug paclitaxel) – тисовое дерево (кора используется для лекарства от рака) Yield of high quality products – урожай высококачественных продуктов Yield useful medicinal compounds – производить полезные лекарственные соединения Ylang-ylang – кунанга душистая, иланг-иланг (дерево с прозрачными лепестками, масло которого применяется в парфюмерной промышленности) Z Zoopharmacognosy – зоофармакогнозия Zygote – зигота 196 KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit I Ex. I: antibiotic; antibacterial compounds; biological; adjuvant analgesics (or atypical analgesics); paracetamol and NSAIDs; COX-2 inhibitors. Ex. II: antipyretics; antipyretic medications/antipyretics; flupirtine; inhaled cannabis; antibacterials. Ex. III: heat; analgesics, NSAIDs; aminoglycosides; antibacterials; natural compounds; accidental overdoses. Ex. IV: 1c, 2d, 3a, 4e, 5b, 6f. Ex. V: 1. Analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain. 2. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules. 3. With advances in medicinal chemistry, most of modern antibacterials chemically are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. 4. In ethnobotany, plants with naturally occurring antipyretic properties are commonly referred to as febrifuges. 5. Bathing or sponging with lukewarm or cool water can effectively reduce body temperature in those with heat illness but not usually in those with fever. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit II Ex. I: operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis; aspirin, codeine, and morphine; surgery, folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds; first sulfa drugs, then penicillin and other antibiotics. Ex. II: drugs which are prescription only (POM); contraindications; medical guidelines and clinical trials; ecopharmacovigilance; pharmaceuticals. Glossary terms for units 197 Ex. III: drug prices; medications; pharmaceutical drug; prescription only medicine (POM); essential medicines. Ex. IV: 1b, 2a, 3c, 4e, 5d. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit III Ex. I: medicinal properties of plants; the carotenoids; bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals; red, yellow and orange shades; magical/shamanic, energetic, functional dynamic, and chemical. Ex. II: terpenes; phytotherapists; Yew trees; Hoodia; Magnolias. Ex. III: bee products; bark; herbs; carotenoids; physicians; plants. Ex. IV: 1b, 2c, 3d, 4e, 5a. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit IV Ex. I: medical ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, zoopharmacognosy, and marine pharmacognosy; one solution is to farm medicinal animals and plants, farming alone can never resolve conservation concerns; solvent-solvent partitioning and chromatographic techniques (examples: HPLC, VLC, TLC, and etc.); various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi), marine organisms. Ex. II: pharmacognosy; pharmacy; zoopharmacognosy; HPLC; ethnopharmacology. Ex. III: modern medicine; substances; drug action; application; distribution. Ex. IV: 1b, 2c, 3d, 4e, 5a. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit V Ex. I: computational biology/bioinformatics; cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities; biotechnology; to treat human diseases; Infliximab, Etanercept, and Rituximab. Ex. II: traditional pharmaceutical drugs; pharmacogenomics; biotechnology; biopharmaceuticals; vaccines. 198 KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES Ex. III: one application of biotechnology; deactivate; treat; starch; medicine. Ex. IV: 1b, 2d, 3e, 4c, 5a. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit VI Ex. I: prokaryotes, bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes, and protists; “total” bacteria, molds, and coliform bacteria; dust mites and spider mites; the nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, symbiotic (e.g. fungi and algae) form an association in lichen; every habitat in nature. Ex. II: eukaryotes; protists; bacteria; archaea; a microorganism or microbe; microbiology. Ex. III: infection; cause; nitrogen; pathogenic viruses; vacuum. Ex. IV: 1c, 2d, 3e, 4a, 5b. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit VII Ex. I: ultracentrifugation, precipitation, electrophoresis, and chromatography; the sequence of amino acids; the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity, and ultimately, and the function of the proteins; twenty; using information encoded in genes. Ex. II: polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins; peptide bond; obtaining protein sufficiently pure for laboratory applications; a polyamide; quaternary structure. Ex. III: proteins; array of functions; synthesis; nucleotide; selenocysteine. Ex. IV: 1b, 2c, 3d, 4e, 5a. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit VIII Ex. I: saturated, unsaturated; cis fats, trans fats; their energy content and melting point; trans; flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel. Ex. II: edible; unsaturated fats; older textbooks; commercially; eucalyptus. Ex. III: 1b, 2a, 3c, 4e, 5d. Glossary terms for units 199 Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit IX Ex. I: to formulate perfumes; labdanum, frankincense, myrrh, Peru balsam, and gum benzoin; fragrant; the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source; apples, strawberries, and cherries. Ex. II: perfume; maceration or solvent extraction; supercritical fluid extraction; an absolute; herbivores, infections, and to attract pollinators. Ex. III: fragrant; volatile; pyrolysis; dimethyl; odorants. Ex. IV: 1b, 2d, 3e, 4c, 5a. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit X Ex. I: glycolysis; lactic acid fermentation; lactate; oxygen; additional ATP, NADH in the citric acid cycle. Ex. II: lactic acid fermentation; glycolysis; homolactic; oxygen; pyruvate. Ex. III: yeast; fermentation; lactic acid fermentation; brewing; air; sugar solution. Ex. IV: 1c, 2f, 3d, 4a, 5b, 6e. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit XI Ex. II: pollutant; wastewater; living organism; treatment; biodegradable; clarifier; precipitation; chelating agent; by-product; food. Ex. III: treatment; include; living organisms; wastewaters; outputs; food; decrease; organic matter; pollution; degrade. Ex. IV: 1d, 2i, 3g, 4a, 5c, 6f, 7j, 8h, 9b, 10e. Ex. V: 1. Dairy wastewater should be treated by biological means. 2. The pollution from a typical dairy is organic material which is readily biodegradable. 3. Biological methods involve living organisms which use organic or inorganic substances for food. 4. Biological treatment is a process in which organic substances are used as food by microorganisms. 5. Organic matter is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and many additional elements in small amounts. 200 KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES 6. Microorganisms get rid of excess carbon atoms and excess hydrogen atoms. 7. Microorganisms exist in a hierarchical food chain in which bacteria and fungi feed on the organic matter. 8. Bacteria and fungi are the primary converters of organic materials into waste materials. 9. Microorganisms are unable to degrade some organic molecules in the untreated wastewater. 10. The degradation of organic matter by the microorganisms is not 100% complete. Keys for Revision Exercises on Unit XII Ex. II: anaerobic; suspension; sludge; dissolved; oxygen; retention time; tankage; predation; scarce; enzyme. Ex. III: suspended; oxygen; sludge; tank; predation; metabolize; effluent; droplet; anaerobic; conversion. Ex. IV: 1c, 2f, 3a, 4e, 5g, 6j, 7b, 8h, 9d, 10i. Ex. V: 1. Methanogenesis is the conversion of the products of hydrolysis and acidogenesis to methane and carbon dioxide. 2. Ethanol is the primary product of the hydrolytic breakdown of complex organic substances. 3. The anaerobes first convert ethanol to acetic acid. 4. Two important characteristics of industrial wastewaters as candidates for treatment are alkalinity and sulfur content. 5. Hydrogen sulfide is a byproduct of the anaerobic degradation process. 6. Methane recovered from anaerobic treatment processes is used as a source of energy. 7. Anaerobic systems can treat some substances that are not readily treated by aerobic systems. 8. Air diffusers are divided into two categories. 9. Air diffusers introduce bubbles of air into the liquid within the aeration tank. 10. As the food supply comes to an end and predation exceeds growth, the population declines. Glossary terms for units 201 LIST OF REFERENCES 1. Plant as a bibliographic database about medicinal plants / Maria C. Silva [et al.]. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. 2. Duke, James. Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases / James Duke // Nature Biotechnology, September 29, 2011. – London: Nature Publishing Group, 2011. 3. Herbal Medicine Past and Present: A reference guide to medicinal plants / J. K. Crellin [et al.]. – Durham: Duke University Press, 1990. 4. Plant Database. – London: Nature Publishing Group, 2011. 5. Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. – 1947. – Vol. 8. 6. Gilman, Alfred. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics / Alfred Gilman, Louis Sanford Goodman. – New York: Pergamon Press, 1990. 7. Woodard and Curran. Industrial Waste Treatment. – USA: Elsevier, 2006. 8. Essential Oils – Nomenclature: ISO 4720:2002. – Geneva: International Organization for Standardization, 2002. 202 KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES CONTENTS ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ ........................................................................... PART I. TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES .................................. UNIT I. CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINE ........................ UNIT II. PHARMACEUTICALS ........................................... UNIT III. MEDICAL PLANTS ............................................... UNIT IV. PHARMACOGNOSY ............................................ PART II. BIOTECHNOLOGY ....................................................... UNIT V. BIOTECHNOLOGY ................................................ UNIT VI. MICROORGANISMS ............................................ UNIT VII. TECHNOLOGY OF PROTEINS AND BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES ...................................... UNIT VIII. TECHNOLOGY OF FATS AND ESSENTIAL OILS .................................................................................................. UNIT IX. TECHNOLOGY OF PERFUME-COSMETICS PRODUCTS ............................................................................. UNIT X. FERMENTS AND VITAMINS ............................... PART III. BIOECOLOGY .............................................................. UNIT XI. WASTEWATER TREATMENT ........................... UNIT XII. TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER ............................................................................... APPENDIX ..................................................................................... A. IT IS INTERESTING TO KNOW ..................................... B. TOXICOLOGY OF ESSENTIAL OILS ............................ LISTS OF HERBS .......................................................................... THE LIST OF PLANTS THAT HAVE BEEN USED AS HERBAL MEDICINE ............................................................. THE PARTIAL LIST OF HERBS AND HERBAL TREATMENTS WITH KNOWN OR SUSPECTED ADVERSE EFFECTS ................................................................................. TERMINOLOGICAL VOCABULARY ........................................ ABBREVIATION .................................................................... GLOSSARY TERMS FOR UNITS ........................................ KEYS FOR REVISION EXERCISES ........................................... LIST OF REFERENCES ................................................................ 3 5 5 12 22 38 48 48 57 67 77 84 93 101 101 112 127 127 138 139 139 146 149 149 152 196 201 Glossary terms for units Учебное издание Романова Анна Михайловна Лесневская Галина Николаевна ENGLISH FOR PHARMACEUTICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Учебно-методическое пособие Корректор Е. С. Ватеичкина Компьютерная верстка С. С. Белявская Подписано в печать 04.09.2014. Формат 60×841/16. Бумага офсетная. Гарнитура Таймс. Печать офсетная. Усл. печ. л. 12,8. Уч.-изд. л. 12,2. Тираж 150 экз. Заказ 888. Издатель и полиграфическое исполнение: УО «Белорусский государственный технологический университет». Свидетельство о государственной регистрации издателя, изготовителя, распространителя печатных изданий № 1/227 от 20.03.2014. ЛП № 02330/12 от 30.12.2013. Ул. Свердлова, 13а, 220006, г. Минск. 203
