Cosmic Rays and Evolution of the Biosphere

Cosmic Rays and Evolution of
the Biosphere: Modern View
© 2013 Leonty
N.V. Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial
Magnetism, Ionosphere and Radio
Wave Propagation (IZMIRAN),
Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS)
I. Miroshnichenko
D.V. Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics
(SINP), M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State
University (MSU), Moscow
8th Winter Workshop and School on Astroparticle Physics
(WAPP)-2013, Darjeeling, India,17-28 December 2013
Prerequisites/Motivations/Goals
• The Earth’s biosphere was born and has developed with
permanent ecological factor, namely, with an ever
present background of ionizing radiations. The latter are,
first of all, natural radioactivity and cosmic rays of
galactic and solar origin (GCR and SCR).
• Above the Earth’s land surface at middle latitudes the
radiation background for 2/3 of magnitude is provided by
radioactive substances and for 1/3 - it is due to cosmic
rays (CR). Above the ocean surface the radiation
background is near completely formed by cosmic rays.
• It may be stated that even now the biosphere still
continues its evolution under changing radiation
conditions due to variation of background CR intensity.
• Cosmic rays as one of permanent ecological and
biotropical factors.
• Goals: Summary/review/revision/analysis of relevant
astrophysical, geochemical paleonthological and
biological data at modern level of our understanding.
Galactic Habitable Zone (GHZ)
Typical Spiral Galaxy. Our Galaxy (Milky Way) is
structured much like billions of other spiral
galaxies. The galactic disk contains a lot of
interstellar matter (like dust and gas), as well as
young and intermediate-age stars. While young
stars can be found scattered throughout the
Galaxy, the stellar population tends to be older in
the bulge around the galactic center.
Image Credit: NASA/STScI
•
•
It has been hypothesized that in an annular region of our Galaxy (Galactic
Habitable Zone, see the next slide) the conditions are best suited to the
development and survival of life as we know it. The GHZ was first proposed in
1991 by Guillermo Gonzalez (Iowa State University) and Donald Brownlee and
Peter Ward (Washington University), and has subsequently been endorsed by
a number of other researchers..
Outside the galactic habitable zone (GHZ), the theory goes, various factors
make the existence of complex (multicellular) life difficult if not impossible.
The current GHZ is said to extend from 7 to 9 kiloparsecs (23,000 to 29,000
light-years) from the galactic center, is widening with time, and is composed of
stars that formed between 4 and 8 billion years ago. The GHZ is analogous to
the much more well established concept of the habitable zone of a star.
Sun/Solar System in GHZ
According to the GHZ hypothesis,
the width of the GHZ is controlled
by two factors. The inner (closest
to the center of the galaxy) limit is
set by threats to complex life:
nearby transient sources of
ionizing radiation, including
supernovae and gamma ray
bursters, and comet impacts.
Such threats tend to increase
close to the galactic center. The
outer limit is imposed by galactic
chemical evolution, specifically
the abundance of heavier
elements, such as carbon.
According to one recent definition of the galactic habitable zone, as much as
10 percent of all stars in the Milky Way may have experienced chemical and
environmental conditions suitable for the development of complex Earth-type
life over the past eight to four billion years for evolutionary development.
The Sun/SS in spiral arms
Observed and extrapolated structure
of the spiral arms (density waves). The
gray lines radiating from the Sun's
position (upper center) list the threeletter abbreviations of the
corresponding constellations.
According to Gonzalez, over 95
percent of stars in the Galaxy wouldn't
be able to support habitable planets
simply because their rotation is not
synchronized with the rotation of the
Galaxy's spiral arms.
It takes the Solar System about 225–250 My to complete one orbit around the
Galaxy (a Galactic year), so the Sun is thought to have completed 18–20 orbits
during its lifetime (4.5 By) and 1/1250 of a revolution since the origin of
humans (0.180-0.200 My).
The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Galaxy is
approximately 220 km/s or 0.073% of the speed of light. At this speed, it takes
around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 8
days to travel 1 AU.
Sun/SS between other stars
The Sun (and therefore the Earth and the Solar
System) may be found close to the inner rim of the
Galaxy's Orion Arm, in the Local Fluff inside the
Local Bubble, and in the Gould Belt, at a distance of
8.33 ± 0.35 kiloparsecs (27,200 ± 1,100 ly) from the
Galactic Center.The Sun is currently 5–30 parsecs
(16–98 ly) from the central plane of the Galactic disk.
The Sun keeps out of the way of the Galaxy’s spiral
arms which contain disruptive
gravitational forces
and radiation.
The distance between
the local arm and the
next arm out, the
Perseus Arm, is about
6,500 light-years
(2.0 kpc).The Sun, and
thus the Solar System,
is found in the Galactic
habitable zone.
Main sequences of
the stars in Galaxy
The Galaxy “in profile”.
Arising matters: What is the most important?
• Habitat (environment): Current terrestrial
cosmo-biological situation (gravity, radiation,
solar activity, geomagnetic field etc.)?
• Paradox of the “faint early Sun” – observed
discrepancy between paleoclimate data and
astrophysical models of the Sun’s evolution.
• Variability of solar activity and occurrence rate
of solar flares in the epoch of “young Sun”?
• Inversions of geomagnetic field in the past?
• Cosmic rays and meteorites in the remote past?
• Occurrence probability of giant solar flares?
• Occurrence rate of SN bursts + Contribution of
dwarf stars? To estimate the true CR fluxes
coming to the Earth.
Let us consider:
• Cosmic rays and meteorites in the
remote past
• Occurrence probability of giant solar
flares
• Occurrence rate of SN bursts
• Contribution of dwarf stars (Pamela data)
• Astrobiology, cosmic rays and Martian
experiments
Isotopes
in meteorites:
Potassium
К-40, Т(1/2) = 1.3
Billion years.
Chlorine Cl-36,
Т(1/2) =
3.08×10^5
years.
A.K. Lavrukhina,
1969;
A.K. Lavrukhina,
G.K. Ustinova,
1990.
(V.I. Vernadsky
Geochemistry
Institute, RAS
Moscow).
GCR and Meteorites
Relative GCR variations in the past by long-lived
products of nuclear reactions in meteorites due to CR
bombardment: F(t) – CR flux at remote time t, F(0) –
modern level (data for 11 iron meteorites).
Cambrian Period, 550-510 MYA (Million Years Ago)…
Between ~300-900 Myr ago a summary flux of GCR
in the Solar system was ~1/3 of modern level.
Meteorites, GCR and Spiral Arms
• Current data for the spiral arm passages gives a
crossing once every 135 ± 25 Myr.
• A record of the long term variations of the galactic
cosmic ray flux can be extracted from iron meteorites. It
was found that the cosmic ray flux varied periodically
(with flux variations greater than a factor of 2.5) with an
average period of 143 ± 10 Myr.
• This is consistent with the expected spiral arm crossing
period and with the picture that the cosmic ray flux
should be variable. The agreement is also with the
correct phase.
• There are some “hints” in the Shaviv’s data that, at
least, twice through last 1By cosmic ray flux (CRF) was
~1/3 of modern level – at ~200 Myr and ~800 Myr ago.
• Nir J. Shaviv. Cosmic Ray Diffusion from the Galactic Spiral Arms,
Iron Meteorites, and a Possible Climatic Connection. Phys. Rev.
Lett., 2002, v.89, No.5, p.051102 (1-4).
SS passages through Spiral Arms
The top panel describes our passages through galactic spiral arms. The second
panel describes the predicted CR flux and the predicted occurrence of IAEs (Ice
Age Epochs). The third panel describes the actual occurrence of IAEs. The
fourth panel indirectly describes the variable CR flux. Due to the fact that the CR
flux is the "clock" used to exposure date meteorites, the meteoritic ages are
predicted to cluster around periods when the "clock" ticks slower, which is when
the CR flux was lowest, as is seen in the data (N.J. Shaviv, 2006).
Past Galactic arm crossings
A compilation of 74 iron
meteorites which were
K(41)/K(40) exposure
dated (Voshage &
Feldman, 1979).
To avoid real clustering in
the data (due to one
parent body generating
many meteorites) N.J.
Shaviv has removed all
occurrences of Fe
meteorites of the same
classification that are
separated by less than
100 Myr and replace them
by the average. This left him
with 42 meteorites.
(Nir J. Shaviv, 2002).
Cambrian Explosion of Life
• The Cambrian Period, 550-510 million years ago, is
often referred to as the dawn of the explosion of life,
because it is a time when great diversity of life forms
were first recorded as fossils. While multicelled
organisms (metazoans) actually evolved much earlier,
the story is poorly documented in the fossil record
because they did not have protective outer coverings
and soft tissue is rarely preserved.
• Most modern groups of invertebrates first appeared at
the beginning of the Cambrian Period. The major
groups were arthropods (animals with joined
appendages such as insects, spiders, crabs),
echinoderms (spiny skinned animals such as starfish),
cnidarians (including corals, jellyfish and sea
anemones), and mollusks (clams, snails and squids).
Biotic extinctions
and giant solar flares
• The occurrence rate of giant flares can be also estimated from some
circumstantial data. For example, it is suggested (Beland and
Russel, 1976) that the recently discovered 4 cases of extinction of
Radiolaria for the last 2.5 My were due to the occurrence of such
giant flares with a frequency ~ 10^(-4)/year coinciding with the
geomagnetic inversion period.
• Extrapolating their highest energies (>60 MeV) fit to long time
scales, Kiraly and Wolfendale (1999) obtained some new interesting
estimates. It turns out that while the highest fluence measured up to
now (in about 30 years) was 310^9 cm^(-2), one would expect in 1
My a few events above 10^12 cm^(-2), and in 100 My a few above
10^13 cm^(-2). This is far less than one would expect from flat
slopes found by Wdowczyk and Wolfendale (1977), but probably
more realistic. Thus, the largest solar particle events in geological
history should have been not more than 10^3 to 10^4 times larger
than those detected so far, giving rise to only moderate “energetic
particle catastrophes”.
• Those estimates, however, seem to be overestimated: see below our
estimates for the fluences of Φ(≥30 MeV).
SN bursts and biotic extinctions
•
•
Relative occurrence
rate of Supernova
bursts (solid curve) in
comparison with a
number of marine
animal genera
becoming extinct
during any given time
interval.
According to
Svensmark (2012), the
Galaxy let the reptiles
down. However, the
author’s correction for
the ocean level
changes rather
significantly the
original set of data and
should be undergo to
additional verification.
Terrestrial Climate in the Phanerozoic Eon
Variations of the concentration of the oxygen
isotope 18O (Veizer et al., 1999).
On the other hand,
there are
independent
climatic data
(Veizer et al.,
1999) that points
to the variations of
the concentration
of the oxygen
isotope 18O (as
one of the best
climatic index) at
large time scale.
All maximums
obtained by Veizer
et al. (1999)
coincide with the
Svensmark’s
curve.
PAMELA Results: New Challenge?
• Protons and helium nuclei are the most abundant components of
the cosmic radiation. Precise measurements of their fluxes are
needed to understand the acceleration and subsequent
propagation of cosmic rays in our Galaxy. Adriani et al. (2011)
reported precision measurements of the proton and helium spectra
in the rigidity range from 1 GV to 1.2 TV performed by the satelliteborne experiment PAMELA (Payload for Antimatter Matter
Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics).
• It was found that the spectral shapes of these two species are
different and cannot be described well by a single power law.
• These data challenge the current paradigm of cosmic-ray
acceleration in Supernova remnants followed by diffusive
propagation in the Galaxy. More complex processes of acceleration
and propagation of cosmic rays are required to explain the spectral
structures observed in PAMELA data (Adriani et al. Science. 2011,
Apr 1; 332(6025):69-72. E-pub. 2011, March 3).
• Stozhkov’s hypothesis: In our Galaxy, side by side the Supernovas,
there are other sources of CR in the PAMELA energy range. The
main candidates of this kind are so-called dwarf stars.
Ratio of the proton/helium fluxes
versus rigidity by data of PAMELA
Proton (left) and helium (right) spectra
measured in the range 10 GV-1.2 TV
The true CR fluxes near the Earth?
• It has been pointed out that there is no record of solar
superflares over the past 2,000 yr. According to the
measurement of the impulsive nitrate events in polar ice,
the largest proton flare event during the past 450 yrs is
the Carrington event, which occurred on 1 September
1859. The total energy released in this flare was
estimated to be of order 10^32 erg, which is only 1/1,000
of the maximum energy of flares on slowly rotating Sunlike stars.
• Maehara H. et al. Superflares on solar-type stars. Nature 24
May 2012, v. 485, 479 – 481.
• Flare activity of the Sun is less of ~ (3 - 4) order of
magnitude than that of the most active dwarf stars. The
latter may serve as cosmic ray sources up to the
energies of 1013 - 1014 eV. Life time of CR is ~ 10^7 y.
Cosmic rays near the Earth’s orbit
from SN bursts and solar flares
Integral occurrence rate of
SCR events at given
energy density at the
Earth’s orbit (top plots).
Estimates of ionization
contribution from SN
gamma-flash (bottom plots)
at the distance of 10 parsec
from the Earth (flash) and
from protons for the
periods of Earth’s stay in
SN remnant during 3 years
(3 yr) and during all the
time (all time).
Wdowczyk and Wolfendale,
1977.
Ionization effects from energetic
particles (GCR and SCR) and
electromagnetic emissions (Xand gamma rays from SNe).
Distribution function of SEP events
• Recently, some progress in the specification of
the distribution function of SEP events in the
range of Low Probabilities was achieved due to
new results of the study of Greenland Ice Cores
(GIC). Important (unique) data on the fluences
of large SEP events in the past were obtained
for the period of 1561-1950 (McCracken et al.,
2001; Townsend, 2003).
• In particular, it was estimated a fluence of
protons of ≥30 MeV for the largest SEP event of
that period registered on 1-2 September 1859
(Carrington event).
• Φ(≥30 MeV) = 1.88×10^10 protons/cm^2.
Solar Extreme Event of 1859
Peak flux #/(cm**2*s*sr)
1E+7
Integral energy spectrum of
1E+6
A
peak (maximum) fluxes of
1E+5
protons for the Carrington
1E+4
B
1E+3
event of 1-2 September
1E+2
1859 (solid blue line with
1E+1
stars), together with r.m.s.
1E+0
deviations (dashed blue
1E-1
1E-2
lines).
1E-3
Red line - Upper Limit
1E-4
Spectrum (ULS) for Solar
1E-5
1E-6
Cosmic Rays (SCR) by
1E-7
Miroshnichenko (1994,
1E-8
1996); green triangles 1E-9
1E-10
ULS corrected by
1E-1 1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 Miroshnichenko & Nymmik
MeV
(2013, in press).
Probabilities of extreme events
1E+1
Probability
Distribution function of
SEP events on the
1E+0
fluences of Φ(≥30
1E-1
MeV): points with the
1E-2
statistical errors –
measurement data
1E-3
onboard the spacecraft
1E-4
IMP-8 and GOES; blue
1E-5
diamonds – estimates
by the data from
1E-6
Greenland ice core;
1E-7
solid red line –
1E-8
distribution function (3);
triangles – our
1E-9
estimates of Φ(≥30
1E-10
MeV) by Kiraly and
1E-11
Wolfendale (1999)
1E+6 1E+7 1E+8 1E+9 1E+10 1E+11 1E+12 1E+13 data.
Ф (#/cm**2)
GCR + SCR bombard Mars
• Detection of the organic matter on Mars is one of the main
goals of the current and future Martian landing missions.
However, as noted by Pavlov et al. (2012), the degradation of
organic molecules by cosmic ray irradiation on Mars is often
ignored. The authors calculated the accumulation rates of
radiation dose from solar and galactic cosmic rays at
various depths in the shallow Martian subsurface.
• It was shown that a 1 Gyr outcrop on Mars accumulates the
dosage of ~500 MGy (MegaGrey) in the top 0÷2 cm and ~50
MGy at 5÷10 cm depths. It means that the preservation of
ancient complex organic molecules in the shallow (~10 cm
depth) subsurface of rocks could be highly problematic if
the exposure age of a geologic outcrop would exceed 300
Myr. On the other hand, it was demonstrated that more
simple organic molecules with masses ~100 amu should
have a good chance to survive in the shallow subsurface of
rocks.
• P.S. Martian magnetic field is ~ 1/500 of terrestrial one?
Astrobiology, cosmic rays and
Martian experiments
Exposure time (a) at 1 cm and (b) at 5 cm depths necessary for a 1000-fold
decrease in the organic molecules abundance vs. molecular mass of the
organic compounds. The “standard” Martian surface rock composition and
7 mbar atmosphere were assumed for calculations of GCR contribution.
Calculations of the organic degradation due to SCR assume that the
atmospheric pressure drops to 0.2 mb for 10% of Martian history in the last
billion years (for more details see Pavlov et al., 2012).
Earth – Mars: Atmospheres
and magnetic fields
•
•
•
•
•
•
Earth: Standard pressure P = 760 mm Hg = 1013.246 mbar = 1033.23
g/cm^2.
Horizontal component of geomagnetic field at geomagnetic equator
(Allen, 1964) – about 0.32 Gs (0.29 - 0.40 Gs).
Modern estimate: 0.31÷ 0.58 Gs = (3.1 ÷ 5.8) × 10^4 nT.
Mars: The diameter of Mars is 6,800 km across. This is 53% the diameter
of Earth. The mass of Mars is only 10% the mass of Earth. Because of the
small diameter and low mass, the surface gravity on Mars is only 38% the
gravity on Earth. If you weighed 100 kg on Earth, you would weigh 38 kg
on Mars.
A day on Mars lasts 1.03 Earth days. So humans could actually probably
adapt to the day length on Mars. And the axial tilt on Mars is 25.19
degrees. Very close to Earth’s 23.5 degree tilt. This means that Mars has
seasons where are very similar to Earths. Of course, since a year on Mars
lasts about twice as long as an Earth year, the seasons are twice as long.
There are two major reasons why the climate on Mars is hostile to life as
we know it. Temperatures on Mars can dip down to -87 degrees C, and
rarely get above 0 degrees C. But the biggest pressure is the lack of an
atmosphere. The atmosphere of Mars is less than 1% the thickness of
Earth’s atmosphere. Furthermore, it’s made up of 95% carbon dioxide –
this is poisonous to breathe.
Martian magnetic fields
• The current upper limit on the dipole moment remains
at ~ 10^(-4) times that of Earth. Today, the only other “direct”
information on Martian magnetism is from a special class of
meteorites which are thought to come from Mars. Magnetic
field analyses of possible samples of the Martian crust indicate
that magnetic fields of ~ 1000 nT may have been present on the
surface of Mars at the time that these meteorites were ejected
by a giant impact some 180 million years ago. For comparison,
the present field on Earth near the equator is about 3 × 10^4 nT.
The present upper limit on the dipole moment implies surface
fields of only a few tens of nanotesla.
• In some ways, Mars compared to Earth is
actually quite similar, but in most ways, Mars is a
totally different world, not suitable for humans to
live on its surface without our technology.
Probability to survive…
The GHZ in the disk of the
Milky Way based on the star
formation rate, metallicity
(blue), sufficient time for
evolution (gray), and
freedom from lifeextinguishing supernova
explosions (red). The white
contours encompass 68%
(inner) and 95% (outer) of
the origins of stars with the
highest potential to be
harboring complex life
today. The green line on the
right is the age distribution
of complex life and is
obtained by integrating P(r,
t) over r. Here P(GHZ) is a
probability to survive…
Charles H. Lineweaver, Yeshe Fenner, Brad K.
Gibson. The Galactic Habitable Zone and the
Age Distribution of Complex Life in the Milky
Way. (Science, Jan 2, 2004).
Evolution-Adaptation Syndrome?
• Modern response of biological systems to
cosmophysical factors (solar-terrestrial
disturbances) may be considered as an
ancient “atavistic reaction” on the
changes of habitat conditions, i.e. as an
Evolution-Adaptation Syndrome (EAS).
• This concept enables to change in wide
range the energies, forms and mechanisms
of effective external influence in the
development of theoretical models of the
biosphere evolution in the remote past (e.g.,
in the epoch of «young Sun»).
“We will never meet them…”
• A new paper by Falguni Suthar and
Christopher McKay (NASA Ames) “The
Galactic Habitable Zone in Elliptical
Galaxies,” International Journal of
Astrobiology (published online 16
February 2012).
• One of the comments (Henk): “We will
never meet one of those beings, maybe it
is better that we will never meet them. We
will never fight war against them. I think
that inteligent life is very rare, but not as
rare that we are alone…”
•
Thank you…
Acknowledgements
•
This work is partially supported by RAS_28 Program of Fundamental
Research “Problems of the life origin and formation of the biosphere”
(Russian Academy of Sciences).
• Some important references:
Л.И. Мирошниченко. ФИЗИКА СОЛНЦА И СОЛНЕЧНО-ЗЕМНЫХ СВЯЗЕЙ. Под ред. М. И. Панасюка. Москва, НИИЯФ МГУ: Университетская книга,
2011. - 174 с., 90 рис., 8 табл., цветн. ил.- ISBN 978-5-91304-191-3;
lib.qserty.ru/static/tutorials/133_Miroshnichenko_2011.pdf
В.Н. Обридко, Л.И. Мирошниченко, М.В. Рагульская, О.В. Хабарова, E.Г.
Храмова, М.М. Кацова, М.А. Лившиц. Космические факторы эволюции
биосферы: Новые направления исследований. - Проблемы эволюции
биосферы. Серия «Гео-биологические системы в прошлом». М.:
Палеонтологический Институт (ПИН) РАН, 2013. С. 66–94 (Труды
конференции, посвящённой памяти академика Г.А. Заварзина, 21-22
марта 2012 г.). http://www.paleo.ru/institute/files/biosphere.pdf
L.I. Miroshnichenko. Cosmic Rays and Evolution of the Biosphere: Search for
New Approaches. – Proc. Int. Conference “Space Weather Effects on
Humans in Space and on Earth”. Space Research Institute, Moscow, 4-8
June 2012. Editors: A.I. Grigoriyev, L.M. Zeleny. 2013, v.1, p.110-136. See
Web-site of SRI: http://www.iki.rssi.ru/print.htm
33
Contact information
• Dr. LEONTY I. MIROSHNICHENKO
• Sector of Helio-Ecological Relations
• Department of Physics of SolarTerrestrial Relations, N.V. Pushkov
Institute IZMIRAN, Troitsk, Moscow
Region, PB 142190, RUSSIA
• Phone: 007(495)851-02-82; 007(495)93958-68; 007(495)851-23-61
• Fax: 007(495)851-01-24
• E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract_1
In fact, cosmic rays flux from the Galaxy is
undergone to considerable spatial and
temporal changes. The cause of such changes
may be the Supernova bursts. In turn, the SCR
fluxes depend on the occurrence rate and
power of solar flares. Combined impacts of
GCR and SCR on the near-terrestrial space,
finally, are strongly determined by the level of
solar activity (SA) at present. Moreover, those
effects might considerably depend on the SA
level in the remote past of the Earth, during the
epoch of the “young Sun”.
Abstract_2
On the other hand, it was found by present time that GCR and
SCR have played an important role in different processes in the
Earth’s atmosphere. The latter are: ionization and excitation of the
atmospheric atoms, depletion of the ozone layer, production of the
nitrogen oxides (nitrates), operation of the global electric circuit,
formation of electric charge in the clouds and generation of
lightning strokes, formation of cloudiness and precipitation falls.
In geological past of the Earth the CR effects on the atmosphere
might be also closely tied with the variations of geomagnetic field.
Hence it follows a possible relation between CR, solar activity,
geomagnetic field and terrestrial climate that, in turn, determines
indirect impact of CR on the biosphere.
•
Meanwhile, for several decades a hypothesis is discussed on
possible direct impact of CR on the biospheric processes, in
particular, on the occurrence rate of mutations for some
organisms. This effect may be due to arrival of intense flux of CR
from the Supernova burst that happened near the Solar system.
Note, however, that after-effects of such radiation exposure may be
different for different species of the biosphere. For example, if
enhanced radiation in the dinosaur’s epoch might be a cause of
their extinction, for some other animals and plants considerable
increase of CR intensity could serve as a factor that favoured to
their further evolution.
•
Abstract_3
•
•
•
•
•
Of special interest is so-called Cambrian explosion in the biosphere (~540
My ago) when, according to some meteoritic data, CR intensity was about
1/3 of modern level.
As to giant solar flares of the 23 February 1956 type, according to some
estimates, might be a cause of four extinctions of Radiolaria within last
~2.5 My, especially in the case of coincidence of the flare events with the
periods of geomagnetic inversions.
In some recent experiments, there were noted effects of secondary
neutrons from CR on the cell structures (for example, during a series of
solar proton events in October 1989). It is important that GCR of extreme
energies (E ≥ 10^15 eV) with a high probability may initiate the lightning
strokes in the atmosphere, and this factor, in turn, could stimulate the
formation from simple organic compound of complicated molecular
complexes - “building blocks” of the life at the Earth.
In the whole, from astrophysical point of view, it would be timely, in
particular, to estimate anew the probabilities of SN bursts and giant solar
flares, taking into account accurately the transport time of CR from their
sources to the Earth etc.
As to the radiobiologists and genetics, they will have, to our mind, to
carry out new modeling studies with taking into account new real
information about cosmic ray variations in the past and in the present
time.
Young Sun and Biosphere
• Стандартная модель эволюции звёзд утверждает, что
4 млрд. лет назад Солнце излучало приблизительно на 30 %
меньше энергии, чем сейчас. При таких условиях вода на
поверхности Земли должна была бы полностью
замёрзнуть. В то же время, геологические исследования
архейских осадочных пород показывают, что в ту эпоху на
Земле был влажный и теплый климат. В условиях
глобального оледенения, возможно, не смогла бы
возникнуть жизнь.
• Большинство учёных склоняются к объяснению этого
парадокса глобальным парниковым эффектом,
действовавшем в ранней истории Земли, и вызванным
очень высокими концентрациями вулканических газов,
таких как углекислый газ и метан. Впервые эту модель
предложили и количественно анализировали советские
ученые Л.М. Мухин и В.И. Мороз.
• It is of great interest to study the “ancient” acceleration
processes which took place during the early evolution stage of
the Sun when it was an active young star of the T-Tauri type,
with a strong solar wind and a flare activity 10^3 – 10^5 times
as high as at present (Caffee et al., 1987).
Energetic particles near the Earth’s orbit
Дифференциальные
энергетические
спектры протонов и
некоторых других
ионов (слева) и
электронов (справа)
различного
происхождения по
наблюдениям на
орбите Земли. Для
сравнения справа
приведен также
типичный спектр
ускоренных
вспышечных
протонов (Lin, 1980).
Primary and Secondary Cosmic Rays
in the Earth’s Atmosphere
Historical SNe and nitrate oxides
Nitrate in polar ice
• Nitrate concentration in the South Pole
core representing ~1200 years (a), and
the time equivalent upper part of the
Vostok core (b). Historical SNe are
indicated for the respective nitrate
anomalies. Minimum errors (~10 years
for South Pole record; ~30 years for
Vostok record) are indicated by error
bars (Dreschhoff and Laird, 2006).
Nitrate concentration profile from the Windless Bight core on the Ross Ice
Shelf (Antarctic) by the data of Kansas University, USA (Dreschhoff and
Zeller, 1990). The x-axis is proportional to true depth below the surface; the
y-axis represents nitrate concentration in mg per unit of the entire length of
the core. At least three major flares occurred in 1928 (“white” solar flare in
July), 1946 (GLE on 25 July), and 1972 (two GLEs on 4 and 7 August) are
visible in the records as large concentration peaks. The increases above the
series mean are 7, 11 and 4 standard deviations, respectively.
Наталья Константиновна
Белишева
• Апатиты, Полярный Геофизический Институт.
• Докторская диссертация (2005):
• “Значение вариаций
геокосмических агентов для
состояния биосистем”
• Cell merging correlates with
Ground Level Enhancements of
SCR: Due to secondary neutrons?
Воздействие космических лучей на живые системы
Эффекты воздействия нейтронов на клеточные культуры во время
солнечных протонных событий в октябре 1989 г.
A
B
Клеточные
культуры
линии L в
спокойный
период (1) и
во время
солнечных
событий (2)
.
1
2
Cell merging
Нейтронный монитор, ст.Апатиты (А),
ядерно-активные частицы на земной орбите
и динамика индексов слияния клеток линий
L, CHO, FHM (Б)
Между возрастанием солнечных
космических лучей на земной орбите,
нейтронным счетом на поверхности
Земли и слиянием клеток существует
достоверная корреляция (p0,01).
CR and Lightning strokes
• A.D. Erlykin and A.W. Wolfendale. Long term time variability of
cosmic rays and possible relevance to the development of life
on Earth. Survey of Geophysics, 31:4 (2010), 383–398.
ГКЛ высоких энергий могут при попадании в атмосферу
вызывать развитие ядерно-электромагнитных каскадов,
называемых широкими атмосферными ливнями (ШАЛ).
Плотность заряженных частиц особенно велика в
центральной области каскада, называемой стволом ШАЛ.
Протон с энергией 1 ПэВ (10^15 эВ), падающий
вертикально на атмосферу, создаёт в максимуме развития
каскада и на расстоянии 1м от его оси ШАЛ плотность
порядка 3000 м-2.
При прохождении ШАЛ через атмосферу он оставляет след
ионизованного воздуха, в плазме которого присутствуют
тяжёлые ионы и электроны. Если такой ливень проходит в
районе грозовых облаков с высокой напряжённостью
электрического поля, то в области его ствола может
развиваться пробой на убегающих электронах.
Эти идеи подтверждаются как теоретическими расчётами,
так и результатами экспериментальных проверок. Хотя эти
проверки находятся пока что на начальной стадии, можно
утверждать что какая-то часть молниевых зарядов
действительно инициирована ШАЛ. Если в далёком
прошлом интенсивность КЛ высоких энергий,
инициирующих ШАЛ, была значительно выше современной,
то можно ожидать, что в эти периоды частота молниевых
разрядов превышала наблюдаемую сейчас.
В Восточных Хрониках есть указания на то, что в районе
Корейского полуострова за период 1400-1900 гг. частота
молний в начале периода была в 3-7 раз выше, чем в конце.
Short-term variations of CR over the period of 1 million years
by statistical model (Erlykin and Wolfendale, 2001).
The bin width is 1000 y.
CR and «buildings blocks» of life:
Formation of complex molecules
• An analysis is made of the manner in which the cosmic ray
intensity at Earth has varied over its existence and its possible
relevance to both the origin and the evolution of life. Much of
the analysis relates to the 'high energy' cosmic rays
(E>10^{14}eV = 0.1PeV) and their variability due to the
changing proximity of the Solar system to Supernova remnants
which are generally believed to be responsible for most cosmic
rays up to PeV energies.
• It is pointed out that, on a statistical basis, there will have been
considerable variations in the likely 100 My between the Earth's
biosphere reaching reasonable stability and the onset of very
elementary life. Interestingly, there is the increasingly strong
possibility that PeV cosmic rays are responsible for the
initiation of terrestrial lightning strokes and the possibility
arises of considerable increases in the frequency of lightnings
and thereby the formation of some of the complex molecules
which are the 'building blocks of life'. (Erlykin and Wolfendale,
2010).
CR and lightning rate
• Attention is also given to the well known generation of
the oxides of nitrogen by lightning strokes which are
poisonous to animal life but helpful to plant growth; here,
too, the violent swings of cosmic ray intensities may have
had relevance to evolutionary changes. A particular
variant of the cosmic ray acceleration model, put forward
by us, predicts an increase in lightning rate in the past
and this has been sought in Korean historical records.
• Finally, the time dependence of the overall cosmic ray
intensity, which manifests itself mainly at sub-10 GeV
energies, has been examined. The relevance of cosmic
rays to the 'global electrical circuit' points to the
importance of this concept (Erlykin and Wolfendale,
2010).
• “To go from a bacterium to people is less of a step than
to go from a mixture of amino acids to a bacterium”. —
Lynn Margulis, interviewed in The End of Science, by John Horgan.
Addison-Wesley Publ. Co., Inc., 1996. p 140-141.
Lightning and nitric oxides
• Perhaps less speculatively is the
role of NOx (NO + N2O) generated
by lightning strokes. It seems
that nearly 20% of the
contemporary concentration of
NOx is produced by lightning.
• Its rate of production would
certainly vary considerably. NOx
is poisonous to mammals but
promotes growth in plants. Thus,
an effect on evolution of species,
both positive and negative, is
likely (Erlykin and Wolfendale,
2010).
Considerable amounts of nitric
oxides are produced also by
solar cosmic rays (e.g., Crutzen
et al., 1975).
Relevant References
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1. V.I. Krassovskij and I.S. Šklovskij. Variation of the intensity of cosmic
radiation during Earth’s geological history and their possible influence on
life’s evolution. – Supplemento al volume VIII, serie X del Nuovo Cimento,
No.2, 1958, p.440-443.
2. Wdowczyk, J. and Wolfendale, A.W.: 1977, Cosmic rays and ancient
catastrophes, Nature, v.26, No.5620, 510-512.
3. P. Király and A.W. Wolfendale. Long-Term Particle Fluence Distributions
and Short-Term Observations. 26th ICRC, Salt Lake City, USA, 1999, v.6,
p.163-166.
4. Н.К. Белишева, Е.З. Гак. Значение вариаций космических лучей для
функционирования живых систем. Сб. научных докл. VII Межд. конф.
"Экология и Развитие Северо-Запада России» 2-7 августа 2002 г.,
Санкт-Петербург. С.118-129.
5. A.D. Erlykin and A.W. Wolfendale. Long term time variability of cosmic
rays and possible relevance to the development of life on Earth.
arXiv:1003.0082v1 [27 February 2010]. Survey of Geophysics, 31:4 (2010),
383–398.
6. Caffee, M., Goswami, J.N., Hohenberg, C.M., and Swindle, T.W.: 1987,
Solar flare irradiation in meteorites provides evidence for an early active
Sun, Proc. 20th Int. Cosmic Ray Conf., Moscow, USSR, 4, 299-302.
7. Beland, P. and Russel, D.A.: 1976, Biotic extinctions by solar flares,
Nature, 263, 259.
8. Crutzen, P.J., Isaksen, I.S.A., Reid, G.C., 1975. Solar proton events:
Stratospheric sources of nitric oxide. Science, 189, No.4201, 457-458.
References-1
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1. Л.И. Мирошниченко. Космические лучи в межпланетном пространстве. М.,
Наука, сс.160, 1973.
2. O.V. Bol'shakova, L.I. Miroshnichenko, and V.A. Troitskaya. Steady fluctuations
of the Earth's magnetosphere, condition for propagation of solar cosmic rays and
before the flare situation on the Sun. – In: Cosmic Rays, No 19. Moscow, Nauka,
1978, p.69-80.
3. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Biological effects of cosmic rays. - In: Mutagenesis on
Exposure to Physical Factors. Moscow, Nauka, 1980, p.187-205 (in Russian).
4. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Solar cosmic rays in the system of solar - terrestrial
relationships. - In: Problems of Solar-Terrestrial Relationships. Ashkhabad, 1981,
p.42-62 (in Russian).
5. Мирошниченко Л.И. Солнечная активность и Земля. М., Наука, 1981.
6. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Spectrum of solar cosmic radiation and dynamics of
radiation hazard in space. - Kosmicheskaya Biologiya i Aviakosmicheskaya
Meditsina, 1983, v.17, No.3, p.8-13.
7. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Variations of cosmic rays in the biosphere. - In:
Electromagnetic Fields in the Biosphere. Moscow, Nauka, 1984, v.1, p.33-39 (in
Russian).
8. Л.И. Мирошниченко, В.М. Петров. Динамика радиационной опасности в
космосе. М., Энергоатомиздат, 1985, cc.152.
9. Мигулин В.В., Мирошниченко Л.И., Обридко В.Н. Солнечно-земная физика:
Проблемы и перспективы. - Вестник АН СССР, 1987, №10, с.83-89.
10. S.V. Anisimov and L.I. Miroshnichenko. Electricity in the atmosphere. - Zemlya
i Vselennaya (Earth and Universe), 1989, No.4, p.14-22 (in Russian).
11. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Solar cycle 22: Helio-geophysical events of 1989-1990. –
Aerokosmicheskaya Tekhnika, 1990, No.8, p.71-75 (in Russian).
References-2
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
12. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Cyclic variations and sporadic fluctuations of solar cosmic
rays. – Biofizika, 1992, v.37, No.3, p.452-466.
13. L.I. Miroshnichenko. SOLAR COSMIC RAYS. - Kluwer Academic Publishers, The
Netherlands, 2001, pp.480.
14. L.I. Miroshnichenko. RADIATION HAZARD IN SPACE. - Kluwer Academic
Publishers, The Netherlands, 2003, pp.248.
15. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Shocks in the near heliosphere: Solar-terrestrial
disturbances in October-November 2003. - Our Sky, Kiev, 2004, №5/6, p.19-22 (in
Ukrainian).
16. A.S. Kirillov, Yu.V. Balabin, E.V. Vashenyuk, Kh. Fadel, and L.I. Miroshnichenko.
Effect of solar protons on the middle atmosphere composition during GLE of 13
December 2006 . – Proc. 30th Int. Cosmic Ray Conf., Merida, Mexico, 2007, v.1, p.773776.
17. Miroshnichenko L.I. Solar Cosmic Rays in the System of Solar-Terrestrial
Relations (Review). – J. Atm. Solar-Terrestrial Phys. (Special Issue of ISROSES
Proceedings), 2008, v.70, p.450-466.
18. L.I. Miroshnichenko. Solar-terrestrial relations in the 23rd cycle of solar activity. –
Odessa. Astronomical Calendar. Odessa, Astroprint, 2009, p.164-171 (in Russian).
19. Л.И. Мирошниченко. Проблема «Солнце-Земля»: Современные концепции и
физические механизмы. «Космічна Наука і Технологія» (in Russian). Киев, 2011,
т.17, №1, с.17-22.
20. Мирошниченко Л.И. Физика Солнца и солнечно-земных связей. Учебное
пособие. М., Издательство МГУ, 2011, cc.175.
21. L.I. Miroshnichenko and R.A. Nymmik. Extreme fluxes in Solar Energetic Particle
events: Methodical and physical limitations. – Radiation Measurements, 2013 (in
press).
Stozhkov’s ideas by Pamela results
•
•
"Наша гипотеза состоит в том, что в нашей Галактике, наряду со
сверхновыми, источниками космических лучей в области тех
энергий, где работает “PAMELA", являются так называемые
карликовые звезды", - говорит ученый.
Он уточнил, что карликовые звезды относятся к тому же типу, что
наше Солнце. Они не обладают большой светимостью и имеют
примерно такие же массы, как Солнце.
"Мы знаем, что на Солнце происходят вспышки, которые
становятся источниками частиц. Многие карликовые звезды
гораздо более активны, чем наше Солнце, и могут ускорять
частицы до энергий в тысячи и более ГэВ", - сказал Стожков.
•
•
Он пояснил, что такие звезды в нашей Галактике составляют
основное население, их более 90% от всех звезд. Однако из-за их
слабой светимости мы можем их видеть лишь на небольших
расстояниях.
Science, 2011, Apr 1; 332 (6025):69-72.
Our Real Knowledge/Truth Ratio
about the Universe
Above-water: Baryon Matter: ≈ 4%.
Under-water: Dark Matter ≈ 22%;
Dark Energy ≈ 74 %.
With the new generation of
missions and/or instruments:
We shall learn more!..