Interdisciplinary Academic Essays vol 3

Editor 1:
Dr. Dr.Ikechukwu. A. Orjinta
Fakultät für Sprach- und
Literaturwissenschaft
Ludwig-MaximiliansUniversität
Munich, Germany.
Editor 2
Bernard Darko. M.A
Moselstr. 27
60329 Frankfurt. am.Main.
Germany.
Secretary
Ludwig Bader
Munich, G
ermany
Interdisciplinary Academic Essays,vol.3
ELITEUNIVERSITÄTSJOURNAL
– AN INTERNATIONAL GENDER-AWARE JOURNAL –
Editorial Advisory Board:
Ervan Corveler(Aix-en-Provence, France)
Prof. Clemens Pornschlegel ( Munich, Germany)
Prof.Dew. Mayson (Monrovia, Liberia)
Prof.Dr.Andres Gonzalez( Ecuador)
Prof. Kayode. Ajayi (Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria)
Leonhard Otto(Munich, Germany)
Prof. Julius Benedict (South Africa)
Dr .Klaus Baake (München)
Dr .Joseph Adeleke (Lagos, Nigeria)
Jérome Deckert (Valenciennes,France)
Dr. Hubert. Schuler(München,Germany)
Prof. I.T.K. Egonu (Nsukka, Nigeria)
Vyacheslav Hnatyuk (Ukraine)
Prof. Louis Munoz(Madrid,Spain;Ibadan, Nigeria)
Dr. Christian Schwaabe (Munich ,Germany)
Prof. Joseph Ukoyen (Ibadan, Nigeria)
Prof.Sven Hanuschek(Munich, Germany)
Dr. Mmaju Eke (Eichstadt, Germany)
Ass. Prof. Olu Akeusola (Lagos, Nigeria)
Editorial Remarks/Vision
Elite-Universitätsjournal is an international Gender-oriented
publication(though articles are interdisciplinary in nature)
which target the academia in the elite-universities across the
Globe. Researchers are therefore invited to prove their mettle
by show-casing the fruits of their thorough research and indepth journal articles. We simply want to network our ideas
and by so doing bequeath to on-coming Generations
authentic knowledge in all disciplines. Write authoritatively !
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c. German
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a. Modern Languages Association Style preferred though
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b. Abstract of 200 words
c. 12 pt Times New Roman Font
1
.. Editor 1:
Dr. Ikechukwu. A. Orjinta
Fakultät für Sprach- und
Literaturwissenschaft
Ludwig-MaximiliansUniversität
Munich, Germany.
Editor 2
Bernard Darko. M.A
Moselstr. 27
60329 Frankfurt. am Main.
Germany.
Secretary
Ludwig Bader
Munich, Germany.
euniversitaetsjournal@liv
e.de
d. No foot notes
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problem/objective, method, result and conclusion.
(b) Six key words (minimum) for indexing or abstracting are
required.
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a. Articles are invited from all fields of knowledge.
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Symptoms of plagiarism must be rooted out since cases must
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to. Let our readers know
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Authors are responsible for problems that may arise because
of what they have
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submitted for publication; Referees may also not be left out. As a result contact
addresses of writers and their employers must first be ascertained.
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Dr. Ikechukwu. A. Orjinta (Editor 1)
Munich, Germany
[email protected]
Bernard.O.Darko.(Editor 2)
Frankfurt Main(Germany).
Ludwig Bader(Sec.)München, Germany.
(logo:M.Adekunle arts).
[email protected] / [email protected]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Trumpeters and Blowers of Knowledge
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
1. EDITORIAL.
2. MADUBUNYI BONI et al: GEOSCIENCES AND AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT
3. PROF DUSENKO DIMITRI D: ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ РАЗВИТИЯ КУЛЬТУРНЫХ И
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ НИГЕРИИ И УКРАИНЫ
4. PROF. LUBOSCH: ПСИХОЛОГО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ
ИЗУЧЕНИЯ
РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА ИНОСТРАННЫМИ СТУДЕНТАМИ
5. UZOKWE, JOHN: IMPORTANCE OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY AND
PRUDENT PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT TO THE LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT OF
NIGERIA IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM.
6. DR.DR. ORJINTA: AFRIKA-BASIERTE
AUSGEWÄHLTE DEUTSCHE LITERATUR.
LITERARISCHEN THEORIEN AUF
7. SENATOR ADEGBENGA SEFIU KAKA: NIGERIA AND THE ISSUES OF
UNEMPLOYMENT.
4
Editorial.
Elite-Universitaetsjournal enters its Vol.3 with yet more interdisciplinary academic essays. This
edition of our journal covers writings in Accountancy and lack of accountability in Nigeria,
medicine, Russian literature, Gender in African and German literature and intercultural dialogue as
well as Geo-sciences and African development. However our major theme centers chiefly on
Nigerian, nay African leadership and developmental problems such as unemployment as presented
by Gbenga Kaka, health as packaged by Prof Lubosch, lack of accountability and prudent
managerial skills as written by John Uzokwe, Gender complementality and intercultural dialogue as
analyzed by Ikechukwu, Orjinta.
Our shortlisted and carefully edited works are the fruits of research that are harvested from
scholars from the United States, Ukraine, Russia, Britain and Nigeria. These writings will be of
great benefit to students and researchers in the fields of learning listed above. If our journal is of
benefit to you, feel free to be part of us.
-
Dr. Dr. Ikechukwu. A. Orjinta
5
1. Geo-Sciences and African Development.
- Boniface Madubunyi
-Nicholas Dada
-Derek Skoyles
ABSTRACT.
Geosciences and African development, a review of existing geoscientific applications in Africa
followed by a description of a specific technology as used to enhance the development of the
deepwater hydrocarbon potential offshore Nigeria.
In the first section this paper reviews the needs that can be addressed by geoscientific techniques
and the importance of Geosciences in supporting African development. In conclusion it comments on
the future and how that development can be enhanced through effective government support. In the
second section it describes a particular use of geoscientific techniques to understand and then derisk
the development of the deepwater hydrocarbon potential offshore Nigeria.
In 2002 the oil industry was excited about new deepwater oilfields that had been discovered around
the world; the west coast of Africa including Nigeria and Angola looked particularly prospective. From
2005 onwards a number of expensive deepwater exploration wells were drilled on prime locations in
Nigeria yet block after block was written off as not being commercial. What went wrong is the
subject of this section, it is postulated that a missing pieces of the puzzle was an understanding of
the oil migration paths from source to trap.
6
Geosciences and African development, a review of existing geoscientific applications in Africa
followed by a description of a specific technology as used to enhance the development of the
deepwater hydrocarbon potential offshore Nigeria.
In the first section this paper reviews the needs that can be addressed by geoscientific techniques
and the importance of Geosciences in supporting African development. In conclusion it comments on
the future and how that development can be enhanced through effective government support. In the
second section it describes a particular use of geoscientific techniques to understand and then derisk
the development of the deepwater hydrocarbon potential offshore Nigeria.
Geoscientific Applications
Minerals
Africa’s rich reserves of minerals have a long history of mining and production yet vast amounts of
assets have yet to be found and mapped. Starting in South Africa commercially organized mining
began as long ago as 1867 when diamonds were found on the banks of the Orange River. The list of
minerals produced includes gold, copper, chrome, manganese, platinum, uranium and zirconium.
In the absence of better information the early prospectors worked through instinct and geological
understanding in order to predict where these minerals might be found. Only in relatively recent
times have the engineers accepted the role of the Geosciences in locating and commercially carrying
out mining.
The techniques developed by the Geoscience industry to support these activities were largely based
on measurements of background potential fields such as gravity, electromagnetic and radioactive
fields. Current electromagnetic techniques go a step further by creating a magnetic field designed to
search out specific targets. The data inversion methods and quality of recorded data gradually
7
improved until now they are routinely used to provide sophisticated 3D images of potential
accumulations.
Figure 1 Copyright South African Minerals to Metals Research Institute
Coal
South Africa is currently the world’s third largest coal exporter and Africa in general has large
amounts of coal ready to be exploited.
As an example of the contribution of geoscience, consider seismic surveys which are thought of by
many as tools to find oil accumulations. In recent years the seismic method has found its way into
the coal mining business by allowing mine planners to accurately define shallow seams for open cast
mining and to locate faults in deep coal seams. The knowledge of the location of a fault, its size and
8
its throw can make all the difference in planning a longwall mining campaign. The ability to predict
when a longwall operation will have to stop and be resituated is extremely valuable in order to
optimally plan using the mining equipment.
Oil and Gas
Oil exploitation has been supported by the application of geoscientific methods from the early
pioneering surveys in the 50’s before computers were ubiquitous through to the sophisticated 3D
and 4D techniques prevalent today. From Africa’s point of view the application of that technology
has always been the state of the art because the exploiting oil companies recognized the need to
apply the best available methodology – the difference is that in the early days application was
managed by the companies – it came, it was used and it went and the host country was a bystander
watching the process. The great progress is that most African countries have now developed their
own ability to employ geoscientific methods in order to indigenize the industry.
The indigenous practices can be illustrated by considering Nigeria. In common with many African
countries the oil business in Nigeria began with a few major western oil companies operating
onshore and in the shallow offshore. Nigeria implemented a catchall company tasked with
monitoring the oil companies particularly to make sure it received a share of production but also with
a responsibility to manage licensing and oversight. That government approach was itself supported
by pioneer indigenous companies such as Mabon Ltd who took the risk to self finance a non-exclusive
grid of shallow to deepwater seismic lines. That grid of data allowed oil companies to select the
blocks they wished to bid for in the licensing rounds. Every major mid to deepwater offshore field in
production in Nigeria was found on the Mabon data and the grid in multiple phases grew to more
than 60,000km and is still being expanded today. The latest lines are recorded with very long offsets
and long records aimed at understanding the deep seated geology and petroleum systems which
source the oil fields already found and likely have sourced oil reservoirs which exist but have yet to
be drilled.
9
Figure 2 Map to show distribution of Mabon Ltd seismic database in Nigeria (courtesy DPR and
Mabon)
Water
Water resources are unevenly distributed throughout the countries of Southern Africa. The region
boasts of some of the world’s largest lakes and rivers, but it is also a land of vast deserts. Measured
by volume the Congo River, rising in the East African highlands and flowing through the rainforests of
Central Africa, is second only to the Amazon. Lake Tanganyika, one of Africa's Great Lakes, contains
the second largest volume of freshwater in the world.
10
This manifestly uneven distribution has motivated many engineers and visionaries to devise plans to
improve the management of Africa’s water resources. Some of these plans have already been turned
into valuable water projects whilst a number of other schemes are in varying stages of completion.
These are major projects supported by geoscientific information which proves up geological integrity
for foundations of dams and hydrogeology to map water sources on a grand scale. On the micro and
local scale techniques such as Electroseismics are used to locate the optimum sites for boreholes to
be drilled.
Figure 3 Groundwater distribution in Africa Copyright BGR
Earthquakes
The probability and likely impact of major earthquakes in Africa are difficult to quantify. The
continent has limited historical records and there have been just three or four events of a
magnitude of seven or higher on the Richter scale since 1900 — compared with hundreds
globally in the last 30 years.
Yet a major earthquake disaster in the region is inevitable because wide areas of southern
Africa are affected by the slow southward spread of the East African rift system. It is not a
question of if, but when. And the consequences would be so expensive in terms of mortality
11
and economic cost that the risk of being ill-prepared is unacceptably high. As was seen in the
recent earthquake in Haiti and in China, major earthquakes can lead to large-scale loss of life
and property due to building collapse, fires and landslides on unstable slopes, and catastrophic
disruption of dam walls, water mains, roads, railways and fuel pipelines.
The technology required to monitor and predict earthquakes requires developing remote sensing
and geo-informatics technologies to integrate weather, climate, hydro(geo)logical, space-geodetic
and seismological observation systems. Geoscience provides new methods that can measure the
slow motions of the African plates using ground-based global positioning system (GPS) instruments,
in combination with radar satellites that detect subtle, centimetre-scale deformations along
developing fault systems.
Figure 4 Seismicity of Africa
copyright USGS
Environmental
Africa faces a significant environmental problem to balance the needs of the people against the
protection of many of the most fragile ecosystems in the world.
Numerous organizations have sprung up with the ability to monitor and spatially map eco
parameters. Using earth based and satellite measurements it is possible to see changes in a wide
12
range of surface conditions. Everything from natural events such as volcanic eruptions and the
weather to manmade effects caused by industrial effluent and urban development leave a footprint
which can be analysed and used as a basis to modify behavior. Those modifications in behavior may
be to move out of predictably dangerous locations or to impose regulations limiting pollution.
The current challenge
The descriptions above lead the reader to recognize that the Geosciences have been important in
supporting African development. On many levels through international partnerships with
governments, non-government organisations and commercial groups top quality geoscientific
methods and technology have found their way into African life. They are making a significant
contribution to improving the lifestyle of all Africans and will likely continue to do so. In addition to
the presence of Geoscience in Africa a number of initiatives have taken place to ensure that African
scientists are able to carry out and develop the technology on their own. Through a longstanding
effort to educate suitable candidates in foreign universities and businesses there is no lack of capable
individuals or service companies to maintain and develop these services.
The current challenge is simply to promote the correct political and regulatory environment that will
encourage a fast and sustained growth of geoscience within Africa. A number of investment groups
outside of Africa are concerned about stability and openness. They see the great opportunity to
become involved or grow their existing investment particularly in oil and mineral exploitation and are
ready to invoke the latest geoscience tools. The problem of stability stems from the long term nature
of many projects – with a time lag of seven years from finding oil to producing revenue it is vital to be
able to plan on regulations and commercial metrics that will not change. Openness too has become a
requisite way of doing business in America and Europe – Africa needs to buy into this paradigm for
doing business or put up with the fact that the Western companies will not be able to participate.
On an associated theme the reader may notice that there is no map of African energy reserves
displayed in this paper. The reason is that the maps available are already behind the times. Many
13
current map legends show oil and gas in North and West Africa but nothing in South East Africa
meanwhile the energy press is proclaiming a 40 TCF (trillion cubic feet) gas find offshore
Mozambique. Concurrently, the big change in the United States is the move from offshore to
onshore resources affecting the world gas price and the potential to influence energy exports for the
foreseeable future, Africa is way behind in this movement but the reserves exist and will be
resources for our children’s children.
Conclusion
In conclusion it is encouraging to report that the finest quality Geoscience technologies are alive and
well in Africa. These technologies have improved over time and continue to develop both on the
ground and through the use of remote and satellite technology. In addition a large corps of African
scientist are now trained and capable of using that technology and to develop it in industry and
university research sites.
In order to speed up and expand what is clearly a good thing for Africa, it is now up to the
government authorities to carve out a political reality which supports the infrastructure and
regulatory environment as described above.
The second part of this article focuses on an example of how geoscience and remote sensing can
positively affect the development of deepwater oil and gas prospects offshore Nigeria. It is important
to understand that oil and gas prospects must pass a series of tests before they can be classified as
commercial, one of those tests is that the prospect must contain adequate volumes of oil or gas or
both in order to be considered for development.
In 2002 the oil industry was excited about new deepwater oilfields that had been discovered around
the world; the west coast of Africa including Nigeria and Angola looked particularly prospective. We
will consider Nigeria where a number of huge prospects had been discovered and were being slated
14
for production and development. With the then ‘recent’ successes as a background a great deal of
money was invested in the Nigerian licensing rounds of 2002 and 2005 – the oil companies knew
there were large structures in the blocks being licensed and they were quietly confident that they
would be drilling into a number of oilfields in the two to three billion barrel range.
From 2005 onwards a number of expensive deepwater exploration wells were drilled on the prime
locations yet block after block was written off as not being commercial. The structures contained the
sands as predicted but they either contained less oil than expected or in some cases none at all.
What went wrong is the subject of this section, it was barely conceivable that in a mature province
the largest oil companies in the world would come up with nothing on eight separate blocks and in
each case the total investment was approximately four hundred million dollars or more.
The premise of this paper is that although the oil companies were drilling in a mature area where
models existed to explain the paleogeology and the structures could clearly be seen on seismic data,
one of the missing pieces of the puzzle was an understanding of the oil migration paths from source
to trap.
15
Figure 5 Map to show distribution of non-commercial deepwater wells
This paper presents the availability of a new seismic grid designed to help model those migration
paths and shows data which suggests that some of the structures that were drilled were never
charged with oil because pathways were blocked by mappable decollement planes which exist within
the source formations.
Introduction
This section leans heavily on work carried out by Radovich et al which was presented at the PESGB
Africa meetings in 2006 and 2007 plus the oral presentation by Skoyles et al at the DOWAC/NAPE
conference in Abuja in November 2010 – see references.
GX Technology Corp. in conjunction with Mabon Ltd shot two surveys in 2005 and 2011 designed to
be the basic dataset required to develop a new regional synthesis of the structure and stratigraphy of
the offshore Nigeria shelf to deepwater areas. The survey area encompassed the entire offshore area
and on this scale the geologic framework could finally be seen. These data have optimal
characteristics (long offset, long recording time, prestack depth migration) and resulted in advanced
deep imaging. This yielded a number of new interpretations including previously misunderstood
mobile shale structures and a clarification of structural links to the Akata shale stratigraphic
architecture.
Nigerian Offshore Setting
The Nigerian offshore is a passive margin with extensive gravity spreading of sediments. The
prograding of shelf sediments onto a thick Akata formation comprised of prodelta and marine shales
caused extension on the shelf and contraction in the toe. The cyclic sediment loading and
deformation resulted in a series of structural types as shown in figure 6, using the nomenclature
from Connors et al 2000.
16
Figure 6 Akata stratigraphy styles
The sea level chart Figure 7 (Haq et al.,1987 and Hardenbolet al., 1998) shows selected sequences for
the Neogene and the Akata Shale formation interpreted on the seismic lines in this study. The Akata
Shale Paleogene unit has been widely recognized as distal prodelta and marine shales but may
contain some lowstand sediments at major falls of sea level.
17
Figure 7 Sea level changes over time
Sequence Stratigraphy
The Akata Shale has been described by many workers to have a controlling effect on the structuring
and subsequent stratigraphy of the offshore delta area (Evamy et al., 1978; Damuth, 1993; Morley
and Guerin, 1996; Wu and Bally, 2000). The data in this study support this view and show that several
levels of detachment surfaces exist and are controlled by the stratigraphic architecture of the Akata
Shale.
In the quoted study 8 major sequences were interpreted in the Akata Shale. The sequence ages are
illustrated in Figure 8 compared to the sea level charts of Haq et al., 1987 and Hardenbol et al., 1998.
18
The sequences chosen were tied by limited well control on the margins. The ages were chosen on the
basis of prominent sea level rises and falls; these sea level fall epochs can be expected to be times
when sandy lowstand fans are deposited and encased in shales in the deep basin floor to ultra
deepwater offshore Nigeria. This represents a new play consisting of large, stratigraphic traps with
source and seal, and reservoir in close association.
Note that the condensed section unit is also regional in lateral extent and is the most likely location
of detachment surfaces and slip along these surfaces.
Figure 8
Sequence boundary and decollement/detachment surface interpretation
Reasons for failure
Oil company geologists armed with this information and a comprehensive grid of seismic data were
able to find and map prospective looking deepwater structures offshore Nigeria but when the
exploration wells were drilled no commercial pools had been found. This is after paying as much as
$200 million license fees just for the right to operate a block before the cost of drilling a well and the
host of ancillary costs that accompany that quest.
The question then is, why not? Clearly, size matters and in deepwater, size matters even more as the
development and production costs for deepwater fields are enormous. The structures drilled were
19
physically large enough because that had been determined from the seismic images but they
suffered from insufficient fill, a seal problem or perhaps had not been charged at all.
This paper concentrates on the third possibility and postulates that the structures had not been
charged and that the reason is that oil migration paths from source to trap were blocked by
decollement or detachment surfaces within the Akata shale. Those surfaces can be mapped using the
new data and hence for the future a further level of prospect derisking can be applied.
Figure 9 shows a regional line running southwest to northeast in the central western part of the
delta. The seismic data is migrated and imaged in depth and clearly demonstrates the vertical
hydrocarbon migration paths on the inner trend and the seaward hydrocarbon migration paths on
the outer trend below the decollement or detachment surfaces. Logically a portion of the available
hydrocarbons developed simply migrated out to the deepwater and either escaped or have been
trapped by suitable reservoir characteristics. The migration paths shown as green arrows indicate
where the hydrocarbons can move, it can be shown (Skoyles et al) that some of the uncommercial
wells were sited on the wrong side of blocking decollement surfaces and this is postulated as a
reason for lack of charge.
20
Figure 9 showing oil migration paths and potential block between oil and structure for Onigun
The understanding of migration paths and deformation timing is key to building a more complete
picture.
Conclusions
The mega geology of the Nigeria offshore to ultra deep water is advanced by the interpretation of
long offset, long record length, pre-stack depth migrated data. A key to understanding the delta is
the recognition of extension caused by gravity sliding and sediment loading on the shelf and inner
slope driving contraction at the toe in the deep water to ultra-deep water areas. This slip is
accommodated by several levels of detachment surfaces that were active from the Oligocene to
present day.
The deep imaged data clarify the location of potentially sealing decollement surfaces which could
have influenced the migration paths of hydrocarbons so that they were unable to charge the
structures clearly visible in the deepwater offshore Nigeria. In addition asymmetric detachment folds
within the mobile, Eocene-Oligocene prodelta and marine shales can develop and when these
structures are thrusted, eroded and planed-off at the top and reburied by younger sediments new
play types can be expected.
Acknowledgements
The authors particularly thank the GX Technology NigeriaSPAN™ team, and GX Technology
Corporation is gratefully acknowledged for granting access to their NigeriaSPAN™ seismic acquisition,
processing, data, and interpretation project results, and for permission to publish the results. We
would also like to thank the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), Nigeria, and Mabon Ltd. for
permission to use and show the seismic data.
References
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Connors, Christopher D., Andrew Knowlton, Michael. A. Kowalski, and John L. Smale, 2000, The
Influence of the basement on Neogene contractional deformation in the central Niger Delta [abs]:
Proceedings of the XXXI International Geological Congress.
Corredor, F., J. H. Shaw, and F. Bilotti, 2005, Structural styles in deepwater fold and thrust belts of
the Niger Delta, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 89/6, p. 753-780.
Coward, M.P., E.G. Purdy, A.C. Ries, and D.G. Smith, 1999, The distribution of petroleum reserves in
basins of the South Atlantic margins, in, N.R. Cameron, R.H. Bate, and V.S. Clure, eds., The Oil and
Gas Habitats of the South Atlantic, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 153, p. 101-131.
Damuth, J. E., 1993, Neogene gravity tectonics and depositional processes on the deep Niger Delta
continental margin, Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 11, p. 320-346.
Doust, H. and E. Omatsola, 1990, Niger Delta, in J. D. Edwards and P.A. Santagrossi, eds.,
Divergent/Passive Margins Basins, AAPG Memoir 48, p. 201-238.
Evamy, B. D., J. Haremboure, P. Kamerling, W. A. Knaap, F. A. Molloy, and P. H. Rowlands, 1978,
Hydrocarbon Habitat of the Tertiary Niger Delta, AAPG Bulletin, v. 62, p. 1-39.
Haq, B., J. Hardenbol, and P. Vail. (1987), Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic,
Science, v. 235, no. 4793, p. 1156-1167.
Hardenbol, J., J. Thierry, M.B. Farley, T. Jacquin, P-C. de Graciansky, and P. Vail, 1998, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic sequence chronostratigraphic framework of European basins, in Mesozoic and Cenozoic
Sequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, eds. de Graciansky, P-C., J. Hardenbol, T. Jacquin, and P.R.
Vail; Society for Sedimentary Geology, Special Publication 60, p. 3-13.
Morley, C. K., and G. Guerin, 1996, Comparison of gravity-driven deformation styles and behavior
associated with mobile shales and salt, Tectonics, v. 15, p. 1154-1170.
22
Radovich, B.J., C. Connors, A. Danforth, and S. Venkatraman, 2006, Insights into the deepwater
stratigraphy and structure of offshore Nigeria from new long-offset, pre-stack depth migration
imaging, in Extended Abstracts CDROM of the 5th PESGB/HGS African Conference, Africa: Elephants
of the Future, September 12-13.
Radovich, B.J., C. Connors, A. Danforth, and S. Venkatraman, 2007, New Plays and Structural Styles
Revealed From Linked Structure and Stratigraphy in Offshore Nigeria, in proceedings of the 6th
PESGB/HGS African Conference, Africa’s Petroleum Systems: From Outcrop to Deepwater,
September 11-13, 2007, CapeTown RSA.
Skoyles, D.M, A.Danforth and S.Venkatraman, 2010, A Regional Assessment To Understand Why The
Deepwater Toe-Thrust Prospects Of The Niger Delta Didn’t Work – What Untapped Reserves May
Remain? 3rd Regional Deepwater Offshore West Africa Conference & Exhibition (DOWAC)
14–19 November 2010, Abuja International Conference Centre, Nigeria.
Wu, S., and A. W. Bally, 2000, Slope tectonics; comparisons and contrasts of structural styles of salt
and shale tectonics of the northern Gulf of Mexico with shale tectonics of offshore Nigeria in the Gulf
of Guinea, in Atlantic Rifts and Continental Margins, eds. Mohriak, Webster and Manik Talwani;
Geophysical Monograph, v. 115, p. 151-172.
PROF DUSENKO DIMITRI D
ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ РАЗВИТИЯ КУЛЬТУРНЫХ И ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ
НИГЕРИИ И УКРАИНЫ
UNIVERCITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, DEPARTMENT OF FORIGN LANGUAGES
AND LITERARY STUDIES FACULTY OF ARTS.
Исторически сложилось, что народ Нигерии и Украины связывает дружба
и взаимопонимание. После того как Нигерия обрела независимость, Советский
23
Союз протянул руку помощи молодой стране, которая очень нуждалась в
развитии образования и производства.
Советско-нигерийские
связи
развивались
на
основе
межправительственных соглашений, по которым предусматривалось оказание
Нигерии содействия в развитии металлургической и нефтяной промышленности,
сельского
хозяйства,
проведении
геологоразведочных
работ,
в
сферах
здравоохранения и подготовки кадров. В 1982 г в ходе визита в СССР
нигерийской делегации была достигнута договоренность о помощи Нигерии в
строительстве металлургического комплекса в г. Аджаокуте. СССР выступил в
роли генерального подрядчика и взял на себя выполнение проектных работ,
поставку оборудования, строительные и монтажные работы, командирование
специалистов и подготовку местных квалифицированных кадров.
Между Нигерией и Советским Союзом поддерживались тесные научные и
культурные связи. Помощь СССР включала обучение нигерийской молодежи
различным специальностям. Около 3-х тысяч нигерийцев получили высшее
образование в университетах, институтах и техникумах разных городов
Советского Союза. В Нигерии с помощью СССР был создан учебный комплекс в
составе техникума на 675 учащихся, где готовился средний технический
персонал, и учебного центра для подготовки квалифицированных рабочих,
учебный центр по подготовке нефтяников на 500 человек, преобразованный год
спустя в нефтяной институт.
В свое время в Нигерии при помощи СССР были построены два
нефтепровода общей длиной 920 километров, которые перекачивали в год
почти 20 миллионов тонн "черного золота". В настоящий период, несомненно, в
этом крупном проекте может принимать участие и Украина.
Как известно, Нигерия не только самая населенная африканская страна,
но еще и 7-й по добыче нефти член ОПЕК, а ее промышленный потенциал на
континенте уступает лишь ЮАР.
24
Неудивительно,
что
после
распада
Советского
Союза
были
приостановлены многие проекты, и эту нишу незамедлительно заняли западные
компании. Те самые, что отводят и нам и Африке в процессе глобализации
мировой экономики роль лишь поставщиков сырья для индустриально развитых
держав. Вряд ли это устроит как Украину, так и Африку.
Экономика Нигерии в конце XX века
Африканский регион в 80-90-е годы стал сферой регулярной кредитноссудной
и
инвестиционной
деятельности
ведущих
транснациональных
компаний (ТНК) индустриально развитых стран. Приток международного
капитала
в
страны
континента
ускоряет
их
хозяйственное
развитие,
увеличивает доступ некоторых африканских стран к получению заимствований
с евровалютного рынка.
Иностранные инвестиции являются одной из движущих сил развития
современной мировой экономики. Данные о масштабах этого явления не могут
не впечатлять: в 1996 г. общий объем текущих прямых иностранных инвестиций
(ПИИ) достиг во всем мире рекордного уровня - 349 млрд. долл.; одновременно
глобальный накопленный их объем, на котором базируется международное
производство, оценивался в 3,2 трлн. долл. (в 1990 г. - 1,7 трлн. долл.). За 19801996 гг. накопленные в мире ПИИ увеличились почти в семь раз, а их доля в
общемировом ВВП удвоилась.
Крупнейшей страной Африки, куда направлено особое внимание ТНК и
транснациональных банков (ТНБ) является Нигерия. В экономике страны
насчитывается свыше 2 тысяч промышленных предприятий, но безраздельно
доминирует нефтяной сектор, где доля иностранных компаний составляет 65%.
Он дает 46% ВВП, 85% валютных поступлений, 80 % доходов госбюджета.
Несмотря на то, что Нигерия имеет огромные запасы нефти, 66% населения
находится за чертой бедности, а страна занимает 13 место в числе 20
беднейших стран мира, продолжительность жизни – 52 года, причем более
трети не доживают до 40 лет, неграмотность среди взрослых – 44%.
25
Банковская система Нигерии включает в себя более 160 банков
(Центральный
банк,
полугосударственные,
коммерческие,
торговые
и
специализированные банки) с более чем 1,5 тыс. отделений. Около 43%
кредитного рынка контролируют 3 крупнейших банка: First Bank of Nigeria, United
Bank for Africa и Union Bank of Nigeria. Действуют также 75 страховых компаний.
С
целью
стимулирования
роста
сельскохозяйственного
производства
коммерческие банки обязаны не менее 15% кредитов, а торговые - не менее
10% кредитов предоставлять аграрным предприятиям. Для развития мелкого и
среднего
предпринимательства
должно
использоваться
не
менее
16%
кредитов. Для торговых банков в эту категорию входят предприятия с
капиталом до 2 млн. найр или годовым оборотом до 5 млн., а для коммерческих
- до 500 тыс. найр. Банкам разрешено инвестировать не более 33,3%
акционерного или 10% капитала компании и предоставлять не менее 40%
кредитов предприятиям обрабатывающей промышленности. Торговые банки
отличаются от коммерческих сферой приложения капитала и срочностью
кредитования. Они кредитуют торговые операции путем выпуска ценных бумаг
и долговых обязательств на более длительный срок, чем коммерческие банки.
Наиболее крупными из торговых банков являются Investment Company of Nigeria
и International Merchant Bank.
С учетом числа жителей и многообразных ресурсов, Нигерия считается
основным рынком на континенте, что привлекает к ней партнеров по торговле
из Европы, Америки, Азии и Африки. Ее недра богаты нефтью и газом, углем,
оловом, колумбитом, золотом, известняком, бурым углем, цинком и другими
природными ресурсами. В числе продукции сельского хозяйства – какао,
земляной орех, каучук, хлопок, кофе, пальмовое масло, лес, бобы, ямс, имбирь.
Когда-то Нигерия была экспортером сельхозпродукции, но сейчас ввозит
продовольствие.
Для создания либерального инвестиционного климата в Нигерии и
реализации его преимуществ необходимо снизить барьеры для ввоза капитала,
определить стандарты соответствующего режима, задействовать необходимые
механизмы функционирования рынков в условиях конкуренции.
Инвестиционный климат Нигерии
26
Правительство
Нигерии
всячески
поощряет
приход
иностранных
инвесторов, предлагая им огромные ресурсы, которые ещё нужно разработать;
Нигерия – один из крупнейших в Африке рынков, имеющий выход на весь
западно-африканский регион; относительно стабильную внутриполитическую
обстановку; благоприятный инвестиционный и таможенный климат; развитую
кредитно-банковскую систему; значительные ресурсы дешевой рабочей силы;
относительно развитую сферу услуг.
На
внутреннем
рынке
страны
предоставляются
значительные
возможности для иностранных инвесторов и ввоза товаров, ассортимент
которых расширяется за счет участия Нигерии в ЭКОВАС (Экономическое
сообщество стран Западной Африки), где введено свободное движение
капитала и рабочей силы, а также предусмотрена отмена таможенных и
лицензионных барьеров.
В
Нигерии
действует
смешанная
экономическая
система.
В
промышленном развитии участвуют как частные лица, так и коллективные и
правительственные организации. Инвесторы могут владеть предприятиями
индивидуально или совместно с нигерийскими и иностранными фирмами. На
правительстве лежит обязанность стимулировать экономическую деятельность
через законодательство.
Реализуя политику индустриализации, правительство приняло план
структурной перестройки экономики, который получил уже признание мирового
сообщества, и правительство намерено закрепить достигнутые успехи путем:
а) диверсификации и регулирования экономики; б) обеспечения доступности
иностранной валюты через операции на международном обменном рынке;
в) либерализации инвестиционного и таможенного климата.
В краткосрочном плане многие филиалы ТНК после либерализации
таможенного режима понесли определенный финансовый ущерб, столкнувшись
с конкуренцией иностранных компаний на ранее закрытых для них высокими
тарифными
барьерами
промышленности
в
внутренних
Нигерии,
рынках.
примером
могут
Помимо
текстильной
служить
предприятия
автосборочной промышленности в Кении, и пищевой промышленности в
Замбии. В результате реформ занятость в этих отраслях в 1990-1993 гг.
сократилась более чем на треть. Однако в долгосрочной перспективе, по
мнению экспертов ЮНКТАД, иностранные инвесторы выиграют в результате
27
реформирования нигерийской экономики, с которым связывается поступление
необходимого
получение
капитала
доступа
к
и
технологий,
иностранным
снижение
рынкам
в
валютного
связи
с
дефицита,
повышением
эффективности и конкурентоспособности промышленного производства.
Для привлечения иностранных инвесторов правительство Нигерии не
только
ввело
систему
экономических
стимулов
для
инвестиций
в
производственную сферу (налоговые льготы на капиталовложения, на прибыли,
ускоренная амортизация зданий и оборудования, стимулирование экспорта), но
и структуры для поддержки инвесторов (создана система многочисленных
коммерческих,
торговых,
народных
банков
развития
как
источника
соответствующих фондов поддержки крупного, среднего и мелкого бизнеса).
Таким образом, наиболее перспективными отраслями для иностранных
капиталовложений являются "пионерные" и, в частности, пищевкусовая
промышленность,
переработка
сельскохозяйственного
сырья,
химическая
промышленность, производство бумаги, стройматериалов и оборудования
(особенно создание предприятий в глубинных районах), а также аграрный
сектор.
Объем инвестиций, полученных Нигерией в 1996 г., составил 1 млрд.
долл.(15,6% от поступивших на континент) и в 1997г. – 1,391 млн. долл. (24,9%
).
В среднем доля Нигерии в притоке прямых инвестиций составила в 19911996 гг. около 1%, т.е. вдвое ниже по сравнению с 1986-1990 гг.1.
Особенности нигерийского инвестиционного климата. В 1995 г.
рамках реформирования торговой и инвестиционной политики была учреждена
Нигерийская комиссия содействия инвестициям – НКСИ (Nigerian Investment
Promotion Commission - NIPC), которая поглотила и заменила Координационный
комитет по промышленному развитию. Указанная акция сопровождалась
улучшением инвестиционного климата в стране. В частности, иностранный
инвестор с этого времени мог создавать в Нигерии предприятия со 100%
иностранным капиталом (до этого доля иностранного капитала ограничивалась
40%). Ускорялись и сроки регистрации предприятий с иностранным участием: с
4-х недель до 14 дней после предоставления инвестором необходимых
документов.
28
После учреждения НКСИ предприятия иностранных инвесторов получили
гарантию
от
национализации
или
экспроприации
правительством.
Не
разрешалась отныне и обязательная практика уступки акций действующим
владельцем
другому
нигеризации
от 1972
предприятие
в
лицу,
г.
любой
как
это
Иностранный
отрасли
предусматривалось
инвестор
Декретом
об
мог теперь создавать
промышленности,
за
исключением
перечисленных в Негативном листе.
С 1995 г. иностранцы получили право вкладывать средства в предприятия
и валютный рынок страны в иностранной валюте, легально привезенной в
Нигерию. Кроме того, свободно разрешалось вывозить как доходы от
инвестиций, так и инвестированный капитал в случае продажи предприятия или
его ликвидации.
Несмотря на заметные положительные сдвиги в инвестиционном климате,
объем инвестиций в нигерийскую экономику был сравнительно небольшим.
Видимо, это было связано как с боязнью инвесторов потерять свои средства в
условиях наблюдаемой в стране политической нестабильности, так и тем, что
ежегодный приток прямых капиталовложений транснациональных корпораций
(ТНК) в страны континента не велик. Они составляют всего около 3% от их
мирового объема.
Тем не менее, во второй половине 90-х годов Нигерия занимала ведущее
положение в Африке среди реципиентов функционирующего капитала. Так,
наряду с Египтом, Марокко, Тунисом и Анголой, она получала 2/3 общего
объема иностранных инвестиций в страны континента.
Видимо, такое положение следует признать достаточно высокими,
поскольку в результате наблюдаемой в ряде стран континента тенденции к
экономическому росту, являющуюся следствием проводимых там реформ и
совершенствования механизмов, регулирующих экономику, абсолютный объем
капиталовложений постепенно увеличивается. Об этом свидетельствует и
пример Нигерии, где с середины 90-х годов осуществляются реформы,
направленные на совершенствование внешнеэкономической деятельности.
Немаловажную роль в увеличении притока иностранных инвестиций
должна сыграть и их сравнительно высокая доходность в Нигерии, в частности.
В 1980-1997 годах коэффициент окупаемости прямых инвестиций (т.е.
соотношение чистой прибыли и основного капитала) корпораций в Нигерии
29
лишь только в 1986 г. составлял ниже 10%. Для британских инвесторов этот
показатель достигал в среднем 29%, а их чистая прибыль от инвестиций в
1989-1995 годах увеличилась на 60%.
Однако увеличение капиталовложений остается вопросом перспективы.
Наиболее острой задачей, стоящей перед Нигерией является диверсификация
отраслей экономики, привлекательных для иностранных инвесторов - до
настоящего времени наиболее значительная часть капиталовложений из-за
рубежа концентрируется в нефтяной промышленности.
К проблеме притока прямых иностранных инвестиций тесно примыкает
вопрос о создании свободных экспортных зон (СЭЗ). Правительственный
декрет, регулирующий порядок функционирования СЭЗ, был обнародован в
1992 г. Первая, ныне уже функционирующая СЭЗ в Калабаре была учреждена в
том же году. Город Кано и Порт-Харкорт, объявлены следующими СЭЗ и в
настоящее время там ведутся соответствующие строительные работы. По
нигерийскому законодательству право получения статуса СЭЗ имеют и
предприятия, расположенные вне территории официально учрежденных зон.
Например, такой статус был предоставлен алюминиевому заводу компании
«ALSCON» в штате Аква-Ибом. Для нужд нефтегазовой промышленности
Нигерии
в 1996
Расположенная
г.
в
была
самом
основана
центре
Свободная зона «Онне/Икпокири».
Гвинейского
залива
она
становится
центральным пунктом материально-технического снабжения нефтью и газом
стран западноафриканского региона.
В поисках выхода из глубокого экономического кризиса, охватившего в
начале 80-х годов, Нигерия, следуя указаниям МВФ, пошла по пути структурной
перестройки экономики, основными лозунгами которой были ослабление
регулирующей роли государства, полная свобода рыночных отношений и
ускоренная приватизация.
Правительство
использование
обрабатывающей
страны
местного
стремится
сырья
промышленности,
и
чему
в
первую
очередь
материалов
способствует
на
увеличить
предприятиях
новая
тарифная
система, но препятствует высокая стоимость добычи сырья и плохая
инфраструктура.
30
Кроме того, усилия направляются на децентрализацию промышленности,
подавляющая часть которой сосредоточена в Лагосе и тяготеет к его портам,
так как рассчитана на импортные компоненты.
Промышленность Нигерии имеет тот же набор отраслей, что и в других
наиболее развитых странах Африки. Однако ситуация внутри них экономически
более сложная. Так, в черной металлургии существует два комбината в
Аджаокуте и Аладже общей мощностью 2,5 млн. т стали и несколько
сталепрокатных предприятий на 630 тыс. т проката в год. При этом завод в
Аджаокуте (начато строительство в 1979г. СССР) перманентно находится в
стадии реконструкции, а прокатные предприятия использовались в конце 90-х
годов на 10% мощностей. Поэтому внутренние потребности в стальной
продукции практически не обеспечивались.
Более успешно работает алюминиевый завод компании АЛСКОН с
участием германского и американского капитала и использующей местный
природный газ. Часть продукции завода экспортируется.
В стране действуют мелкие и средние предприятия по выпуску
оборудования для различных отраслей, инструмента, бытовой техники, теле- и
радиоаппаратуры, а также различных видов металлоконструкций.
Предприятия по сборке легковых и грузовых машин, расположенные в
Лагосе, Кадуне, Ибадане, Капо, Энугу и ряде других городов, не удовлетворяют
внутренний спрос и постоянно сталкиваются со сложностями при получении
импортных комплектующих и лицензий. Три шинных завода обеспечивают
примерно 60% потребностей.
Четыре нефтеперерабатывающих завода, принадлежащие компании
ННПК, не отвечают полностью ассортименту потребляемых нефтепродуктов и
требуют определенной реконструкции.
Относительно успешно функционируют завершенный в середине 90-х
годов нефтехимический комплекс в Элеса-Элеме около Порт-Харкорта,
использующий в качестве сырья нигерийский природный газ и экспортирующий
свою продукцию в США, страны Европы и Азии, а также завод азотных
удобрений в Онне, принадлежащий компании НАФКОН.
Предприятия химической промышленности, работающие на местном
сырье, загружены почти на 50%, что является неплохим показателем для
Нигерии.
31
Относительно
стабильно
работают
предприятия
промышленности
стройматериалов, в том числе цементные заводы в Сокото, Порт-Харкорте,
Ашаке и других городах, а также деревообрабатывающие и целлюлознобумажные комбинаты в Сапеле, Джеббе, Она-Ибоку и других пунктах. Правда,
ряд из них требует модернизации, что трудновыполнимо из-за нехватки
валюты.
Нигерийское правительство старается привлечь иностранный капитал,
участие которого может достигать 100% в любом новом предприятии
обрабатывающей промышленности. С целью привлечения инвесторов в
различные сектора промышленности, создана в районе Кала-бара экспортная
зона
для
перерабатывающей
промышленности.
Построен
аэропорт
и
реконструирован порт. Создание подобной зоны планируется и в ПортХаркорте.
Среди довольно, большого числа предприятий пищевой промышленности
наиболее крупными являются пивоваренные заводы в Ибада-не и Икеджи,
которые эксплуатируются на 60% установленных мощностей, мукомольные и
сахароперерабатывающие заводы.
Город Кано - центр текстильной и кожевеннообувной подотраслей.
Предприятия легкой промышленности обеспечивают занятость большому числу
нигерийцев.
Правительство
стимулирует
подготовку
национальных
кадров
на
предприятиях ТНК дополнительными налоговыми льготами. Так или иначе
пополняются валютные резервы, хотя бы за счет обмена твердой валюты на
местную с целью осуществления текущих платежей. Все это свидетельствует о
том, что районы открытой экономики способны стать своего рода накопителями
валютно-финансовых ресурсов для обеспечения в перспективе подъема
производительных сил.
Между тем создатели СЭЗ в Нигерии жалуются на недостаточный
интерес к ним иностранных инвесторов, озабоченных не столько финансовыми
льготами, сколько политической и экономической нестабильностью, низким
уровнем промышленной культуры и квалификации рабочей силы.
В конечном счете деятельность ТНК пока не полностью оправдывает
ожидания
нигерийской
стороны
в
отношении
модернизации промышленности.
32
активного
содействия
и
Современные проблемы Нигерии
Со времени прекращения правления в Нигерии военных и прихода к
власти гражданского президента О. Обасанджо цены на нефть выросли более
чем в два раза, соответственно значительно увеличились поступления в
государственную казну. В тоже время серьезными препятствиями на пути
ускорения развития остаются три основных фактора: недостаточное развитие
инфраструктуры,
наличие
значительного
количества
нерентабельных
предприятий в государственном секторе и негативное отношение инвесторов к
вложениям в нигерийскую экономику (за исключением добычи углеводородного
сырья). В таких условиях прирост ВВП в 2001 г., даже не превысил 3% (именно
настолько возрастает численность населения Нигерии в течение года), а приток
инвестиций в страну по сравнению с 1999 г. заметно сократился. Однако в 1996
г. после многолетнего сокращения роста, экономическое состояние Нигерии
заметно
улучшилось.
Темпы
экономической
активности,
которые
характеризуются уровнем ВВП, увеличились с 2,2% в 1995г. до 3,3% в 1996г., в
то время как уровень инфляции значительно снизился с 72,8% до 29,3% за тот
же самый период. Маловероятна реализация обещания правительства удвоить
в текущем году производство в энергетическом секторе. Несмотря на
дополнительную прибыль от добычи нефти (2,2 млн. барр. в сутки) в течение
последних двух лет, в стране имеют место перебои с энергоснабжением, а
очереди за бытовым топливом по-прежнему остаются повсеместным явлением.
Энергетический
сектор
Нигерии
характеризуется
высокими
энергетическими потерями (от 30 до 35% энергии не доходит до потребителя) и
низким уровнем доступа населения к электричеству (всего 36%). В 2001г.
Мировой Банк и Международная Ассоциация Развития выделили 100 млн.
долл. на развитие энергетического сектора Нигерии на стандартный срок - 35
лет.
В феврале 2001 г. Нигерию посетила делегация МВФ для оценки
перспективы использования резервного займа в 1 млрд. долл., который стал
основой для декабрьских договоренностей с "Парижским клубом" кредиторов о
пересмотре сроков погашения нигерийской задолженности. Специалисты МВФ
33
не рекомендовали резкого увеличения государственных расходов на базе
использования возросших доходов в нефтедолларах.
В
Нигерии
предприятий,
существует
которые
огромное
принадлежат
количество
нерентабельных
государству.
Приватизация
государственных предприятий, подавляющее большинство которых относится к
числу
малорентабельных,
до
сих
пор
проходила
крайне
вяло.
МВФ
рекомендовал скорейшее разгосударствление при минимальном вливании
государственных средств. В то же время бюджет страны предусматривает
расходы на развитие энергетики и черной металлургии, что свидетельствует о
приверженности правительства стратегии на усиление финансовой поддержки
ряда отраслей с последующей продажей действующих в них компаний.
На сегодняшний день «по данным МВФ, в последние десять лет в
Нигерии уверенно повышаются темпы экономического роста. Так, с 2001г. по
2008г. рост ВВП составил 8,8%».
В качестве доказательства того, что Нигерия вышла из кризиса 2008 г.
практически невредимой, министр финансов Олюзеган Аганга отметил, что в
первом полугодии 2010г. рост ВВП составил 7%, что, согласно прогнозу, еще
увеличится к концу текущего года, а страна может рассчитывать на двузначный
показатель роста, как минимум, не менее 10% к началу 2012г. «Эти уверенные
темпы будут далее стимулироваться амбициозной промышленной программой
по развитию инфраструктуры и приватизации энергетического сектора».
С оптимизмом на будущее страны смотрит и руководство Центробанка,
которое ранее предсказало не менее 7%-ого роста экономики в 2010г.
Комментируя экономические показатели 2009 г., который принято считать
пиком международного финансового кризиса, глава ЦБ Нигерии Ламидо Сануси
отметил,
что,
столкнулась
несмотря
в
2009
на
г.,
серьезные
рост
проблемы,
ВВП
составил
с которыми
6,9%
страна
благодаря
сельскохозяйственному и энергетическому секторам, показавшим в этот весьма
сложный год наилучшие результаты.
Основанием для такого непоколебимого оптимизма служит и тот факт, что
не только официальные нигерийские правительственные финансовые гуру с
гордостью отмечают экономические достижения Нигерии за последние два
года. В роли независимого эксперта, которого весьма сложно обвинить или
заподозрить в предвзятости либо в приукрашивании экономического и
34
инвестиционного облика Нигерии, выступает авторитетный всемирно известный
американский инвестиционный банк «Голдман Сакс». Так, в мае 2010г. в своем
отчете по группе Next Eleven, термин, используемый для обозначения группы из
11 государств с потенциалом стать ведущими мировыми экономиками 21-го
века, наряду со странами группы БРИК, «Голдман Сакс» сформулировал
весьма благоприятный прогноз будущего Нигерии. В частности, по мнению
«Голдман Сакс», она обладает возможностью опередить Италию, Канаду и
Южную Корею по экономическому росту к 2050г. при условии высоких темпов
прироста населения. «Возможно, этот «демографический дивиденд» послужит
попутным ветром для развития Нигерии, где в настоящий момент население
трудоспособного возраста составляет 53% от общего числа граждан, а через 30
лет возрастет до 65% от всего населения страны, которое к тому времени
удвоится. И если Нигерии удастся успешно реализовать этот потенциал, то
страну ждет яркое будущее
Интересы развитых стран в нигерийской экономике
Важную роль в развитии Нигерии играет иностранный капитал. За годы
независимости объем иностранных инвестиций увеличился более чем в 20 раз
и составил более 8 млрд. найр. В связи с тем, что Нигерия является бывшей
колонией Великобритании, более половины из них приходится на английские
инвестиции, В стране действует более 200 англо- нигерийских фирм, которые
имеют прочные позиции в добыче олова и колумбита, обрабатывающей
промышленности, банковском и страховом деле.
На долю более чем 150 американо-нигерийских фирм приходится около
15% иностранных капиталовложений, они действуют в основном в добыче и
переработке
нефти
и
газа,
нефтехимии,
комбикормовой
и
пищевой
промышленности, машиностроении, проектировании и строительстве.
С участием немецкого капитала создано около 260 фирм в черной
металлургии, химической, пищевой, машиностроительной промышленности.
Французский
нефтедобыче,
капитал
нефтехими,
представлен
в
автосборке,
геологоразведке.
35
смешанных
предприятиях
строительстве,
в
торговле,
Интерес к Нигерии проявляют японские фирмы, которые вложили
средства в смешанные предприятия черной металлургии, нефтяной и
автосборочной промышленности, производство радиоаппаратуры (более 60
компаний). Имеются смешанные предприятия с участием голландского,
шведского, швейцарского, испанского, болгарского, польского, венгерского
капитала и капитала азиатских стран
В 90-е годы сфера внешней торговли продолжала оставаться важнейшим
звеном и фундаментом системы внешнеэкономических связей Великобритании
с Нигерией. Однако, именно в этот период, наиболее отчетливо проявилась
долговременная тенденция утраты Великобританией внешнеторговых позиций
в бывшей колонии, выразившаяся в относительном падении доли страны в
экспорте и импорте региона. Одновременно происходило снижение удельного
веса Нигерии во внешнеторговом обороте Великобритании.
Причины спада англо-нигерийских торговых отношений многообразны.
Сюда
относится
снижение
конкурентоспособности
английских
товаров:
серьезную роль в ослаблении двустороннего торгового обмена сыграла и
кризисная ситуация в экономике Нигерии. Однако, одна из основных причин
застоя в торговле Великобритании с бывшей колонией заключается, в
неуклонном снижении интереса английской промышленности к поставкам
сырьевых товаров из Нигерии, в первую очередь, жидкого топлива.
В начале 80-х годов сырьевые богатства Нигерии действительно
представляли для британских промышленников значительный интерес. В 90-е
годы ситуация изменилась. Одним из важнейших сдвигов в товарной структуре
импорта можно считать резкое снижение доли сырой нефти. Великобритания
стала, по-видимому, единственной страной среди промышленно развитых
государств, в чьем импорте из Нигерии не превалирует сырая нефть - этот
ведущий сырьевой товар в торговле "Запад-Африка".
В 80-е годы британский капитал оставался по-прежнему одной из
ведущих сил в Нигерии, хотя и уступал некоторым из своих конкурентов.
Вместе с тем отчетливо проявилось снижение интереса британских компаний к
инвестированию в Нигерию, что отразилось в абсолютном падении стоимости
прямых британских капиталовложений в стране.
Основными финансовыми донорами Нигерии являются Великобритания,
США и Франция. Сумма внешнего долга в 2004 составила 34 млрд. долл. США.
36
В
2005
Парижский
задолженности.
клуб
Анализ
стран-кредиторов
отраслевой
списал
структуры
Нигерии
прямых
60%
всей
британских
капиталовложений в Нигерии показывает, что в отличие, например, от
относительно
односторонней
структуры
американских
инвестиций,
где
основная ставка делалась на освоение нефтяных богатств региона, инвестиции
Англии направлены "вглубь" нигерийской экономики, что является следствием
давних и традиционных инвестиционных связей, берущих начало еще в
колониальный период. Кроме того, можно отметить и такую особенность:
структура
капиталовложений
Великобритании
в
страну
определяется
производственным профилем 4-5 крупнейших британских ТНК, традиционно
ориентированных на африканские рынки. Сюда входят "Шелл" и "Бритиш
Петролеум" (нефть и нефтепереработка), "Лонро" и “Юнилевер” (пищевая
промышленность, агробизнес и розничная торговля).
Наиболее
сильны
позиции
английского
капитала
в
нефтяной
промышленности Нигерии. Особенностью британского нефтяного бизнеса в
Нигерии является его монополизация двумя крупнейшими нефтяными ТНК англо-голландской
"Ройял
Датч/Шелл"
и
"Бритиш
Петролеум",
причем
деятельность каждой из них в Нигерии отличается своей спецификой.
Деятельность англо-голландской группы "Ройял Датч/Шелл" носит более
масштабный и многосторонний характер. Компания занята разведкой, добычей
и
переработкой
нефти,
продажей
нефтепродуктов
и
производством
нефтехимических товаров. "Бритиш Петролеум" действует на нигерийском
рынке в более ограниченных масштабах: центр тяжести компании приходится
на сферу торговли нефтепродуктами и маркетинг.
Особое
место
капиталовложения
в
в
британских
обрабатывающую
прямых
инвестициях
промышленность,
35%
занимают
которых
сконцентрированы в Нигерии. В отраслевом разрезе наиболее весомая роль
принадлежит вложениям в производство продовольствия, а также в химическую
и резинотехническую промышленность.
Перспективы деятельности британского капитала в промышленности
Нигерии напрямую связаны с проблемой прибыльности инвестиций. Падение
прибыльности британских промышленных инвестиций в обрабатывающую
промышленность Нигерии привело к тому, что многие компании начали уходить
из страны или перемещать свои капиталы в другие регионы мира, например, в
37
Европу. Одним из последствий частичного ухода британских ТНК из Нигерии
будет,
возможно
возрастающей
деятельности
большая
степени
в
готовность
полагаться
обрабатывающей
оставшихся
на
компаний,
"неинвестиционные"
промышленности,
в
во
все
формы
особенности,
лицензионные соглашения и контракты на управление.
Особенностью
британской
экономической
политики
в
Нигерии
Содружества последних лет стало стремление к более рациональному
сочетанию в ней британских коммерческих интересов и интересов страныполучателя инвестиций. С одной стороны, программа британской помощи
характеризовалась высокой степенью льготности по сравнению с другими
странами-донорами из числа развитых государств. Около 99% финансовой
помощи предоставляется английской стороной в форме даров. Позитивной
стороной
для
развивающихся
стран
явилась
также
и
относительная
независимость британской помощи от политических условий и ограничений. С
другой стороны, большая часть британской помощи (около 70% в конце 80-х
годов) оставалась полностью или частично связанной с поставками английских
товаров,
причем
доля
связанной
помощи
у
Великобритании
наибольших среди стран-членов Комитета содействия развитию.
38
одна
из
По объему внешнеторгового оборота Нигерия занимает одно из
ведущих мест на африканском континенте. Внешняя торговля является одним
из основных источников валютных поступлений в экономику страны. Объем
экспорта в два раза превышает объем импорта: в 2005 экспорт (в долл. США)
составил 52,16 миллиарда, импорт – 25,95 миллиарда. Основу экспорта (95%)
составляет нефть; по объему ее вывоза в 2005 Нигерия занимала 6-е место в
мире. Экспортируются также природный газ, какао и каучук. Главные партнеры
по экспорту – США (47,4%), Бразилия (10,7%) и Испания (7,1%) – 2004.
Основные товары импорта – нефтепродукты, машины, химические товары,
транспортные средства, промышленные товары, продукты питания и живой
скот.
Главные
партнеры
по
импорту
–
Китай
(9,4%),
США
(8,4%),
Великобритания (7,8%), Нидерланды (5,9%), Франция (5,4%), Германия (4,8%) и
Италия (4%). Официальные данные внешнеторгового оборота не являются
полными, т.к. существует проблема контрабандных торговых операций с
соседними государствами.
Экспорт в 2009 году — 45,4 млрд. долл. — нефть и нефтепродукты (95 %),
какао, резина.
Основные покупатели — США 42 %, Бразилия 9,5 %, Индия 9 %, Испания
7,3 %, Франция 5,1 %.
Импорт в 2009 году — 42,1 млрд. долл. — промышленная продукция,
химические
продукты,
транспортные
средства,
потребительские
товары,
продовольствие.
Основные поставщики — Китай - 16,1 %, Нидерланды - 11,3 %, США 9,8 %, Великобритания - 6,2 %, Южная Корея - 6,1 %, Франция - 5,1 %,
Германия - 4,
Если российский экспорт в Нигерию товаров машинно-технической группы в
течение 2000-2001 гг. имел тенденцию роста, то динамика импорта в Россию из
Нигерии характеризуется снижением по сравнению с объемами в 1996-1998 гг. Импорт
России из Нигерии состоит в основном из какао-бобов и полуфабрикатов из них. В
небольших количествах Россия импортирует натуральный каучук и специи.
В 2001 г. сделан первый шаг в налаживании межбанковского сотрудничества.
Российский межрегиональный АКБ "Форте-Банк" и нигерийский "Холдмарк бэнк"
установили прямые партнерские отношения, что позволит осуществлять комплексное
39
обслуживание, включая все виды финансирования экспортно-импортных операций,
обеспечить гарантию совершения торговых сделок.
Если раньше все контакты осуществлялись по государственной линии, то теперь
налаживаются связи по линии частного предпринимательства. В Нигерии действуют
совместные предприятия в сфере рыболовства, строительства и транспорта.
В марте 2001 г. состоялся официальный визит в Москву Президента
О.Обасанджо. Руководители России и Нигерии подписали Декларацию о принципах
дружественных отношений и партнерства, представляющую собой развернутую
программу
взаимодействия
в
двустороннем
и
международном
форматах.
О.
Обасанджо встретился с российскими предпринимателями и пригласил российских
нефтяников и газовиков принять участие в разработке и освоении нефтегазовых
месторождений в Нигерии. По мнению нигерийской стороны, российские специалисты
могли бы принять участие как в разведке и добыче, так и в инвестициях и торговле
нефтью, а также в развитии энергетики в стране.
В июне 2003 г. состоялась встреча Президента Российской Федерации
В.В.Путина с О.Обасанджо на саммите “Группы восьми” в Эвиане. В сентябре 2003 г.
глава нигерийского государства находился проездом в Москве, где имел беседу в
аэропорту
Внуково
с
заместителем
Министра
иностранных
дел
России
А.П.Лосюковым.
В сентябре 2004 г. с космодрома Плесецк был запущен с помощью российской
ракеты первый нигерийский спутник, который позволит осуществлять мониторинг
чрезвычайных ситуаций, получать фотоснимки территории страны и собирать
сведения для геологоразведки и сельскохозяйственных целей. Тем самым Нигерия
присоединилась к "космическому клубу" стран Африки, куда входят Алжир и ЮАР.
В апреле 2004 г. был подписан Меморандум о создании нигерийско-российского
Совета по твердым металлам. Представитель Комиссии по развитию инвестиций
Нигерии (НИПК) Мустафа Белло заявил в этой связи, что Нигерия обладает
значительными ресурсами твердых металлов, а Россия - технологией для их
разработки, что позволяет сторонам наладить эффективное сотрудничество. Имеются
и другие примеры сотрудничества двух стран в сфере технологий. Так, во время
выборов 2003 г. в Нигерии независимая комиссия по выборам выбрала российскую
систему биометрической идентификации БИОЛИНК для регистрации населения
страны с целью исключить возможность фальсификации результатов выборов.
Российская система отличается простотой развертывания, доступностью и невысокой
стоимостью.
40
Во время визита О. Обасанджо министрами обороны двух стран было
подписано соглашение о военно-техническом сотрудничестве по модернизации
военной техники, поставлявшейся в Нигерию до 1991 г. (а это 30% всего военного
арсенала страны), поставках
военной техники, участии российских специалистов в
строительстве объектов военного назначения и подготовке нигерийских военных
кадров.
В настоящее время между Россией и Нигерией поддерживается активный
политический диалог, установилась практика обмена посланиями на высшем и
высоком уровнях, на регулярной основе проводятся межмидовские консультации,
последний раунд которых прошел в Абудже в июне 2005 г.
Осуществляются рабочие контакты в ходе сессий ГА ООН, в других
международных организациях.
В сентябре 2005 г. в рамках “Саммита – 2005” в Нью-Йорке по инициативе
О.Обасанджо состоялась краткая встреча с В.В.Путиным.
В настоящее время объем российско-нигерийских торговых связей находится на
низком уровне (доля России во внешнеторговом обороте Нигерии составляет 0,5%). В
последние годы отмечается его некоторый рост. В 2006 году, по данным ФТС России,
российско-нигерийский товарооборот составил 145,6 млн.долл. США. Основными
статьями российского экспорта являются черный металл, нефтепродукты, удобрения,
бумага, стройматериалы и автотехника; импорта – какао-бобы и продукты их
переработки.
В феврале 2006 г. компания “Русский алюминий” приобрела 75 процентов акций
стоимостью около 250 млн.долл.США крупнейшего в Нигерии предприятия по
производству алюминия “АЛСКОН”. В начале июня 2006 г. Нигерию посетила
делегация компании “РУСАЛ” во главе с ее замдиректора А.Я.Лившицем, которая была
принята президентом Нигерии О.Обасанджо.
В 2007 г. был запланирован выход завода “АЛСКОН” на проектную мощность –
около 200 тыс. тонн алюминия. Приход “РУСАЛа” в Нигерию позволит российской
компании создать замкнутый цикл производства алюминия на африканском континенте
(сырье из Гвинеи – переработка в Нигерии). Дополнительные инвестиции “РУСАЛа” в
завершение строительства и модернизацию завода в ближайшее время составят 150
млн.долл. США.
41
24 июня 2009 г. состоялся первый в истории двусторонних отношений
официальный визит главы Российской Федерации, президента Д.А. Медведева,
в Нигерию. По итогам переговоров на высшем уровне был подписан пакет
важных совместных документов.
В ноябре 2011 г. Россия подписала ряд двусторонних соглашений с
Нигерией и рассчитывает на их базе укрепить двустороннее сотрудничество
между странами. Как предполагается, основной акцент будет сделан на
укрепление потенциала нигерийских Вооруженных сил. Помимо военнотехнического сотрудничества, РФ предлагает организовать обучение личного
состава вооруженных сил Нигерии.
На
регулярной
основе
поддерживаются
контакты
между
торгово-
промышленными палатами двух стран. В 1998 г. была создана Нигерийско-российская
торговая палата, объединившая около 160 нигерийских компаний.
В марте 2006 г. сформирована российская часть Российско-Нигерийского
Делового совета, которую возглавил предприниматель А.А.Абрамян. Официальная
инаугурация нигерийской части РНДС, которую возглавляет известный бизнесмен Гуди
Ибру, состоялась 11 января с.г. 20 февраля 2007 г. в Москве было официально
подписано Соглашение об учреждении Российско-Нигерийского Делового совета, а
также Соглашение между Деловым советом “Россия-Нигерия” и Деловым Советом
“Нигерия-Россия” об учреждении Нигерийско-Российского Центра по сотрудничеству в
области торговли, промышленности, сельского хозяйства, здоровья, технических
разработок и информационных технологий.
В настоящее время на территории Нигерии работают дочерние структуры ОАО
«Газпром» и ОК «РУСАЛ». Объем взаимной торговли в 2010 г. существенно
сократился и, по данным ФТС России, составил 113,7 млн. долл. США (экспорт —
109,6 млн., импорт — 4,1 млн.).
Дипломатические
отношения
между
Украиной
и
Нигерией
были
налажены в 1992г. Украина – бывшая советская республика, имеющая огромный
промышленный потенциал.
Такие украинские города, как Киев, Харьков, Донецк,
Днепропетровск, входили в число элитных центров промышленности и образования
СССР. Поэтому много студентов из Нигерии учились в Украине. Многие из них
защитили докторские диссертации и в настоящий период занимают высокие посты в
различных отраслях экономики Нигерии, являются профессорами и преподавателями
в университетах Нигерии.
42
Посольство Украины в Нигерии начало работать в 2001 г. Истоки партнерских
связей между двумя странами восходят к 1960-80-х гг., когда тысячи украинских
специалистов работали на строительстве промышленных предприятий в Нигерии и
сотни нигерийских студентов учились в украинских университетах и институтах.
Украинские инженеры и техники принимают участие в реализации такого
большого проекта, начатого при содействии бывшего Советского Союза, как
завершение строительства завода Ajaokuta Steel, крупнейшего в Западной Африке.
Специалисты из Украины осуществляют строительство в г. Аджаокута Термоэлектрической станции, которая будет поставлять электроэнергию не только для
завода, но и для местных жителей.
Доказала свою эффективность такая форма делового сотрудничества, как
создание совместных предприятий. Совместная Украино-Нигерийская компания по
сборке и обслуживанию тракторов успешно работает недалеко от столицы страны
Абуджи. Также в настоящее время совместные предприятия с участием нигерийских
компаний работают в Украине.
Большие украинские компании, такие как "АвтоКрАЗ" - ведущий производитель
широкого спектра автомобилей, "Мотор Сич" - всемирно известного производителя
электрических генераторов, ОАО "Квазар" - производитель солнечных систем
отопления для промышленных и бытовых нужд, в настоящее время работают со
своими нигерийскими коллегами по поставкам своей продукции в Нигерию. Воздушно
транспортная компания "Украинские вертолеты" предлагает свои услуги в области
перевозки грузов, пожаротушения, аэрофотосъемки.
Нигерийское правительство и деловые круги проявляют искренний интерес в
привлечении промышленного и технологического потенциала Украины в реализации
программ
модернизации
экономики
Нигерии.
Украинское
бизнес-сообщество
становится все более и более активным в стремлении инвестировать
украинский
капитал в различные отрасли экономики Нигерии, в частности, через участие в
приватизации государственных предприятий.
В 2006 г. были подписаны соглашения, которые определили направления
сотрудничества между Украиной и Нигерией в космической сфере. В частности,
сторонами был рассмотрен проект Рамочного Соглашения между НКАУ и
NASRDA относительно сотрудничества в сфере исследования и использования
космического пространства в мирных целях.
Нигерия приглашает для совместной работы инвесторов из Украины. В
первую очередь эту африканскую страну интересуют украинские технологии и
43
опыт. Сам же рынок страны с населением в 140 миллионов граждан является
достаточно интересным для вложения капитала. По показателям ВВП - Нигерия
- лидер на африканском континенте.
В
г.
2006
«Индустриальный
союз
Донбасса»
приобрел
металлобрабатыващий завод Lugard Steel в Джосе. Там будут работать
украинские
предприятия
специалисты.
для
Созданы
строительства
украинско-нигерийские
дорог,
совместные
производства
строительных
материалов. «Южмаш» создал совместное предприятие для обслуживания
поставленных в Нигерию тракторов в городе Мина, штат Нигер. На базе этого
сервисного
центра,
возможно,
будет
создано
сборочное
производство.
Ожидается, что в Нигерии начнет работать совместная транспортная компания,
которая будет эксплуатировать поставленные из Украины тяжелые вертолеты
Ми-26.
Украинский посол в Нигерии Валерий Васильев, заявил, что украинское
правительство планирует строительство завода по сборке автомобилей в
Нигерии в рамках своего вклада в развитие отношений между двумя странами.
Он представил проект завода в Лагосе в сентябре 2011 г. Васильев также
заметил, что развитие торгово-экономических отношений Украины и Нигерии
отличается стабильностью и тенденцией к росту объемов торгового оборота,
поскольку Украина рассматривает Нигерию в качестве одного из ключевых
партнеров в Африке.
Перспективы сотрудничества Украины и Нигерии в разработке твердых
полезных ископаемых, таких как цинк и уголь, совместном создании нефте- и
газо-химических предприятий, например, для производства удобрений. В
Нигерии сосредоточена почти половина всех запасов газа Африки. По оценкам
British Petroleum, на территории страны залегает около 5 трлн. куб. м газа. По
газовым запасам Нигерия занимает седьмое место в мире, и считается, что
потенциально она вполне может войти в первую тройку.
Также
перспективными
геологоразведка,
заинтересована
добыча,
в
сферами
строительство,
Украинских
компаниях
сотрудничества
сельское
как
в
хозяйство.
участниках
являются
Нигерия
создания
предприятий по системам очистки воды, бурового оборудования. Есть хорошие
возможности сотрудничества в высокотехнологичных отраслях, в частности,
аэрокосмической сфере и телекоммуникациях. Но,к сожалению,руководство
44
стран
не
проявляет
должного
интереса
к
развитию
взаимовыгодных
экономических отношений.
Особого внимания требуют вопросы образования.В этой сфере не нужны
большие
инвистиции.В
образования,которая
Украине
высоко
создана
мощная
зарекомендовала
себя
система
еще
высшего
со
времен
СССР.Тысячи и тысячи молодых людей Нигерии горят желанием учиться в
университетах Украины.
Но большинство из них не могут получить визу,а,
следовательно, и не могут учиться в Украине.Такое положение дел может
изменить
только
подписание
регламентирующих
межправительственных
документов.
Ряд университетов Украины(Национальный аэрокосмический университет
«ХАИ»,Запорожский Государственный медицинский университет ,Потавский
национальный технический универсиет) заключили договора о совместном
обучении
нигерийских
студентов
с
академией(Нигерия).Прорабатывается
университетом
вопрос
открытия
Уйо
их
и
Дойен
филиалов
в
Нигерии.
Очень актуально и своевременно обсуждается открытие «Украинского
культурного центра» на базе Университета Нигерии.
Готовность Украины и Нигерии углубить свои отношения, отсутствие
расхождения во взглядах на принципиальные вопросы внешней политики,
положительный опыт сотрудничества в рамках международных организаций,
широкий спектр взаимных интересов представителей деловых кругов обеих
стран дают все основания для вывода, что Украино-Нигерийские отношения
будут и далее развиваться и Нигерия будет оставаться одним из основных
партнеров Украины в Африке.
Литература
1. Руднов Б. Б. Интеграция Африки в Глобальную экономику (тенденции,
проблемы, перспективы). – М., 1999.
2. Африка: новые тенденции в экономической политике. – М., 2000.
45
3. Большов И.Г. «Нигерия: кризис в экономике»
4. Гончаров В.И. «Индустриализация и пути становления национальной экономики
Нигерии»
5. Куприянов «Россия и Нигерия: Сотрудничество возрождается»
6. Transnational Banks: Operations, Strategies and their Effects in Developing
Countries. United Nations of Transnational Corporations. UN, N.Y., 1992.
7. Foreign Direct Investment in Africa. UNCTAD.N.Y.1995. p.30
8. World Investment Report 1997. UNCTAD. N.Y. 1997.
9. UNCTAD Press Release Tad/INF/2782. Geneva,1998, November 2.
10. Industrial development. Global Report. N.Y.1998.
11. The Guardian. Lagos, 2000, January 5.
46
Психолого-педагогические
иностранными студентами
аспекты
изучения
русского
языка
Л.М. Балабанова
Сегодня во всем мировом сообществе наблюдаются динамичные
трансформационные
процессы,
которые
обостряют
проблему
профессионального самоопределения и самореализации студенческой
молодежи.
Глобализация влечет за собой интенсивный обмен
информацией, изучение культурных традиций тех или иных стран, обмен
опытом и образовательными ресурсами.
Знание русского языка
становится естествен-ной и осознанной необходимостью
граждан,
которые
хотят
учиться
на
постсоветском
зарубежных
пространстве.
Необходимость того, чтобы иностранные студенты, получающие высшее
образование, овладели умения-ми говорения, слушания, чтения и письма,
выдвигает комплексный подход к обучению разным видам речевой
деятельности . Эту проблему важно решить на начальном этапе обучения,
когда закладываются основы владения языком.
Практика показывает, что усвоение иностранными студентами
законов русского словообразования происходит трудно. При образовании
производных слов ими допускается множество ошибок. Бедность
словарного запаса студентов-иноетранцев объясняется незнанием ими
законов словообразования [ 1 ]. . Это требует интенсификации поиска
эффективных путей обучения иностранных студентов таким видам видам
речевой деятельности, которые будут
основываться на методах
структурирования русского языка. Практическая реализация такого
комплексного обучения студентов всем видам речевой деятельности в
процессе
является
структурного изучения языка русского как иностранного
чрезвычайно
своевременной
47
и
актуальной.
В
связи
с
изложенным,
необходимо
усовершенствования
вести
исследования
в
плане
методики преподавания русского языка как
иностранного и интенсифицировать
научные изыскания в этом
направлении.
Теоретические аспекты проблемы нашли свое отражение в работах
ведущих отечественных и зарубежных специалистов, занимающихся
вопросами семантизации русской и иностранной лексики таких как: Л.В.
Щерба, С.Д. Пурцеладзе, Е.Д. Батиашвили, Н.И. Гез и др. Дальнейшими
исследованиями было показано, что главное
научить-ся
производить
слова
в изучении языка – это
(существительные,
глаголы,
прилагательные и т.д.), а для этого нужно показать, что слова в русском
языке не существуют изолированно друг от друга, что между ними
существуют системные связи. Этой проблеме посвятили свои труды такие
ученые, как А.И. Смирницкий, А.В. Щерба, В.В. Виноградов, Д.Н. Шмелев.
Другими
словами,
чтобы
студент-иностранец
мог
производить
и
раскрывать значение слова, надо усвоить закон моделирования слов и
предложений по схемам и видеть единую порождающую их суть [ 2 ]. В
диссертационном
качественно
исследовании
новая
Б.П.
Тажева
лингводидактическая
[3]
единица,
рассматривается
которая
дает
возможность объяснить словообразовательный акт в плане а) выражения
и б) значения. Впервые она была предложена М.Ш. Шекихачевой [ 4 ].
под названием «инвариант словообразовательного типа», как основная
единица словообразовательной системы, разработанная на стыке трех
наук
-
структурной
лингвистики,
экспериментальной
методики
и
психологии.
Понимание
закономерностей
восприятия
и
переработки
информации лежит в особенностях работы мозга человека и его отделов –
48
правого и левого полушарий. Из психологии известно, что именно правое
полушарие мозга ответственно за установление адекватных смысловых
связей, выбор значимых признаков и мгновенный синтез целостного
образа. Таким образом, процесс идентификации явлений, а значит и
словесных конструкций осуществляется благодаря формированию правым
полушарием мозга целостных образов-эталонов. Левое полушарие вводит
опознаваемый образ в широкие обобщенные классы явлений, соотносит с
определенными
ситуации.
схемами,
Другими
обеспечивает
словами,
головного мозга определяется
Предполагается,
что
левое
логическое
специализация
осмысление
больших
полушарий
способом переработки информации.
полушарие
использует
аналитическую
стратегию, связано с вербально-символическими функциями, участвует в
переработке формальной, внеличностной информации, соотносящейся с
прошлым опытом и памятью. Правое полушарие использует глобальную
синтетическую стратегию, обеспечивает пространственно-интуитивное,
эмоционально-образное
мышление,
отвечает
за
переработку
информации, ранее незнакомой и не связанной с прошлым опытом.
Эти особенности работы мозга необходимо учитывать при изучении
русского языка как иностранного, используя для изучения новых слов и
речевых
конструкций
ассоциации [1 ].
визуально-пространственные
отношения
и
Особенно это важно в условиях возрастания
интенсивности и плотности информационного потока, когда сознание
субъекта начинает спонтанно формировать систему ассоциативных связей,
образуя смысловые конструкты, укладывающиеся
в определенные
смысловые категории. Другими словами, изыскания в области изучения
языка должны
акцентировать
внимание двух важнейших факторах,
обеспечивающих восприятие и запоминание
49
информации – это
ассоциации и выразительность ментального образа. [ 5].
Но, чем
больше алгоритм образования смысловых категорий приближается к
линейной, или последовательной, форме, тем быстрее наступает
информационное перенасыщение и человек не в состоянии создать
высокую смысловую плотность. В результате информация поступает,
анализируется и тут же сбрасывается, не достигнув уровня такой
константы, после которой возникает фрактальная генерация. Для
прохождения
на
следующий
уровень
необходимо
стуктурировать
определенным образом весь поступающий информационный поток. А это
требует
смены широко распространенного в обучающих системах
линейно динамического алгоритма восприятия и анализа поступающей
информации на принципиально иной.
Практические аспекты проблемы. Язык – это гибкая, динамичная
система, которая легко может быть адаптирована к различным условиям.
В
большинстве случаев при изучении иностранного языка существует
стандартная традиционная
система изложения материала,
при
конспектировании которого используются немногочисленные элементы
такие как: линейная
Эффективность
структура, слова, символы и их анализ.
восприятия
материала,
представленного
подобным
образом, снижается ввиду линейности подачи информации и акцента на
логичности изложения, нежели на сути изучаемого вопроса.
Большинство лекций представляют собой традиционные линейные
конспекты, обеспечивающие достаточный простор для
неубедительного преподнесения
забывания и
материала. Монотонность подачи и
представления информации, приводят к потере интереса учащихся к
самому процессу учебы и способствуют быстрому забыванию полученных
знаний. И как следствие всего этого студенты переживают потерю
50
уверенности в собственных когнитивных способностях и в самих себе,
теряют тягу к знаниям, испытывают разочарование в учебе, так как тратят
много времени и усилий, разбирая собственные конспекты, пытаясь
добраться до ускользающей сути того, что они изучают. Каков же выход?
Преподавая в различных университетах психологию обучения и
памяти,
многие исследователи обращают внимание на разительное
несоот-ветствие между теорией и практикой. Студенты не имеют навыков
органи-зации учебного материала в структурные схемы в конспекте.
При традиционном конспектировании практически не используются
такие приемы как: визуальный ритм, визуальная структура, цвет, образы,
графическое представление информации, пространственная ориентация и
ассоциации. Тогда как взаимосвязь звука и смысла была предметом
научного интереса еще в работах
Граммона. Однако научная
М. Ломоносова, А. Потебни, М.
постановка проблемы фонетического
символизма стала возможной лишь с появлением психолингвистических
методов
исследования
семанти-ческих
явлений.
В
исследованиях
А.П.Журавлева [ 6] было показано, что в сознании человека при
восприятии речи возникают не чисто звуковые и не чисто буквенные, а
звукобуквенные
символики.
Им
образы,
основанные
были
представлены
на
системе
цвето-звуковой
следующие
звуко-цветовые
соответствия для гласных букв русского языка: густо-красный для буквы А;
ярко-красный – для Я; светло-желтый для буквы О; зеленый для буквы Е;
синий – для буквы И, мрачный, темно-коричневый для буквы Ы. При этом
заметность этих звукобукв усиливается позицией в слове, например
первый звук в слове в 4 раза заметней остальных, тогда как ударный звук
выделяется на фоне остальных только в два раза. Это происходит на
неосознаваемом уровне восприятия и формирует общий эмоциональный
51
и смысловой конструкт, что наполняет выразительностью формируемый, в
процессе запоминания слов, ментальный образ или образ-эталон.
С целью увеличения эффективности запоминания изучаемого
материала очень важно умение выделить значимое и представлять его в
виде центрального графического образа. Например, в качестве исходной
инвариантной единицы изучения существительного как части речи, может
быть выбрано деление существительных на две группы - одушевленные и
неодушевленные имена существительные, которые
образуют особую
синтаксическую категорию согласованного класса . В единственном числе
эта инвариантная единица может быть представлена в виде четырех
конструктов: мужской одушевленный, мужской неодушевленный, женский
и средний, а во множественном числе, – двумя согласованными классами
– одушевленным и неодушевленным [ 3 ].
Графический
метод
представления
информации
увлекает
аудиторию, позволяет ей лучше запомнить и усвоить излагаемый
материал.
Использование
графических
образов
с
помощью
объемного
изображения, палитры цветов и привлекательной формы обеспечивает
эффективный баланс между вербальными и визуально-образными
кортикальными процессами, и способствует развитию мнемических и
творческих способностей субъектов обучения.
Литература:
1. Леонтьев А.А. Психологические основы обучения русскому языку
как иностранному. // РЯЗР. 1974. N 4. С. 54-60.
2. Леонтьев А.Н. Мыслительные процессы в усвоении иностранного
языка. Деятельность. Сознание. Личность. -М. ,1975. 304 с.
52
3. Тажев Б.П. Структурное изучение русского языка иностранными
студентами-нефилологами
(1-2
курсы)
на
материале
имени
существительного: Автореф. дис. канд. пед. наук. Нальчик, 1997.- 48 с.
4. Шекихачева М.Ш. Лингводидактические основы изучения русского
словообразования в кабардинских и черкесских школах: Автореф. дис.
докт. пед. наук. М., 1979.- 48 с.
5. Гальперин П.Я. Психология мышления и учение о поэтапном
формировании умственных действий / / Исследования мышления в
современной психологии. М. : Наука, 1966. - 476 с.
6.Журавлев А.П.Звук и смысл.- М.: Просвещение, 1991. – 240 с.
53
Importance of Financial Accountability and Prudent Personnel Management to the
Leadership Development of Nigeria in the Third Millennium
Mr John Chukwunyelu Uzokwe
Bsc, Msc, ACCA, ACA, AMBIM
=
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY - CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . .5
The concept of financial accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Origins of financial accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Scope of the Financial Accountability concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Variety of Financial Accountability mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
GOVERNANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Governance – Conceptual and Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Governance and Transparency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
THE NIGERIAN STATE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13
The Nigerian Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Nigeria: Resource Curse or Blessing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY FRAMEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Internal Financial Accountability Mechanisms – It’s Importance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Internal Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
54
THE NIGERIAN INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FINANCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY MECHANISMS. . . . .21
Internal Financial Accountability Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Budget Office of the Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
Federal Budget Preparation Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 22
Office of the Accountant General of the Federation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 25
Modernisation of Internal Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Financial Accounts and Consolidated Accounts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Audit Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
External Financial Accountability Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Parliament. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Central Bank of Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 28
The Media . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
External audit - Supreme Audit Institution and the Auditor General of the Federation . ... . . .. . . . . . 29
Supreme Audit Institution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Auditor General of the Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Report of the Auditor General for the Federation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparent Industries Act 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .35
NNPC: Process and Forensic Review Report by KPMG and SSA (Interim Report on Processes). .. 37
NNPC Newspaper Articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE LACK OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Corruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Systematic Approach to Anti Corruption Efforts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Political Corruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Corruption in Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
CONCLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
APPENDIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
55
Abstract
“It is something of a paradox that a country categorised as one of the richest in human and material resources
in Africa finds itself in this inglorious position. Nigerians and her well-wishers hoped that with the enormous
resources, especially oil, the country would take off and achieve rapid economic and industrial transformation.
But this was not to be as through the combination of mismanagement, poor leadership and incredible levels of
corruption on the part of public officials, Nigeria’s fortunes have been squandered or siphoned off.” (Wegh
2008)
This paper addresses the importance of public sector transparency, accountability, in particular financial
accountability, and prudent personnel management to meeting Nigeria's development aims. The lack of
transparency and accountability, amongst a number of other issues, is the biggest drawback, preventing Nigeria
from fulfilling her potential as one of Africa’s largest economies. Although corruption is not entirely restricted to
Nigeria, its situation is distinctive in that it is yet to put in place a credible independent infrastructure for
enforcing anti-corruption laws. The Government of Nigeria identified governance and corruption as issues that
must be tackled in order to reverse economic decline, they passed an anti-corruption bill and an “independent”
anti-corruption commission was created. It even reissued its financial regulations but there is no indication that
they are being followed more closely than in the past. In fact, on the African continent, the calls for more public
sector transparency and accountability is part of a set of endeavours aimed at solving the paradox of copious
natural resources and increasing donor magnanimity, on the one hand, and seemingly intractable abject poverty,
on the other hand. It is also aimed at addressing corruption, money laundering, and the theft of State resources
(UNECA, 2005). This paper illustrates the current public sector Accounting and Governance systems present in
Nigeria, the resulting implications on the economic development of Nigeria and highlights the urgency of
resolution. It concludes with viable, constructive ideas for restoring Nigeria on the path of financial
transparency, accountability and growth.
The data for this paper was derived from the research and analysis of scholars, analysts and practitioners,
government documents, and recent newspaper and journal articles. This is to say that the primary method of
study was an extensive review of available literature for description and critical analysis of the importance of
financial accountability in the Nigerian economy today.
Discussions in this paper are limited to the Federal Government, with a few references made to State and Local
Governments. This is not an indication that the other two tiers of government are not as important but rather due
to
the
limited
scope
of
56
the
project
itself.
Financial Accountability - Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
The Concept of Financial Accountability
In the simplest terms, financial accountability is about responsible stewardship for the use of public money.
Financial accountability is a means of ensuring that public money has been used in a responsible and productive
way. It is about verification of legality and regularity of financial accounts, but also about making sure that value
for money has been achieved in the use of resources.
The concept of financial accountability, as a relationship in which citizens hold the Government to account for
the stewardship of public money, is fairly complex and intricate. Establishing and securing an effective financial
accountability relationship requires setting up of a network of internal and external financial accountability
mechanisms, including adequate accounting, reporting and internal and external auditing. Financial
accountability requires the Government to manage finances prudently and regularly inform the public what has
been achieved with the use of public funds. Therefore, in procedures of both internal and external financial
accountability, the emphasis is gradually shifting from the classical concern of regularity and propriety of public
expenditure, to “value for money” investigations, which examines whether economy, efficiency and
effectiveness in the use of resources has been attained.
Growing attention has furthermore been paid to the establishment of systems of performance measurement
within Government departments, which should enable the Parliament and the public to assess how well public
money is spent and what has been achieved with it. Increasing attention has lately been paid to the regular
reporting on the financial control findings to the public, which should attain greater transparency in the conduct
of public finances and reinforce the level of trust between state and citizens when spending of public money is in
question.
Finally, it should be stressed that financial accountability mechanisms cannot be analysed as isolated
phenomena, but as mutually interrelated elements, which are in the process of constant interaction, mutually
supporting their structures and functions. Therefore, we can easily talk about financial accountability in terms of
a system, which consists of different mutually related elements/mechanisms of financial accountability. It should
be stressed that the effectiveness of financial accountability as a system depends mostly on the existence of a
proper balance between its different supporting mechanisms, so that weaknesses in one form of financial
accountability can be compensated for by controls through other mechanisms.
Origins of Financial Accountability
Accountability for the use of public money has always been at the centre of attention of politicians, philosophers,
lawyers, economists as well as ordinary people. In the old ages, the Greek philosophers devoted considerable
attention to handling of public money. Aristotle, thus, wrote: “Some officials handle large sums of public money;
it is therefore necessary to have other officials to receive and examine the accounts. These inspectors must
administer no funds themselves. Different cities call them examiners, auditors, scrutinisers and public
advocates”.
57
The United States Constitution states that: “No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in Consequence of
Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of Receipts and Expenditures of all public
Money shall be published from time to time.” The French Revolution went much further and proclaimed a
doctrine of popular sovereignty over finance: “All citizens have the right to ascertain, either in person or through
their representatives, the necessity for public taxation, to consent freely thereto, to observe it’s expenditure and
to determine it’s apportionment, it’s assessment, it’s collection and it’s duration.”
Scope of the Financial Accountability concept.
It could be argued that the financial accountability relationship, in its widest sense, encompasses two broad
processes:
1) Adequate Income (including taxation, royalties, rent, etc) i.e. raising and collection of money from citizens
and other institutions in an appropriate manner and
2) Adequate allocation and use of these resources.
Although there is undoubtedly an integral relationship between these processes, financial accountability refers
more to the second process, where the emphasis is placed on the responsible and productive use of public
money, i.e. public expenditure. In this sense, it is useful to distinguish between several key stages of public
expenditure management:
1. Expenditure planning by the executive
2. Parliamentary debate and approval
3. Spending of the money voted
4. Accounting for the money spent.
Variety of Financial Accountability mechanisms.
The Government can be held accountable by the Parliament and in the last resort, citizens, to ensure that money
is spent in accordance with Parliamentary wishes.
Financial accountability is primarily safeguarded by a number of different forms:
- Parliament’s activity, work of parliamentary investigatory committees,
- Internal controls and reporting mechanisms within departments and
- External audit
With increasing devolution of managerial discretion and financial responsibility, ministries, departments and
agencies face increasing pressures to show that their managers have used their money and other resources in a
way that accomplishes their functions efficiently. The question that remains, however, is which type of system of
internal control would be most suitable for transitional countries, like Nigeria, who are facing numerous
challenges in building new systems of financial accountability. The system should aim at achieving the
following number of objectives:

Giving a reliable account of the money spent and the income achieved
58

Ensuring that there is probity and sound financial administration, including proper stewardship of
public resources and compliance with regulatory standards.

Ensuring the achievement of value for money, that is – economy, efficiency and equity in how funds
are used

Identifying, evaluating and managing risk

Supporting good decision making and assisting offices to properly assess the financial consequences of
policy and other choices

Enabling the Government to plan for the future and to align its resource allocation with its policy
objectives

Maximising Income sources

Making it possible, from a financial Management point of view for organisational change to occur to
meet new circumstances.
Financial accountability forms one of the arms of the general term “accountability”, which in turn is interwoven
with the concepts of transparency and good governance.
Governance
Governance – Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
During the post-colonial period, most Asian, African, and Latin American countries began to adopt the ideas,
principles, and institutions of accountability representing the liberal democratic mode of governance found in
advanced capitalist nations (Haque, 1994).
One of the most crucial features of this liberal-democratic framework is the existence of certain basic
mechanisms of accountability such as legislative committee, parliamentary debate, public hearing, ministerial
control, ombudsman, and media scrutiny.
Such democratic means have been quite useful to ensure government accountability in terms of delivering goods
and services, addressing public needs and demands, maintaining neutrality and representation, ascertaining
citizens’ entitlements, and guaranteeing equality and justice. However, in recent years, there has emerged a
unique set of challenges to the realization of accountability due to the current changes in public governance
under the rubric of reinventing or re-engineering government, which is often described as a market-centred,
neoliberal approach to governance (Haque, 1998a).
Although this businesslike approach to governance has been reinforced by internal economic and political forces
in advanced capitalist nations, in the case of developing countries, it has been prescribed or imposed largely by
international financial agencies (IMF imposition of Structural Adjustment Programme “SAP”, in Nigeria 1986).
Some of these current reforms pose formidable political, managerial, and methodological challenges to
accountability
59
The traditional objectives and norms of governance (which emerged in advanced democracies and were followed
in many developing nations) have been the achievement of socioeconomic progress, law and order, poverty
alleviation, employment generation, and public well-being; and the maintenance of values such as impartiality,
equality, representation, integrity, fairness, welfare, citizenship, and justice (Haque, 1996; Lewis, 1991). But
with the recent paradigmatic transition in the mode of public governance, its objectives have shifted to economic
growth and productivity, and its normative standards have changed toward efficiency, competition, profit, and
value-for- money, although these standards are largely associated with business management (Clarke and
Newman, 1997; Jann, 1997; Kickert, 1997). As Brereton and Temple (1999: 463) mention, it is ‘uncontroversial
to note that there is a consensus that the private sector ethos has “invaded” the public sector’.
Instead of being answerable for social welfare, citizens’ rights, poverty eradication, impartiality, fairness,
representation, and justice, public governance is increasingly accountable for accelerating economic-growth rate,
boosting efficiency and productivity, encouraging competition, maximizing profit, and ascertaining cost
effectiveness. Thus, under the current mode of governance, the standards of public accountability have become
instrumental in nature, especially in terms of an overemphasis on procedural, economic criteria (e.g. efficiency
and productivity) rather than substantive public concerns (e.g. equality and representation).
But since the early 1980s, this active, direct, and leading role of public governance has increasingly been
replaced with a more passive, indirect, and facilitating role (Peters and Pierre, 1998), with implementation and
monitoring of divestment and contracting out.
When the public sector plays a direct role in providing goods and services based on concrete socioeconomic
programmes and projects, its activities become more tangible and measurable, and thus, easier to scrutinize;
whereas its indirect role — to encourage and facilitate the private sector to deliver goods and services — is
relatively intangible, immeasurable, and thus, unverifiable.
Thus, although it is possible to hold public agencies accountable for tangible performances such as the quantity
and quality of services that they directly provide, it is not always possible to make them accountable for their
intangible performances such as divesting resources, making business deals, and monitoring services contracts.
In other words, the current transition in the role of public sector from ‘rowing’ (direct production and
distribution) to ‘steering’ (indirect monitoring and evaluation) implies a challenge to the realization of its
accountability.
Under the current paradigm of ‘new public management’, this redefinition of citizens as customers, represents an
accountability challenge. Public governance is accountable for the effective delivery of its services to customers
who can pay, while it may remain indifferent towards low-income citizens who are not in a position to use such
services due to their financial incapacity.
Beyond this market-centred redefinition of citizenship, a customer-oriented focus in governance has also been
reinforced by the proliferation of user charges. This provision of user charges means that the recipients of public
60
sector services have to pay according to the costs of delivering such services, and it often allows Government
Agencies to determine the amount of charges without being subjected to legislative approval (OECD, 1998;
Wilson, 1998). Such a provision is likely to weaken the legal protection of economically underprivileged citizens
who often depend on the state for basic services. Thus, the principle of user charges implies that although public
governance may be readily accountable to affluent customers, it is not obliged to show accountability to
underprivileged citizens who cannot afford user charges and do not qualify as customers.
Another manifestation of excluding common citizens from the equation of public accountability is the
restructuring of the public sector in favour of the affluent business class at the expense of the poorer sections of
the population. Under the current market-biased governance, in addition to the windfall gains received by the
business elites from their purchase of privatized assets sold at nominal prices and their favourable deals in the
contracted-out services (Haque,1996), the remaining public sector has also been restructured to the disadvantage
of underprivileged citizens.
Nigerians complain that the privatisation of government assets which former President Obasanjo undertook at
World Bank direction has lacked transparency and that well connected Nigerians have grabbed the countries
crown jewels at “sale” or “give away” prices.
Governance and Transparency
Governance is about people and how they organise themselves to achieve their common objectives. In a
democracy, people are the ultimate source of constitutional and political legitimacy. They are the beneficiaries of
good governance and victims of bad governance. To promote good governance and prevent bad government,
people must be empowered with knowledge about the role and responsibilities of Government, their citizenship
rights and obligations and the consequences if their rights are infringed upon or their obligations are not
exercised. Empowered people are likely to call to account, those in authority and ensure that the institutions,
principles and process that support checks and balances are strengthen. Good Governance entails inclusiveness,
popularity, transparency and responsiveness to the public.
Transparency is a prerequisite for good governance and sound financial regulation. It is a remedy for otherwise
illegal or objectionable actions, an approach which has influenced today’s anti-corruption Strategies: “If the
broad light of day could be let in upon men’s actions, it would purify them as the sun disinfects” (Brandeis).
In the aftermath of the financial crisis, transparency has become a priority and agenda of regulators around the
world.
Some see Transparency as being embedded in the broader contents of lawful and ethical behaviour e.g. Swiss
“code of ethics”. The principles for transparency developed in constitutional law are also applicable to financial
regulation which proposes a comprehensive, rule-based rather than a purely processed oriented approach and
suggests a three dimensional concept of transparency in financial regulation.
61
The first dimension refers to institutional aspects i.e. procedures and decision making. By providing legal
certainty, transparency serves as an anchor for financial regulation. It is the basis for establishing trust, which is
the key element in any financial system. Once rules are published and transparent, holding those who are bound
by those rules accountable for violations is a logical consequence. Accountability therefore becomes part of the
concept of transparency. In its second dimension, transparency is understood as the substantive backbone of
financial regulation. It lays open the values and goals of financial policy and regulation. The third dimension is
accountability of actors as an essential element for rebuilding confidence in the financial system.
Nigeria faces several daunting challenges in its efforts to improve governance in a nation of 150 million people.
The socioeconomic and political challenges have remained perpetually unresolved because of bad governance,
and it has seen its institutions deteriorate due to decades of military dictatorships and corrupt and visionless
leaders. Some of the outstanding governance issues include: the need for rules for withdrawing funds from the
Excess Crude Oil Account, the ability of the legislature to scrutinize the Federal budget, as well as a legal and
judiciary system that is run-down, and above all, the embedded nature of corruption in the country and its
institutions.
Obasanjo presided over a few notable and well publicised economic successes. In 2003, he entrusted economic
policy making to a team of energetic young technocrats he referred to as his “apostles”, several were recruited
from overseas, most notable, finance minister Ngozi Okonjo Iweala, who had previously served as a vice
president at World Bank, and more recently, Managing Director of the World Bank. Okonjo Iweala and her
colleagues set out to implement an ambitious reform programme that would strive for transparency in financial
matters and “due process in the awarding of government contracts”. In 2006 Okonjo Iweala, helped by the US
treasury department persuaded the Paris Club to forgive some 18 billion dollars of Nigeria’s foreign debt.
In recognition of the importance of these issues, reforms and measures put in place to improve transparency and
governance include:
a.
The adoption and effective implementation of the Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative
(NEITI) to improve governance of the oil and gas sector and provide a legal basis for collecting and
publishing oil revenue data. The FGN continues to regularly provide information on revenue allocations
to the three tiers of the government (federal, state and local) in widely circulated newspapers and also
on official websites.
b.
the adoption of the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS)
c.
Fiscal Responsibility Act 2007; this law formalizes fiscal rule, a budget process around a medium-term
fiscal framework and fiscal transparency and reporting standards has been approved by both houses of
parliament The Fiscal Responsibility Act was passed in 2007with the objective of introducing financial
accountability, probity and Transparency in the management of public funds, it also set up the Fiscal
Responsibility Council., which was empowered to enforce the compliance of the dictates of the act
(attached in Appendix 1.2).
d.
the establishment of a computerized federal payroll management system;
62
e.
The establishment of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC); established in 2002,
enforces laws relating to banking, money laundering, advance-fee fraud (also known as “419” fraud)
and other laws relating to economic and financial crimes. and,
f.
the introduction of a Value for Money audit in government procurement contracts;
The rolling out of Accounting Transactional Recording and Reporting System (ATRRS), resulting in
timely availability of fiscal data;
There has also been a Growing International Focus on Transparency, which is amply demonstrated by the
proliferation in recent years of initiatives aimed at directly and indirectly promoting and enforcing transparency
practices. These include:

The United Nation’s “convention against corruption articles 9 to 14”

The International Monetary Fund’s “ Code of Good Practices and Fiscal Transparency”

The Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD’s) “Best Practices for Budget
Transparency”

The Global Reporting Initiatives “Global Transparency Initiative”

The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)

The Save the Children’s UK “ Publish What you Pay”

The George Soros “Open Society Institution”

The Global Witness

The Catholic Agency for Overseas Development (CAFOD)

The OECD’s “Project on Revenue Transparency”

The IMF’s “Guide on Resource Revenue Transparency”

The Basel III 2010

United Nation’s Economic Commission for Africa “ African Governance Project”

The Democracy Index Of the Institute for Democracy in South Africa

The Worldwide Governance Indicators Dataset of the World Bank

Swiss Code of Ethics
Critical areas of transparency – clarity of roles and responsibility, public availability of information, open budget
preparation, execution and reporting, independent assurances of integrity. The extent to which these are practised
in Nigeria – fiscal transparency and accountability, deluge of new laws and regulations of international standard
especially the passage of Fiscal Responsibility Act 2007, demonstrates that the nation is making progress
towards trying to improve corporate governance, however implementation shortfalls of these laws, lingering
capacity constraints, lack of political will and commitments, endemic corruption, have hindered any progress
in good governance.
Equally, without core economic and fiscal reforms put into practice, no amount of legislation can extricate the
country and her people from economic mismanagement, corrupt practices and the dire poverty plaguing the
country. Against the backdrop and realisation that economic development and the fight against poverty can
63
effectively be enhanced under good governance and fiscal responsibility, some elites and citizens, civil society
organisations and NGO’S are still demanding transparency in budgeting, reporting and oversight functions of
the legislature and emphasising their rights to know and determine how public funds are collected and spent.
There have been various studies, essays, and researches focusing on governance in Nigeria. All reveal a country
bugged down by a myriad of problems, including abject poverty of the generality of the citizenry, abysmal
performance by both political class and public office holders, declining agricultural productivity, high illiteracy
(Some Nigerian graduates cannot spell Polytechnic), gross indiscipline, very low purchasing power of the Naira
and high inflation.
*Please read the attached Appendix 1.1 – Abridged Story of Nigeria – which gives an insight as to why
the “Search for a Lasting Federation) has been elusive, due to the fundamental North South Dichotomy,
which has allowed corruption and bad Governance to take root in Nigeria.
The Nigerian State
The ABC of Jonathan’s Transformation Agenda is lucid, pungent, and relevant and addresses the major and key
priority needs of the nation and holds a key to the transformation of Nigeria economically and socially. The
Problem is in its “implementation”.
The Nigerian Experience
64
Nigeria is a country blessed with rich human and natural resources. The country has the largest population in
Africa of over 150 million, and great diversity of cultures, cities and terrain. Her wide span of land includes large
quantities of some of the most valuable mineral resources in the world. Given the volume, value and varieties of
available natural resources, Nigeria should be ranked among the richest countries of the world. However, Nigeria
typifies the paradox of poverty in the midst of plenty. At the dawn of the Third Millennium, approximately 70%
of the population still live on less than US$1 a day, an indication of extreme poverty. Annual Real Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) growth has remained sluggish (especially during the military regime), but has
improved during the last few years, currently averaging 7% per annum (OECD, 2010). However, the high
growth rates do not seem to have translated into equitable distribution of wealth. The current Nigerian
investment rate is unlikely to reach the minimum investment rate required to achieve the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015.
Most of the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into the country is directed at the oil, gas and extractive sectors.
Thus, the economic structure remains undiversified and oil exports account for 95% of total export earnings,
while the manufacturing sector accounts for less than one percent (UNDP, 2004). As at 2007, life expectancy
was 46.9 years.
Nigeria: Resource Curse or Blessing?
According to Wegh 2008 “It is something of paradox that a country categorised as one of the richest in human
and material resources in Africa finds itself in this inglorious position. Nigerians and her well-wishers hoped that
with the enormous resources, especially oil, the country would take off and achieve rapid economic and
industrial transformation. But this was not to be as through the combination of mismanagement, poor leadership
and incredible levels of corruption on the part of public officials, Nigeria’s fortunes have been squandered or
siphoned off”. A statement as true in 2008 as it is today.
Countries that are rich in natural resources are often poor because of the “resource curse” associated with this
natural endowment. With specific reference to the ‘curse’ of corruption, exploiting natural resources tends to
take precedence over good government. Auty (1997), for instance, examines the relationship between broadly
defined resource-rich groups of countries over the period between 1960 and 1990. Sachs and Warner (2000)
show a robust inverse relationship between growth and resource riches for a sample of 97 countries over the
period 1970-1989. Hausman and Rigobon (2003), while supporting the generally inverse relationship, pointed
out that oil-rich countries performed well economically in the 1980s when oil was doing well. Equally, most
Arab oil producing and exporting countries have not overheated their local economy with oil money, rather, they
have invested wisely and widely in international companies and real estate and they have also played the “Ace”
game with their robust currency reserves.
In an attempt to explain Africa’s performance with growth and investment regressions, Mkandawire and Soludo
(1999) find that while the “Dutch disease” syndrome, caused by large natural-resource endowments, constitutes
serious impediment to investment and growth in Africa, other factors also exist to explain her underdevelopment.
Competing oil and mining companies, backed by their Governments, are accused of a willingness to deal with
65
anyone who can assure them of a concession. This has bred corrupt and repressive governments and armed
conflict, leading to economic and social problems characterizing resource-rich countries in Africa today.
Very large, quickly growing, but time-limited production and revenue flows, combined with a high degree of
volatility as a result of fluctuating world prices, when combined with weak administration, ownership of such
wealth provides ample scope for inefficient policies, discretionary behaviour, and outright corruption. For
countries like Nigeria, the problem is how to turn this “resource curse” into a blessing. Owning resources may
not be a curse in itself but the problem seems to lie in the institutional factors inherent in the management of
these resources. Transparency has been propagated as a fundamental first step to lifting the curse and effective
Resource Management would also be essential. These can be achieved with a conscious commitment and
effective institutional creation and implementation, of a framework, that is able to reconceptualise and bring
about development.
With 80% of its public revenues dependant on oil, Nigeria's reliance on oil production for income generation
clearly has serious implications for it’s economic policy management (World Bank, 1995). In addition, the
country faces daunting challenges of re-building a country badly damaged by decades of military misrule and a
fragile democracy.
In an effort to avert the “resource curse”, Nigeria could start by enabling other streams of resource revenues to
promote economic growth and poverty reduction. This could be achieved by departing from a consumption
oriented economy to a production oriented friendly country and restoring basic industries such as:
-
Agriculture - including cocoa, palm oil, palm kernel, cotton, groundnut, timber, etc. These agricultural
industries sustained the Nigerian economy before the military takeover, during which period, Nigeria was
ranked as one of the fastest growing Economies in the world.
-
Rehabilitation of moribund (associated) processing industries including the textile mills in Kaduna and
Lagos, Palm Oil processing mills in the South East, South South, Delta and Edo states,
-
Resuscitation of the Car/Truck assembly plants (with proper, monitored, legal binding frameworks for the
assembly plants to attain at least 50% local content production within 10 years). The Automobile Industry is
one of the main barometers with which to measure the industrial activities of a nation, especially with its
attendant “multiplier effect” and employment generation.
-
The need to decongest the courts is more than imminent. A situation where litigants have to wait between 10
to 15 years for judgement to be passed by the respective judges could be termed “justice delayed is justice
denied”
-
The gap in the power sector has far reaching implications for improving the business climate, sustaining
economic growth and the social wellbeing of Nigerians. About 45% of the population have access to
electricity with only about 30% of their demand for power being met. The power sector is plagued by
recurrent outages to the extent that some 90% of industrial customers and a significant number of residential
66
and other non residential customers provide their own power at a high cost to themselves and to the Nigerian
economy. In a country where electricity is said to be about 40 per cent cost of production (Daily Sun, June
7, 2010), reasoned macroeconomic policy and investment in electricity would lure lucrative industries into
the society and wake up the sluggish economy.
Financial Accountability Framework
The question of public accountability has become more significant due to the growing challenge to various
means of accountability posed by recent changes in governance. The major means of accountability that are
traditionally practiced include the following:
1. external-formal mechanisms, including legislative instruments (legislative committees and parliamentary
questions), executive means (controls exercised by political executives over public agencies), and judicial or
quasi-judicial processes (administrative courts and ombudsmen);
2. external-informal mechanisms, such as public hearings, interest groups, opinion polls, and media scrutiny;
3. internal-formal means, including officials rules, codes of conducts, official hierarchies, segregation of duties,
supervision of work, and performance reviews; and
4. internal-informal mechanisms, such as organizational culture, professional ethics, and peer pressure (DeLeon,
1998; Haque, 1994; Heeks, 1998).
.
The viability of these established and widely practiced means of public accountability is affected by the
emerging neoliberal mode of governance, which has brought new sets of institutions, structures, and norms, and
expanded the scope for administrative politicization, managerial autonomy, and public–private partnership. First,
one of the basic prerequisites for public accountability in democracies is the political neutrality of career public
servants, which has come under challenge due to the growing power of ministers or political executives to exert
influence on the public service. In this regard, it has been pointed out by Rhodes (1997: 46) that in countries
such as the UK, this is an era of macho-ministers in terms of expanded ministerial power to make decisions
related to the appointment, dismissal, and retirement of top civil servants.
These decisions are increasingly based on the political considerations and personal preferences of ministers.
The rise of ministerial power to politicize the civil service ‘has contributed to blurring the professional lines
traditionally drawn between politicians and civil servants’ (Rouban, 1995: 50). The politicization of civil
servants by ministers — which violates the principle of political neutrality, and thus public accountability, of
public employees — has become much easier due to the recent policy to eliminate permanent tenure of senior
public servants and introduce temporary contract-based appointments.
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Such a policy makes these public servants more vulnerable to political executives who now exercise control over
their job contracts and careers For example; the tenured heads of government agencies have been replaced
with the so-called chief executives appointed for five years based on individual contracts; In Nigeria, the
Permanent Secretaries are now legally required to serve a maximum term of 5 years. These changes are not
conducive to accountability because the means of accountability, such as ministerial control or supervision over
public servants, is meaningful only when public servants are politically neutral, and when they enjoy such
immunity from political influence due to their merit-based selection and job permanence
When senior public servants are already politicized — especially because their appointments are on short-term
contracts decided by ministers as the political heads — the ministerial control as a means of accountability may
not only make these public servants extremely loyal to their respective ministers while ignoring their
accountability to the general public, it may also expand the power of ministers to the extent that they themselves
become less accountable to the public.
Equally, there have been changes in the criteria to evaluate program and performance in the public sector as a
means to ensure its public accountability. More specifically, under ‘new public management’, many countries
have shifted from process-oriented to result-oriented performance with an increasing focus on outcomes rather
than inputs — public agencies and employees are supposed to be accountable for policy outcomes rather than
policy processes.
As far as accountability is concerned, this result-oriented mode of governance is likely to render the existing
means of accountability ineffective.
Internal Financial Accountability Mechanisms – It’s Importance
Internal Audit
Internal audit is another valuable tool in securing financial accountability. Internal audit could be defined as
“independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s
operations.”
Historically, internal auditing has solely focused on financial systems and financial controls within an
organization. However, the role of internal audit has been changing and widening over time. These changes form
a continuum from pre-audit, through regularity or compliance audit, to risk-based audit as well as reviewing the
adequacy of the underlying activities to manage those risks.
The origins of internal audit dated back from internal checking on the accuracy and validity of all payments
made by an organisation (pre-audit). No payments could be made without them first being reviewed and
stamped for payment by the staff of the internal audit section.
Internal audit practice now forms a spectrum from this, original role of pre-audit, to risk-based audit. The latter
consists of internal audit reviewing the risk management and internal control systems and processes with only
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limited testing of internal controls to ensure that they are actually applied as required. The role of the internal
audit in financial matters has remained quite valuable and very important for building reliable new transitional
systems of financial accountability.
The objective of internal audit should be to help to ensure that the internal control system of an entity is adequate
and effective. Adequate can be construed as meaning fit for purpose, so in the context of internal controls, that
the controls are appropriate for the risks which the organisation faces and that they are actually implemented on
a routine basis. The term effectiveness demands more than this and infers an interest in the actual outcome of
the controls, for example ensuring that the transactions are actually appropriate, accurate and valid. As a result,
if internal audit is to conclude on whether the risk management and internal control systems are effective, it
should undertake at least some substantive testing to confirm whether or not the internal controls have operated
as expected and thus ensured that the transactions are accurate and valid.
Pre-payment audit checks (or pre-audit for short) are examinations of payment vouchers and other documents
before the associated payments are made. The objective of pre-audit is to ensure that payments made are:
•
Valid
•
Necessary and accurate; and
•
Expenditure is in line with the approved budget.
The advantages of pre-audit are said to be that it can help to:
•
ensure that all expenditure is necessary and appropriate
•
ensure that all payments are properly authorised before being made
•
ensure that expenditure is in accordance with relevant laws and regulations
•
prevent management fraud
•
reduce the incidence of fraud or irregularity
•
confirm the accuracy of the classification and the coding of expenditure
•
ensure arithmetical accuracy of the transactions which are checked.
The pre-audit approach to internal audit is found in many African governments and many other continental
European countries with a legal tradition based on the Napoleonic Code. As far back as September 1974, the
Udoji Commission report had queried the cost effectiveness of the pre-audit. The report recommended that:
“A move be made towards eliminating the prepayment or 'internal check' function of internal audit to
comply with Financial Instruction. Secondly, if this were done, internal audit would have more time to
pursue its intended functions, which should not be part of the day-to-day control system but rather an
independent review of the day-to-day controls, so as to be able to advice management on their
effectiveness and means of improvement.”
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Ex ante checking, whether it be universal or on the basis of sampling, is unlikely to be a cost-effective process:
the effort put in to checking all transactions is clearly disproportionate, while sampling is unlikely to have
sufficient dissuasive effect. The second, and fundamental, principle is that any retention of ex ante control runs
up against the crucial objection that, de facto if not de jure, it displaces responsibility for financial regularity
from the person actually managing expenditure onto the person approving it. This displacement of responsibility,
meaning in effect that no-one is ultimately responsible.
Effective internal control systems should not only include suitable checks and other control procedures, but they
should also include review processes to ensure that the checks and controls are actually implemented and
complied with. Managers who see internal audit's role in compliance terms believe that they can rely on internal
audit to ensure that controls are actually reliably followed in all circumstances.
Managers should be responsible for implementing effective control systems. They should also be responsible for
ensuring that these control systems are routinely complied with.
A comprehensive set of instructors and regulations are developed and reviewed by internal audit to ensure all
existing risks will be avoided. All that is then required is for a regular check that these instructions are followed
by all staff at all times.
The Key areas of the Internal Audit functions now include:

Internal control evaluations aimed at monitoring the effectiveness of internal Control

Management and Operations audit aimed at risk assessment and Management Process

System Assurance aimed at Procedural compliance including Information Technology system Integrity

Operation Strategic Risk Assurance aimed at Audit committee briefs

Internal Consultations aimed at Corporate Governance issues

Frequent reporting with a view of ensuring compliance with established policies and regulations
Other issues concerning the internal audit operations include:

Earning Measurement issues

Asset Valuation Disclosures

Capital write offs and write ins

Confidentiality Issues
These issues require a systematic and disciplined approach to be adopted by the internal auditor to ensure
effectiveness of internal control, risk management process, promoting open dialogue and communication.
Effective internal control systems will not only include checks that regulations are complied with, but also
periodic review of these regulations to ensure that they remain valid. Internal auditors have a professional
responsibility to ensure that these regulations are regularly reviewed and amended as appropriate. The Federal
Government of Nigeria introduced revised Financial Regulations which were applicable from 1st January 2000.
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The full benefits of internal audit can only be achieved if managers and internal auditors share the same
perception of their mutual responsibilities. The view of internal auditors as only compliance auditors may
indicate a limited understanding of the roles of internal audit and also a lack of understanding of the full range of
responsibilities that managers themselves should have. Internal auditors should work with managers to facilitate
the implementation of effective control systems.
Internal auditors should also advise on the appropriate controls, compliance checks and review procedures that
they should adopt. The Internal Auditors are in positions of trust and must be seen to maintain integrity,
independence, good relationship with management and should have good accounting and audit experience. The
internal audit functions should be both ex ante and post ante.
*Please read the attached Appendix 1.2 – For Objectives of Internal Control and Examples of Control
Procedures for different Accounting Systems
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The Nigerian Internal and External Financial Accountability Mechanisms
It is worthy of note that during the first republic i.e. after independence, both the Federation and the regions had
a high reputation for efficiency and Integrity and were visibly transparent. Consequently financial accountability,
at the time, rested on disciplined implementation of “General Orders (GO)” and “Financial Instructions (FI)”. It
is interesting to note that effective high scores in real sector development including infrastructural development,
higher educational standards, health, and agriculture were contemporaneous with the First Republic.
The Federation Accounts are prepared under a Cash rather than Accrual Accounting basis.
Under cash based accounting, transactions and events are recognized when cash is received or paid as opposed to
the Accrual based Accounting system where transactions or events are recognised at the time economic value is
created, transformed, exchanged, transferred or extinguished and when all, not only cash flows, are recorded.
The Federal Government has introduces Medium Term Sector strategies, under the Ministry of Finance, with the
objective of ensuring consistency between sectoral spending plans, existing government Development priorities
and envisaged resource envelopes.
Internal Financial Accountability Mechanisms
One of the key instruments of internal financial accountability mechanisms is the strength of Internal Checking
mechanism in which an official’s work is independently checked by another official. For example, this system
ensures that the same person cannot make orders, verify, check deliveries and make payments.
Internal Financial Accountability Systems are based on the delegation of Financial Controls by the Hon.
Ministry of Finance to heads of Line Ministries (Permanent Secretaries) or officials in the budget and finance
department of these ministries. The role of the ministry of finance is one of monitoring co-ordination, but it
remains responsible for the overall effectiveness and consistency of the system. There are a number of internal
controls whose aim is to ensure compliance, and lay in force, financial accountability including financial
accounting and reporting, accounting controls, procurement controls, fiscal controls, performance management
and internal audit.
In Nigeria, virtually all of the Internal Financial accountability mechanisms rest with the Minister of Finance; the
very able, qualified, amiable, intelligent and one of the new generation technocrats in Africa - Ngozi Okonjo
Iweala, the former Managing Director of World Bank, who also doubles as the Economic Minister, with the
daunting mission of ensuring Accountability, Probity and Transparency in the Public Sector Management.
However there are serious and disturbing leakages within the whole system, including system updates,
accounting mechanisms and internal checking system, management inefficiency and problems with built in
internal controls.
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The following are the functions of the Federal Ministry of Finance:
-
Preparing annual estimates of revenue and expenditure for the Federal Government:
-
Formulating policies on fiscal and monetary matters;
-
Mobilizing domestic and external financial resources through both internal and external financial
institutions, for development purposes.
-
Maintaining adequate foreign exchange reserves aimed at Ensuring a healthy balance of payment position;
-
Maintaining the internal and external value and stability of the Nigerian currency; Monitoring government
revenue from oil and non-oil resources;
-
Supervising the insurance industry;
-
Managing revenue allocation matters;
-
Relating with relevant international organization and financial institutions, such as the Economic
Commission for Africa, World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF). United Nations Development
Programmes (UNDP), Commonwealth Economic Committee, European Union/Africa. Caribbean and
Pacific, Economic and Social Commission of the AU, ECOWAS, etc.
Under the Finance Ministry are two key departments:
1.
Budget Office of the Federation
Budgets
Niskanem 1971 established an influential and enduring model of bureaucrats as budget maximizers. He
described bureaucrats as actors who pursued Budget maximising strategies for a number of different internal
motivations including salary, prerequisites of the office, public reputation, power, patronage and other personal
gains. These Bureaucrats are further classified as
a). climbers,
b). conservers (protective type),
c). Advocates (zealots, statesmen – oriented towards effective service delivery with public interest at heart)
d). Altruistic and Aggrandizers
There are also minority groups of civil servants (not necessarily in Nigeria) who uphold professional ethics that
include service to the citizenry as opposed to service to self. If the preparation of the budget is transparent, its
implementation enhances financial accountability.
Federal Budget Preparation Process
Two of the three arms of the Nigerian Federal Government, the Executive and the Legislature Share the
responsibility for the Federal Budget. The President is required under the Constitution to submit a budget for the
next financial year to the National Assembly, for approval. By law, it covers a stated period, called a financial
year, which in the Nigerian case, runs from the 1 st of January to the 31st December every year. Therefore, the
Executive is responsible for preparing the Federal Budget while the Legislature approves it. There have been
73
significant improvements to the preparation and submission of the budget. The Budgets give high hopes of
expectations to the citizens which are subsequently dashed due to dismal performances.
The President gives directions to the Minister of Finance and the Budget Office of the Federation to prepare the
Budget in line with the government’s vision and direction for Nigeria which is currently contained in the 7 Point
Agenda and the Vision: 2020.
The Budget Office of the Federation, in consultation with the revenue generating agencies of the Federal
Government (which includes NNPC and the Central Bank of Nigeria) project estimates of oil and non-oil
revenue (including Value Added Tax allocation, customs and exercise, licenses and internal revenue, direct
taxes, fees, mining royalties, earnings and sales, armed forces revenue, interest and repayment (general), interest
and repayment (state), reimbursements; rent on government property; statutory and non statutory financial
transfers and miscellaneous revenue). Once the underlying assumptions are agreed, they are then used to
estimate the amount of total revenue that should accrue to the Federation Account. The share of the Federal
Government is then determined. In addition to the annual estimates, the Government prepares medium and long
term revenue framework which forms the guiding framework for the annual budget.
The next step is to determine the Government’s Expenditure Profile for the Financial Year under various
expenditure Heads and Subheads. The fiscal rule being observed under the Fiscal Responsibility Act 2007
stipulates that total spending should not exceed total revenues by more than 3% of GDP (Gross Domestic
Product).
The Difference between the Total Revenue and Total Expenditure is referred to as the Budget Deficit or Surplus,
as the case may be. The Aggregate Expenditure Ceiling (the maximum amount of total spending in the budget) is
then sub-allocated among the three major heads of expenditure, that is, Statutory Transfers, Debt Service and the
MDA’s Expenditure.
The Frameworks are then presented at the Stakeholder’s Consultation to different Stakeholders (including the
National Assembly, the organised private Sector, Civil Society and the Public Sector) for their input and buy- in.
For the National Assembly, every ministry, department and agencies are called upon to “defend their budgets”
and the consultations are more rigorous and continuous as their input is particularly taken into account in
preparing the Budget. The Budget “estimates” is then presented to the two houses of the National Assembly.
The Medium-Term Revenue Framework, the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework and statements of how the
Federal Government proposes to conduct its fiscal affairs for the next three years are summarised in a Fiscal
Strategy Paper. The Fiscal Strategy Paper is then presented to the Federal Executive Council, along with the
Medium- Term Expenditure Framework, for consideration and approval, so that required spending tradeoffs can
be properly debated and agreed. Once approved by the Federal Executive Council the Medium-Term
Expenditure Framework and the Fiscal Strategy Paper are shared with the National Assembly.
74
The next stage is the issuance of the Budget Call Circular by the Minister of Finance. The Budget Call Circular
gives detailed instructions to the MDAs on how to prepare and submit their expenditure estimates in accordance
with government’s priorities and within the limits of their Expenditure Ceilings. MDAs then prepare their budget
proposals in accordance with the Budget Call Circular and within their Expenditure Ceilings, and submit same to
the Budget Office of the Federation.
The draft Budget is then presented to the President for approval. Once approved by the President, the Budget and
other supporting documents are formally presented by the President to the National Assembly for consideration
and appropriation. The Budget is presented at a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
Following the presentation of the Budget to the joint sitting of the National Assembly, the Budget is debated.
Both the Senate and House of Assembly are given the right to make amendments to the budget framework,
mandated to reallocate apportionments between the various programmes which constitute a particular mission.
Increase or decrease allocations of any particular project playing a much more substantial role in public finance
expenditure strategy and stating priorities of policy objectives in order to strengthen the link between budget
execution and parliamentary authorisation. In order to strengthen the links between budget execution and
parliamentary authorisation, Parliament has the right to supervise the movement of appropriations such as credit
transfers, carry over to the next budget/brought forward from previous budget, advances and cancellations on
any particular expenditure item. Members of the houses are provided with much better information on the overall
economic, social and financial situations of the country at the time the budget is discussed. Detailed economic
and fiscal policy guidelines broken down by main functions are debated at many sessions of the two houses.
The essence of the financial accountability relationship lies in the parliament’s authorisation of the public
revenue and expenditure plans. By authorising revenue and expenditure, legislation provides a framework of
law, which is the basis for calling the government to account for its actions. Statutory approval of revenue and
expenditure thus provides a good foundation for exercising financial accountability which in it’s most basic
form consists of a comparison of submitted accounts to those initially approved by parliament. This “ex-post”
financial accountability starts only after revenue and expenditure have been appropriately planned and authorised
by parliament.
Once the Budget has been approved, the Executive is authorised to spend. Equally, the budget office continues to
monitor budget implementation exercises throughout the MDA’s and produce quarterly Budget implementation
reports. The write-up and the reports included in these publications in themselves are very impressive and
thorough. The problem is “What Happened behind the figures?”
Improvements have been made in the budget process in Nigeria such as increasing the levels of transparency in
its preparation and widespread consultations including consultations with civil society. This process, however,
could be enhanced by strengthening the institutional capacity of the responsible authorities.
2.
Office of the Accountant General of the Federation
75
The Accountant General (AG) is fully responsible for the preparation of the Consolidated Accounts of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria. In this respect he is also responsible for the Accounting and Financial Management
of the Ministries, departments and agencies and he provides the system for monitoring the accounts for MDA’s
(Ministries, Departments and Agencies), provides “accurate and timely” financial information for planning and
decision making. Other functions include:
-
Fund Management - management of the treasury of the nation
-
Revenue Monitoring and Accounting
-
Cash Supply ( including cash-backing and control of banking operations for the Federal Government)
-
Management and Disbursement of the Federation accounts on behalf of the three tiers of Government.
-
Management of Federal Government Investments
-
Collation and preparation of the Federal Government Statutory Accounts and Financial Statements.
-
Inspection and Audit of the books, records and accounts of the Federal Ministries and Agencies
-
Investigation of cases of Fraud and losses of funds and Stores
-
Issuance of Federal Treasury Circulars to convey Financial Policy directives
-
Servicing of external and internal loans of the Federal Government
The internal audit units in the Federal ministries have a direct line to the permanent secretary in their respective
ministry. However, their independence is preserved, as it is the Accountant-General in the Ministry of Finance
that controls their transfer rather than their home ministry. In addition, the head of each internal audit unit is
required to report to the Accountant-General each quarter on the work they have undertaken and their main
findings. However, their scope could still be restricted, as it is the permanent secretary in their ministries that
endorses their annual plan.
Internal audit in the Federal ministries also appears to have a reasonable level of independence. However, at state
and local government council levels internal audit has limited independence.
Various innovations have been introduced by the Federal Ministry of Finance in order to level up with
international best practices in Public Finance and bring the nation’s Public Accounting systems up to the
International Standards. Some of these reforms include:
a.
Implementation of the Interim Accounting Transactions Recording and Reporting System
(ATRRS)
This is an ICT Microsoft Access based software application which enables rapid improvements in
Accounting and Reporting.
b.
Government Integrated Financial Management Information System ( GIFMIS)
GIFMIS is the computerisation of Public Financial Management (PFM) processes from budget
preparation, execution, accounting, and reporting, with the help of an integrated system for financial
management of Line ministries, spending Agencies, and other public sector operations.
c.
Improving the Financial Reporting System through the conduct of IPSAS GAAP Analysis
76
The international public sector Accounting Standards Board (IPSASB) is a standing board of
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). It issues high quality accounting Standards and other
guidance relating to the financial reporting needs of National, Regional and Local Governments.
d.
New Chart of Accounts
A multi-dimensional charter of accounts to provide a framework to align policy priorities with the
budget and financial reports has been developed primarily for the implementation of (GIFMIS). The
details of each transaction will include, not only the exact particulars of a given receipt or payment but
also the unit and section of the MDA responsible for the transaction.
e.
The E-Payment
One of the measures taken by the ministry to ensure transparency and accountability was the
introduction of the E-payment. The E-payment covers all payments to contractors, service providers e.g.
PHCN, staff and other Government Agencies such as FIRS
Modernisation of Internal Audit
Internal Audit and Inspectorate activities are strong instruments of Internal Control Systems designed to ensure
that the accounting systems and other public financial management systems are functioning well and comply
fully with extant regulations. There have been reforms to strengthen capacity in risk based audit and Modern ICT
Internal Control Management. The office of the Accountant General of the Federation has, through GIFMIS
project, gone into the restructuring and modification of the internal audit functions as core components for
strengthening Internal Audit Functions.
The office of the Accountant General of the Federation of Nigeria is both daunting and challenging and he holds
the principle key to the Internal Financial accountability. The primary responsibility for financial records rests
with the Accountant General and the Auditor General. However, there is no-one in either department who
‘champions’ record management. The Department of Planning, Research and Statistics, although headed by a
non-accountant, might be the appropriate location for this role.
The Ministry has created the Directorate of Finance and Accounts for all Ministries, Departments and Agencies
(MDA’s) reporting directly to the Director of Finance and Accounts under the Ministry. The Directorate has
posted/created Finance Departments as well as Internal Audit Departments for every MDA and these
departments have “Line relationship” (i.e. report directly) with the respective Permanent Secretary/head of
Department or Agency, and “Staff relationship” with the Director of Finance and Accounts in the Ministry.
The Office of the Accountant-General of the Federation is structured into eight (8) Departments around its core
functions. These departments include:
1.
Audit Monitoring
2.
Administration
3.
Planning, Research & Information Technology
4.
Finance & Accounts
5.
Funds
6.
Consolidated Accounts
77
7.
Inspectorate
8.
Revenues & Investment
Financial Accounts and Consolidated Accounts
Whilst the Finance and Accounts Department deals with the accounts of the respective MDA’s, Consolidated
Accounts Department Deals with the consolidation of all the accounts within the MDA’s which forms the
consolidated account of the Federal Government of Nigeria. The accounts of Ministries, Departments and
Agencies are subject to periodic accounting reports which should include:

Statement of Financial Position at the end of the reporting period (Balance Sheet)

Statement of Comprehensive Income ( Profit and Loss Account)

Statement of Changes in Equity for the reporting period

Statement of Cash Flows for the reporting period

Notes to the Accounts – Comprising a summary of Significant accounting policies and other explanatory
information with corresponding figures for the previous accounting period. In some cases, accounting ratios
are also included.
Audit Monitoring
The Audit Monitoring department is responsible for the Internal Auditing and periodic audit monitoring of
internal audit of MDAs and FPOs. The Department is structured into two main Divisions namely:
-
Ministries, Department and Agencies Division.
-
Zonal Offices and Federal Pay Offices Division.
The functions of the Audit Monitoring department include:
-
Reviews reports from Internal Audits in the field and draws the attention of AGF to significant issues arising
from the reviews as well as advising the office on Audit matters.
-
Provides feedback to Internal Auditors in the field as well as Accounting Officers where necessary and
carries out follow-up Monitoring activity.
-
Monitor Internal Audit Units in the MDAs/FPOs so as to provide assurance to the AGF that activities in the
Internal Audit Units are being carried out in a manner to ensure complete and continuous audit including
management Audit as well as provide safeguards for prevention and / or prompt detection of fraud and loss
of government assets.
-
Control the production, custody and issuance of audit stamps.
-
Provides guidance, training direction of Internal Auditors in the field.
-
Carries out special audit work as may be directed by the AGF.
External Financial Accountability Mechanisms
78
External Financial accountability mechanisms are means of holding the Government to account to Parliament
and other institutions outside of the administration, such as the Public Complaints Commission and external
audit. The main mechanisms of this category are scrutiny by legislative and investigatory committees, various
public debates and, in the last resort, parliamentary elections.
It may be argued that the main loci of financial accountability are external, since key financial accountability
mechanisms are established outside the executive’s structure. However, since the executive can fulfil its external
accountability responsibilities only if it is efficiently and effectively performing its internal duties, the financial
accountability relationship is also established within its internal structure, between public officials dealing with
public funds. Some of the key Mechanisms are include:
1.
Parliament
The main function of the parliamentary oversight responsibilities rests on their judicial power to scrutinise and
oversee the accounts and functions of ministries, departments and agencies to ensure that expenditure conforms
to the appropriation rules and account for their stewardship of public money.
A key weapon of the parliament in securing financial accountability is the work of its most senior and most
formidable committee, the Public Accounts Committee. Its role is to examine whether public money voted by
Parliament has been spent in accordance with Parliament’s intentions, and with due regard to issues of regularity,
propriety and value for money. Work of the Public Accounts Committee is substantively supported by the
external audit institution, without whose professional assistance the Committee’s control would be almost
impossible. On the basis of the external audit institution’s reports, the Public Accounts Committee calls officials
to account for misuse of public money and reports its findings to Parliament. The Committee’s reports and the
government’s responses to them are debated in Parliament and may be raised by Members of Parliament at any
time.
2.
Central Bank of Nigeria
The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) under the current leadership of Sanusi Lamido Sanusi CON, one of the new
generation African technocrats committed to transparency and Accountability receives money on behalf of the
Federal government of Nigeria, for the Federation Account and passes same to the Accountant General of the
Federation.
The objectives of the CBN are as follows:
- ensure monetary and price stability;
- issue legal tender currency in Nigeria;
- maintain external reserves to safeguard the international value of the legal tender currency;
- promote a sound financial system in Nigeria (e.g. Banks); and
- act as Banker and provide economic and financial advice to the Federal Government.
The bank is responsible for monetary policy, which should aim to achieve reasonable price and exchange rate
stabilization over a medium term. It is given sufficient independence to attain the above objectives for which it is
held responsible and expected to inform the public of its decisions under the above enumerated responsibilities.
79
3.
The Media
Special investigation commissions appointed by the Central Government, NGO’s and other organisations, play a
significant role as a watch dog for the efficient and effective utilization of public funds by the government.
The involvement of Special Investigative Commissions, Unions, NGO’s and the Media in covering national
budgeting processes and potential corruption also results in important avenues for citizen’s access to
information. Although many reporters cannot make an informed analysis of budgetary policies, the media can be
an effective ally in sparking debate among the general public and eliciting responses from the government. Trade
Unions can also determine, change and influence government accountability of public funds.
4.
External audit - Supreme Audit Institution and the Auditor General of the Federation
Supreme Audit Institution
Supreme Audit Institutions ( SAI) are watchdog agencies that carry out external audits of expenditures, incomes
and assets of all government institutions, ensuring public sector transparency and financial accountability with
functional, institutional and financial independence. They have essential legal powers and tools in order to audit
all public funds, resources and activities and report audit findings to parliament so as to reinforce parliamentary
oversight over the executive and publicise them. They have judicial powers to audit the accounts of Government
institutions and put emphasis on compliance audit (i.e. Auditing compliance with laws and regulations). They
serve as an independent body to report to parliament, supporting financial accountability and transparency for
the sake of a strong financial management system. In so doing they ensure that all transactions regarding
expenditures and income comply with laws and regulations and that public resources are expended efficiently,
effectively and economically.
Regular and well designed audits provide the opportunity to discover the weaknesses and loopholes in internal
controls, as well as inefficient and ineffective use of public funds. In Nigeria, the structure discussed above
under the external financial accountability mechanism is fully established. The external audit is under the
responsibility of the “Auditor General” of the Federation.
Auditor General of the Federation
The 1999 Constitution provides for an Office of the Auditor General for the Federation. The office is an
independent entity whose existence, powers, duties, and responsibilities are specified in the constitution. The
Public Accounts of the Federation and of all Offices and Courts of the Federation should be audited and reported
on by the Auditor General (AG). The AG is required to report the findings to the Public Accounts Committees of
both houses of the NASS within 90 days of receipt of the Accountant General’s The AG or any person
authorized by him has access to all the books, records, returns, and other documents relating to those accounts.
The main function of the Public Accounts Committee is to review whether public money was spent for approved
purposes and with due regard to efficiency. Strengthening the functions of this office by the current
administration will contribute immensely to the governance efforts of the country. Finally, even though AuditorGenerals in Nigeria at the Federal and State levels have a reasonable degree of independence, it could be greatly
80
enhanced if at the Federal level, their budgets were not decided directly by the MOF but by the parliament. The
Auditor-General should also be allowed to promote and dismiss their staff. At the local and State level, they have
limited independence.
Reading through the report of the Auditor General for the year ended December 2008 (the most recent published
report available), a conclusion could be drawn, that the Auditor General of the Federation demonstrates high
professional integrity in his report which is both “LUCID” and “PUNGENT”. The report is replete with
disturbing errors of omission and commission in the accounts of every ministry, department, and agency.
Examples of such issues include:
• non-compliance with procedures
• insufficient documentation supporting purchases
• incomplete reconciliations
• failure to account for items properly
• weaknesses in documentation which permits and in some instances highlights fraudulent activity
Below are extracts of some of the few, random samples of the Auditor General’s report which highlight some of
the issues mentioned above:
Report of the Auditor General for the Federation
Annual Report on the Account of the Federal of Nigeria for the Year Ended 31 st December 2008
Page 56, Section 3.05:
“The records made available by the Funds department showed that the sum of NAIRA5 Billion for Group Life
Insurance was cash backed in 2008in favour of the office of the Head of Civil Service of the Federation (OHCS).
However it was observed that the sum of NAIRA4 Billion was reflected in the Financial Statements and in the
Consolidated Transcripts of the OHCS, whereas, Note 4 which is the “List of Closing Cash Book balances as at
the 31st of December 2008 showed the closing balance of OHCS to be Nil. This balance did not account for the
NAIRA1 Billion difference between the cash backed figure of NAIRA5 Billion and NAIRA4 Billion reflected in
the Financial Statements and the transcript of the accounts”. The Accountant General has been requested to
account for the difference of NAIRA1 billion”.
Comments: On the surface, it would appear that there is an account reconciliation problem or more seriously, an
error of Commission. Whatever the situation, it demonstrates deficiencies in the accounting system. The
accounts should be reconciled to explain the NAIRA1Billoion difference. This indicates lapses in the accounting
system.
Page 57, Section 3.07:
“In the audit examination of the subheads relating to the Service Wide Vote, the sum of
NAIRA25,614,551,162.00 made up of two tranches of NAIRA13,239,551,162.00 and NAIRA12,375,000.00,
81
was released to the office of the Accountant General of the Federation for the payment of “Terminal Benefits of
13.722
disengaged
staff
of
various
parastatals”.
It
was
however
observed
that
the
sum
of
NAIRA25,614,551,162.00 was not reflected in the financial statements.” The Account General of the Federation
has been requested to provide names of the Banks, the Account numbers and Bank Statements in which the sum
of NAIRA25,614,551,162.00 was paid into. The balances from the various loans as at the 31 st of December
should also be provided.”
Comments: What is the External Accounting Mechanism within the Department or Ministry that allows these
lapses? The local Departmental or Ministerial internal and external auditor should have picked up on these
discrepancies and carried out their own investigation on the differences. Is this an error of commission or error of
omission? It is hoped that the Public accounts Committee would have waded into this issue to investigate the
discrepancies in the money received and the actual payments made.
Page 59, Section 3.13:
“It was observed overtime, that there was a serious cash management problem in the consolidated Revenue Fund
Account, this problem arose from the various “ Debit Interest” and “Sinking Fund” which ran into billions of
Naira being debited into CRF account, and many a time, without the advance knowledge of the Accountant
General of the Federation. The reason being that there were no mandates, no known programme or projection for
daily, monthly, quarterly, and plans for these kinds of Debits prior to their being brought to the CRF account.
This had created serious cash flow in billions of Naira out of the CRF Account without a prior projection. A
sample audit examination of the CRF Bank Reconciliation statements showed the sum of debits charged to CRF
account for:
i.
Debit Interests = 183,456,910,913.16
ii.
Sinking Fund =
11,255,171,560.64
194,712,082,474.70
It
is
of
concern
too,
that
accounts
where
the
credits
for
the
sampled
Debit
Interests
of
NAIRA183,456,910,913.16 and Sinking Fund of NAIRA11,255,171,560.64 were not known. Also of concern is
that the criteria for determination or calculation of the “debit Interests” and “sinking Funds” for this large sum of
funds in billions of Naira was not known; for one to determine the correctness of these debits charged to CRF.
The accountant General of the Federation has been requested to disclose the beneficiaries of various debits, in
respect of the “Debit Interests in Floatation, Stock, Bonds, Treasury Bills, and Sinking Fund accounts that are
credited.
Page 69, Section 3.34:
“A loan of US $40,000,000 was granted to the republic of Ghana on the 3 rd of August 2004 for financing
Ghana’s interest in West African Gas Pipeline Project at a zero interest rate. The loan agreement indicated that it
would be repaid in five equal instalments of US $8,000,000.00 bi-annually. The figure for this loan was not
reflected in the note 6 of the Financial Statements.”
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Page 69, Section 3.35:
“Similarly a loan of US $ 5,000,000 was granted to Sao Toure and Principe by the Federal Government of
Nigeria to enable the Democratic Republic of Sao Toure and Principe achieve the objective of establishing the
treaty in the Exploitation and Development of Resources in the joint Development Zone (JD2). This Loan was
also not reflected in the Statement”
“The Accountant General of the Federation has been requested to furnish my office with the present position of
the repayment of the loans totalling US $45,000,000 as at the 31 st of December 2008 for examination. It should
also be noted that this issue has been subject to my reports since 2004 to 2007 without any response”
Comments: The Loan Servicing Department is charged with the responsibility of looking after “Loans”,
whether given or received by the Federal Government. This is clearly a lapse in their responsibilities as this issue
has been reported yearly through the periods 2004 to 2007. The Public Accounts Committee should also have
looked into and resolved this issue considering the length of time it has been ongoing.
Page 69, Section 4.02:
“At the office of the Accountant General of the Federation, it was observed from the component statements of
2008, the Joint Venture Cash Calls (JVC) of the sum of NAIRA579,126,900,000.00, Excess Crude of the sum of
NAIRA1,728,448,746,760.92 and Petroleum Product subsidy of the sum of NAIRA360,184,606,409.99 were
deducted from the proceeds of Crude oil sales, while the sums of NAIRA706,033,086,799.17 and
NAIRA247,561,015,590.23 were excess proceeds deducted in respect of Petroleum Profit Tax (PPT) and
Royalties respectively. These deductions were made before the Net Revenues were paid to the Federation
Account, contrary to the provisions of Section 162(i) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria, which requires all such revenues to be paid directly into the Federation Account. This anomaly has been
brought to the attention of the Accountant General of the Federation for Prompt action.”
Extracts of the Auditor General’s Report on the NNPC and Petroleum Products Pricing and Regulating Authority
Page 78, Section 4.12:
“At NNPC, it was also observed that the Corporation had US $10,720,573.37 debt outstanding against some
Crude Oil Debtors age analysis of the debtors range between eight (8) and twenty (20) years further enquiries
revealed that most of these Debtors were no longer trading with NNPC. The comment of the Group Managing
Director (NNPC) has been sought, on the efforts being made to recover the debt”
Page 79, Section 4.13:
“Audit examination of the accounting and other records revealed that interest payable on delayed payments by
crude oil customers was US $28,636780.00. This action contravenes the provision of the contract agreement
between NNPC and the Crude oil customers, which requires that interest based on London inter Bank Offer Rate
(LIBOR) are charged on customers who failed to settle their crude oil costs after the payment due date. The
comment of the Group Managing Director (NNPC) has been sought on the efforts being made to recover the
debt”
83
Comments: Existence of potential bad debts to be written off due to the lack of adequate credit control
Mechanisms
Page 79, Section 4.14:
“Further Audit scrutiny of the records of the NNPC showed that a total of NAIRA450,776,350,457.00 realised
from domestic sales of crude oil and gas were not remitted to the Federation account by NNPC. The attention of
the Group Managing Director of NNPC has been drawn to this anomaly through the Accountant General of the
Federation and has been requested to refund NAIRA450,776,350,457 to the Federation Account.
Page 79, Section 4.15:
“Audit examination of the accounting and other records revealed that Crude oil and gas Sales to US
$435,915,548.44 which appeared on the Crude Oil Profiles could not be traced to the Statement of Account of
Crude Oil and Gas proceeds with J P Morgan Chase. Also, Sale proceeds amounting to US $97,902,712.75 as
stated in the Statement of Accounts of NNPC oil and Gas sales proceeds with J P Morgan Chase New York
could not be traced to the Crude Oil and Gas Receipts and payments statements. The attention of the Group
Managing Director NNPC has been drawn to these anomalies through the Accountant General of the Federation
and has been requested to investigate these anomalies”.
Page 79, Section 4.16:
“Audit examination of the Joint Venture Cash call records at NAPIMS, Lagos revealed that an amount of US
$100,000,000 was irregularly diverted in the year under review to execution of security payment for the month
of month of May 2008 which was not included in the approved budgets of the Joint Venture Operations. The
Group Managing Director (NNPC) had been requested to produce the authority for the fund diversion of US
$100,000,000; otherwise refund the sum to the Federation Account.”
Extracts of the Auditor General’s Report on the Department of the Petroleum Resources (DPR)
*Page 80, Section 4.20:
“During the audit examination of accounting and other records at the Department of Petroleum Resources for the
Federation Account Revenue, it was observed that the computation of royalties payable by the oil companies was
based on actual Crude oil lifted by them and not calculated on actual production figures contrary to the
provisions of the MOU’s with the relevant oil companies : The MOU’s provide that payment of royalties should
be based on production volume multiplied by the prescribed royalty rates”
*Page 80, Section 4.21:
“Furthermore, the department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) has since shirked its responsibility of raising the
assessments on royalties and sending the demand notices to the various oil companies for prompt settlements.
Rather the Oil Companies are allowed to engage in the self-assessment of royalties payable by them. This
compromise obviously is detrimental to the interest of the country. The Director of Department of Petroleum
Reserves has been informed of this anomaly through the Accountant Genera of the Federation and he is
84
requested to ensure that computation of royalties is based on the production as contained in the MOU’s for the
benefits of the country”
“This situation is gravely collaborated by the article of the Daily Sun, March 13, page 6, with the heading:
‘DPR accuses IOC’s of frustrating gas – monitoring installation’ which accused International Oil companies
(IOC’s) of refusing the DPR to install equipments that will monitor the production and utilisation of gas”
Page 81, Section 4.23:
“Audit investigation revealed that a sum NAIRA1,203,815,367.00 for penalty on Gas flared, US
$586,202,836.00 on royalties or Crude oil and US $ 857,921.28 on Concession Rentals owed by various oil
companies were outstanding as at December 2008.
Extracts of the Auditor General’s Report on the Federation Ministry Works, Housing, and Urban Development
Page102, Section 6.52:
“5 cash withdrawals totalling NAIRA7,269,000.00 were made in June and August 2008 from the Fertilizer
account maintained with a commercial bank. The authority and purpose of the withdrawals were not explained.
No paid voucher or receipt was produced to justify the abnormal withdrawals, I have asked the Permanent
Secretary FCTA to investigate and explain the abnormal withdrawals”
Extracts of the Auditor General’s Report on the Federal Ministry of Finance
Page114, Section 6.76:
“Similarly the sum of NAIRA215,000,000.00 donated by the World Bank was released to the Ministry through
Authority to incur Expenditure dated 05/05/08 for the purpose of meeting the counterpart funding requirements
for some Donor-Assisted Project. The 4 beneficiaries shared the allocation as follows:-
Economic Management and Capacity Building Project (EMAP) NAIRA115,000,000.00
Economic Reforms and Government Project (ERGP)
NAIRA50,000,000.00
State Governance and Capacity Building Project (SGCBP)
NAIRA25,000,000.00
African Capacity Building Fund (ACBF)
NAIRA25,000,000.00
NAIRA215,000,000.00
However, none of them acknowledged receipt of those amounts of money, the payments were not properly
accounted for and details of expenditure were not produced for examination and verification
Extracts of the Auditor General’s Report on the Embassy of Nigeria, Paris, France
Page132, Section 6.129(a):
“The sum of £1,273,059.60 (NAIRA271,810,855.20) was collected as revenue by the embassy. Instead of
remitting this amount to the Federal Government Independent Revenue Account, at J.P. Morgan Chase Bank,
New York, the mission spent it on Sundry items. This is a contravention of extant regulations”
85
Extracts of the Auditor General’s Report on the Federal Government Press
Page142, Section 6.152(e):
“The contract for the supply of 3 electricity transformers to the new office was awarded a sum of
NAIRA23,194,500.00 on the 8th of October 2008. Full payment for the contract was affected on 22 nd December
2008. Audit verification however revealed that only one transformer worth NAIRA3,712,500 was supplied, but
it was yet to be installed and tested by PHCN as contained in the contract agreement. The other 2 transformers
were not supplied.”
“The permanent Secretary Ministry of Information and Communication has been asked to recover the sum of
NAIRA19,482,000.00 being the cost of the 2 transformers not supplied from the contractor or those who
processed the upfront payment”
These extracts represent small sample numbers taken at random. The full Auditor General’s report was so replete
with numerous errors of commissions and omissions that one should be concerned with the Parliamentary
oversight functions (Public Accounts Committee) especially when significant numbers of these issues have been
around for some years.
The Auditor General’s findings in his report corroborate with the recent (2011) Process and Forensic Review of
NNPC by KPMG and SSA, appointed by the Federal Ministry of Finance. A sample of which is also listed
below:
Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparent Industries Act 2007
As a follow up to the announcement of the Extractive Industries Transparency by Tony Blair; the then British
Prime Minister at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa in September
2002, and the general impression that widespread Corruption and Discrepancies characterised by Nigeria’s Oil
and Gas sector, Nigeria signed on to the initiative (the NEITI was enacted in 2007). A 28 man National
Stakeholders working group (NSWG) was inaugurated by President Olusegun Obasanjo to oversee its
implementation. To achieve its objective the NSWG engaged the services of an international audit company, the
Hart Group, made up of Nigerian and British firms with the Mandate to perform a process, financial and physical
audit of all extractive companies. The auditors were also required to prepare a credible Annual Statement of all
revenues received by the Government from 1999 when civilian government was restored to 2004 and annual
basis thereafter. The report involved looking at the books of relevant government agencies that have a role to
play in collecting revenues in the form of royalties, taxes etc. from the extractive sector, as well as the Central
Bank, where the funds were deposited in government accounts. Some of their findings included:
1.
“ADDITIONALTIES OF $510 MILLION NOT YET FINALIZED: The DPR in 2004 set up a joint review
team comprising the Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS) and the Nigeria National Petroleum
Corporation (NNPC) in respect of Royalties calculations by the OPCOS. The result of the exercise was
additional charges on 11 oil companies of roughly $510 million. Hart Group needs to establish how this is
finalized.”
2.
“MANAGEMENT OF CASH CALL ACCOUNT: There is a cause for concern where transfers between JP
Morgan NY to CBN Accounts sometimes differ and require reconciliation. A situation where $248 million
86
transferred was received as $291 million in CBN gives a funny feeling. And NAPIMS who operate this
account receive their management fees of 50 to 60 million dollars from this account? If the Account as
published represent what is on ground Hart Group must do more than they have done – adopt or make
government adopt what is current best practice in other oil-producing countries.”
President Olusegun Obasanjo had to stop the presentation of their report to the Federal Executive Council (FEC)
midway as the presenter mentioned various discrepancies unearthed by the Hart Group in the course of its
work. An infuriated Obasanjo had directed the auditors to “go to the roots of the audit” and trace where the
alleged missing funds went to.
The Federal Government of Nigeria has also noted that, despite the increase in international oil prices and
Nigeria’s export volumes, there has not been a commensurate improvement in the Country’s external reserves
position. This has been further aggravated by allegations of unauthorised changes made in the management of
foreign bank accounts used for the receipt of the national crude oil and gas sales proceeds by the NNPC, as these
sales are said to be received into NNPC managed foreign bank accounts.
Furthermore, there are concerns that the procedures for managing and reporting the country’s crude oil and gas
revenues are opaque and characterised by gaps, overlaps and inconsistencies in the role of key parties
responsible for the assessment, collection and reporting of these revenue streams.
Against the above backdrop of these, the Federal Government, through the Federal Ministry of Finance, engaged
KPMG and SSA to carry out a process and forensic review of NNPC. The following are a few extracts of a
random sample of their “process review” report (process only).
NNPC: Process and Forensic Review Report by KPMG and SSA (Interim Report on Processes Only)
Identification of gaps / issues to the processes and proffers recommendations to bridge identified gaps:
*Page 17 Section 4.1
Findings:
Poor data management, no centralised location for storing electronic copies of historical production and
allocation data. This information is stored on Personnel (individual) workstations
Implications:
Potential loss of historical production information in the event of staff turnover or system failure. Difficulty in
retrieving prior documents/reports
Recommendations:
- Documents should be maintained in a central location
- Implement procedures for ensuring effective and timely filing / storage and backup of documents
- Ensure periodic system backup to minimise data losses
Page 18 Section 4.1
87
Findings:
Currently, determination of Official Selling Price (OSP) is performed by using different variables (dated Brent –
DB, differentials-D and Premium-B) i.e. OSP = DTB + D + P.A model was developed but is not currently being
utilized based on its lack of robustness
Implications:
Lack of a standard model could result in incomplete evaluation of OSP variables such as freight costs seasonal
influences and operational challenges
Recommendations:
- Implementation of a robust and scalable pricing model to ensure a complete, consistent and systematic
approach for determining OSP
Page 18 Section 4.1
Findings:
We observed variances in crude sales price especially with regards to domestic sales in PPMC. Crude sales to
NNPC were at lower prices (lower than approved OSP) than to other off-takers which is not in compliance with
Government directive – it appears that there is no formal documentation to support this decision/practice
Implications:
- Sub- optimisation of crude oil sales Revenue / potential loss revenue loss to the federation
- Non compliance with laid down policies and procedures
- Potential conflict of interest with Com D acting as Agent to Government and being under NNPC who is also its
customer
Recommendations:
- Review and update policies on crude sales to ensure that external off-takers and PPMC are invoiced at a
uniform price
Page 19 Section 4.1
Findings:
NNPC is invoiced in the US Dollars for domestic crude allocations but is expected to remit the equivalent Naira
value to the Federation account. However we observed that exchange rates used by NNPC were lower than the
average exchange rates published by the CBN during the review period. Exchange rate variations for 2007, 2008,
2009, were estimated at NAIRA25.7bn, NAIRA33.8bn, NAIRA26.7bn respectively (using CBN Rates for the
months of the transaction). NNPC claimed they obtained the exchange rates from CBN via phone but there was
no document to substantiate the claim.
Implications:
- Significant underpayment of domestic crude cost to the Federation account
Recommendations:
- Enforce policy to ensure NNPC’s exchange rates are consistent with CBN’s published rates
- Supporting documents regarding applicable exchange rates should be obtained from CBN and filed
appropriately for record purposes
Page 23 section 4.1
88
Findings:
- Non Compliance with guidelines relating to detained margin of error on L.C. Value (+/-5%)
- Variation between the invoice value and LC value exceeds the defined 5% error margin. Examples include
invoice number Cos\02\PPMC\026\08 (Difference of 10.8% i.e. Cargo valuation and LC value are $95,396,587
and $85,000,000 respectively)
Implications:
- The risk exists that the quality of crude lifted by off-takers would exceed the contracted volumes.
Recommendations:
- Update and enforce policies to ensure actual lifting volume and value do not exceed defined LC margin of error
- Conduct periodic reviews of LC’s against cargo valuation to proactively identify the need to update LC value
*Page 24 Section 4.1
Findings:
We observed that oil sales and collections are not promptly captured on the accounting system. Typically, these
transactions are captured in the accounting system after the transactions have been approved at FAAC meeting
which is typically two (2) months in arrears
Implications:
- Inaccurate sales and collection information on the financial systems and multiple data sources as data is
predominately managed outside the system.
- Tracking and aging of receivables would be performed manually
- Late detection of errors and absence of relevant audit trails.
- Root cause analysis of adjustment not adequately determined or resolved
Recommendations:
- Review billing and revenue accounting processes to enable real time processing of transactions
- Explore the possibility of system generated invoicing.
*Page 28 Section 4.1
Findings:
Delays in Discharging of products result in significant demurrage payments. Based on our analysis of product
importation profiles between January 2008 and June 2010, average demurrage days were estimated at 31 days
Implications:
- Demurrage payments are made by NNPC. We observe that NNPC was liable to pay an average demurrage of
$198 million during the review period translating to an average of $6.6 million per month
Recommendations:
- Review and update the planning process for receipt of product imports to enable more efficient planning of
cargoes and minimise delay
- Explore long term solutions to resolve jetty facility constraints
- Upgrade of Jetty facility products, specifically with regards to drafts.
- Improve local production of petroleum products
Page 29 Section 4.1
89
Findings:
- Non integration of inventory, procurement and accounting system
- Currently crude oil receipts as well as the production, verification and evaluation of refined petroleum products
are managed on MS Excel
Implications:
- Lack of end to end reconciliation of inventory to product sales.
- Increased possibility of manual errors
- Late or non detection of inventory losses/reconciliation issues
- Inaccurate Inventory records resulting in misstatement of financial records
Recommendations:
- Deploy an inventory system that supports the refineries supply chain processes
- Currently NNPC is in the process of implementing an EPR solution (SAP) which is expected to address the
challenges being faced with non integration / stand alone system.
- There is a need to ensure that functional requirements meet and address the issues currently faced before the
implementation can be successful.
*Page 33 Section 4.1
Findings:
- There are instances of delay in receipts of subsidy advice from PPPRA resulting in the estimation of subsidy
claims by NNPC, which results in over / under deductions from proceeds of domestic crude sales
- For example, NAIRA25bn was deducted as subsidy estimate for September 2009 from domestic crude sales
proceeds while PPPRA approved subsidy of NAIRA23.8bn
- NAIRA35bn was also deducted as subsidy estimate for November 2009 but PPPRA approved a subsidy of
NAIRA21.36bn
- Over deduction for these two months amounted to NAIRA14.00 bn. However only NAIRA4.2bn was swept
into the Federation account by NNPC as adjustment for subsidy claimable in the two months
Implications:
- Under remittance of domestic crude sales proceeds into the Federation Account
- Based on our analysis subsidy over deduction for 2007, 2008, 2009 was estimated at NAIRA2.0bn,
NAIRA10.36bn, and NAIRA16.2bn respectively
- High risk of loss of subsidy adjustments trail, specifically in instances of under remittance.
Recommendations:
- Define and reinforce deadlines for submission of subsidy advice by PPPRA
- Deduction from the proceeds of domestic crude sales by NNPC should be solely based on the amounts advised
by PPPRA
*Page 38 Section 4.1
Findings:
- Delays in capturing sales transactions on the Sun accounting system
- As at August 2010, we observed that transaction entries relating to payment and product lifting by coastal
marketers for June and July 2010 have been captured onto the system
90
Implications:
- Inaccurate financial records
- Long cycle time for the preparation of management reports due to reconciliations
- Increased and cumbersome reconciliation
Recommendations:
- Redesign process to ensure real time capture of transactions on the accounting system
- Define and implement timelines for the posting of transactions as KPI’s for process operations
- Explore opportunities to generate system invoices / receipts
*Page 39 Section 4.1
Findings:
- Poor Data Management – we observed that documents are not adequately filed and some documents are
stacked in bags
Implications:
- Difficulty in retrieving supports for past transactions
- Increased risk of misplacement of documents
- Lack of supporting documents to present in cases where transactions listed on invoices are disputed by
Marketers
Recommendations:
- Implement procedures for ensuring effective and timely filing/storage and back up of documents
- Explore implementing a document management system to reduce the use of paper in the process flow
- Timelines for filing all documents should be clearly defined and monitored to ensure compliance
- Ensure periodic system back-up to minimize data losses.
NNPC Newspaper Articles
Article: Daily Sun, Tuesday March 13, 2011, Page 6 - DPR ACCUSES IOCS OF FRUSTRATING GASMONITORING INSTALLATION
How can Nigeria talk of accountability when we cannot metre the basic source of our income – oil?
Nigeria may be losing billions of naira in revenue following the refusal of International Oil Companies (IOCs) to
allow the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) install equipment that will monitor the production and
utilization of gas.
The Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) told the Senate Committee on Gas that IOCs had frustrated the
Federal government efforts at installing equipment to monitor the production and utilization of gas real time
measurement. Deputy Director Technical Services of DPR, Mr. Dozie Irrechukwu, said this at an interactive
session with the Senator Nkechi Nwaogu-led committee in Abuja on Monday. He specifically fingered Shell
Petroleum Development Company (SPDC), Chevron and Mobil as using some techniques to slow down the
installation of the real time units that would give accurate measurement of gas production and utilization.
91
He said the companies had refused to shut down to allow the contractors survey and design the appropriate
technology to be used.
Irrechukwu said the project had only attained 8.3 per cent completion even after the contract for the device was
awarded in 2009. He explained that Gas Real Time measurement was an electronic device used to monitor the
quantity of gas produced at any particular time. Irrechukwu noted the IOCs were still using manual
measurement, which, he said, was far below the level of gas being produced and utilized.
There was, however, cheery news as Irrechukwu noted that some processes had been completed with the
exception of installation of the real time units. Managing Director of Riverman Technologies Limited (contractor
handling the project), Kingsley Itoro, and corroborated Irrechukwu. He told the committee that all efforts to
access the facilities of the IOC's had largely been unsuccessful.
In her response, Nwaogu accused the DPR of not living up to their policing role in the oil industry, adding that it
was appalling that after the government had decided to separate gas from oil production to generate additional
revenue, the project had not seen the light of day four years after. She lamented that of the 166 terminals that
required real time measuring equipment only 10 representing 8.3 per cent had been completed.
The Sunday Sun - 29th January 2012
Asked about the way out of the crisis facing the oil sector, this is what Chief Frank Kokori, former General
Secretary of National Union of Petroleum and National Gas workers (NUPENG) had to say about NNPC
“That is another long story and it would take a day to talk about the rot in the oil sector and the close shop by the
Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC). You do not know what is happening there. And they were
able to run a close shop because they have the support of the Federal Government which uses the NNPC as a
honey pot. They go there, dip hands into funds and use the money for undercover jobs. They have not been able
to open their books to the public and even the National Assembly who are supposed to enforce it have not been
able to do that for about 12 years. But there is a lot of rot in the oil sector.”
On Corruption he stated:
“But the crux of the problems of this country is just being scratched at the surface. The root cause of the whole
problems in this country is corruption and if you cannot wipe out corruption, then there is a problem.
There is no way you can say you are reforming anything in a country like Nigeria where corruption is so
rampant. That is the problem. I am saying that until Jonathan decides to face the issue of corruption headlong, I
do not see Nigeria moving forward. People who are not even corrupt will now see it and start saying what about
those who are corrupt. Those who are corrupt are milking the people dry. The so-called fat cows are milking the
people dry and government is doing nothing about it.
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So, when you start preaching that you want good governance, you want the people to be good and that you want
to carry out reforms, where are the reforms when corruption is eating up everybody? At the end of the day, what
reformation are you doing when corruption is so blatant? I think that until that is done; the people would not
even be satisfied. If you are corrupt and government is serious about fighting corruption, the government would
go in and within six months, people have been caught, prosecuted, sanctioned with heavy punishment. As long
as we do not fight this octopus they call corruption, Nigeria would have a long way to go and we would be a
laughing stock in the comity of nations.”
Negative Effects of the Lack of Financial Accountability
The main negative effect of the lack of Financial Accountability is corruption.
Corruption
Corruption is a worldwide phenomenon that occurs in various ways and forms throughout the world regardless
of development level of countries. The inherent system of internal checking determines the level of deterrence. It
is considered as a hazardous virus that undermines political culture of nations, fair allocation of resources, well
being of societies and the trust of citizens in their government. Controlling corruption is therefore nothing less
than promoting economic development, increasing countries competitiveness, improving social conditions,
improving employment opportunities and reducing poverty.
The nature of corruption makes it very complicated to come to a mutual understanding and it is as old as human
beings. Corruption generally refers to “abuse of public power for personal gain or for benefit of a group to which
one owes allegiance”. “It also involves behaviour on the path of officials in the public and private sectors in
which they improperly and unlawfully enrich themselves and / or those close, share or induce others to do so by
misusing the position in which they are placed. It covers embezzlement, extortion, favouritism, gift giving, graft,
kickback, money laundering, nepotism, etc. It may be sporadic or systematic, bureaucratic, or political
corruption, grand or petty, active or passive corruption. It is a cancer that is detrimental to people.
Corruption is not an inescapable destiny but an outcome of systematic or sporadic abuse of power and can only
be avoided by maintaining systematic, coherent and nationwide anti-corruption policies.
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Systematic Approach to Anti Corruption Efforts
Corruption should be dealt with in an all round approach involving all efforts to deter it owing to the fact that it
is multidimensional. Active participation of Government, legislature, oversight, judiciary, agencies, international
organisations, civil society, media and citizens to stave off the existence of corruption in every segment of the
social and political systems.
Approaches

“Penal Administrative approach” – offers to strengthen national law and administrative structures in order to
unveil leakages from the system, betterment of institutional tools and firm punishment of offenders by strict
laws and regulations.

“Economic Based Approach” – Pursuing all economic reforms needed in a determined manner (IMF).

“National Integrity system” – Concept suggested by Ibrahim Seushi, President of “transparency
International”, Tanzania, in 1998 referred to 8 institutions which pursue the war against corruption in an
independent manner and lack or weakness of any of these would increase the burden of the other pillars of
integrity. These institutions are “political will”, “administrative reforms”, “watch dog agencies
(anticorruption commissions, supreme audit institutions), ombudsman’s office, parliaments, public
awareness/involvement, the judiciary, the media and the private sector”
Anti corruption efforts can be evaluated in 3 inter-related levels:

International Level

State level

Civil Society Level
Political Corruption
Political corruption is the misuse of political power for private benefit (personal or group gain), in particular the
benefits of power, status and wealth. Status and self-indulgence Maximising wealth (pecuniary profit)
Private and collective benefits (individuals, parties, governments) Preservation and extension of power
Political corruption usually involves a violation of existing laws and regulations, but it is not restricted to illegal
acts. It is also political corruption when national laws and regulations have loopholes and are deliberately sidestepped, ignored and custom-made.
Political corruption must necessarily include or promise some sort of material inducement, such as money and
monetary equivalents like goods and favours. Political corruption takes two basic forms. One is corrupt
accumulation and extraction (from private sector and national wealth). This takes place mainly where politics
and business meet (in the political-private sector nexus, and where corporate money is involved). The other form
is corruption for power preservation and expansion (favouritism and patronage politics). This takes place in
political decision-making and electoral processes. Corrupt accumulation and extraction include
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-
Bribes, “commissions” and fees taken from private sector businesses
-
Fraud and economic crime
-
Politically created rent-seeking opportunities
-
Politically created market favours benefiting businesses owned by political elites
-
Off-budget transfers, manipulated processes of privatisation
-
Extorting party and campaign funding from the state, private sector and voters
-
Corrupt means of power preservation include
-
Buying political support and majorities from other parties and politicians
-
Co-optation and maintenance of patron-client networks
-
Buying decisions from parliament, judiciary, control and oversight bodies
-
Favouritism and patronage in allocation of government resources
-
Buying voters and votes, electoral fraud
-
Use of public money for political campaigns
-
Buying off media and civil society
Corruption in Nigeria
Corruption in Nigeria today appears to be “Genetic”.
Corruption and its ancillaries ─ bribery, graft, fraud and nepotism has severely impacted Nigeria’s growth and
development efforts. It has become so deep-rooted in the social fabric of country that it had stunted growth in all
sectors and has been one of the primary reasons behind the country’s high incidence of poverty. Transparency
International (TI) ranks Nigeria among the five most corrupt nations in the world. Corruption undermines
economic growth, jeopardizes financial stability, and undermines confidence in government institutions. It also
leads to criminality that has corrosive effects on governance and the rule of law. Federal and state governments
are reported to have lost about US$380 billion since the advent of the oil windfall to corruption.
Although corruption is a global scourge, Nigeria appears to suffer the most from it because the leaders are
pathologically corrupt. Everyone appears to believe that the nation has a ‘culture of corruption’ (Smith, 2008).
Over the years, Nigeria has earned huge sums of money from crude oil, which has gone down the sinkhole
created by corruption. In an article, Nigeria was described as a rich nation floating on oil wealth “but almost
none of it flows to the people” (San Francisco Chronicle, March 11, 2007). Top public servants are very rich
because they harbour the mentality that public money belongs to no one.
The problem with Nigeria is that the system lacks checks and balances (or mechanisms) to control the autocratic
tendencies in government and to hold political actors accountable for their actions. Also, the politicians do not
practice ethical politics and their actions do not add values to the system, lack of “ethical politics and values”
(Dike, January 15, 2007) and politics of hate and destruction contribute to the economic and political hiccups in
the society. However, the people should not just sit there and hope for the best; they should be politically active
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to get the government and the politicians to listen and act right. Political pressure from the people could
determine the type of policy the government would choose for execution. Corruption is however, a greater part
of the problems facing Nigeria as it leads to poor governance, which hampers socio-political and economic
development.
The EFCC Act mandates the EFCC to combat financial and economic crimes accompanied by high-level support
from the Presidency, the Legislature, and key security and law enforcement agencies in Nigeria. The
Commission is empowered to prevent, investigate, prosecute, and penalize economic and financial crimes and is
charged with the responsibility of enforcing the provisions of other laws and regulations relating to economic
and financial crimes as well as being the key government agency responsible for fighting terrorism. The EFCC
and ICPC have since their inception only been able to bring a few corrupt public officers to justice. The
government’s campaign against corruption is also enhanced by the setting up of the Due Process Office.
Nigerian and Overseas Newspaper Headlines are awash with incidences of Corruption and Fraud perpetuated by
Politicians and Senior Government Officials, a few of which are highlighted below:
-
Daily mail London, Tuesday February 28th 2010
Headline: “Thief in Government House, Wickes Cashier becomes a £250 Million Playboy Fraudster”.
The article went on to describe how Ibori, a £5,000 a year cashier at Wickes “was found guilty of stealing
goods from the Wickes store he worked at in Ruislip in 1990, and was also convicted for handling a stolen
credit card, moved back to Nigeria and worked for it’s President, Sani Abacha, as a Policy Consultant”
-
Daily Trust, March 20 2012, Page 1
Headline: “ NAIRA14 Billion Pension Fraud, Permanent Secretary 7 to Face Trial”
-
Daily Trust March 20 2012 Page 1
Headline: “NAIRA44 Million Bribery Scandal: Ad hoc Panel Takes over Probe”
-
The Saturday Sun, March 17 2012 Page 13
Headline: “Nigeria is Failed State – What Remains is Its Disintegration – Eleazu - Former Director /
Coordinator of National Policy Development Centre (Think Tank)”
-
Daily Trust, March 21 2012, Page 1
Headline: “Itembe Resigns – Alleges: Oteh offered me NAIRA30 Million Bribe”
-
Daily Sun, March 19 2012, Page 1
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Headline:” Police Pension Fraud: Perm Sec Caught with NAIRA2 Billion Cash, 3 Estates, and 2 Filling
Stations, Recovered in Abuja Alone”
What type of Financial Accountability would allow an officer to embezzle such an amount? Where are the
internal checking systems, payment authority schedule, Internal Audit and the External Auditors, especially
in their “value for money” audit? 2 Billion Naira represents the employment of 10 highly qualified
professional Accountants for 50 years, on annual total emoluments of 5 million naira a year each.
-
Daily Sun, February 23 2012, Page 6
Headline: “FCDA awards NAIRA300 Billion contracts to Fake Firms”
-
Saturday Independent, March 17 2012, page 1
Headline: “NAIRA44 Billion Allegations: ICPC to Probe Reps, EFCC Keeps Mum”.
-
Daily Sun, February 15 2012
Headline: “NAIRA1 Trillion Fake Projects Smuggled into 2012 Budget”
Loans
-
Daily Sun, February 15 2012
Headline: “President Seeks Senate Approval for $1 Billion Loan (To Finance Pipeline Projects)”
Comment: Nigeria had recently exited from the “Paris club” loan. It is very disturbing that the country is
again increasing our loan portfolio. One would have expected that with the quantity of crude oil and gas
currently exported from Nigeria, it would have been involved in accumulating reserves / Foreign
investments in Bonds and Real Estate so that future generations of Nigerians could benefit from the
windfalls of this “Wasting Asset” (Oil – which will run out at some point).
-
Daily Independence, March 9 2012
Headline: Pension Probe: “Police Unveil NAIRA21 Billion Fraud as Committees Order Maina’s Arrest”
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Conclusion
Painting an unrealistic rosy picture of a bad situation is deceptive. Rhetoric cannot develop Nigeria.
Nigeria’s problems require a realistic solution. But it lacks the institutions and infrastructure to transform itself
from a consumer society to a producer nation.
The writer of this paper, remembers with nostalgia, when as a child in the late 1950’s, there used to be a second
collection after Liturgical Mass to help the “hungry and dying Chinese”. He also remembers, some twenty years
later, in the early 1970’s, when Julius Nyerere (one of Africa’s greatest leaders), said that he had visited some
Western industrialised factories and was perplexed with the gigantic and complex structures rising to the high
heavens. He later toured China and was astonished to find that, small buildings, similar to those in Tanzania,
were turning out the same quality products (in millions) as those from western gigantic factories.
He then said “if China could do it, we can do it”
Within a period of less than 40 years, China has transformed from a “hungry and pitiable nation” to the fastest
growing economy in the world. The Chinese leadership steered the country on the path of development with total
dedication and commitment and today the country is playing a leading role in turning the global economy
around, from recession. More importantly, the country in recent years has claimed to have lifted over 300million
of its citizens out of poverty as a result of the boom in it’s manufacturing sector and the economy in general.
Even the United States of America has been humbled in her relationship with China, the arrogance has
disappeared.
History has offered the world a wealth of information on how economies grow and thrive as well as how
economies collapse. But the leaders of Nigeria have refused to utilize the wisdom of history and follow the paths
taken by leaders of developed and prosperous nations. The leaders of Nigeria are deceptive. Obasanjo promised
to give corruption ‘a bloody nose’ yet corruption blossomed under his watch.
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Chinua Achebe in his book, The Trouble with Nigeria, states clearly that the bane of Nigeria’s development is as
a result of poor leadership and this factor continues to plague the nation’s polity. We continue to have leaders
who do not have the interest of the country at heart; leaders who aspire for public office, not to render service to
the country but to themselves, close relatives and friends. The reason for running for public office has been
distorted by past and present leaders in Nigeria (now a commercial venture based on profit Maximisation) and
because of this very unfortunate distortion, Nigeria continues to fare very badly in all development indices.
Nigeria is yet to occupy her rightful place in the committee of nations all thanks largely to lack of financial
accountability in the practices of both the political and economic leaders. Their inability to subject themselves to
financial probity is a major obstacle to Nigeria’s socio-political and economic development. Those at the helms
of the country’s political and economic transformation must change the way they run the affairs of the country if
the country is to make any head way in this millennium.
The absence of financial accountability gives room for widespread corruption. Both political and economic
leaders must fight, with sincerity of purpose, this hydra-headed monster corruption. The governed must not be
left out in this fight to rid the country of corruption if we are to move the country forward.
Brazilian scholar, Antonio Maria Costa, in 2005 wrote that “fighting corruption is a pre-condition for good
governance and the foundational stone for sustainable development” in any country and of course, Nigeria is no
exception. There are sufficient reasons to conclude that, the major hindrance to Nigeria reaching her full
potential, is basically heaped on the head of corruption, and this is because corruption is human in the sense that
it is the people and not the country that is corrupt. Corruption attacks the relevant structures that aid the
development processes. Absence of financial prudence nurtures rampart corruption as it is the case in Nigeria
today and that in turn, translates to underdevelopment in the social and human development sectors such as in
health, education, power and the provision of infrastructure.
The political class in Nigeria have repeatedly failed to fulfil the yearnings of the people since independence. The
country’s ruling classes in the words of Achebe are “aggressive millionaires, more concerned with sharing the
spoils of office than the selfless leaders of their people.” This sort of mentality encourages the mismanagement
of the nation’s abundant natural resources and woeful implementation of government policies which have been
the trade mark of political office holders in Nigeria. There is a huge disconnect between government and the
governed. Financial accountability as it relates to political leadership in the view of George Kopis is an “attitude
of openness toward the public at large, about government structures and functions, policy intentions, public
sector account and projection; ready access to reliable, comprehensive, timely, understandable information on
government activities so that the electorates and financial markets can accurately assess government’s financial
position and the true costs and benefits of government’s activities….”
It is widely accepted that financial accountability is very important in a true democracy because it creates an
atmosphere of trust and shared aspirations between the leaders and the led. The people will definitely line up
behind government policies since they will consider themselves as stake holders in the unfolding socio-political
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and economic drama of the country. But when political leaders fail in the articulation of the expectations of the
people due to inept management of funds, the resulting consequence is what we experience in Nigeria today.
The leadership class must show financial accountability for the steady growth of the country. They must keep
faith with the dreams of the people and they should not be swayed by financial impropriety for the sake of
national development.
When you consider the state of affairs in Nigeria, the importance of financial accountability is paramount if the
people are to benefit from the dividend of democracy. Lack of financial accountability among the political elites
is the main reason why corruption continues to thrive unabated in the country. If Nigeria is to be well governed,
then the political leaders must as a matter of national urgency inculcate the spirit of financial accountability in
the way government business is conducted at all levels. When there is no transparency in the way government is
run, the attendant result is that every good policy will not be properly implemented and the lives of the citizen
will remain the same. According to Chinua Achebe when there is an “absence of transparency” in the way the
affairs of a country is conducted the state of things in that country inclines towards “disorderly growth” which is
very true of the realities in Nigeria.
Mrs. Diezani Alison-Madueke in her previous sojourn as the Minister of Works wept profusely when she went
for the inspection of Benin-Ore road that has claimed and continues to claim the lives of many Nigerians, but
since that “for-the-screen” performance about five years ago, the state of the roads remain the same. Perhaps
the reason for this is that, according to another former Minister for Works, “money approved is not money
released”. We all know how things are done in this country. The contract for the rehabilitation of that road must
have been given many times but the state of the roads stay the same.
The Benin-Ore situation is a paradigm of the state of development in Nigeria. No strong system in place devoid
of government interference to apportion punishment for financial dishonesty because those awarded the contracts
are the protégés of those in power who feel they can do anything and get away with it. The sad thing is that
thousands of Nigerians continue to die because of the lackadaisical posture of the leaders to submit themselves to
the tenets of good governance of which financial accountability is major factor.
The negative effect of lack of financial accountability is that money earmarked for social and infrastructural
development will be diverted for personal use. Recently, the Writer heard of the pathetic story of a secondary
school girl involved in an accident who died at one of our teaching hospitals because there was no bed space for
her. The Writer believes the funds for the provision of beds must have ended up in someone’s pocket. No
wonder a past leader of this country referred to Nigeria hospitals as mere consulting clinics. The very
unfortunate thing is that our leaders travel to Western countries for medical attention and see how things are
done but because of financial recklessness they cannot replicate the same thing here.
The political class must gauge the pulsation of the people when coming up with policies. The people must be
consulted before embarking on any major policy that affects their lives. One perhaps unintended consequence of
the Nigerian government’s decision to remove the putative subsidy on imported petrol has been to stimulate a
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debate about the whys and wherefores of political and economic choices and its implications for the dynamic
relationship between the leaders and the led.
In the aftermath of the January 1st announcement of an increase in the pump price of petrol, there was
considerable sound and fury in the commentaries and on the streets; pitting those on the one hand who asserted
that the Jonathan administration had been right to cut the subsidy payments, since this would free up a huge
chunk of revenue for investment, in a dizzying array of welfarist projects; and on the other hand, those who
challenged the very existence of a subsidy in the first place. It is because of this latter camp that the writer
decidedly referred to the subsidy as putative; for them, the very word was a symptom of the malaise which it
purported to assuage, namely, financial malfeasance.
A recurrent theme in the Nigerian body politic as was mentioned earlier, is the manifest lack of financial
accountability by leaders at all levels of government and the weakness or nonexistence of institutions invested
with the power of oversight. Economic commentators like to draw attention to such notorious instances as the
perennially ignored recommendations of the Pius Okigbo’s panel report, which highlighted gross irregularities in
the management of the twelve billion dollar Gulf war windfall which disappeared mysteriously. Also, the power
supply in Nigeria remain very erratic indeed if when the Obasonjo administration purportedly spent sixteen
billion to get it working and the report of the House of Representative panel chaired by someone, who was
accused of financial infidelity is completely forgotten. Episodes like these, with the strong hints of official
opacity in financial matters, have only served to erode public confidence in political leaders and reinforce the
international image of Nigeria as a haven of corruption.
Nigeria will continue to shy away from reaching her full potential if financial accountability does not become the
hallmark of governance. The economic leaders are also guilty of financial impropriety. The recent bubble in the
banking sector buttresses this point. We had bank chiefs who were richer than the banks they head. These once
thought untouchables appropriated depositors’ funds to the tune of billions. They rubbished the concept of
financial accountability to the point that what happened was simply inevitable. We are still experiencing the after
effects of that unfortunate financial bubble as Intercontinental Bank and Oceanic Banks were bought by Access
Bank and Ecobank respectively. Intercontinental Bank relieved one thousand five hundred of the staff of their
work in an already saturated labour market.
What this means, is that more people are rendered financially handicapped and if this trend persists then it will
not augur well for the development of the country. The furore sparked off by the petrol price increase and the
street protests across the country have prompted the ongoing hearing by the House of Representatives into the
propriety of accounting practices across a range of government parastatals like the NNPC, the customs, the
ministry of finance and the Central Bank, inter alia.
The proceedings from the panel, hit one as a scene from the theatre of the absurd. Imagining NNPC’s inability to
give accurate number of barrels of crude oil produced per day is anything but funny. Government agencies are
giving conflicting figure of the true state of affair in the petroleum sector. They have exhausted the falsehood
that they have been dishing to the people. One major argument for the increment in the pump price of PMS by
101
government was to curb corruption perpetuated by government officials who collude with independent marketers
who defraud the state of billions.
What the House hearings have churned out is that there is no financial accountability in the petroleum sector and
so how do we attract foreign investors into our country? The lack of financial decency in Nigeria has all but
driven away investors to country such as Ghana. Nigeria is now Siberia, a place that is known to many but
where no one wants to go. A foreigner once referred to Nigeria as a “sinkhole that swallows their money with
little or no return.” Nigeria needs foreign investment to realize rapid development in this millennium, but if we
keep distorting figures that goal will remain elusive.
The late American economist Mancur Olson described a phenomenon he called “princely consumption”
exemplified by such infamous scenarios as Imelda Marcos’ “3000 pairs of shoes” and Fidel Castro’s spur-of-the
moment decisions to pave roads and build dams. These projects, whether sartorial in the case of Mrs. Marcos or
infrastructural in the case of Castro, were inevitably a drain on the financial resources of the nation and done
palpably without regard for priorities or accountability.
It seems fair to argue here that there seems to be a similar lack of accountability in Nigeria at least until the early
years of this decade, when the Obasanjo administration established the ICPC in 2000 and the EFCC in 2002. The
country was consistently ranked high in the index of most corrupt countries and was included in the list of “noncooperating countries and territories” by the Financial Action Task Force. The success recorded by the EFCC in
particular in recovering plundered wealth and prosecuting guilty parties played a role in overturning the
international perception of Nigeria as an unwelcoming investment area. Yet it must be admitted too that it has
been selective in its pursuit of financial impropriety across all spheres of Nigerian society; that it is a cat’s paw
of political players seeking to intimidate and victimize opponents; and that it has collaborated with a
compromised judiciary in handing out, by means of plea bargains and such criminally lenient sentences to
financial criminals in the highest echelons of politics and business.
The ongoing House hearings will only reinforce the general perception that there is a lack of political will to deal
with the issue of financial crime and that the government and by implication the EFCC, like to blow hot and cold
while claiming to uphold justice and instil deterrence. It was astounding to hear the Deputy Controller of
Customs announce that his service had no way of accurately gauging the volume of refined petrol imported into
Nigeria by the NNPC, since the latter agency, as a matter of course, chose to berth its super tankers in Lome or
Cotonou and provided the customs only with the documentation for the smaller ships which went out to offload
the product. It was equally shocking to hear the Deputy Governor of the Central Bank tell the House committee
that contrary to the figure of N 1.3 trillion claimed by the Ministry of Petroleum as subsidy payment for the
financial year 2011, the true sum was in the range of N 1.76 trillion.
Perhaps the most disconcerting aspect of the Deputy Governor’s testimony was the fact that he could not explain
this huge discrepancy, although he admitted that the fault lay in “likely manipulations.” All of the foregoing
indicates that one of the great challenges faced in this millennium by Nigeria is that of creating a climate of
fiscal responsibility. Elsewhere in his analysis of the relationship between politics and economics (contained in
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his final book, published posthumously, Power and Prosperity) Mancur Olson alludes to “the electoral incentive
for efficiency” essentially the understanding by a government – that it may and will be punished by a dissatisfied
electorate if it is perceived to be financially irresponsible or encouraging unaccountability at any level, or indeed
selective in its obligation to redistribute equitably the wealth of the nation.
It goes without saying that in Nigeria we deserve a leadership sensitive to its duties and able to galvanize
everyone in the task of nation building and fulfilment of our much vaunted, long suppressed potential.
Appendix
Appendix 1.1
Abridged Nigerian History
Amalgamation is not a new concept in the formulation of nations, both in Western Europe, America (North and
South) and Africa
In Western Europe, the United Kingdom is an amalgamation of many nations. Britain in an amalgamation of
a). England ( made up French – William the Conqueror from Normandy in France (of the Battle of Hastings
1066), Germans in Southern England and Vikings in Northern England.
b). Scotland
c). Wales
The United Kingdom is made up of an amalgamation of the British Nation and Northern Ireland (British
“Orange men” and the Irish people)
The United States is made up of Red Indians, the Irish, the British, Other Europeans, Asians and Africans.
Coming closer to home – In Africa, Tanzania is an excellent example of an amalgamation that works (it has all
the different elements that are very similar to the Nigerian situation; religious, tribal, language and cultural
differences). It is an amalgamation of two distinct nations –
a). “Tanganyika” (made up of Africans, mostly Christians, with different tribes and languages), and
b). “Zanzibar” (Typical Arabs, mostly Muslims).
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This amalgamation was free from coercion. It was a voluntary union of these two nations, determined and
committed and contracted by the consent of all stakeholders, in good faith , under the pioneering leadership of
Julius Nyerere; one of the greatest African heroes and icon.
Conversely, the Nigerian Amalgamation in 1914 was forced on the throat of the people of Nigeria by Imperialist
Britain. It was incorporated by Frederick Lugard (Later Lord Lugard) who forcefully, for selfish economic
reasons, amalgamated the two British protectorates of Southern and Northern protectorates, and the crown
colonies of Lagos, into one Single Entity. The Primary reason for the Amalgamation was economic rather than
political. The Northern protectorate had annual budget deficits whilst the southern Protectorate had surpluses. To
eliminate the subventions from the British Treasury, the two budgets were integrated. Unlike the Tanzanian case,
the Nigerian integration was forcefully done for the economic convenience of the Imperial Britain. While the
British officials ruled southern Nigeria directly, in the North they adopted the policy of indirect rule, where they
operated through the Emirs. The process of unification was undermined by the persistence of different regional
perspectives of Governance. In the early 1940s, political movements started sprouting in Lagos e.g. Nigerian
Youth Movement and Nigerian National Democratic Movement, whose activities were confined to Lagos, with
the return of Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe from America and his establishment of a chain of newspapers, coupled with
the demobilization and return of Nigerian soldiers who fought on the British side in the Second World War.
Political consciousness took a leap in Nigeria and Nationalists started thinking of Self Government. In 1944 the
National Council of Nigeria and Cameroun (NCNC) was formed under the leadership of the doyen of Nigerian
politics known as Herbert Macaulay with Zik as the General Secretary. In 1947, this new party took a nationwide
tour of the country to collect the mandate of the people of Nigeria and demand the abrogation of a constitution
which the then British Governor Arthur Richards sought to impose on the country and which the nationalists
described as obnoxious. Nationalists who took part in this tour included Herbert Macaulay, Nnamdi Azikiwe,
Mrs Funmilayo Ransom Kuti, Ibiyinka Olorun-Nimbe, M.A.O Imoudu and others. Herbert Macaulay, then in his
80’s, died midway into the nationwide tour, and after his funeral, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe was elected the National
President and Leader of the party – NCNC. After collecting the mandate of the people, both south and north, the
NCNC delegation went to London to demand from the Colonial office, the abrogation of the Richards
Constitution.
Although the British Government did not accede to the request, they became aware of a new political
consciousness in Nigeria.
In 1946, a radical youth organization, known as the Zikist Movement (Vanguard), was formed under the
leadership of M.C.K. Ajuluchukwu and Kola Balogun. Others included Mokwugwo Okoye, Abiodun Aloba,
Nduka Eze, Harry Nwana, Oged Macaulay, and Raji Abdallah, with a programme for positive action to attain
self governance.
Following a lecture delivered at Tom Jones hall, Lagos in October 1949 by Osita Agwuna, under the
chairmanship of Tony Enahoro, leaders of the movement were rounded up and sentenced to various terms of
imprisonment. The Movement itself was banned by the Imperial Government in 1950. The British Government
then knew that a serious situation was developing in Nigeria and quickly withdrew Governor Richards and
104
replaced him with John McPherson who quickly called a conference of politicians, chiefs and other leaders to
consider his own draft Constitution. In place of the rejected obnoxious Richards Constitution, his Constitution
proposed 3 regions, namely, the Northern, Eastern and Western Regions in response to the fundamental
ethnographic and cultural configuration of the Nigerian society. It was also an impetus for further ethnicization
of politics. It was at this stage (1950), that two other political parties emerged; the Northern People Congress
(NPC) under the leadership of Alhaji Ahmadu Bello, Sardauala of Sokoto and Action Group, under the
leadership of Obafemi Awolowo. The NPC had the policy and slogan “ONE NORTH”. They said that they were
not interested in the south and refused to change their name to Nigerian’s People Congress or canvas for
membership in the South. The Action Group, AG, had the policy and slogan “WEST FOR WESTERNERS,
EAST FOR EASTERNERS, NORTH FOR NORTHERNERS, NIGERIA FOR ALL”. The NCNC under the
leadership of Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe, had its policy and Slogan of “ONE NIGERIA”.
Hon. Chief Mbuzulike Amechi, one of the few surviving naturalists and Nigeria’s First Minister of Civil
Aviation, in his publication “THIS UNION”, stated that “on the 1 st of April 1953, Tony Enahoro tabled a private
members motion in the house of Representatives calling on the house ‘to accept as a primary political objective,
the attainment of self government for Nigeria in 1956’. In a powerful and lucid argument of his motion Enahoro
explained that ‘this motion is an invitation to the honourable members of the House to associate the highest
legislature of our land with the expressed desire of the people of the country …., for political autonomy in 1956’.
After the nation motion had been duly seconded in accordance with parliamentary practice, the leader of the
Northern People Congress, Ahmadu Bello, promptly moved an amendment seeking to substitute the words ‘in
1956’ with the phrase ‘as soon as practicable’. The ensuing debate was heated and bitter with NCNC and Action
Group members supporting self government in 1956 and NPC members firmly in support of their leaders’
amendment”. As a result of this fundamental disagreement, internal self government was thus granted to the
Eastern and Western regions in 1957 while the North had its own in 1959.
The Nigerian history is the search and struggle for an enduring Federal formula which continues till today. The
North-South and regional dichotomy has plagued all attempts for true federation and unity. Till today there is
continued debate and negotiation over the division of authority and the allocation of revenue. More significantly,
the military regime centralized the fiscal system and whittled down areas of autonomous decision making on the
part of the regions (later known as states).
Search for a Sustainable and Lasting Federation
i.
Constitutions:
In the search for a lasting federation, Nigeria has had 9 constitutions with two amendments in 2011. She had four
constitutions before independence – 1922, 1946, 1951, and 1954 and has since had 5 constitutions since
Independence:
-
1960 (Independence Constitution)
-
1963 Constitution (First Republic)
-
1979 Constitution (Second Republic)
105
-
1993 Constitution (Third Republic)
-
1999 Constitution ( Fourth Republic)
-
2011( 2 amendments of the 1999 Constitution)
-
The Search Continues
This search and dichotomy is the principle root of Nigeria’s problems and has allowed corruption and other
associated bad governance to take root. Honourable Chief Amechi continued “Ahamadu Bello approached the
Colonial Secretary and told him bluntly “if you want us, ‘the North’, to be part of the Nigeria you have in mind
then we want, at least, 50% of the Membership of the National Assembly. This was accepted by the colonial
Secretary and given effect in the Jerrymander, which British Officials weaved into the Delimitation of
Constituencies for the House of Representatives, whereby the following strange results were obtained in the
1959 elections that preceded Independence. The NCNC – NAPU alliance, scored a total of 2,595,577 votes to
capture 90 seats. Action Group – UMBC alliance scored a total of 1,922,364 votes to capture 73 seats. The NPC
scored a total of 1,992,178 votes to capture 142 seats.
Whilst October 1st 1960 had been agreed during a series of Constitutional conferences at Lancaster House in
London, the Colonial office entered a caveat and proviso that “if any region, objected at any stage to
independence on October 1st 1960, the grant of Independence would be postponed indefinitely”. The North took
advantage of the clause and demanded that if a Northerner was not appointed Prime Minister, they would opt out
of the October 1stdate. Without minding that the Northern People’s Congress scored….., the British Governor,
in Nigeria, announced the appointment of Abubakar Tafawa Belewa as the Prime Minister without consultation
with the NCNC and the AG. The Nationalists of the South had to swallow the bitter pill of the injustice, because
they did not want the October 1st date of the Independence to be postponed indefinitely.
ii.
Region and State creation
Year
iii.
Number of Regions or
Extent Of regional or
Regime
States
State Autonomy
Type
1914
2
Very High
Colonial
1954
3
Very High
Colonial
1963
4
High
Democratic
1967
12
Low
Military
1976
19
Low
Military
1979
19
Medium
Democratic
1991
31
Low
Military
1996
36
Very Low
Military
1999
36
Medium and Rising
Democratic
Federation Account Allocation Formula
106
Year
Commission
Allocation of the Federation Account
FGN
States (%)
LGAs (%)
(%)
Special
Derivation
Project (%)
Formula (%)
1958
Raisman
40
60
0
0
50
1968
Dina / Gowon
80
20
0
0
10
1977
Aboyade
75
22
3
0
10
1982
Okiabo
55
32.5
10
2.5
10
1989
Babangida
50
24
10
11
10
1995
Abacha
48.5
24
20
7.5
13
2001
Abacha
48.5
24
20
7.5
13
Appendix 1.2
OBJECTIVES OF CONTROLS
Internal controls strive to ensure that:
• C -all transactions are complete
• A -all transactions are accurate
• V -all transactions are valid
• E -recorded assets exist.
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING CONTROL PROCEDURES (TO ACHIEVE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES)
CONSIST OF:
-
Physical access to asset/s
-
Approval and Control of documents
-
Controls over computerised applications including data encryption.
-
Checking of Arithmetic accuracy of records
-
Maintaining and Reviewing Control Accounts and Trial balances
-
Performing Accounting Reconciliations
-
Comparing records with physical counts
PURCHASES CYCLE
Control examples to ensure that:
-
Requisition for valid business expense Authorised by second person.
-
Stock check made to ensure goods not in stock and a purchase is required
-
Ordering is efficient and cost effective
-
Agree price to suppliers price list
-
Only use approved suppliers
-
All orders must be in writing on a serially numbered purchase order form
-
Goods are not damaged/wrong items etc
107
-
Agree goods received to purchase order
-
Check goods for quality/damage on receipt
-
Review unmatched purchase orders and follow up with supplier
-
Raise a Goods Receipt Note (GRN)
-
Suppliers do not overcharge e.g. fail to recognise discounts etc.
-
Match invoice to purchase order
-
Match quantity to GRN
-
Arithmetical check
-
Management has timely information concerning liabilities
-
Record invoice promptly in Purchase day book
-
Regular reconciliations of supplier statements
-
Reconcile control accounts with ledgers
-
Payments are made to bona fide suppliers for goods received
-
Authorised cheque signatories
-
For amounts >Naira x two signatures required
-
Signatories must review underlying documentation before signing
-
Requisition raised
-
Orders Goods
-
Invoice received
-
Transactions recorded in books
CASH SYSTEM
Control examples to ensure that:
-
Payments are only requested for valid business expenses
-
Standardised cheque requisition
-
Supporting documentation
-
Payments are accurate and take advantage of credit terms
-
Departmental/buyer approval
-
Agreement to supplier statements
-
Cash/cheques are not misappropriated
-
Safe custody of cheque books
-
Invoices/requisitions stamped paid
-
Customer signature as proof of delivery
-
Matched with customer order
-
Management has accurate timely info re cash position
-
Segregation of duties
-
Monthly bank reconciliations
-
Payment authorisation
-
Request for payment
-
Payments and receipts Payment made
-
Receipt
108
Appendix 1.3
FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY ACT 2007
ENACTED by the National Assembly of the Federal Republic of Nigeria:
PART 1 – ESTABLISHMENT, FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF THE FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY
COMMISSION
i. compel any person or government institution to disclose information relating to public revenues and
expenditure; and
ii. cause an investigation into whether any person has violated any provisions of this Act.
2) If the Commission is satisfied that such a person has committed any punishable offence under this Act
violated any provisions of this Act, the Commission shall forward a report of the investigation to the AttorneyGeneral of the Federation for the possible prosecution.
3. Functions of the Commission
1) The Commission shall:
a. Monitor and enforce the provisions of this Act and by so doing, promote the economic objectives contained in
section 16 of the Constitution;
b. Disseminate such standard practices including international good practice that will result in greater efficiency
in the allocation and management of public expenditure, revenue collection, debt control and transparency in
fiscal matters;
c. Undertake fiscal and financial studies, analysis and diagnosis and disseminate the result to the general public;
d. Make rules for carrying out its functions under the Act; and
e. Perform any other function consistent with the promotion of the objectives of this Act.
2) The Commission shall be independent in the performance of its functions.
3) The provisions of Public Protection Act shall apply to the members of the Commission in discharge of their
functions under this Act.
109
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115
Afrika-Basierte Feminist Literarische Theorien und Deutungen Auf Deutsche Literatur.
Der Fall Heinrich Bölls.
Ikechukwu, Aloysius Orjinta.
1.Einleitung
Ausgangspunkt dieser Arbeit war meine Anwendung des Womanismus als geeignete
feministische Theorie bzw. Methode auf jeweils zwölf Romane von Chinua Achebe und
Aminata Sow Fall. Beide Schriftsteller sind Traditionalisten und engagierte Vertreter der
afrikanischen Tradition und Kultur. Das intellektuelle Produkt jener Untersuchung ist
meine erste Doktor-Arbeit: ,,Women's Experiences in Selected African Feminist Literary Texts".
Ein Bestandteil dieser Arbeit ist schon als Sachbuch für Feministische Kritik unter dem
Titel Women in World Religions and Literatures (ISBN 978-3-936536-25-6) veröffentlicht.
Die oben genannten Autoren werden von feministischen Aktivistinnen sowie
Extremfeministinnen
als
Verteidiger
patriarchalischer
Werte
und
idealistischer
Vorkolonialzeit, als Antifeministen mit altmodischer Mentalität, als reaktionär etc
bezeichnet. Meines Erachtens ist es jedoch unumstritten, dass diese Schriftsteller sich mit
ihrer realistischen Darstellung der weiblichen Situation konkreter solidarisierten als die
sogenannten Feministen: Die beiden Schriftsteller haben bei ihrer Schilderung der
Frauennot die hohen Ideale des Womanismus angewandt; diese Ideale sind
ergebnisorientierter als die aggressiven bzw. provozierenden Annäherungen der
Liberalen sowie der Linksradikalen. Das ist auch der Fall bei Heinrich Böll. Obwohl
Heinrich Böll ein gebürtiger Deutscher war, und Deutschland bzw. Europa zirka 5000
Kilometer von Afrika südlich der Sahara entfernt liegt, hat Böll die womanistischen
Ideale bei seiner angemessenen Schilderung und Fallpräsentation der weiblichen
Anliegen angewandt. Im Folgenden gilt es in diesem Kontext eher zu fragen, welche
entfernten und unmittelbaren Bedingungen Heinrich Böll hätten beeinflussen können.
Dazu bedarf es mehrerer Antworten: Zu Beginn soll sein strikt religiöser Hintergrund
erwähnt werden. Danach ist die schreckliche nationalsozialistische Ära zu betrachten,
um schließlich auf Nachkriegszeit und Kahlschlag einzugehen. Sowinski (1993: 1) hat
unsere Vorstellung wie folgt untermauert:
Bei kaum einem anderen deutschen Autor unserer Zeit spielt die
Biographie eine solche Rolle für das literarische Werk wie bei Heinrich
Böll. Eine große Zahl von Motiven und anderen Einzelheiten seiner
116
Dichtung entstammt seinem Leben und Erleben innerhalb und
außerhalb seiner Familie, seiner Dienstzeit als Soldat und seinen
Erfahrungen nach dem Krieg. Man kann diese Fakten zum Verständnis
seines Werkes nicht außer Acht lassen ohne in der positivistischen
Manier eines Wilhelm Scherer sogleich in einen neuen Biographismus
zu verfallen und nach Ererbtem, Erlebtem und Erlerntem im Werk Bölls
suchen zu wollen.
Das Deutschland dieser Epoche, von 1917 bis 1949, war ein Staat in tiefem
sozialpolitischen Aufruhr und Chaos. Fast jeder Sozialrealist hätte genau das getan, was
Böll getan hat, nämlich sich mit Hilfe von Tendenzliteratur zu engagieren. Böll musste
sich mit der leidenden Bevölkerung identifizieren. Darauf hat er in einem Interview mit
Renate Mathias und Peter Hamm für Bavaria-Film (1974:138) selbst hingewiesen:
Ich glaube, dieses, was man Engagement nennt, hängt wohl mit meiner
Biographie zusammen. Ich war 15 Jahre alt, als der Faschismus hier nicht
zufällig, wie ich glaube- herein brach, und da ich in einer relativ
demokratischen Tradition erzogen bin, sowohl was meine Familie betrifft,
wie die Stadt, aus der ich stamme, relativ demokratisch, wohl bemerkt,
habe ich das als einen permanenten Schrecken empfunden, die ganze
Nazizeit. Wäre das nicht gekommen, wäre ich wahrscheinlich ein
Elfenbeinturmbewohner geworden.
Die Zeit von Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus mit ihren grässlichen Konsequenzen
und besonders den Entbehrungen, den sozialpolitischen Strafen in einem besiegten Land,
war eine schmerzliche Zeit. Deutschland glich unter der Kontrolle der Besatzungsmächte
einem kolonisierten Land. Diese geschichtliche Epoche Deutschlands stimmt mit der
afrikanischen Ära von Sklavenhandel, Kolonialismus, und Neu-Imperialismus überein.
In solch einem Zeitalter konnte sich der Sozialrealist den Luxus des l'art pour l'art
(literarische Produktion) oder der werkimmanente Analyse (Rezeption) nicht leisten.
Seine Arbeit und ihre Interpretation müssen sich ihrer Epoche (dem Zeitgeist) anpassen.
Daher nahmen die engagierten Schriftsteller für die leidenden kleinen Leuten Stellung,
wobei sie einen Kompromiss zwischen beiden Extremen wählten. Genauso haben
afrikanische Feministen bzw. Literatinnen der Entwicklungsländer eine Notlösung für
die afrikanische Version des Feminismus erfunden. Die sozialpolitische Situation der
europäischen
Frau
ist
viel
entwickelter
und
komfortabler
als
die
ihrer
Geschlechtsgenossinnen in den Entwicklungsländern. Auch beim feministischen
117
Engagement sind die abendländischen Aktivistinnen viel fortschrittlicher als ihre
afrikanischen Schwestern. Die afrikanische Frau bevorzugt ein Zwiegespräch mit dem
männlichen Geschlecht, sie verabscheut Konfrontation. Sie kann nicht über solchen
Luxus wie folgenden (Orjinta 2008:12)) verfügen:
Die
Extremistinnen
wollen
die
Männer
von
der
politischen/gesellschaftlichen Bühne verbannen; sie hassen alle Männer
und wollen eine Frauenrepublik gründen. Ihr Werkzeug ist natürlich die
marxistisch sozialistische Ideologie.
Daher hat Aminata Sow Fall, laut Samba Gadjido (1996:28), ihre Philosophie sowie die
des Womanismus so erklärt:
Je ne suis pas féministe dans le sens où les gens l'entendent. Je ne suis pas
une féministe militante et la Conférence internationale de 1975 n'a rien à
voir avec le fait que je me suis mise à écrire. L'écriture est un acte de
témoignage, une façon de filtrer la réalité sociale du moment.
Eine aus den Entwicklungsländern kommende Methode der Literaturdeutung wie der
Womanismus, der Stiwanismus oder der Motherismus, könnte meines Erachtens im Fall
Bölls auf deutsche Werke angewandt werden. Was zählt, ist nicht die geographische
Lage, sondern der Humanismus. Einerseits die Darstellung von politischer, sozialer und
religiöser Krise, andererseits von Hunger, Not, Krieg, Liebe, Moral, Zärtlichkeit, Ehe
und Gerechtigkeit – von globalisierten menschlichen Werten und Problemen. So
möchten wir dabei beweisen, dass Bölls Methode viel stärker im Womanismus als im
europäischen Feminismus zu verankern ist. Stiwanismus und Motherismus sind
eigentlich Untergliederungen des Womanismus, doch all diese Schulen verfolgen
dasselbe Ziel. Unsere Beschäftigung mit Frauenfiguren im Werk von Heinrich Böll
sowie mit feministischer Sekundärliteratur wird untersuchen, ob Böll sich als Verfechter
des europäisch-orientierten Feminismus präsentiert. In diesem Fall wären die negativen
Urteile einiger Feministinnen völlig korrekt. Solche Kritik impliziert unter Anderem,
118
dass seine Darstellung der Frauen „zu unemanzipiert und klischeehaft“ sei (Ellen).
Andere wie Graßmann (2004: 26) konstatieren, dass Böll:
trotz seiner Einordnung als gesellschaftskritischer Autor, [...] in seinen
Romanen ein konservatives Frauenbild [entwirft], die Frau ausschließlich
als Gegenüber des Mannes [imaginiert] und sie als Heilige und Retterin
des Mannes verklärt.
Falls oben beschriebener Fall nicht zutrifft, ist ein wissenschaftliches Wiederlesen
Böllscher Werke nötig, wobei wir erneut die Frage stellen, ob wir zuvor Böll objektiv
bewertet haben. Die Frage nämlich, ob Böll überhaupt feministische Ideale verfechten
wollte. Wenn ja, brauchen wir dennoch weitere Bestätigungen, denn die feministischen
Strömungen und Bewegungen sind zahlreich. Deswegen ist als Erstes festzuhalten, für
welche feministische Schule sich Heinrich Böll interessiert. Dabei ist ferner zu fragen, ob
der Böllsche Kontext des Lebens und des Schreibens etwas Wichtiges zu seiner Version
von Frauenliteratur beigetragen hat. In diesem Sinne hat Böll selbst (Bellmann, 2002:
117) in einem Kommentar über Gruppenbild mit Dame festgestellt:
Die Idee zu diesem Buch hat mich schon sehr lange beschäftigt,
wahrscheinlich schon bei den meisten Romanen und Erzählungen, die ich
bisher geschrieben habe. Ich habe versucht, das Schicksal einer deutschen
Frau von etwa Ende Vierzig zu beschreiben oder schreiben, die die ganze
Last dieser Geschichte zwischen 1922 und 1970 mit und auf sich
genommen hat.
Als feministisch theoretische Methode der Literaturdeutung wäre meines Erachtens der
Womanismus bei Böll adäquater und effizienter; denn die negativen Erfahrungen des
weiblichen Gestaltens in dieser inhumanen Welt, egal ob in Deutschland oder einem
Entwicklungsland, können mit Hilfe dieser Methode angemessen analysiert werden. Eine
methodologische Begründung für den Womanismus und eine Erklärung dieser Ideologie
sowie ihre Abgrenzung vom abendländischen Feminismus werden in Verlauf der
119
Dissertation ausführlich geschildert. Beim Lesen meines Abstracts hat Weidlich (DAFKURS an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München) folgenden Kommentar
hinterlassen:
Eine afrikanische Methode der Literaturdeutung wie den Womanismus
auf deutsche Werke anzuwenden könnte in der Tat sehr spannend
werden. [...] ein interessantes Projekt also [...]
2.2.Feministische Kritik
Frauen auf der Suche nach Identität sind kein Novum. Das Bewusstsein, weiblich zu
sein, ist seit Urzeiten Teil der Menschheit. Autorinnen wie Marja Gimbutas,
Archäologie-Dozentin und Gründerin der Theorie zur Kurgankultur entwickelte die
Idee, dass zwischen 4500 und 3000 v. Christus eine Matrilineare Gesellschaftsform im
Osten des Alten Europa existiert haben soll.
Jene matriarchalisch-matrilinearen
Gesellschaften verehrten ausschließlich Göttinnen, bevor die Domestizierung des Pferdes
zur größeren Mobilität bei den Indoeuropäischen Völkern beitrug, wodurch die
matriarchalischen Staaten überfallen, erobert und entmatrialisiert wurden. Im alten
Ägypten, in Champa (Vietnam), in Indien, beim Kunkellehen bei den Deutschen seit
dem Hochmittelalter ca. im 12. Jahrhundert galt die Frau, wegen ihrer Fähigkeit zu
gebären, als eng mit der Natur und den Göttern verbunden. In heutigen Gesellschaften
gibt es immer noch Matrilinearität bzw. uterine Deszendenz, wie etwa bei den
Minangkabau in Sumatra, den Hopi-indianern und den Irokesenvölkern. In diesem
Zusammenhang kommt Trumman in seinem Werk Feministische Theorie (2002:96-100)
zu der Frage:
Die Vorstellung, dass die Frau eine engere Beziehung zur Natur habe oder
gar mit ihr identisch sei, ist keine Erfindung der Frauenbewegung,
sondern hat eine lange Vorgeschichte [...]. Für den deutschen Raum kann
bis in die vorchristliche Zeit der germanischen Stämme der Glaube an ein
besonders enges Verhältnis von Natur und Frau nachgewiesen werden.
120
Auf Grund ihrer Gebärfähigkeit wurde die Frau mit Fruchtbarkeit und
Natur
schlechthin
assoziiert,
wodurch
der
nicht
verstandene
Geburtsvorgang rationalisiert wurde. Die Natur wurde als von Dämonen
beherrscht gedacht, und so galt auch die Frau während Schwangerschaft
und Geburt als von Dämonen beherrscht. Andererseits sollte aber auch
nur
sie
in
der
Lage
sein,
die
Dämonen
durch
rituelle
Beschwörungsformeln zu vertreiben, da sie auf Grund ihrer Nähe zur
Natur seherische Fähigkeit und Zauberkräfte besäße. Diese Vorstellung
entsprach damals, als die Menschen den Kausalzusammenhang von
Kopulation und Geburt noch nicht kannten, durchaus der realen
Machtposition der Frau.
Diese Machtposition, die es in den heidnischen Kulturen gab und die nach ihnen
abgeschafft wurde, wurde in unserer Generation zur verlorenen Ehre der Frau. Darin
liegt der Gegenstand des Feminismus. Vor der Ankunft des Judentums, Christentums
und Islams genoss das weibliche Geschlecht ein erhabenes sozialpolitisches Niveau.
Damals waren Frauen als Königinnen, Kriegerinnen, Wahrsagerinnen, Dichterinnen,
Heilpraktikerinnen sowie als Geschäftsfrauen anerkannt. Feministinnen sind auf der
Suche nach diesen hohen sozialpolitischen Rollen, die ihrer Meinung nach von den
Männern zu Unrecht erobert worden waren. Aduke Adebayo (2000:275) führt dies wie
folgt aus:
Cultural myths as well as Christian and Islamic Religions emphasized the
main roles of women as maternity and domesticity. Within these contexts,
female education consisted mainly of teaching obedience and submission
to male authority.
Also versteht man unter Feminismus alle Bemühungen weiblicher Aktivistinnen sowie
die Unterstützung ihrer männlichen Sympathisanten, jene seit Jahrhunderten währende
sexistische Ungerechtigkeit gegen die Frauen zu korrigieren. Hier unterscheiden sich drei
feministischen Ansätze: Wenn die Feministin sich in einer Lage befindet, in der der
Geschlechterungleichheit
die
kapitalistisch-patriarchalischen
Arbeitsbedingungen
zugrunde liegen, ist ihre Theorie der marxistische Feminismus. Wäre aber die Gender121
orientierte
Tyrannei
staatlich
bedingt,
wäre
der
politische
Feminismus
am
zielführendsten. Hat die weibliche Unzufriedenheit etwas mit Selbsteinschätzung zu tun,
wird der Kritiker lieber einen psychoanalytischen Feminismus einsetzen. Des Weiteren
gibt es Deutungen wie durch die Biologie (Sex) und die Geschlechteridentität (Gender).
Die
Vorstellung, dass der Feminismus uneins ist, wird von Allkemper/ Otto Eke
(2004:172-174) untermauert:
Vielleicht ist es auch heute nicht mehr korrekt, von einer feministischen
Literaturwissenschaft zu sprechen, da ihre Fragestellung sich längst nicht
mehr auf die weibliche Geschlechterrolle allein bezieht, sondern
Geschlechterzuweisungen generell in ihrer Funktion und Bedeutung
untersucht und überdies problematisiert, ob es überhaupt konstante
geschlechtliche Identitäten gibt; oder ob nicht viel mehr die Opposition
männlich/weiblich in den vielfachen historischen Konstruktionen von
Männlichkeit/Weiblichkeit gar nicht strikt durchzuhalten ist?
In den afrikanischen Entwicklungsländern, wo meistens die sozialpolitische Situation
chaotisch ist, und gekoppelt an die mörderischen und verbrecherischen Erfahrungen von
Sklavenhandel, Kolonialismus und ewig ausbeuterischem euroamerikanischem NeoImperialismus, erwies sich jeweils entweder der Schwarz-Feminismus als adäquat oder
Womanismus, Motherismus und Stiwanismus. Diese feministischen Theorien sind auch
für jedwedes Land mit denselben Krisen anwendbar, unabhängig davon, wie lange der
katastrophale Zustand dort angehalten hat. Eine rein feministische Methode zur
Literaturdeutung der schriftstellerischen Werke etwa der Zeit von Anarchie und
Nihilismus in Deutschland von 1929 bis 1949 wäre meines Erachtens kaum
empfehlenswert. Daher bevorzugen wir den Womanismus. Er besteht trotz der Tatsache,
dass der Feminismus ein allgemeines Programm hat. Doch Unterfangen zur
Verwirklichung dieser Agenda sind facettenreich, verwickelt und kompliziert. Nun soll
eine Definition gewagt werden: Unter feministischer Literaturtheorie versteht man
literaturwissenschaftliche Arbeiten und Projekte, in denen die Darstellung der
Frauengestalten in literarischen Texten sowie die weibliche Literaturproduktion und
Literaturrezeption erforscht werden. Diese Definition von feministischer Literaturtheorie
umfasst also auch literarische Angelegenheiten wie bei Heinrich Böll. Nichtsdestotrotz
gibt es nicht nur ein feministisches Konzept; daher sollte in diesem Zusammenhang eher
122
von Feminismen gesprochen werden. Allkemper und Otto Eke (2004:1 72) verdeutlichen
die
Argumentation
vom
Vorhandensein
verschiedener
Ströme
auch
in
der
Literaturwissenschaft, wenn sie behaupten, dass
Bis heute […] die feministische Literaturwissenschaft unterschiedliche
philosophische
und
literaturtheoretische
Positionen
für
ihre
Fragestellungen nutzbar gemacht, so dass man nicht von der
feministischen Literaturwissenschaft sprechen kann, da sich die einzelnen
Richtungen untereinander nicht nur unterscheiden, sondern auch heftig
kritisieren.
Geschichtlich können sich zahlreiche Frauen aus aller Welt durch verschiedene
Heldentaten profilieren. Das mag sein, wie es will. Bemerken sollte man hier allerdings,
dass diese Frauen jene Errungenschaften als ,,Einzelkämpferinnen“ geleistet haben.
Andere waren gegebenenfalls durch adlige bzw. königliche oder priesterliche Herkunft
begünstigt. Meines Erachtens analysieren wir eine Situation, in der nur wenige
Ausnahme-Frauen aus der Masse herausragten. Den anderen, sagen wir 95% des
weiblichen Geschlechts, waren sie intellektuell hoch überlegen.
Seit 1800 war der Feminismus in Europa und Amerika eine soziale Bewegung mit dem
Programm, die Bürgerrechte der Frauen zu erkämpfen und zu sichern. Pionierleistungen
auf diesem Gebiet wurden erbracht von Vorkämpferinnen wie Mary Wollstonecraft (A
Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792), Sara M-Grimke (Letter on Equality of Sexes and the
Condition of Women, 1833), Simone de Beauvoir ( Le Deuxième Sexe, 1949), Toril Moi
(Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary theory, 1985), Helene Cixous, (Ecriture Feminine
{Weiblichkeit in der Schrift, 1980}; Gründerin des Centre d’Études Feminines, 1974). In
Bezug auf den deutschsprachigen Raum sind Namen wie Catharina Regina von
Greiffenberg (1633-1694), Fanny zu Reventlow (1871-1918), Richarda Huch (18641947), Gertrud Kolmar (1894-1943), und Anna Seghers (1900-1983) erwähnenswert. Es
ist jedoch unumstritten, dass die organisierte politische Frauenbewegung sich erst in den
1960er Jahren formierte. Diese Behauptung habe ich schon einmal folgendermaßen
ausgeführt (Orjinta, 2008: 13):
123
It began as a movement in the late sixties aimed at the awareness of the
injustice perpetrated by the patriarchal society and the urgent need for a
change in the status quo.
Außerdem untersuchten Literaturwissenschaftlerinnen in den späten 60er Jahren
systematisch und geschichtlich Frauengestalten in der Literatur. Diese Tätigkeit umfasst
unter anderem die Entwicklung eines Begriffs von Frauenliteratur, der die Frage nach
weiblicher Geschichte in den Vordergrund stellt. Demgemäß werden die Frauenfiguren
in literarischen und historischen Texten analysiert. Hochparteiisch sollte man auf jeden
Fall in Solidarität mit Frauen auf der Schreiben-von-Frauen-für-Frauen- und -überFrauen- Basis bleiben. Besonders kritisiert wurde die binäre Opposition von Mann und
Frau, die ähnlich stark war wie die von Licht und Finsternis oder Positivem und
Negativem, und die sozialpolitischen Implikationen solcher kultureller Zuschreibungen
zu Lasten des weiblichen Geschlechts. Allerdings sind Geschlechterrollen sozial so
konstruiert, dass dem männlichen Geschlecht der Großteil zu Gute kommt. Das löste
heftige Kritik an der patriarchalischen Kultur von Seiten der Literaturkritikerinnen aus.
Vesterman (1993:85) beschreibt dies wie folgt:
Feminist literary critics have opposed such beliefs to the male biases,
which, they argue have pervaded both literature and criticism. In the latter
part of our century, feminist critics have built up a body of criticism that
focuses on women as characters in literature, and writers of literature.
Zusammenfassend lässt sich soweit sagen, dass historisch vier Epochen der
Frauenerfahrung unterschieden werden können: Zu Beginn herrschte das Zeitalter totaler
weiblicher Unterwerfung. Hier wurde die Frau als Kaufsklavin bzw. Besitzsklavin
behandelt. Akintunde (2004: 14) schildert ein Szenario, wie solch eine Ware behandelt
wurde:
A daughter is a vain treasure to her father. From anxiety about her he
does not sleep at night during her early years lest she be seduced, in her
124
marriageable years lest she does not find a husband; when she is married
lest she is childless and when she is old lest she practise witchcraft.
Die Rolle der Frau in der Gesellschaft war auf die Häuslichkeit begrenzt. Mehr durfte sie
nicht leisten; der Umfang ihrer Tätigkeiten wurde von der patriarchalischen Gesellschaft
eingeschränkt. Daher notiert Akintunde (2004:14-15):
As a wife, she performed certain roles which include grinding, baking,
washing, cooking, feeding the baby, making the bed, working with wool,
feeding the children for 18 to 24 months and washing her husband's face,
hands and feet, in all obedience to her husband is mandatory.
Ein klassisches Beispiel ist natürlich der Fall Salomon (Orjinta 2008:36):
In this way Solomon had 700 wives of royal ranks and 300 concubines [1
kings 5 and 6, and 1 kings 11:3]. Most of these wives hailed from different
nationalities of the oriental region.
Die am häufigsten gestellte Frage in feministischen Kreisen war, wie es dem Patriarchat
eigentlich gelingen konnte, Frauen seit so langer Zeit zu unterwerfen. Umgekehrt stellt
sich die Frage, wieso die Frauen während so vieler Jahrhunderte derart verschwiegen
geblieben waren. Wer schweigt, stimmt bekanntlich laut den Ältesten zu. Diese
Fragestellung sollte meines Erachtens Gegenstand für erweiterte Recherchen werden.
Dieses Thema werden wir sicherlich im letzten Kapitel dieser Dissertation beleuchten.
Vorerst soll es uns ausreichen, festzustellen, dass Religion und Kultur von der
patriarchalischen Gesellschaft als Instrument sexistischer Unterdrückung der Frauen
gebraucht wurden. Als Aufseher über Kultur und Religion haben Männer die Frauen aus
den entscheidenden Machtpositionen verdrängt. In ihrer Schuldlosigkeit und ihrer
religiösen Sentimentalität haben Frauen allzu oft hingenommen, was Männer in Gottes
Namen diktierten. So sollte der allmächtige Gott männlichen Geschlechts sein.
125
Demzufolge war der Mann höhergestellt als die Frau. Awolalu (1976:94) hat dies (in
Orjinta 2008:34) so dargestellt:
Her (the woman's) very seclusion means to her, not that which the word
would connote to the Westerner, slavery or imprisonment; to her it is
rather the mantle of protective care and interest thrown over by her Lord
and Master. There is a certain delight and satisfaction in living behind the
veil which one can hardly appreciate from the western point of view. She
is satisfied to stay in a harem and do her domestic duties as a wife and a
mother.
Der obige Zustand gilt heute besonders für Frauen in den Entwicklungsländern. Doch
auch in Europa wurde die Frau Objekt von religiösem Wahn: die ersten
Hexenverfolgungsprozesse fanden Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts statt, die letzten Ende des
18. Jahrhunderts, also etwa 300 Jahre lang. Trotz dieser mörderischen Tyrannei sollten
die Frauen schweigen. In anderen Fällen, wie etwa beim Sklavenhandel, beim
Kolonialismus, Neo-Imperialismus oder der Apartheid mussten die Zwingherren bessere
militärische Kräfte aufbringen; trotzdem gab es aggressive Widerstände. Bestehen bleibt
die Frage, warum Frauen sich so vieles widerstandslos gefallen ließen. Wie gesagt sollte
dieses Thema Gegenstand weiterer Recherchen sein. Das zweite Zeitalter des
Frauenbewusstseins war meines Erachtens die Epoche der Einzelgängerin. Hier möchte
ich wie folgt vorgehen: als erstes werde ich einen Überblick über die Geschichte der
Vorkämpferinnen geben, die wegen ihrer Herkunft
sowie
ihrer Talente
als
Einzelgängerinnen die herrschenden Zustände geprägt haben. Zwar vertreten manche
Feministen und Feministinnen die Ansicht, der Feminismus sei vor allem ein historisches
Produkt der 1960er/70er Jahre. Solch ein Ursprungsdatum beschränkt Feminismus
allerdings auf den so genannten ,,Neuen Feminismus“. Da der Feminismus durch eine
doppelte Strategie (Befreiung sowohl kleiner als auch mächtiger Frauen) gekennzeichnet
ist, verspricht eine weitere, gesamthistorische Perspektive eher, diesem Phänomen
gerecht zu werden. Im Grunde war das Wort ,,Feminismus“ eher in Frankreich (1880),
England (1890) und den U.S.A. (1910) von Bedeutung als in Deutschland, wo es im 19.
Jahrhundert nur als Begriff der gesellschaftlichen Verweichlichung verwendet wurde.
Vorher war der Feminismus Teil einer Politik der Befreiung. Ich glaube, dass eine
126
Begriffsveränderung nicht stillschweigend Geschichtsveränderung bedeutet. Eine solche
Geschichte brauchen wir, wenn wir die Lage der Frau in den verschiedenen Epochen
begreifen und vergleichen wollen. Also waren die Frauen Einzelgängerinnen, die ganz
allein viel geschafft haben. Sie operierten nicht im Team, zogen nicht mit anderen
Frauen an einem Strang. Vom Glück so verwöhnt, fühlten sie sich kaum dazu berufen,
mit ihren weniger im Rampenlicht stehenden Kolleginnen gemeinsame Anstrengungen
zu unternehmen. Das Magnus-Hirschfeld-Archiv für Sexualwissenschaft hat in diesem
Kontext (Herberle 1978: 9.3.1) Folgendes dokumentiert:
So waren Frauen generell Bürger zweiter Klasse. Trotzdem gelang es
gelegentlich einzelnen Frauen, aus den üblichen Normen auszubrechen
und ihre Zeitgenossen mit ihren Fähigkeiten zu beeindrucken. So
bewiesen die Nonne Roswitha von Gandersheim als Dramatikerin,
Wilhelmine von Böhmen als Religionsführerin und Jeanne D'Arc als
Soldatin, dass Frauen selbst in ,,männlichen“ Berufen nicht unterlegen
waren. Königinnen im Mittelalter, Mathilda von Schottland (die
Gemahlin Heinrichs I. von England) und Philippa von Hainault (die
Gemahlin Eduards III. von England) hatten sogar einen erheblichen und
sehr positiven politischen Einfluss.
Was für das Mittelalter galt, war auch noch in der Renaissance Gang und Gäbe.
Ausgewählte Gruppen von Frauen haben sich in einen Elfenbeinturm gesperrt,
weltfremd und unerreichbar. Feststellbar ist, dass es lange Zeit keine massenhaften
Solidarisierungen unter Frauen gegeben hat. Da ihnen das Fußvolk fehlte, wurde es
leichter, sie zu attackieren. Der Ruhm und die Stellung dieser Frauen waren deswegen
relativ kurzlebig. Herberle schildert, welchen Anfeindungen Frauen noch in der frühen
Neuzeit ausgesetzt waren, die sich nicht mit der ihnen traditionell zugedachten Rolle
bescheiden wollten:
In der Renaissance gab es gleichfalls mächtige Frauen, wie Diana von
Poitiers, Margarete von Navarra, Katharina von Medici und Elizabeth I.,
von England. Einige adlige Frauen fanden auch Beachtung als
127
Dichterinnen und Gelehrte, so zum Beispiel Margaret Roper, die Tochter
von Thomas More. Die wachsende intellektuelle Unabhängigkeit der
Frauen begann aber, einige Männer in Schrecken zu versetzen. Frauen
wurden in Schmähschriften und Pamphleten angegriffen. Der schottische
Religionsreformer John Knox führte in seinem Buch
„Erster
Trompetenstoß gegen das monströse Weiberregiment“ (1558) aus :,,Es ist
der Natur nicht wohlgefällig und eine Beleidigung Gottes, der Frau eine
Position zuzugestehen, in der sie das Zepter über irgendein Reich, eine
Nation oder einen Staat schwingen kann [...]
Nun kommen wir zur dritten Etappe unserer vierphasigen Analyse weiblicher Erfahrung.
In diesem Abschnitt gilt es zu erläutern, wie die bürgerlichen Frauen die Initiative
ergriffen, für die Durchsetzung des Frauenwahlrechts zu kämpfen. Wie gesagt wäre eine
solche allgemeine Solidarisierung schon in der zweiten Phase des Frauenbewusstseins
wünschenswert gewesen, erfolgte aber damals nicht. Nun war es den bürgerlichen
Frauen gelungen, in enger Beziehung mit ihren Zeitgenossinnen zu arbeiten. Ein
mögliches Ziel bestünde in der Definition des Feminismus nach Nicole Hämmerle
Feminism:Geschichte-Projekt,brg-Schoren (1968:8r1):
Feminismus ist die Bezeichnung für die Theorie der Frauenbewegung und
für die gegen gesellschaftliche Dominanz der Männer gerichtete
Bewegung, für die Gleichberechtigung der Frauen. Zu einer breiten,
gesellschaftlichen Bewegung wurde der Feminismus Ende der sechziger
Jahre. Unter Feminismus im weiteren Sinne werden Freiheits- und
Gleichheitsbestrebungen von Frauen, das Vertreten ihrer Interessen und
Rechte, verstanden.
Nach dem Erringen des Wahlrechts und anderer Bürgerrechte schien es, als hätten die
feministischen Aktivistinnen eine Kampfpause eingelegt – allerdings nicht die
Amerikanerinnen. Es ist klar, dass der feministischen Methodengeschichte die
Frauenbewegung der 70er Jahre zu Grunde liegt. Die Bedeutung dieser in den
Vereinigten Staaten entstandenen wissenschaftlichen Bewegung bedarf einer Erläuterung.
128
Es stellte sich nämlich die Frage, wie die männlich dominierte Geschichte aus weiblicher
Perspektive zu analysieren und auszuwerten sei. Jehßing und Köhnen (2007: 360) gehen
davon aus, dass die wissenschaftliche Dimension der Frauenbewegung aus Nordamerika
stammt:
Vor allem in den 1970er Jahren war es eine aus Nordamerika stammende
wissenschaftliche Bewegung, die sich zunächst der Frauenbilder in von
Männern verfasster Literatur annahm und die ,,patriarchalische“
Ausgestaltung der Figuren, des Weiblichen analytisch erarbeitete. Die
Nordamerikanerin Kate Millet las Literatur vor allem aus dem 19. und 20.
Jahrhundert programmatisch >gegen den Strich<, d. h. sie analysierte die
männliche Perspektive der Schreibenden und las die Frauenbilder unter
feministischer Perspektive daraufhin, wie stark sie aus einer männlichen
Machtperspektive erzeugt seien.
Bei dem Versuch, den herrschenden männlichen Literaturkanon zu dekonstruieren,
ergaben sich undenkbare und unermessliche Unwahrheiten. Wenn überhaupt
Frauenbilder präsentiert wurden, war die bisherige Forschung trotzdem immer noch
männerorientiert: Aus feministischer Sicht entwarfen männliche Autoren schlicht
Frauenbilder aus männlicher Perspektive, sie verhielten sich, als wären Frauen
Minderjährige, die von ‚Erwachsenen‘ beaufsichtigt werden müssten. Aufgrund dieser
Unzulänglichkeit in der Literatur sahen sich Feministinnen gezwungen, nach Literatur
von Frauen über Frauen und für Frauen zu suchen. Gegenstand feministischer
Literaturforschung soll laut Jeßing und Köhnen einerseits die (Wieder-)Entdeckung
vergessener Autorinnen, die Interpretation und Edition ihrer literarischen Werke und
andererseits
auch
die
Neuinterpretation
bekannter
Autorinnen
unter
neuen
Gesichtspunkten sein. Im Folgenden bestimmen beide Autoren noch konkreter die
Desiderata solcher literaturwissenschaftlicher Frauenforschung (2007:361):
Bevorzugte Gegenstände der literaturwissenschaftlichen Frauenforschung
waren das Selbstverständnis von Frauen als Autorinnen, Orte oder
gesellschaftliche Nischen, die literarische Selbstentfaltung von Frauen
129
historisch begünstigten oder überhaupt ermöglichten, mittelalterliche
Klöster etwa oder Salons um 1800. Ebenso gehörten >typische< Genres
weiblichen Schreibens (vor allem Textsorten privater Kommunikation)
dazu,
aber
auch
>große<
traditionell
literarische
Genres
(vgl.
Gnüg/Möhrmann 1998). Diese Strömungen zielten insgesamt auf die
Erforschung eines spezifisch weiblichen Schreibens, einer andersartigen
weiblichen Ästhetik ab, die eine eigene literarische Tradition neben oder
gegen den männlichen Kanon setzten (Elaine Showalter: A Literature of
Their Own,1977).
Sobald ein Sieg errungen war, haben sich die weißen Frauenaktivistinnen entschieden,
Frauenaktivistinnen anderer Rassen und geographischer Gebiete von ihrer Siegesbeute
auszuschließen. Dieser Superioritätskomplex weitete sich in Folge zu Rassismus aus. So
kam
es
zur
Heuchelei;
die
Weißamerikanerinnen
begannen
auf
die
Schwarzamerikanerinnen das auszuüben, was zuvor die Männer getan hatten. Auf diese
Weise wurden die Feministinnen einander dicke Freundinnen. Da Feministinnen
anderer Rassen kaum auf ihre europäisch-amerikanischen Geschlechtsgenossinnen
vertrauen konnten, waren sie gezwungen, für sie selbst passende Lösungen zu finden.
Die Afroamerikanerin und Feministin Bell Hooks (1984:3) hat diese Tatsache so
festgestellt:
Racism abounds in the writings of white feminists, reinforcing white
supremacy and negating the possibility that women will bond politically
across ethnic and racial boundaries. Past feminist refusal to draw attention
to and attack racial hierarchies suppressed the link between race and
class... Class struggle is inextricably bound to the struggle to end racism.
Dieses Nicht-Wahrnehmen der Interessen von Nicht-Euro-Amerikanerinnen hatte
tiefgreifende Konsequenzen bei der Weiterentwicklung des Feminismus. Solche
weitreichenden Folgeerscheinungen waren nicht nur auf globaler Ebene zu beobachten,
sondern auch – sowohl in Europa als auch in Nordamerika – auf nationaler Ebene. Zu
130
Deutschland z.B. stellt Trumann (2002:126) fest, dass unter den Feministinnen
gesellschaftliche Diskrepanzen und Disharmonie bestehen:
Von der institutionalisierten Frauenpolitik profitierte eigentlich nur eine
Gruppe: deutsche, gut ausgebildete Frauen. Beim Kampf um Quotierung
zum Beispiel ging es nur um die Frauenquote, eine Migrantinnen-Quote
war nicht vorgesehen; die spezifischen Ausgrenzungsmechanismen, die
Migrantinnen daran hinderten, politisch in Deutschland zu partizipieren
oder in besser bezahlte Arbeitsplätze zu gelangen, wurden kaum
wahrgenommen.
Die Beobachtungen der beiden feministischen Theoretikerinnen – die eine Amerikanerin,
Bell Hooks (Feminist Theory From Margin To Centre 1984), die andere Deutsche, Andrea
Trumann (Feministische Theorie, Frauenbewegung und weibliche Subjektbildung im
Spätkapitalismus 2002) – stimmen überein. Der Misston innerhalb der Frauenbewegung
war laut und klar. So betonte Bell Hooks (1984: 11):
The condescension they (Europäische Feministinnen) directed at black
women was one of the means they employed to remind us that the
women's movement was theirs - which we were able to participate
because they allowed it, even encouraged it; after all we were needed to
legitimate the process. They did not see us as equals. They did not treat us
as equals.
Das Gegenstück zur obigen Position Bell Hooks findet sich in Deutschland in der
Schilderung Andrea Trumanns. Sie zitiert Natascha Apostolidou (1994: 65-68) über die
FeMigras folgendermaßen:
Die Frauen der FeMigras (feministische Migrantinnen), eine selbst
organisierte Migrantinnen-Gruppe, berichten zum Beispiel, dass ihre
131
Forderungen nicht ernst genommen worden seien und deutsche Frauen
sie nur als Objekt ihrer Politik betrachtet hätten. (FeMigra 1994:49-64)
Die vorliegenden feministischen Erfahrungen gehen auf örtliche, ideologische sowie
‚rassenbedingte‘ feministische Besonderheiten zurück. So hat die entstehende Suche nach
kontextabhängigen feministischen Theorien die Provinzialisierung und Zersplitterung
bzw. Lokalisierung und Abzweigung des Feminismus verursacht. Die Folge ist geradezu
eine Flut diverser Feminismen und feministischer Theorien, darunter: Postkolonial
Feminismus, Third World Feminismus, Africana Womanismus, Nego Feminismus,
Chicana feminismus, Femalismus, Stiwanismus, Motherismus und Womanismus. Uns
aber soll es am Wichtigsten sein, die Entwicklung des Womanismus (und des
Stiwanismus und Motherismus) zu analysieren.
2.3.Womanismus
Der Neologismus WOMANISMUS wurde von der Amerikanerin Alice Walker geprägt.
In ihrem Buch Auf der Suche nach dem Garten unserer Mutter: Womanist Prosa, ist es ihr Ziel,
zu beschreiben, dass die Lebenserfahrung der farbigen Frauen im Womanismus
ursprünglich theologisch orientiert war. Dieses Wort stammt aus der Theologie der
Jacquelyn Grant (White Women's Christ and Black Women's Jesus: Feminist Christology and
womanist Response; Perspectives on Womanist Theology). Sie ist laut Delores Williams (Sisters
in the wilderness: The Challenge of Womanist God-Talk) und James Hal Cone.(A Black
Theology of liberation 1970)(1995: 67) Vorkämpferin und führende Gelehrte der
womanistischen Theologie. Auf folgende Weise definiert Delores Williams
Womanistische Theologie:
Womanistische Theologie ist um eine prophetische Stimme besorgt, um
das Wohlergehen der gesamten African American Community, Männer
und Frauen, Erwachsene und Kinder. Womanistische Theologie versucht
zu helfen, schwarze Frauen zu sehen und sie zu bestärken; und
das
Vertrauen in die Bedeutung ihrer Erfahrungen und ihres Glaubens für die
Bestimmung des Charakters der christlichen Religion in der African
American Community zu haben. Womanistische Theologie fordert alle
132
die
repressiven Kräfte heraus, die den Kampf der schwarzen Frauen ums
Überleben und für die Entwicklung einer positiven, produktiven
Lebensqualität für die Freiheit und das Wohlbefinden der Familie und
Frauen
behindern.
Womanistische
Theologie
ist
gegen
alle
Unterdrückung auf der Grundlage von Rasse, Geschlecht, Klasse,
sexuellen Vorlieben, körperlichen Fähigkeiten und Kasten.
Ausgehend von den erlebten Erfahrungen der farbigen Frauen in den USA solidarisierte
sich der Womanismus stark mit allen Frauen aus Minderheiten, von niedrigem
sozialökonomischen Status, sowie mit Frauen und kleinen Leuten aller Völker und
Länder, wo Hunger, Krieg, Not, Tyrannei und Ungerechtigkeit herrschten. Das war der
point de départ des Womanismus. Seinen Ausgangspunkt hatte er also unter farbigen
Leuten, die sich in einer schwierigen Situation befanden. Diese Situation hat Essed
Philomena (1991:12) im Folgenden erklärt:
Blacks in the United States tried virtually everything in their struggle for
liberation
-
revolt,
petitions,
armed
attacks,
economic
boycott,
demonstrations, riots, court action, the vote alliances, Black nationalism
[...] due to among other things, continuous protests and the demands of
market economy, social and political conditions have changed but the
legacy of discrimination and legal segregation... has continued to affect
race relations in the United states.
In anderer Hinsicht wird anhand der Böllschen Romane und Erzählungen zu zeigen sein,
dass der Womanismus in Bölls Welt auch seinen point d'arrivée gefunden hat. Rassismus,
Sexismus und Klassenschranken sind nämlich ein globales Problem. Egal ob in
Deutschland oder in den Vereinigten Staaten - es besteht jeweils ein einheimisches
Kastensystem.
Natürlich
bestimmen
die
örtlichen
Gegebenheiten
die
Standorteigenschaften der Unterdrückung. Meines Erachtens ist das weibliche
Geschlecht in einer derartigen Lage am meisten betroffen. Alice Malsenior Walker, die
erste Afroamerikanerin, die 1983 sowohl den Pulitzer-Preis als auch den American Book
Award erhalten hat, wurde dafür berühmt, dass sie die womanistische Idee in der
133
Literaturdeutung herangezogen hat. Meiner Meinung nach sollte das Ziel des gesamten
womanistischen Engagements folgendermaßen lauten: Wir haben einem Pakt mit
unseren euro-amerikanischen Geschlechtsgenossinnen gegen die Männer zugestimmt.
Letztere haben uns verraten. Die einzige Alternative, die uns bleibt, ist, den gleichen
Weg noch einmal zurückzugehen, wobei wir mit den Männern einen Kompromiss
schließen müssen. Bekräftigt sehe ich diese Auffassung von Ulrike Taubner von der
Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main (1985: 311):
Somit wird der unterschiedliche ,,Lebenszusammenhang“ von Frauen
und
Männern
zur
großen
Gemeinsamkeit
eines
Lebenswelt-
zusammenhangs und die unterschiedliche Betroffenheit von Männern und
Frauen wird zur gemeinsamen, womit dann auch Ausmaß und Umfang
der anzustrebenden gesellschaftlichen Veränderungen abgesteckt werden.
Das Ziel lautet Gleichberechtigung von Mann und Frau.
Ein Teil der Auffassung, die die Womanisten vertreten wollen, ist der Kampf für eine
Gleichberechtigung von Frauen und Männern, die nicht heuchlerisch, unsinnig und
widerspruchsvoll wäre, wenn schon auch unter Frauenaktivistinnen Rassismus,
Ungerechtigkeit, Arroganz und unvereinbare Bedingungen fortbestehen. Demzufolge
sind alle Arten von Diskriminierung eins: Xenophobie, Sexismus, Rassismus,
Kastensystem, Klassensystem, Fanatismus, ethnische Säuberung, Apartheid usw.
Derjenige, der gegen eines verstößt, sollte sich nicht beklagen, wenn er Opfer der anderen
wird. Die Bemühung der Frauenbewegung wird wohl umstritten bleiben, solange es
unter den Frauen Diskriminierung und Ungerechtigkeit gibt. Daher müsste Alice Walker
auch ihr Schreiben verallgemeinern und beweisen. Angesichts ihres Engagements und
Oeuvres war sie am Anfang an den Schwarzamerikanerinnen orientiert. Ein großer Teil
ihrer früheren Arbeit wie zum Beispiel The Third Life of Grange Copeland (Das dritte Leben
des Grange Copeland) und Meridian waren zum großen Teil den farbigen Leute Amerikas
gewidmet. Damals schrieb sie des öfteren von ,,the survival whole of my people'', ihre
Leute sind in diesem Fall die afrikanischen Amerikaner. So schilderte sie 1973 beim
Interview mit O'Brian:
134
I am preoccupied with the spiritual survival, survival whole of my people.
But beyond that, I am committed to exploring the oppressions, the
insanities, the loyalties, and the triumphs of black women... For me the
black women are the most fascinating creations in the world.
Übertreibungen wie
diese
und die radikale
Stellungnahme
für die farbigen
Amerikanerinnen führen Alice Walker meines Erachtens in dieselben Fallen, in die auch
schon Europäerinnen und Amerikanerinnen traten. Es wäre angemessener gewesen,
wenn die Womanisten von Anfang an nicht nur eine alternative schwarz-orientierte
Theorie begründet, sondern eine globale feministische Theorie nach einheitlicher
Vorgabe aufgestellt hätten. Nichtsdesto weniger mussten die Womanisten sofort ihre
einseitige Theorie über Bord werfen. Bevorzugt wurde danach eine womanistische
Theorie, deren Anwendung gegebenenfalls literarisch grenzenlos navigierbar sein sollte.
Dies findet man in den späteren Werken Alice Walkers. Von Interesse sind Im Tempel
meines Herzens, Die Farbe Lila und Possessing the Secret Joy (über Genitalverstümmelung in
Afrika). In diesem Zusammenhang soll die folgende allgemeine Definition von
Womanismus laut Alice Walker (1984:xi/xii) wiedergegeben werden:
Womanist is to Feminist as Purple is to Lavender. A black feminist or
feminist of colour. A woman who loves other women, sexually and/or
nonsexually. Appreciates and prefers women's culture,
women's
emotional flexibility... and women's strength. Sometimes loves individual
men, sexually and/or nonsexually. Committed to survival and wholeness
of entire people, male and female. Not a separatist, except periodically, for
health. Traditionally universalist...
Das Sein bestimmt laut den Philosophen (vgl. laut Marx bestimmt das Sein das
Bewusstsein) das Dasein. Also haben wir hierbei zu erläutern, ob man wirklich einen
neuen feministischen Neologismus für ein eher afrikanisches bzw. afrikanischamerikanisches
feministisches
Bewusstsein
bräuchte,
wenn
schon
der
Begriff
Schwarzfeminismus besteht. Meiner Meinung nach hat das Bestehen des Womanismus
nichts mit einer Wortneubildung und der Schöpfung neuer Ideen zu tun. Das
135
sozialpolitische Bewusstsein der Afrikanerinnen ist nicht neu, der Womanismus kein
Anhängsel des Feminismus. Im Grunde genommen muss es natürlich eine Reaktion
geben, wo immer Patriarchat, Unterdrückung und Tyrannei herrschen. Solch eine
Reaktion bzw. solch einen Gegenangriff seitens der unterdrückten Frauen, nennt man je
nach Kontext Feminismus, Womanismus, Motherismus oder Stiwanismus. Der
Womanismus existiert, weil Sexismus herrschte; auch in Afrika bestehen Klischees und
Stereotypen gegen Frauen. Dort herrschende gesellschaftliche Konzepte, wie jene, die
die folgenden Redewendungen ausdrücken, zeigen deutlich das Bestehen von Sexismus:
He who has a female child is as good as barren. Women like chickens do not forage in
one place. Women are betrayers and traitors. Do not divulge secrets to Women. What
you will not say in public must not be said to your wife at home. Women cannot be
trusted. Do not narrate critical issues to women. Women can kill. Women are weak.
Women are commodities. Women are prostitutes. Old women are witches. Woman
Wrapper (Männer, die Frauen lieben oder die Frauen respektieren).
In Hinsicht auf die oben dargestellten Punkte sollte man nicht von Schwarzfeminismus
oder afrikanischem Feminismus reden, als wäre die feministische Erfahrung und der
feministische Aktivismus aus dem Ausland importiert. Wie wir schon in den
vorhergehenden Abschnitten ausgeführt haben, ging der Feminismus als Erfahrung dem
Feminismus als Begriff voraus. Genau dies wollen wir auch für den Womanismus
zeigen. Daphne William Ntiri zeigt in ihrer Einleitung zu Clenora Hudson-Weeds, Africana
Womanism (1993: 1), dass weißer Feminismus nicht einfach auf die Realität schwarzer
Frauen mit deren differenter Erfahrung von Ausgrenzung – gerade auch durch weiße
Feministinnen – übertragbar ist:
For years African Women have found themselves in a serious ideological
predicament. In the absence of viable organized women`s groups they
have been invited to embrace feminism as an instrument of emancipation
and as a new-found source of empowerment and status-building.
Unfortunately, the majority of Africa women on public platforms have
rejected feminism for a multiplicity of reasons. First there is the
unquestionable need to reclaim African women; second, they are
perplexed over the racist origins of the feminist movement, third, they
have found little solace in the doctrines and mission of the feminist
movement, the realities, struggles and expectations of the two groups
136
remain on different planes. The privileges and advantages still belong to
the dominant group.
Dass der Womanismus auf eigenen Füßen stehen kann und soll, ist meines Erachtens
unbestreitbar. Diese Tatsache kann ich mit der Geschlechteridentität und der Rolle der
afrikanischen Frau in der Vorkolonialzeit untermauern. Damals haben Frauen sich viel
im sozialen Leben profiliert. Die Frage, ob Frau und Mann in jenen Gesellschaften
gleichberechtigt waren und gleich behandelt wurden, stellt sich nicht. Ihre (afrikanische
Frauen) gesellschaftlich beneidenswerte Lage war dennoch sehr auffällig. Das
doppelgeschlechtliche politische System war stabil, wobei jedes Geschlecht unabhängig
seine Verwaltungsmaschine kontrollierte (vgl.Henderson 1966:311-313, 1969;Lebeu
1963:94). So regierte zwar der König, die Königin hatte aber auch ihre Gremien. Diese
Situation war selbstverständlich in den Igbo-Königreichen Afrikas. In Women in World
Religions and Literatures (2008: 74; siehe auch Uchendu P, K 1975 und Ekejiuba 1967:633666), habe ich diese historische Tatsache schon wie folgt präzisiert:
The dual sex political system ensured that each sex managed its own
matters and had its own kingship, institution, age grades, titles and secret
societies... In these societies there was the Omu which is the institution of
the queen. The Omu had the Omu society. It is a menopausal post for
women, notably the first daughters. It may have been introduced much
later due to the Igala influence. Like the Obi, which is the kingship
equivalent, the Omu is of royal lineage and is sacred coupled with the
attendant sexual taboos. Only very powerful and wealthy women could
attain such heights.
Aus anderen Igbo-Königreichen wie dem von Ossomari wird von Omus berichtet, die die
Oberbefehlshaberinnen waren. Die Omu und ihre Behörden waren Beauftragte von
Kommerz und Industrie. Die letzte Omu (Königin) im Königreich Onitsha, Omu
Nwagboka ist laut Basden (1938:209-211) im Jahre 1886 gestorben (Orjinta 2008:75).
Darüber hinaus wurde der kulturgeschichtliche Gegenstand zum Thema, ob Frauen in
vorkolonialen afrikanischen Gesellschaften wirtschaftlich eigenständige Politik betrieben.
137
Die afrikanische Frau wurde kulturell nie als Hausfrau definiert. Sie war erwerbstätig und
trug zu der wirtschaftlichen Unterstützung der Familie bei. Sie war autonom, aber in
Komplementarität mit ihrem Mann. Diese Situation habe ich schon bei früherer
Gelegenheit (ebd. 2008: 77; siehe auch Mba Nina Emma 1982:13) wie folgt untermauert:
The African woman excelled in trading, skills, artifacts farming, animal
husbandry, crafts, sorcery and herbalism. In this way she had property
rights even though she was denied inheritance rights. Since economic
prowess was the key to social and political accession in the traditional
african culture, irrespective of sex, men and women complemented each
other`s efforts in economic acquisition by dint of hard and sincere work.
Aber auch für die afrikanischen Frauen waren zahlreiche gesellschaftliche Tätigkeiten
tabuisiert. Unzugänglich waren der Frau ein Großteil der gesellschaftspolitischen
Geschäfte. Genau wie bei der Lage der Frau in Europa sind die Gründe für einen solchen
Ausschluss irrational. Solche Ausgrenzungen basieren meistens auf abergläubischen
Überzeugungen. Hier könnte man Begriffe wie Stereotyp, Stereotypie, Klischee,
Sexismus, Stalinismus, etc. heranziehen. Außerhalb des Kreises der Unterdrückten ist es
oft schwer, die Quälerei und Verfolgungen der Frauen zu spüren – ähnlich wie in jeder
anderen Situation von Diskriminierung und Ungerechtigkeit: Denn diejenigen, die von
der Ausbeutung und Diskriminierung profitieren, sehen den Zustand als normal an. Die
großen Leute verstehen selten die Situation der kleinen Leute. Nur die kleinste Minorität
wagt, die ungerechte Lage zu reformieren – diejenigen, die Mut und Gewissen haben. In
unserem Kontext sind die Männer die großen Leute, die den Frauen sowohl in
Entwicklungsländern als auch in Europa und Amerika vieles verweigern. Außerdem
verschließen sich europäische Frauen vor ihren aus der Dritten Welt stammenden
Geschlechtsgenossinnen/Schwestern. Als Folge davon sind die Betroffenen aus der
europäisch-amerikanischen feministischen Bewegung ausgetreten, um ihre modifizierten
Versionen von Feminismus zu begründen. Mittlerweile haben die afrikanischamerikanischen Feministinnen denselben Fehler der Ausgrenzung gemacht. Diese
Situation hat übrigens auch dazu beigetragen, dass sowohl der
Euro-amerikanische
Feminismus als auch der afrikanisch-amerikanisch Schwarze Feminismus von den
afrikanischen Frauen, bzw. den Frauen aus der Dritten Welt, nicht akzeptiert wird. Die
138
Letzteren fühlen sich nur im Womanismus zu Hause. Der Womanismus als Ideologie
porträtiert das Bewusstsein der afrikanischen Frau, die ihre Interessen und Bedürfnisse
anerkennt und dafür sehr diplomatisch und Gender-ergänzend in Anbetracht ihrer
Berufung als Mutter und des Wohls der Familie (Mann und Kinder) und der Gemeinde
kämpft.
2.4.Motherismus
Motherismus entsteht als afrikanische Alternative für das weibliche Modell von
Mutterschaft. Als Mutter-Kontinent aller Völker müsste Afrika ein Vorbild von Feminität
zeigen. Das in Europa entstehende Bild des Weiblichen war für die afrikanische
Weltanschauung unzureichend und eingeschränkt. Diese Unzulänglichkeit führte zu
einer Suche nach einer neuen literarischen Typologie des Weiblichen. Mit diesem
Engagement versuchten afrikanische Literaten Frauen grundsätzlich und wesentlich als
Mütter zu erkennen. Die traditionelle Mutterrolle der Frau ist in zahlreichen
afrikanischen weiblichen Symbolen wiederzuerkennen. Elvira Godono vertritt in African
Postcolonial Literature in English in the Postcolonial Web diese Idee, in der sie Feministinnen
wie Doris Lessing und Catherine Acholonu zur Unterstützung heranzieht:
An Afrocentric feminist theory, therefore, must be anchored on the matrix
of motherhood which is central to African metaphysics and has been the
basis of the survival and unity of the black race through the ages.
Whatever Africa`s role may be in the global perspective, it could never be
divorced from her quintessential position as the Mother Continent of
humanity, nor is it coincidental that motherhood has remained the central
focus of African Art, African Literature (especially women`s writing).
Der Motherismus verfolgt dieselben Ziele wie der Womanismus; er ist ein Zweig der
womanistischen Theorie. Motherismus betont bestimmte Aspekte des Womanismus und
versucht, diese zu vertiefen. Der Motherist ist laut Acholonu der Mann oder die Frau, die
dem Fortbestand von Mutter Erde als einer holistischen Einheit verpflichtet ist. Ferner
schreibt sie über den Motherismus:
139
The weapon of Motherism is love, tolerance, service and mutual
cooperation of the sexes ....The motherist writer... is not a sexist. The
motherist male writer or artist does not create his work from a patriarchal,
masculinist, do- minatory perspective. He does not present himself
arrogant, all knowing self-righteous before his muse.
Acholonu (1995) nennt auch Literaten, die sich als Männer mit den Motheristen
solidarisieren. Autoren wie David Diop (1927-1960; Afrique Mon Afrique, 1956; vgl.
Claudia: The Black New Yorker 22. Aug. 2004) begreifen und preisen Afrika als Muttter :
Afrique mon Afrique
Afrique des fiers guerriers dans les
savanes ancestrales
Afrique que chante ma grand-mère
Au bord de son fleuve lointain
Je ne t’ai jamais connue
Mais mon regard est plein de ton sang
Ton beau sang noir à travers les champs
répandu
Le sang de ta sueur
La sueur de ton travail
Le travail de l’esclavage
L’esclavage de tes enfants
Afrique dis-moi Afrique
Est-ce donc toi ce dos qui se courbe
140
Et se couche sous le poids de 1’humilité
Ce dos tremblant à zébrures rouges
Qui dit oui au fouet sur les routes de midi
Alors gravement une voix me répondit
Fils impétueux cet arbre robuste et jeune
Cet arbre là-bas
Splendidement seul au milieu des fleurs
blanches et fanées
C’est l’Afrique ton Afrique qui repousse
Qui repousse patiemment obstinément
Et dont les fruits ont peu à peu
L’amère saveur de la liberté.
Zu zitieren ist ferner auch die nostalgische Darstellung der afrikanischen Mutter bei
Camara Laye (1954: 55-61). Die Mutter gebiert das Kind und lässt es aufwachsen:
Mother was very kind, very correct. She also had great authority, and kept
an eye on everything we did; so that her kindness was never altogether
untempered by severity... and my mother was not a very patient woman.
Laye betont auch die gegenseitige harmonische Beziehung zwischen seinem Vater und
seiner Mutter:
My father would never have dreamt of despising anyone, least of all my
mother. He had the greatest respect for her and so did our friends and
neighbours.
141
Meiner Meinung nach ist es biologisch offensichtlich, dass die Frau nicht zum Mann
werden kann und der Mann nicht zur Frau. Diese Idee wird auch von den Motheristen
unterstrichen. Ich respektiere alle Sex-Orientierungen und verstehe auch die Lage unserer
Brüder und Schwestern, die nach der freien Entfaltung ihrer Persönlichkeit und
Selbstverwirklichung leben wollen. Darüber hinaus bestehen bei den Frauen angeborene
innere Werte, die sie bei ihrer Rolle in der Familie brauchen. Dazu gehören auch
Führungsqualität und ethische Werte. Die Feministen versuchen laut den Womanisten
diese angeborenen ethischen Werte über Bord zu werfen. Die Idee, dass die Frau die
geistige Basis und letzte Hoffnung jeder Familie, jeder Nation und jeder Gemeinschaft
bleibt, wird sich bei Heinrich Böll wiederfinden; aus diesem Grund habe ich einige seiner
Werke für diese Fallstudie gewählt.
2.5. Stiwanismus
Dieser Neologismus stammt von Ogundipe Leslie, die versucht, ein Gleichgewicht
zwischen den Geschlechtern herzustellen. Sie vertritt die Idee, dass in der Vergangenheit
nur in solchen Situationen soziale und wirtschaftliche Umwälzungen möglich wurden.
So betont sie in Re-creating Ourselves ,African Women and Critical Transformation“, 1994
(siehe Interview: West Africa 26/2-3/3,1996):
I have since advocated the word `Stiwanism` instead of feminism, to
bypass these concerns and to bypass the combative discourse that ensue
whenever one raises the issue of feminism in Africa.
Der Feminismus hat meines Erachtens bisher nicht die Schwelle des Sexismus
überschritten. Er hätte auch die Vernetzung der Klassen-Rassen-Sexualitäts-Problematik
in Betracht zu ziehen. Bei den Afrikanerinnen dagegen lag bisher die Betonung auf dem
Zusammenhang
von
Unterdrückung,
Kolonialismus
und
Imperialismus.
Nichtsdestoweniger ist es meiner Meinung nach höchste Zeit, die schlechten
Erfahrungen der Vergangenheit abzutragen und sich voranzukämpfen. Um gezielte
sozialpolitische Entwicklungen zu erreichen, müssen Frauen, Männer und auch Kinder
142
an einem Strang ziehen. Hierin liegt die Botschaft des Womanismus, des Motherismus
und
des
Stiwanismus.
Accommodationism,
Im
Vorangehenden
Mutualism
und
habe
ich
Complementarism
versucht,
zu
Begriffe
prägen.
wie
Ogundipe
(Interview: „ A matter of structures“ in West Africa,26th Feb./3rd March, 1996)
unterstützt diese Argumentation, wenn sie schreibt, dass Teamgeist der Geschlechter
zum Zweck einer nachvollziehbaren Entwicklung des afrikanischen Kontinents, der von
Europa und Amerika zerstört ist, am wichtigsten sei:
Stiwa` means `Social Transformation including Women of Africa`. I
wanted to stress the fact that what we want in Africa is social
Transformation. It`s not about warring with the men, the reversal of role,
or doing to men whatever women think that men have been doing for
centuries, but it is trying to build a harmonious society. The
transformation of African Society is the responsibility of both men and
women and it is also in their interest.
2.6. Ein Plädoyer für Womanismus
Angesichts der vorangegangenen Argumentation möchte ich nun für die Anwendung des
Womanismus auf die Werke Heinrich Bölls plädieren. Es steht außer Frage, ob der
Womanismus eine selbstständige analytische Theorie für literarische Deutung ist. Die
Frage aber, ob der Literaturwissenschaftler diese Theorie exportieren darf, soll hier unser
Hauptthema sein. In der feministischen Debatte besteht keine Grenze, wenn die
Anwendung einer passenden Theorie benötigt wird. Bereits heute sind sowohl die
feministische als auch die womanistische Theorie globalisiert. Der Womanismus setzt da
an, wo die folgenden Voraussetzungen nach Ogundipe-Leslie bestehen:
Feminism need not be opposition to men; that women need not neglect
their biological roles; that Motherhood is idealized and claimed as a
strength[...]; that the total configuration of the conditions of women
should be addressed rather than obsessing with sexual issues; that certain
aspects of women`s reproductive rights take priority over others; that
143
women`s conditions[...]need to be addressed in the context of the total
production and reproduction of their society and the scenario involves
men and children; and that the ideology of women has to be cast in the
context of the race and class struggles which bedevil the continent of
Africa (and the entire humanity) today.
Bei Heinrich Böll ist eine weitgehende Übereinstimmung mit oben genannten Punkten
festzustellen. Hier werden Tradition, kleine Leute und authentische Religion verteidigt
(Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum, Ansichten eines Clowns). Seiner Meinung nach soll
man Harmonie, Zufriedenheit und Freude statt Aggression, Kasuistik, Abstumpfung und
Legalismus bevorzugen (Gruppenbild mit Dame, Frauen vor Flusslandschaft). Darüber hinaus
hat Böll eine bessere Rolle für seine literarischen Töchter, die Geborgenheit, Schutz, und
Nächstenliebe gesucht haben (Ansichten eines Clowns). Ferner lobt der Womanismus den
Humanismus und Realismus hoch. Böll war selbst ein korrekter Humanist und Realist.
Des Weiteren stimmen die Bedingungen überein, unter denen sowohl der Womanismus,
als auch die Böllschen Werke entstanden sind: Länder und Leute in Krieg, Qual, Not
und unter Besatzung. Egal wie man die beiden Situationen versteht, stimmen die Kriegsund Nachkriegszeit Deutschlands mit der miserablen Situation des Lebens und
Überlebens unter den Bedingungen von Not, Tod, Entbehrung, Besatzung (Ruhrgebiet,
Alsace-Lorraine, Polnische Grenze etc.) und Ausgrenzung in ihren schlimmsten Formen
mit dem afrikanischen Schicksal zum größten Teil überein. Diese Dimension der
Geschichte beider Kulturen und Völker finde ich außerdem wichtig, um zu erklären,
warum wir den Womanismus als passende Theorie für die literarische Deutung Böllscher
feministischer Werke heranziehen wollen. Unser Publikum ist nämlich der afrikanische
Rezipient, dessen Interesse wir wecken wollen.
Zu Abschluss soll noch gezeigt werden, dass Böll sich anhand der Frankfurter
Vorlesungen als Womanisten profiliert hat. Seine Ästhetik des Humanen sowie seine
Trinität des Weiblichen, wie schon erwähnt, stimmen mit womanistischen Idealen
überein. Kein Wunder, dass die abendländischen Feministen ihn etikettiert haben,
genauso,
wie
(Clason1988:84)
sie
anderswo
sind
als
Womanisten
"Projektionen
attackiert
männlicher
patriarchalischer Wunschvorstellungen" gekennzeichnet.
144
haben.
Bölls
Sehnsüchte
und
Heldinnen
Behälter
Womanistische Interpretation ausgewählter böllshen Romane und Erzählungen.
Im gesamten Werk Bölls ist Liebe und Religion das zentrale Thema. In den Böllschen
Liebesgeschichte wird geschildert, wie die reine Liebe einer Person oder zwischen zwei
Personen durch äußere oder innere Hindernisse totgeboren wird. Dazu gehört auch eine
gewisse Selbstverständlichkeit des Scheiterns der Protagonisten und Protagonistinnen in
ihrer Liebesbeziehung. Die konkreten äußeren Umstände dieser Hindernisse interessieren
Böll nicht so sehr wie die inneren Hürden. Hier kommen Liebe, Moral und Sexualität in
Frage. So erklärt Böll in seinen Frankfurter Vorlesungen (1966:110-111):
Als Material gesehen ist nichts spannender als eine feste unbeugsame
Moral: ich erinnere Sie an die Romane von Graham Greene. …hier bietet
das, was Fessel empfunden wird, die Form und damit jenen Widerstand,
ohne den Literatur keine mehr ist. Es ist das Problem der äußeren
Entfernung, das durch so unmodische Worte wie Ehebruch, Sünde,
Betrug bezeichnet werden kann – eine weitere Spannung, theologisch gut
zu bestimmen durch Namen: Eva, Maria, Magdalena, die sich nie rein,
nie getrennt zeigen in der weiblichen Natur. Ich sehe keine Bessere
Voraussetzung für die Beschreibung, den Ausdruck, den die Liebe finden
kann, als die religiöse. Die Routine einer durch nichts gefährdeten, in
nichts mehr gespannten Promiskuität, das Klischee einer Lustspieleva,
einer Lustspielmagdalena- da sind Wunden, durch Pralinenschachteln
oder Pelzmäntel zu heilen…
Liebe wird bei Böll als Eros verstanden. Dies umfasst die ganze Person und soll deutlich
von sexueller Liebe unterschieden werden. Unumstritten ist Böll in diesem Sinne ein
Traditionalist. So schafft er Protagonistinnen, Trägerinnen von traditionell weiblich
zugeschriebenen Eigenschaften wie Liebesfähigkeit, Intuition, Emotionalität und
Altruismus. Bei Böll ist die Sexualität sowie die Liebe ganzheitlich ausgerichtet. So kann
man nicht mehr von körperlich oder unkörperlich, moralisch oder unmoralisch reden. So
verdeutlicht er (1964:110) seine theologische Auseinandersetzung über Liebe und
Sexualität mit der Amtskirche folgendermaßen:
145
[…] die Kirchen haben noch nicht begriffen, was Liebe ist, obwohl
Ihnen Texte genug zur Verfügung stehen, die sie gegeneinanderstellen
könnten: die großartigen Texte – was übrig geblieben ist, ist eine
vertrackte Juristische Spitzfindigkeit, um so etwas zu regeln wie Liebe
und Ehe.
Böll nimmt bedingungslos Stellung zu kleinen und machtlosen Leuten. So eine Liebe
fehlt laut Böll der Amtskirche. Dies hat er in seinen Romanen und Erzählungen sowie in
seinen Interviews und sonstigen Schreiben deutlich gemacht. Diese Auffassung wird in
Vöikl (2005:37) bei der Interpretation der Erzählung: Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum
untermauert:
Die Kirche wird kritisiert, weil sie nicht hilft. Ihr ist der ideologische
Gegner wichtiger als die Nächstenliebe. Dabei kann der Priester
überhaupt nicht begründen, warum er Katharinas Vater als Kommunisten
einschätzt. Bezeichnenderweise ist der Priester der einzige, der behauptet,
von der ZEITUNG richtig zitiert worden zu sein. Katharina, die
ursprünglich ein frommes Mädchen gewesen ist, geht auf Distanz zur
Kirche, seit sie vom Pfarrer schlecht behandelt wird, weil ihre Mutter mit
dem Küster in der Sakristei eine Flasche Messwein getrunken hat.
Böll schafft in dieser Weise in seinem literarischen Werk Figuren, die ähnliche Werte in
sich tragen. Figuren wie Leni, die sich abfällige Menschen machen um den
Nächstenliebe zu zeigen. Böll hat sich schon als Humanist profiliert. Seine Version von
Humanismus erklärt sich als rein religiöser Humanismus. Im Grunde genommen,
Orjinta (2009:15) sind alle ideologischen Bewegungen des 20.Jahrhunderts, seien sie
literarisch oder philosophisch, auf Humanismus ausgerichtet. Doch bestehen drei
Unterarten des Humanismus: atheistischer, unparteiischer und religiöser Humanismus.
Böll profiliert sich als engagierter religiöser Humanist. In Orjinta: Littérature Française du
XXe Siècle(2009:16) wird religiöser Humanismus folgendermaßen definiert:
[…]un humaniste religieux tend à défendre l`homme contre les maux de
la société humaine mais sans perdre la foi soit en Dieu soit en religion.
146
Même dans une situation compliquée dans laquelle il est coincé, dans sa
préoccupation humaniste, par une force surnaturelle, il ne perd point la
foi. On voit l’exemple de cet humaniste chez Père Panèloux dans le Peste
d’Albert Camus.
Der Fall Böll soll hier näherer geklärt werden. Unter den Humanisten unterscheiden sich
noch drei Subgruppen: Die Enthusiasten bzw. die menschenfreundlichen Humanisten,
falsche bzw. imitierte Humanisten und engagierte Humanisten. Heinrich Böll befindet
sich unter den letzteren Gruppen. Im oben zitierten Buch habe ich diese Gruppe schon
definiert:
C’est un humaniste qui s’engage soit à la littérature soit à la philosophie; il
peut être Essayiste, Romancier, Dramaturge, Critique général ou
Philosophe. Il utilise ses œuvres ( soit littéraires soit philosophiques) pour
prêcher sa conception de l’humanisme. Il est humaniste pratiquant ou
révolutionnaire. La plupart des écrivains de ce siècle font partie de ce
groupe.
Engagierter Humanismus gehört auch zu den Idealen des Womanismus. Womanismus
steht jenseits des Frauenrechtlertums. Statt sich den Männern stets entgegen zu stellen
wie bei den Feministen, engagieren sich die Womanisten dafür, einer Konfrontation mit
den Männern aus dem Weg zu gehen. Die Womanisten engagieren sich für die
Interessen der Frauen und darüber hinaus für die Belange der ganzen Gesellschaft:
Männer, Kinder, und Familien. Diese Solidarität mit der ganzen Menschheit und
insbesondere mit den kleinen Leute hat den Womanisten als gesellschaftlichen
Kreuzritter gekennzeichnet. In diesem Sinne versucht der Erzähler den Roman voran zu
bringen und zu befördern indem er literarische Themen behandelt, die breitere
gesellschaftliche Bedeutung als die feministischen Empfindlichkeiten haben. So eine
Einstellung wird sicher den Feministen vor dem Kopf stoßen. Der womanistische
Künstler bzw. Romanschriftsteller versucht trotzdem die Grenze des feministischen
Romans jenseits des weiblichen Mundstück zu erweitern. Anderswo wie schon erwähnt,
wurde der womanistische Erzähler von Feministen scharf kritisiert. Im Folgenden wurde
Aminata Sow Fall sogar als antifeministische Literatin bezeichnet:
147
En tant qu’écrivain femme, Fall projette une voix masculine et des valeurs
sociales et littéraires masculines. Elle ne propose aucune solution au
Conflit culturel, à part une reprise rétrograde du voile. Son œuvre
préconise un retour aux valeurs domestiques et patriarcales d’un âge d’or
pré- coloniale idéalisé. Elle semble tenter d’imposer à la femme en
mutation un retour vers les moules du passé.
Heinrich Böll wird als Womanist keine Ausnahme sein. Böll als Traditionalist versteht
die Frau als Verkörperung seiner Philosophie der Menschlichkeit. Also steht die Frau in
Zentrum des Lebens: Sie prägt die Wohnverhältnisse, Nachtbarschafts-Beziehungen,
Heimat, Liebe, Mahlzeiten und Religion. Böll lobt die Hände der Frau, die für ihn die
Fähigkeiten der Frau in den oben genannten Bereichen symbolisieren. So wird die Frau
sowohl als Verwalterin der Familie als auch ,,Genie der Sinnlichkeit“ und Meisterin der
Zärtlichkeit erkannt:
Frauenhände sind schon fast keine Hände mehr: ob sie Butter aufs Brot
oder Haare aus der Stirn streichen. Kein Theologie ist je auf die Idee
gekommen über Frauenhände im Evangelium zu predigen: Veronika,
Magdalena, Marie und Martha-lauter Frauenhände, die Christus
Zärtlichkeit erwiesen.
Das Böllsche Argument stimmt mit den Idealen des Womanismus überein. Im
Womanismus vertritt man nämlich die Position, dass es ein langweiliges, einseitiges,
negatives und miserables Engagement wäre, wenn sich Feminismus nur mit
Frauenverfolgung sowie Emanzipation beschäftige. Der feministische Diskurs soll nicht
nur über Schikane und Opfersyndrom funktionieren. Diese Auffassung wird auch von
Aduke Adebayo, Feminism & black Women's Creative Wring; Theory. Practice. Criticism,
Ibadan, (1996:4-6) untermauert:
It is a bad feminism, an undesirable discourse that which insists solely on
[…] women's victimization and their helplessness in the hands of their
men. also a stigmatized and narcissist feminism that which cannot see
beyond itself and project into a larger society.
148
Um die Ideale des Womanismus in diesem Kontext präzisieren zu können, entwickelt
Ogundipe-Lesilie die Idee von sozialer Ausgeglichenheit, die vorausgehend von Literatinnen
wie Flora Nwapa und Mariama Bâ gepflanzt wird. Vorher hat Alice Walker In Search of
Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose (1984:ppxi/xii) gewisse Charakteristika weibliche
Gestalten des Womanismus skizziert:
-[...] willful behavior, courageous, audacious,
- acting grown up, responsible, in-charge, serious.
- a woman who loves other women, sexually and/or
non sexually.
Appreciates and prefers women's
culture, women's emotional flexibility... and women's
strength.
Sometimes loves individual men, sexually
and/or nonsexually. Committed to survival and
wholeness of entire people, male and female.
Not a separatist, except periodically, for health.
Traditionally universalist...
Loves Music. Loves Dance. Loves the moon.
Loves the folk. Loves herself. Regardless.
Womanist is to feminist as purple is to Lavender.
Alle Trägerinnen Böllscher >Ästhetik des Humanen< : Katharina (Verlorene Ehre der
Katharina Blum), Leni ( Gruppenbild mit Dame), und Elisabeth (Frauen vor Flusslandschaft)
zeichnen sich zweifellos mit den oben genannten Besonderheiten aus. Die Figur von
Marie (Ansichten eines Clowns) fällt jedoch heraus. Marie Derkum fehlt die Eigenwille,
ohne äußere Beeinflussung eine echte Liebesbeziehung mit ihrem Partner zu führen. Sie
gilt als eine Verräterin der Böllschen Ideale, weil sie Hans Schnier im Stich gelassen hat.
Der Streit geht darum, dass es bei Hans Schnier keinen Sinn ergibt, ihre Liebesbeziehung
vor der Kirche und/oder vor dem Standesamt offen zu legen, um behördliche
Genehmigung zu erhalten.(AeC 100). Obwohl Hans Schnier ein Agnostiker ist
(AeC144), hat er die Wünsche von Marie öfter erfüllt. Erstens möchte sie nach Köln,
dann kommt ihre Affinität mit der Katholischen Kirche; inzwischen erfolgt die
Voraussetzung einer legalisierten Ehe. Bisher hat Hans Schnier ihr alles gewährt.(vgl.
AeC. 78).
149
Die Schwierigkeit fängt eigentlich mit der erweiterten Forderung Maries nach einer
standesamtlichen Trauung an; Dann erfolgt noch eine Bedingung: Hans Schnier muss
sich schriftlich verpflichten, die zukünftigen Kinder christlich erziehen zu lassen:
Ich hatte tatsächlich nicht gewusst, dass man sich staatlich trauen muss,
bevor man kirchlich getraut wird.[...] Ich wurde richtig böse, als ich
erfuhr, dass man dorthin musste, bevor man kirchlich getraut werden
könnte, und als Marie dann noch davon anfing, dass ich mich schriftlich
verpflichten müsse, unsere Kinder katholisch zu erziehen, bekamen wir
Streit. Das kam mir wie Erpressung vor, und es gefiel mir nicht, dass
Marie so ganz und gar einverstanden mit dieser Forderung nach
Schriftlicher Abmachung war. (AeC79)
Obwohl Schnier angesichts seines metaphysischen Schreckens damit einverstanden war,
alles zu tun, wie sie wollte, war sie immer noch nicht zufrieden:
Es ging ihr schlecht an diesem Abend, sie war blass und müde, sprach
ziemlich laut mit mir, und als ich dann sagte, ja, gut, ich wurde alles
tun, auch diese Sachen unterschreiben, wurde sie böse und sagte>Das tust
du jetzt nur aus Faulheit, und nicht, weil du von der Berechtigung
abstrakter Ordnungsprinzipien überzeugt bist<, und ich sagte, ja, ich täte
es tatsächlich aus Faulheit und weil ich sie gern mein ganzes Leben lang
bei mir haben möchte, und ich würde sogar regelrecht zur katholischen
Kirche übertreten, wenn es nötig sei, um sie
zu behalten. (AeC. 79).
Eine Gestalt wie Marie gefällt den Womanisten nicht. Das womanistische Programm
geht mit den Idealen des postmodernen Feminismus zusammen. Egal, ob man dieses
Programm mit anderen Begriffen wie Stiwanismus, Motherismus, ,,Beyond Feminism“,
Postmodern
Feminismus
,,,Gender-mutuality“
,,Gender-Complementarity“
oder
,,Accommodationism“ bezeichnet, bleibt das Ziel immer das Gleiche. Ich habe selber
in meinem Buch: Women in World Religions and Literatures (2008) Gender-Mutuality,
Accommodationism und Gender Complementarity gekreiert. Rosemary Hennessy,
Materialist Feminism and the Politics of Discourse, New York,( 1993:106) erklärt, wie sie die
womanistische Gestalt versteht :
150
She is prefigured as the professional career woman(sic), often juggling
work with the domestic responsibilities of ,,home and Family“. One of the
functions of this new woman professional is to offer women an image of
themselves, which will help them perform successfully in this dual
workplace.
Darum geht es, wenn ich von der Ehre der Frauen spreche. Die Ehre der Frau soll anders
sein als die des Mannes. Ehre wird in diesem Kontext mit Würde, Anerkennung,
Ansehen, Respekt und Ruf verbunden. Natürlich existiert auch das allgemeine
Verständnis von Ehre. Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) kommt in diesem Kontext zu Wort:
Es gibt etwas, dass mir über alles gilt und dem ich alles andere nach setze,
von dessen Behauptung ich mich durch keine möglichere Folge abhalten
lasse, für dass ich mein ganzes irdisches Wohl, meinen guten Ruf, mein
Leben das ganze Wohl des Weltalls, wenn es damit in Streit kommen
könnte, ohne Bedenken aufopfern wurde. Ich will es Ehre nennen. Diese
Ehre setze ich keineswegs in das Urteil anderer über meine
Handlungen[...] sondern in das jenige, das ich selbst über sie fällen kann.
Abgesehen davon wird die Ehre der Frau besonders durch die mütterliche Berufung, die
Treue in der Partnerschaft, Offenheit, Gastfreundlichkeit, Humor, Unkompliziertheit,
nostalgische
Bindung
an den Wurzeln,
die Tugend der
Nächstenliebe,
die
Gemeindeliebe, die Zärtlichkeit sowie die sexuelle Moral bewertet. Diese Werte sind
sowohl in der afrikanischen Weltanschauung als auch in der womanistischen Ideologie
hoch geschätzt. Daher ist die große Schmierkampagne gegen Katharina Blum in Die
Verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum, eine Sex-moralische Diffamierung. Auch ihre stärkste
Reaktion erfolgt durch das Wort ,,Bumsen“, das von Tötges geäußert wird. Die größte
Verleumdung ist die Bezeichnung einer Frau als eine Hure wie der Fall bei der
ZEITUNG. Stark kritisiert wurden der Pfarrer von Gemmelsbroich, weil er
diffarmierende Geschichten über die Mutter Katharinas der ZEITUNG ausgesagt habe
(vEKB 36; vgl. 64,120). Ähnliche Obszönitäten werden auch rücksichtslos während der
Vernehmung gegen Katharina von der Polizei begangen. Vorher war sie aufgrund ihrer
Reinheit Nonne genannt(vEKB33). Die Treue in der Partnerschaft muss hier geklärt
151
werden. Die womanistischen Figuren sind, wie schon erwähnt, reife und verantwortliche
Frauen. Sie wissen, wenn sie bei der Partnerschaft keine Lust mehr haben dürfen.
Elizabeth in Frauen vor Flusslandschaft profiliert sich als eine Prophetin der Gerechtigkeit
und Ehre und wäre lieber tot als die Frau eines niederträchtigen Ministers zu werden.
Auch Kinder hat sie ihrem Mann, Fritz Blaukrämer gegenüber abgelehnt.(FvF154,
vgl.170-171). Kinder sind in Afrika die Fortsetzung des Stammes, und es ist die
Verantwortung der Mutter zu sichern, dass gute und reine Kinder geboren und erzogen
sind. Ein braves Kind ist der Stolz der Familie und weiterhin der Gemeinde.Eigentlich
gehören Kinder der Gemeinde. Frank Dietschreit, Kultur radio(25.09.2009) kommentiert
über die Bürgercourage dieser Bonner-Frauen folgendermaßen:
Die Frauen sind in dieser von machtgeilen Männern beherrschten
Politikerwelt die ,,Hüterinnen der Erinnerung“, sie haben nicht vergessen,
woher sie kommen, was sie einmal aus ihrem Leben machen wollten,
welche Ziele und Wünsche sie hatten. Sie sitzen zwar untätig und
melancholisch in ihren Villen mit schönen Blick auf den Rhein zwischen
Bonn und Bad Godesberg, aber sie widersetzen sich dem Opportunismus
ihrer Ehemänner, sagen ihnen auch unbequeme Wahrheiten, wollen die
Lügen und Intrigen nicht mehr länger mitmachen. Wegen ihrer
Aufmüpfigkeit werden sie von ihren Männern ab gestrafft und in eine als
Sanatorium getarnte Psychiatrie abgeschoben. Dort sollen ihre
Erinnerungen korrigiert werden, damit man sie wieder in der
Öffentlichkeit vorzeigen kann. Doch die Frauen spielen nicht mehr mit :
eine weigert sich, ihren Mann weiterhin als Dekoration auf Empfänge und
Staatsbesuch zu begleiten, eine Andere erhängt sich, als sie erfährt, dass
ihr intriganter und korrupter Mann zum Minister ernannt wurde.
Darüber hinaus erklärt Böll bei seinen Frankfurter Vorlesungen (S.101), was er als
Trinitat des Weiblichen bezeichnet. Er skizziert seine Ästhetik der Liebe auf der Basis der
drei biblischen Frauengestalten:
[...]- eine weitere Spannung theologisch gut zu bestimmen durch drei
Namen: Eva, Maria und Magdalena, die sich nie rein, nie getrennt zeigen
in der weiblichen Natur. Ich sehe keine bessere ästhetischen
Voraussetzung für die Beschreibung, den Ausdruck, den Liebe finden
kann, also die religiöse.
152
Diese Vorstellung Bölls wird in Gruppenbild mit Dame deutlich und durch die
Haupthandlungsträgerin Leni veranschaulicht. Leni symbolisiert die oben genannten
biblischen Figuren, die auch, wie herausgestellt wird, ihre Mentorinnen und Vorbilder
sind. Leni ist rein wie die Mutter Gottes, sie ist abfällig wie Marie Magdalena, und sie ist
schön und verführerisch wie Eva. Ebenso werden die drei Figuren des Romans: Leni,
Rahel und Margret je nach dem mit Eva, Maria, und Maria Magdalena identifiziert. Die
Liebe und Freizügigkeit dieser Figuren mit ihren Mitmenschen fügt sich sehr gut in den
Idealen des Womanismus zusammen. An der Seite der männlichen Gestalten Bölls findet
man meines Erachtens markante Ähnlichkeiten der Generosität Lenis mit der Dr.
Blorna-Figur in Der Verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum. Dr. Blorna lebt der Katharina Blum
durch seine Großherzigkeit vor. Seine Figur ist beispielhaft für die Erwartungen der
Womanisten. Er hat Katharina eine Arbeitsstelle beschafft. Weiterhin haben er und seine
Frau ihr bei der Erwerbung einer Eigentumswohnung geholfen. Darüber hinaus musste
er noch Katharina beim Prozess verteidigen. Als Folgen der Diffamierungskampagne der
Zeitung sowie des Mordfalls war Katharinas Wohnung weder vermietbar noch
marktfähig. Dr Blorna übernahm alle Kosten und Verluste. Der Tropfen, der das Fass
zum Überlaufen brachte, war der Verlust all seiner Kunden. Er war auch negativ von der
Zeitung diffamiert, er habe die Mörderbraut unterstützt. Vöikl (2005:17) schildert seine
Lage im Folgenden:
Die Wohnung der Katharina Blum wird auf Veranlassung von Dr. Blorna
von den Folgen des Mordes gereinigt. Was mit der noch nicht abgezahlten
Wohnung weiter geschehen wird, ist ungewiss. Sie lässt sich jedenfalls
weder vermieten noch verkaufen, weil sie als Blut-befleckt gilt. Dies stürzt
Blorna, der für alle Kosten aufkommen muss, in zusätzliche finanzielle
Schwierigkeiten, denn von seinen bisherigen Auftraggebern werden ihm
nur noch unbedeutende, wenig lukrative Fälle übertragen. Weil er die
Verteidigung Katharinas und Göttens übernommen hat[...] wird er von
Tötges Nachfolger in der ZEITUNG weiterhin verunglimpft. Blornas
beruflicher Abstieg wird auch daran sichtbar, dass er sein Äußeres
vernachlässigt und weniger auf Körperhygiene achtet.
So wird die Gender-Ergänzung veranschaulicht. Diesmal schildern wir ein Beispiel einer
männlichen Figur, und zwar eines internationalen Rechtsanwalts, Dr. Blorna der, die
153
Interesse einer weiblichen Figur Katharina durch aus verteidigt hat. Wegen seiner
Stellungnahme wurde er nach dem Plot ein Penner geworden. Der Womanist, mag er
auch ein Mann sein, soll ein Humanist werden. Egoistische Interessen und Rechte
müssen hinten angestellt werden. Sein Ziel liegt immer darin, auf den Gesichter seiner
Mitmenschen, egal, ob Mann, Frau, Partner oder Kind in jedem Moment ein Lächeln zu
zeichnen. Diese Art Großfamiliensystem, wo keiner ein Insel oder individualist ist,wird
in womanistischer Ideologie hoch gewertet.Hier befindet sich die Analogie des Körpers,
wo die einzelnen Teilen, je nach Komponent und Bedarf, unentbehrliche Rolle zum
Aufbau und Unterhaltung des Körpers spielen. Die Beine soll sich nicht benachteiligt
fühlen und die Aufgabe des Kopfs bevorzugen. Bei einer Mannschaft muss man
verschiedene Rollen zu einzelnen Mitgliedern je nach Begabung, Einstellung, Fähigkeit,
Interesse und Vielseitigkeit verteilen. Daher hat Mariama Bâ(1979:88), eine Womanistin,
in ihrer Erzählung: Une si longue Lettre durch ihr Protagonistin betont:
I remain persuaded of the inevitable and necessary complementarity of
man and woman. Love, imperfect as it may be in its content and
expression, remains the natural link these two Beings, To love one
another! If one partner could move sincerely towards the other!
Mariama Bâ war nicht die einzige Womanistin mit so eine Vorstellung; Zaynab Alkali,
auch eine Schriftstellerin (The Stillborn. Interview :1997) und Womanistin hat vorher bei
einem Interview konstatiert:
All I am advocating in the Stillborn is understanding between man and
woman, togetherness between husband and wife, but some people don't
understand this. My Intention is to uphold God's Law of Mutuality, coexistence. Equality between men and women doesn't arise at all. Men are
like the brain and women the heart.
7. Schluss.
Zum Schluss möchte ich noch einmal bestätigen, dass Heinrich Böll kein feministischer
Autor im Sinne des etablierten Feminismus war. Böll gehört zur postmodernen
feministischen Strömung. Bei diesem Jenseits des Feminismus befindet sich Heinrich
154
Böll meines Erachtens unter den Womanisten. Zwar war der Womanismus ursprünglich
Afrika-Amerikanisch, sein Ziele und Ideale sind aber seit langer Zeit globalisiert. Also
können die Literaten die Theorie von Womanismus, genau wie andere feministischen
Theorien, zum Zweck literarischer Deutung anwenden. Neuerdings habe ich das Werk
Judith Blums gelesen: Heinrich Bölls Figuren Kate, Marie und Leni- Vertreterinnen eines
konservativen Frauenbilds?(2006). Zugleich habe ich auch Ullah Grandell Silen gelesen:
Marie, Leni, Katharina und ihre Schwestern. Eine Analyse des Frauenbilds in drei Werken von
Heinrich Böll.(1982). In beiden Werken sowie in denen anderer Literaten wie Graßman
Ellen( Frauenbilder im Deutschen Roman der fünfziger Jahre(2004) haben diese Kritiker
Heinrich Böll scharf attackiert, weil er in seinen Werken altmodische Frauenbilder
präsentiert habe. Er habe ein konservatives und nicht emanzipatorisches Frauenbild
entwickelt.
Weiterhin
solle
Böll
nur
Frauengestalten
mit
Eigenschaften
der
patriarchalischen Gesellschaft geschaffen haben. Verglichen habe ich die Kritik dieser
Feministinnen mit der Kritik von Athleen Ellington: Aminata Sow Fall's Demon Women :an
anti-feminist social Vision. Ebenso hat Ellington die Frauenfiguren in vier Romanen von
Sow Fall evaluiert: Yama(le Revenant), Diatou(l'Appel), Sine (la Grève) und Yande (l'exPère). Daraus hat sie wie erwähnt das Folgende konstatiert (siehe Ikechukwu Orjinta:
(2008:121-172):
En tant que écrivain femme, Fall projette une voix masculine et des
valeurs sociales et littéraires masculines. Elle ne propose aucune solution
au conflit culturel, à part une reprise rétrograde du voile. Son œuvre
préconise un retour aux valeurs domestiques et patriarcales d'un âge d'or
précolonial idéalisé. Elle semble tenter d'imposer à la femme en mutation
un retour vers les moules du passé.
Ellington ist keine Ausnahme in einer derartigen Kritik gegen womanistische Autoren.
Chinua Achebe( siehe auch das oben erwähnte Buch , S.85-120) wurde ebenso heftig
kritisiert. Also haben wir vor uns drei Schriftsteller jeweils aus der englisch-(anglofon),
französisch-(frankofon)
und
deutschsprachigen
Literatur
angesehen.
Alle
drei
Romanciers sind Humanisten, Traditionalisten und Womanisten. Vorher haben wir die
Werke der ersteren mit der Anwendung von Womanismus literarisch und erfolgreich
155
gedeutet. Da ich ähnliche literarische Voraussetzung bei der Untersuchung böllscher
Werke entdeckt habe, habe ich mich entschieden, so einen Schritt erneut anwenden zu
können. Also nach inhaltlicher und vergleichender Untersuchung der Romane und
Erzählungen ergibt sich die folgenden
Forschungsresultate: Wenn man Feministische
Literatur versteht, als Schreiben über Frauen und ihre Interesse, in dem Frauen
Haupthandlungsträgerinnen sind, kann man unumstritten die oben ausgewählten Werke
Bölls als feministisch näher bestimmen. Im Gegensatz zu dem Plädoyer gewisser
Kritiker, dass Böll in seinen Romanen nur eine konservative Frauengestalt tradiert hat,
hat diese Arbeit entdeckt, dass durch seine stilistische und literarische Ansätze, Böll die
Situation der Frau veranschaulicht hat als manche der sogenannten Feministen. Bei ihrer
scharfen Kritik böllsches Schaffen haben jene Literat-innen die feministische Theorie
angewandt. Die selbe sich kontinuierlich entwickelnde Theorie haben wir angesetzt um
ihre positionierte Polemik konterkarieren zu können. Böll hat einerseits eigentlich die
patriarchalischen und anti-womanistischen Neigungen persifliert. Andererseits hat er
ebenso beim Ansatz von
Charakterisierung , Redewendungen, Vorkriegs-, Kriegs- und
Nachkriegszeitdaten die weibliche Lage dargestellt.
Anhand seiner realistischen
Schilderung der Situation der Frau, hat Böll das Bewusstsein des Status quo für
Gerechtigkeit und umfassende Neuordnung geschärft. Diese
Böllscher methodische
Vorgehensweise, meines Erachtens, soll ausgezeichnet der Modelle der Postmodernen
Feminismus anpassen. Hier befindet sich eigentlich die Theorie von Womanismus.
Wagen wir daher diese Phase des Feminismus als das Jenseits des Feminismus zu
verstehen.
156
Literatur( Sources/Acknowledgements)
Primärtexte
1. Böll, Heinrich: Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum, München: Taschenbuchverlag,
1995.
2. Böll, Heinrich: Gruppenbild mit Dame, München: Taschenbuch Verlag, 1974.
3. Böll, Heinrich: Frauen vor Flusslandschaft, Köln: Kippenheuer & Witsch, 2007.
4. Böll, Heinrich: Ansichten eines Clowns, München: Taschenbuchverlag 1967.
Sekundärtexte
1. Warren-Wellek: Theorie der Literatur, Frankfurt: Ullstein Bücher, 1963.
2. Friedan, Betty: The Feminine Mystique, England: Penguin Books, 1965.
3. Allkemper, Allo/Otto Eke, Norbert: Literaturwissenschaft 2.Auflage, Paderborn: W.
Fink Verlag, 2006.
4. Appel,
Christa(Hg):
Frauenwoche.
Frauenforschung
sichtbar
Universität
machen
(Dokumentation
Frankfurt
zur
Fachbereich
Erziehungswissenschaften),Frankfurt: Nexus Verlag, 1985.
5. Chodorow, Nancy: Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory, Yale: Yale University Press,
1989.
6. Trumann,
Andrea:
Feministische
Theorie
(Frauenbewegung
und
weibliche
Subjektbildung im Spätkapitalismus), Stuttgart: Schmetterling Verlag, 2002.
7. Ojo, Ade, Sam: Feminism in Francophone African Literature. Ibadan: Signal
Educational Services Ltd, 2003.
8. Jeßling, Benedict / Köhnen, Ralph:
Einführung in die Neuere deutsche
Literaturwissenschaft, Stuttgart: Metzler, 2007.
9. Iwuchukwu, Matthew: L'espace dans le Roman Africaine Francophone Valeurs,
Visions et Ideologies, Okigwe : Fasmen Communications, 2002.
10. Kolawole, Modupe: Womanism and African Consciousness, Trenton: African World
Press, 1997.
11. Ormerod, Beverley/ Volet, Jean-Marie: Romancières Africaines d'Expression
Française, Paris, Harmattan, 1994.
12. Menschik, Jutta: Feminismus, Geschichte, Theorie und Praxis. Köln: Rahl-Rugenstein1
Verlag, 1977.
157
13. Arndt, Susan: Feminismus in Widerstreit. Afrikanischer Feminismus in Gesellschaft
und Literatur, Münster, Unrast Verlag, 2000.
14. Helm, Melanie: Spes contra Spem, Ansätze zu einem Kirchenbild der Zukunft bei
Heinrich Böll, Münster:Literaturverlag, 2005.
15. Runge, Corinna: Katholischer Feminismus, Augsburg: Stella Maris Verlag, 2002.
16. de Beauvoir, Simon: Das andere Geschlecht, Tübingen: Rowolt(erstmals erschienen
1949. Das andere Geschlecht, Sitte und Sexus der Frau, Hamburg, 1951.
17. Orjinta, Ikechukwu: Women in World Religions and Literatures Münster:
Imprintverlag, 2008.
18. Balzer, Bernd(Hg.): Heinrich Böll-Werke in 10.Bänden, Köln, 1977.
a. Romane und Erzählungen 1. 1947-1951.
b. Romane und Erzählungen 2. 1951-1954.
c. Romane und Erzählungen 3. 1954-1959.
d. Romane und Erzählungen 4. 1961-1970.
e. Romane und Erzählungen 5. 1971-1977.
f. Essayistische Schriften und Reden 1.1952-1963.
g. Essayistische Schriften und Reden 2.1964-1972.
h. Essayistische Schriften und Reden 3.1973-1978.
i.
Interviews 1. -Hörspiele, Theaterstücke, Drehbücher, Gedichte 1. 1952-1978.
19. Bernsmeier, Helmut: Literaturwissen Heinrich Böll, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.
20. Völkl, Bernd: Heinrich, Böll, Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum, Stuttgart: Reclam,
2005.
21. Bellmann, Werner: Heinrich Böll, Gruppenbild mit Dame, Stuttgart: Reclam, 2002.
22. Bellmann, Werner/Hummel, Christine: Heinrich Böll, Die verlorene Ehre der
Katharina Blum, Stuttgart: Reclam, 2006.
23. Blum, Judith: Heinrich Bölls Figuren Kate, Marie und Leni Vertreterinnen eines
konservativen Frauenbilds? Norderstedt: Grin, 2006.
24. Matskowski, Bernd: Heinrich Böll, Ansichten eines Clowns, Hollfeld: Bange Verlag,
2008.
25. Gelfert, Hans-Dieter: Wie interpretiert man einen Roman? Stuttgart: Reclam, 2006.
26. Bekes, Peter(Hg.): Deutsche Autorinnen des 20. Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart: Reclam,
2001.
158
27. Adebayo, Aduke(ed.): Feminism & Black Women's Creative Writing. Theory, Practice,
Criticism, Ibadan: AMD Pub. 1996.
28. Aire, Victor: Essais sur le roman Francophone Africain, Jos : St. Stephen Book house,
2002.
29. Namaganda / Nwaniki: Violence against Women, Trainers Manual, Nairobi: Pauline’s
Press, 1997.
159
Nigeria and the unemployment issues
His Excellency, Senator Adegbenga Sefiu Kaka
Protocols
Background Information
Nigeria is a country of paradoxes. Imagine a country of over 150
million people, that exports about 2.5 million barrels of crude oil
daily, endowed with vast natural resources and landmass, bad roads,
poor rail system, weak educational system, poor health system, poor
security networks and yet no jobs. There is so much work to be done,
so many people to do the work, reasonable revenue to do the work
and regrettably there is unemployment everywhere. I quote an
example from my President’s statements – We have a Police Force
that is about 300,000 in number. “Countries that have the kind of
challenge that we have today, who have about 20% of our population
have five times more than that number (300,000)”. Yet millions of our
young graduates recently applied for the ASP/Cadet Inspector cadre
in the Nigeria Police Force and only a paltry few (500) were recruited.
According to the data from the Central Bank of Nigeria in 2003, the
national unemployment rate rose from 4.3 percent in 1970 to 6.4
percent in 1980. The high rate of unemployment observed in 1980
was attributed largely to depression in the Nigerian economy during
the late 1970s. Specifically, the economic downturn led to the
implementation of stabilization measures such as restriction on
exports and an embargo on employment. This promoted the import
dependency of most Nigerian manufacturing enterprises, which in
turn resulted in the operation of many companies below their
160
installed capacity. These measures led to the shutdown of many
industries. The few that survived were forced to retrench a large
proportion of their workforce. Massive disengagement from the
Federal Civil Service from 1980 to 1984 made the national
unemployment rate fluctuated around 6.0% until 1987 when it rose to
7.1 percent.
It is important to state here, that SAP adopted in 1986, had serious
implications on employment in Nigeria, unemployment rate declined
from 7.1 percent in 1987, to as low as 1.8 percent in 1995, after which
it rose to 3.4 percent in 1996, and hovered between 3.4 and 4.7
percent between 1996 and 2000.
The analysis by educational status also suggests that people who
have been majorly affected by unemployment are those without basic
education. For instance, persons without primary school education
accounted for 76.8 to 80.6 percent of the unemployed in 1974 and
1978 respectively. In recent times however, the situation has been
compounded by the increasing unemployment of school leavers from
Primary to tertiary, including professionals such as accountants,
engineers, among others.
According to a 1974 survey, reported by Aigbokhan (2000) graduate
unemployment accounted for less than 1 percent of the unemployed,
by 1984, the proportion rose to 4 percent for urban areas and 2.2
percent in the rural areas. Graduate unemployment accounted for
about 32% of the unemployed labour force between 1992 and 1997.
It is impressive to note here that, in 2003, Nigerian’s unemployment
rate declined substantially to 2.3 percent. This decline was attributed
161
to the various government efforts aimed at addressing the problem
through poverty alleviation programmes. This decline also pointed to
an increased number of people who got engaged in the informal sector
activities.
It is sad to note that shortly after the return to democratic
governance,
in
1999
after
several
years
of
military
rule;
unemployment has been on the rise till date.
According to the United Nations, the world population has reached 7
billion on October 31, 2011. By that estimate, Nigeria population is
currently put at 167 million.
While Nigeria population continues to grow at a rate higher than the
global average, the Nigeria National Bureau for Statistics in
November, 2011 released figures for the 2011 third quarter Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), showing a decline from 7.86 per cent in
2010 to 7.40 per cent as at the third quarter of 2011.
The Statistician General of the Federation attributed the 0.46 per
cent decline in growth to a fall in oil production by 0.34 per cent in
the third quarter as against 5.08 per cent in 2010. Crude oil
production with its associated gas component fell from 2.49 million
barrels per day on the average in the second quarter of 2011 to 2.36
million barrels per day on the average in the third quarter of the
same year.
The implication of the above is that, we all live in a country where the
sole determinant of our economy is “crude oil”. The upstream sector of
the petro-dollar economy is largely technology driven and cannot
162
create job, the downstream sector is epileptic; all levels of government
largly depend on petro-dollar to run their businesses.
It is noteworthy that the non-oil sector experienced a growth of 8.81
per cent during the period under review compared to 8.38 per cent in
the corresponding period of 2010, especially in agriculture with 5.82
per cent; manufacturing, 8.1 per cent; as well as wholesale and retail
trade, at 11.84 per cent. Other areas which also grew are
telecommunications, 35.11 per cent; building and construction, 10.72
per cent; real estate, 11.05 per cent; hotel and restaurant, 11.81 per
cent; and solid minerals, 11.50 per cent; they all grew in double
digits.
Unemployment in Nigeria
The
International
Labour
Organization
(ILO)
defines
“the
unemployed” as a member of the economically active population, who
are without work but available for and seeking for work, including
people who have lost their jobs and those who have voluntarily left
work. However, the application of this definition across countries has
been faulted, especially for the purpose of comparison and policy
formulation, as countries characteristics are not the same in their
commitment to resolving unemployment problems.
The Nigerian economy since the attainment of political independence
in 1960 has undergone fundamental structural changes. The domestic
structural shifts have however not resulted in any significant and
sustainable economic growth and development.
Available data show that the Nigerian economy grew relatively in the
greater parts of the 1970s, with respect to the oil boom of the 1970s;
163
the outrageous profits from the oil boom encouraged wasteful
expenditures in the public sector, dislocation of the employment
factor and also distorted the revenue bases for policy planning. This
among many other crises resulted in the introduction of the
Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986 and the current
economic reforms. The core objective of the economic structural
reform is a total restructuring of the Nigerian economy in the face of
population explosion.
Unemployment in Nigeria is one of the most critical problems the
country is facing. The years of corruption, civil war, military rule, and
mismanagement of natural and human resources have hindered
economic growth of the country. Nigeria as we all know is endowed
with diverse and infinite resources, both human and material.
However, years of negligence, adverse policies and poor policy
implementation have led to the under-utilization of these resources.
These resources have not been effectively utilized in order to yield
maximum economic benefits. This is one of the primary causes of
unemployment and poverty in Nigeria.
The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) has put the figure of
unemployed Nigerians in the first half of 2011 at 23.9 per cent, up
from 21.1 per cent in 2010 and 19.7 per cent in 2009. The total
number of unemployed Nigerians rose from more than 12 million in
2010 to more than 14 million in 2011, with the figure increasing by
1.8 million between December 2010 and June 2011 alone.
According to the questionable data from the NBS, the active
population, which is assumed to be the number of people between the
ages of 15-64 years, constituted 56.3 percent of the Nigerian
164
population, or 84 million people, out of which the labour force stood at
61.5million. This implies that 22.5 million Nigerians within the
economically active population, were either unwilling or unable to
work, for different reasons, or were working for less than 40 hours a
week, on average.
More disturbing in the submission of the statistician general of the
Federation is
that unemployment was highest among youths aged between 15 to
24, and 25 to
44, it was also revealed that the problem was more pronounced in the
rural areas.
This explains all the youth restiveness and uncontrolled criminality
in most parts of
Nigeria. Yet average age of farmers in our farming communities
across the country is 57
years.
Also disturbing is the wide variation of unemployment across Nigeria
states, the data from the NBS indicated that Yobe state has the
highest unemployment rates of 60.6 per cent; Zamfara, 42.6 per cent;
and Niger, 39.4 per cent. On the other side of the divide, Osun state
was said to have recorded the lowest unemployment rate of 3.0 per
cent; Kwara, 7.1 per cent; and Lagos, 8.3 per cent, as at June 2011.
The National Bureau of Statistic report shows a very wide variation
along regions. There is more unemployment in the northern part of
Nigeria, compared to the south. This variation calls for serious
economic investigation and policy responses. Those investigations
165
should centre on the role of education, infrastructural development,
economic opportunities, and public investment.
But more importantly, it is very clear that there is a disconnection
between the economic activities of the citizens and the activities of
the governments, making a mockery of existing economic and public
policy. The sheer numbers of those working in agriculture and
trading also reflect serious and severe structural disconnect in the
Nigerian economy: oil and gas represents over 80 percent of Nigeria’s
foreign income, but agriculture and trading provides highest number
of employment. This is a failure of government policy. There is need
for a serious social and economic integration policy.
While many public analysts feel the figures released by the National
Bureau of Statistics may be an under-representation of the Nigerian
situation based on our inherent inability to generate, keep and
update data, the most troubling part of unemployment in Nigeria to
me is the trend rather than the figures even if we are stuck with the
NBC data.
In 2009, the National Bureau of Statistic stated that the
unemployment rate in Nigeria was 19.6 per cent; in 2010, the figure
rose by 1.4 per cent to 21 per cent. It is therefore worrisome to see the
mid-2011 figure of 23.9 per cent, representing a rise in unemployment
by 2.9 percent in six months despite all forms of economic reforms
and the transformational agenda of the present government.
Also worrisome is the trend of unemployment at the state level.
Imagine a rise in Yobe State from 39 percent unemployment rate in
2010 to 60.6 percent in 2011 and in Zamfara from 33.4 percent in
166
2010 to 42.6 percent in 2011. Unemployment also rose in Lagos State,
the country’s commercial capital, from 7.6 percent in 2010 to 8.3
percent in 2011. These are dangerous signals that all is not well with
our policies, priorities and approaches.
These figures are not surprising. They vividly reflect the “rent
seeking” structure of the Nigerian political economy; unemployment
is higher in the rural areas, compared to the urban areas. With
respect to age groups, unemployment is highest among youths
between the ages of 15 and 24, with an average unemployment rate of
35.9 percent. Other figures from the National Bureau of Statistics
also show that agriculture and trading are the two sectors responsible
for the highest level of employment by sectors, reflecting a noncomplementary fact that a large proportion of those that carry
economic activities in Nigeria are outside the formal sector of the
Nigerian economy. They receive little or no support from the
government.
It is worthy of note that the figures stated above do not give adequate
information on sexes to show if there is any form of discrimination. It
does not also give enough disaggregation that may show the changes
and direction of the economy, especially in relation to new growth
areas in the Nigerian economy. What cannot be denied is that the
report confirmed what has been feared all along – that Nigeria’s
unemployment is a serious economic and social problem.
Policy Issues on Unemployment and Poverty
Since the late 1980s, fiscal (budget) policy has become a major
tool/instrument in Nigeria. The reason for this is the dominant role of
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the public sector in major (formal) economic activities in Nigeria.
Other reasons are the oil boom of the early 1970s, the need for
reconstruction after the civil war, the industrialization strategy
adopted at the time (import substitution industrialization policy) and
the militarization of governance. Furthermore, the persistent fiscal
deficit since the early 1970s (and given the decline in oil revenue)
required a new fiscal focus that saw the emergence of the public
sector in major economic activities.
The socioeconomic dimensions of the collapse of oil prices and the
general mismanagement of the economy in the 1980s brought the
issue of poverty alleviation to the fore. By the mid 1980s, it was
observed that the formal private sector was going extinct: Economic
activities as measured by aggregate output, industrial production,
non-oil exports, etc., were all showing distress signs. Above all, there
was strong, widespread evidence of pervasive and massive poverty in
the land in spite of growing public expenditure and fiscal deficit. By
1986 all major socioeconomic indicators were pointing downwards.
The structural adjustment programme (SAP) was introduced in 1986
to correct the perceived imbalance in the economy at that time. Just
immediately after the introduction of the structural adjustment
programme, it was observed that social indicators were not
responding positively to the reform measures–they were getting
worse. Hence, several measures were introduced to reduce the social
cost of adjustment. In fact, it was a common feature of fiscal behavior
to observe that before the end of the second quarter of any particular
year, actual fiscal activities of the government were totally at
variance with budget proposals.
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To reduce unemployment and poverty of the rural poor, the
government introduced a variety of programmes, such as the
Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), the
Better
Life/Family
Advancement
Employment
Support
Programme
(NDE),
Programmes,
(FEAP),
People’s
Bank,
Family
National
Economic
Directorate
Community
Banks,
of
The
Petroleum Trust Funds, and others. All these programmes involved
one budget policy or the other.
In recent times, several policies of government aimed at creating
employment, wealth and reduce poverty including the National
Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS),
National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), Public Private
Partnership policies, Privatization policy and several others have not
yielded
the
desired
effect
on
unemployment
due
to
poor
implementation and corruption.
Fiscal policy is still widely recognized as a potent tool for enhancing
growth, redistributing income and reducing poverty (though the
Nigerian experience is tending to suggest otherwise).
Nigeria is often criticized for spending most of its money on running
the administration rather than on badly needed infrastructure
projects to create jobs and boost growth in the continent's secondlargest economy.
Effects of high unemployment
The
direct
social
consequence
of
unemployment
is
poverty.
Unemployment in Nigeria has resulted in more and more people who
do not have purchasing power. Less consumption has led to lower
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production and economic growth has been hampered. Unemployment
also has social consequences as it increases the rate of crime. The
crime rate in Nigeria has assumed a dangerous dimension; bank
robbery, kidnapping, smuggling, human trafficking, ritual killing and
other criminal activities have been on the increase due to increasing
level of unemployment.
Youth restiveness, “freedom fighting”, regional pressure groupings,
ethic conflict and recent acts of terrorism are other consequences of
unemployment; these socio-political situations have overwhelmed our
ineffective security systems and have made Nigeria become a nation
that cannot protect its citizens.
The increasing frequency of other social vices like prostitution, drug
use, begging, street trading, etc are attributable to high level of
unemployment in Nigeria.
Unemployment in the rural areas where most Nigerian live is the
major driver for the rural urban drift, rapid urbanization and the
creation of urban slum. Nigeria is one of the countries in the world
with a very high rural-urban dichotomy; infrastructural development
and availability of social amenities are in favour of the urban
communities, several rural communities are permanently neglected
by successive administrations. The movement of people from rural to
urban areas in search for greener pasture is therefore a common
occurrence in Nigeria.
On rural-urban migration in Nigeria, the push factors are largely due
to criminal neglect of agriculture; the farm settlements and rural
development projects of the pre-oil era have been abandoned. The
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neglect has led to bad road network, poor electricity supply, lack of
good schools, unavailable or poor health services, lack of appropriate
technology and equipment to work with and growing unemployment.
Nationwide corruption and poor implementation of government
policies have not allow the peasant farmers in rural communities
have access to fertilizer, enhanced improved seeds and seedlings and
other inputs that improve productivity leading to worsening
unemployment and eventual migration to uncertainties in the cities.
Managing Unemployment
While most of the efforts at solving Nigeria’s unemployment problems
have not yielded any significant result as anticipated, many of the
policies and programmes of the government have attempted to solve
the problem, the major setback has been the implementation of such
policies and programmes.
One of the steps taken by the Nigerian government to reduce the
problem of unemployment in Nigeria was the establishment of the
National Directorate of Employment (NDE), which was established in
November 22, 1986. The objective of NDE was to promptly and
effectively fight unemployment by designing and implementing
innovative programmes, which are directed towards the provision of
training opportunities through the guidance and management
support services to graduate farmers and small scale entrepreneurs.
The objectives of NDE spanned across the following programmes:
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• Agricultural development programme
• Youth employment and vocational skills development programme
• Special public works
• Small scale industries and graduate employment programme
However, factors which includes inadequate funding and late release
of funds from the federation account among others, have impaired the
effectiveness of the NDE agricultural programmes
The National Economic Employment and Development Strategy
(NEEDS) was introduced in March 2004, in order to confront the
various macroeconomic imbalances, social challenges and structural
problems in the Nigerian Economy. One of the principal goals is to
build a modern Nigeria that maximizes the potential of every citizen
so as to become the largest and strongest African economy, and a
force to be reckoned with in the world.
To achieve this goal, NEEDS as a development strategy anchored on
the private sector is to engineer wealth creation, employment
generation and poverty reduction. However, for NEEDS to achieve its
objectives there’s need to design integrated programmes that can
generate employment for women and youths to enhance growth and
development. The impact of NEEDS is yet to be felt in combating
unemployment problem, and this, further points to the need to seek
help in the
informal sector in order to
drastically
unemployment.
Combating Unemployment via the Informal Sector
172
reduce
The industrial development of many developing countries have
centered around the growth of the informal sector which constitutes
an integral part in the overall industrial sector and play an active
role in the growth and development of these countries. These
enterprises contribute significantly to the employment generation
and output growth of different developed and developing countries.
In Nigeria, this sub-sector accounts for about 70% of the total
industrial employment, 22.3 percent in China, about 80 percent in
India, as well as about 50 percent employment in Israel. It therefore
points to the fact that the informal sector given the needed support
and regulatory framework could be a major player in the combat
against unemployment saga in Nigeria, as it has done for other
developing countries.
However, the informal sector cannot operate effectively at this task
without the support of other key players, which is basically the
availability of credit, as the best of ideas may never translate to
reality without the wherewithal to make it happen – CREDIT,
FUND; hence the availability of credit to finance the informal sector
cannot be under placed.
In the light of the above, micro finance institutions in whatever social
and economic climes can deliver credit to the informal sector which in
turn makes use of the borrowed fund profitably, thereby reducing the
level of unemployment in the country.
Micro Finance continues to assume increasing importance as a result
of the foregoing. The emphasis on micro credit in this century is such
that the Global conscience believes that if unemployment is reduced,
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the world would be a better place as there would be a reduction in
poverty, an improved living condition, increased productivity, and an
overall resultant effect of an enhanced economic performance.
Agriculture and employment generation
As an agriculturist by qualification and practice, and currently the
Vice Chairman, Senate Committee on Agriculture, I may appear bias
and deliberately too; but again I strongly believe that development of
this sector with concomitant rural development should be the main
driver of our National developmental efforts.
While national development includes development in all facets of the
national economy which includes the health sector, industrial sector,
educational sector, energy sector, etc; it should not be forgotten that
food is one of the basic needs of man.
For a man to be healthy, explore crude oil, go to school, contribute
meaningfully to national development, he or she must be well fed.
Therefore national development begins with national food security.
The major roles of the agricultural sector in national development are
to ensure food security and provide agro-industrial raw materials for
industries for generation of employment and wealth creation.
Succinctly put, a Nation that cannot feed herself cannot be said to be
truly independent.
Agriculture in Nigeria is the most important sector of the economy
from the standpoint of rural employment, sufficiency in food and
fibre, and export earning prior to the discovery of oil. The above
assertion is based on the fact that as at independence in 1960, little
was known of petroleum as a source of revenue for the Nigerian
economy.
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There was sustained emphasis on agriculture to the extent that
Nigeria was a
major exporter of such agricultural products as palm produce, cocoa,
groundnut,
cotton and rubber. In addition to these cash crops, the national
agricultural system
was able to produce enough of food crops like yam, cassava, maize,
millet, sorghum
and Soya beans to the extent that there was almost no need for food
importation.
Hitherto, agriculture accounted for over 60% of the Nation’s Gross
Domestic
Product (GDP). It now stands at about 40% of the nation’s GDP.
While Nigeria is a signatory to Maputo declaration that seeks a
minimum of 10% of national budget devoted to agriculture; In the last
10 years, Nigeria budget on agriculture has not exceeded 3.6%. More
worrisome is that the 2012 budget proposal submitted by the
President Goodluck Jonathan allocated a paltry 1.6% of the national
budget to agriculture making a mockery of the national agenda for
employment generation.
Increase in investment on agriculture means corresponding increase
in yield. Also, as we increase yield poverty goes down. Noting that
private
investors
contribution
to
agriculture
in
Africa
is
approximately 2% compared to the developed countries at 60%, the
need for public fund injection to build capacities and institutions for
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further enhancement of the informal sector growth and overall
employment generation cannot be over-emphasized.
In addition, the relevant Ministries and MDAs of the 3tiers of
Government must work in tandem to give the nation the much
needed synergy to curb the scourge of unemployment, especially in
the area of rural development, to retain significant workforce therein
and stem the rural-urban migration.
Unfortunately, the average age of the few hands left in the farming
communities is about 57 years old, too aged for meaningful
agricultural practices. The literacy level is also near zero, making
adaptation to modern technologies, value addition and research
outcomes difficult.
There is a need to replace the aged farmers with vibrant, educated
youths. Only optional provision of basic amenities will make the
farming communities attractive to the youth. This is where an
effective collaboration between the 3teirs of government and the
informal sectors becomes imperative. There is the need for
Agricultural Science to be made a core-subject in all secondary
schools and orientate the learning process towards future selfemployment in agriculture. This will help groom replacement for the
aged farmers as substantial number of secondary school leaver’s
interest in agriculture is enlisted.
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS, EMPLOYMENT GENERATION AND
AGRICULTURAL TRANSFORMATION.
As earlier highlighted, the best of ideas may never translate to reality
without the wherewithal to make it happen – FUND. The banking
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system
administration,
regulation,
monitoring
and
control
effectiveness has the role of energizer to play in employment
generation. Specialized banks such as NEXIM, BOI and BOA can do
more than they are doing for the real sector of the economy in terms
of reduced interest rate, further relaxation of stringent conditions
attached to loan procurement, recruitment and training of specialists
/ down to earth analysts that will make project feasibility evaluation,
monitoring and control from the creditors point of view a continuous
exercise, to enhance success rates in the informal sectors from ideas
conception to gestation and delivery periods.
The apparent laxity in the Commercial Banking System that nearly
consumes the entire economy is a consequence of CBN’s share of the
national malady called corruption. The much expected oversight
function, regulation, monitoring and control of the commercial banks
by the CBN has been bedeviled with the national virus, thus making
mockery of all development policy objectives of government. With
ease, the executives of our banks connive with Civil/ Public Officers,
without collateral sanctions by the CBN, making plundering of public
wealth a norm rather than exception.
The unsuspecting customers are charged not only outrageous interest
rates, needless COT, and other hidden costs with the regulatory body
CBN watching helplessly. The Bank Executives outlandish and selfserving conferment of undeserving advantages on themselves put
banks health in jeopardy. From shareholding manipulations, internal
abuses of loans procurement processes that make procurement of
loans by operators in the real sector a suicide act, as debtors battle
with inadequate loan, comatose project, legal and receivership palava
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to eventual liquidation or/and health failure and ultimate death in
many cases. These castrate the real sector and make employment
opportunities a scarce commodity.
The CBN must as a necessity, re-visit existing guidelines for banks,
to minimize the shortcomings, make them favorably disposed to
making funds available to the real sectors , and socio-economically
responsible enough to see project from conception through gestation
to delivery. Thus reducing the failure rates and enhancing
employment generation capacity of the real sectors.
To kill two birds with one stone, it is desirable that the annually
produced over 600,000
graduates of various tertiary institutions are integrated into the
informal sectors through
introduction to Agriculture. First by placing embargo on recruitment
in the Civil Service
for 2 years at all tiers of government. And secondly by providing 2
years salary advances to
sizable number as Government guaranteed interest-free loan with
their certificates as
collaterals.
Standard feasibility studies on every agricultural process should
generated by MDAs, highlighting major requirements of Land,
Labour, capital and management. Specifics such as input costs and
access, projected prices, profit profile, cash flow and pay back periods
to be circulated unrestrictively using the information technology
apparatus. After a given moratorium of 1-2years, the loan are
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repayable within a specified number of months or years for it to
revolve round the outstanding number of unemployed, graduates.
CIVIL/PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT GENERATION AND
HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT.
The disconnection between Civil/Public sector and the informal sector
is such that
requires structural reconstruction. The Federal Government has no
farmland to call
her own, has few Schools, Hospitals, etc., most of which belong to the
federating
units called States (including the population). In the true sense
Federal
Government has no business with most items on the Exclusive
concurrent and
residual lists in the Constitution. The involvement with those on the
concurrent and
the preserve on those on exclusive is simply inappropriate for the
economic and
national survival.
A restructuring towards enthronement of true Federalism will
prevent the
imminent collapse There is overconcentration and over centralization
of everything,
with over-bloated workforce and resources at the centre. Returning us
to where we
started, a nation of PARADOXES, much work to be done, so many
people available
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for the work, reasonable revenue to do the work and regrettably there
is
unemployment everywhere. The present crops of Civil/Public servants
also confer on
themselves, several undeserving
streamlined in the face of
advantages
that
must
be
reality. The conferment carried too far to the extent of future selfdestruct, as
pensioners are neglected in the scheme of things and their children
and
grandchildren employment opportunities are put in jeopardy. They
and their
cronies are less than 1% of the population, yet they control over 80%
of the nation’s
resources. The MDAs must be streamlined to about 50% of the
current size. Whatever is
left should be limited to policies formulation, and monitoring while
implementation is
devolves to the states and LGA for efficiency and effectiveness. The
informal sectors must
be provided with institutional and human resource capacity building
supports by the three
tiers of government.
Power & Employment Generation
The problem of power (Electricity and Petrochemicals) has being like
a recurring decimal in the last few decades. The multiplier effect of
power is enormous on employment generation and productivity in the
various sectors. It is ramifying and the engine room of
industrialization. In continuation of our paradoxical outlook, the
President postulated that $3.5billion injection annually is needed for
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the next 10 years for Nigeria to have adequate power supply. But a
paltry sum of N161 billion that translates to $1 billion is proposed in
2012 budget. We proposed to save for the rainy day through the SWF
under perpetually rising inflation, when our existing savings – Excess
Crude Money, Foreign Reserves and Loan windows ought to be
exploited maximally to fix our decayed and decaying infrastructure
and industries such as rail system, Power, Roads, Steel, etc., that can
guarantee our future and make Agriculture and industrialization a
veritable employment spinners and security guarantors.
Ladies and gentlemen, enough of this piecemeal deregulation
selective perception of issues for solution profferment. Let us face the
reality, take the bull by the horn for total restructuring of the polity
in its entirety.
 Let us devolve more power to the States on Education, Power,
Agriculture, Health, Transportation, Police, etc., with
commensurate revenue allocation that is concurrent with
responsibilities, in line with true federalism.
 Rewards under whatever guide must be structured to be
commensurate with mental and physical inputs in all spheres.
According to Douglas McGregor, our current workforce is
operating under the Theory X principle where we can assume
employees are inherently lazy and are only out for themselves
and whose sole interest in the job is money.
There is an urgent need to migrate our workforce towards
Theory Y, where our workforce will learn to seek out and accept
responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-direction in
accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. Theory X
and Theory Y exposition and the drive to restore the dignity in
Labour will develop a climate of trust that is required for
developing the Civil/Public and informal sectors.
 Our agricultural policy should be geared towards profit-pool,
“what is-in-it-for-me” foundation, that will make it an
investment or business rather that social activities.
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 MDAs must ensure genuine transformation of the rural areas in
terms of infrastructural provision, metrological guide against
vagaries of weather, security of lives and properties that will
make the option of embracing farming and other value addition
processes attractive to young ones.
 Storage and Agro- processing centers that will be in the hands
of the informal (private) sector will be desirable. They will serve
as buyer of last resort for our farmers, guaranteeing minimum
price for farm produces, stabilizing prices and market, thus
keeping farmers perpetually on the farm and encouraging new
entrants.
 Last but not the least, funding of further research and extension
services that are currently at very low ebb must be energized.
Ladies and gentlemen, it is not the volume of presentation but the
message contained therein that matters, I hope the message is clear
enough for our conscience to unlock the paradoxes bedeviling the
nation. We must do away with the rent collector on natural resources
syndrome and restore our value and the dignity in Labour for the
greatness of our Nation.
Thank you for your valuable time.
Senator Adegbenga Sefiu Kaka.
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