Improvement of the approach to the study of clay swelling Sergei Borodin*, Magadova Lyubov, Mihail Silin, Denis Malkin, Polina Krisanova, Andrey Filatov.

Improvement of the approach to the study of clay swelling
Sergei Borodin*, Magadova Lyubov, Mihail Silin, Denis Malkin, Polina
Krisanova, Andrey Filatov.
Faculty of Chemical Technology and Ecology, National University of Oil and
Gas «Gubkin University», 119296, Moscow, Russia.
Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract
Interest in hydraulic fracturing (HF) technology is growing from year to year.
This applies to one of the common stimulation technologies. The impact of HF fluids
on rock has been studied since the transition from hydrocarbon to water-based fluids.
The development of technology and new reagents requires new methods for the
analysis of clay swelling. The imperfection of used swelling analysis methods issue
can lead to formation damage due to the decrease of permeability near-fracture zones
because of the impact of process fluids in water-sensitive areas of the rock.
The lack of the union standards to testing the inhibitors capacity of clay
stabilizers, as additives to HF fluids, and a wide variety of methods does not make
it possible to unambiguously assess the degree of influence of the liquid on the
swelling of clays. Improving the methods will allow to study the effect of hydraulic
fracturing fluids on the formation rock most complete to prevent a decrease in the
permeability of the productive zone.
The article contains an overview of the methods used to analyze the inhibitors
of clay swelling. Particular attention is paid to linear swelling method as one of direct
methods of swelling analysis. A new approach to swelling measurement and the
calculation formula for the swelling coefficient is presented. The presented method
made it possible to consider the filling of the pore space with expanding particles,
which increased the accuracy of the analysis.
Keywords
Hydraulic fracturing; clay swelling; montmorillonite; bentonite; plugging;
shale swelling; formation damage.
1. Introduction
Hydraulic fracturing is a method of well stimulation. The process involves the
high-pressure injection of HF fluid into the wellbore to create fractures in the
productive area, through which the filtration of well fluids will be easier. The created
fracture is fixed by proppant to avoid the closure. HF fluid has several important
purposes: transporting proppant deep into the fracture, destruction after treatment
for fracture cleaning, it is also an important task to select the right components to
minimize the harmful effect on reservoir fluids and rock.
1.1.
History of technology development
Since the introduction of HF for stimulation in 1948, fracking fluids have a
rich history (Clark, 1949). The firsts were a hydrocarbon-based fluids (Barati and
Liang, 2014). The rock sensitive to water-based HF fluids research was carried out
in the middle of 1950 (Howard and Fast, 1976). Formation water was widely
available and much safer to use then crude oil or other hydrocarbons.
At the end of 1950s the open of guar gum to become better gelling agent than
corn starch and the modern chemistry of HF fluid was born. With the recognition of
HF as a viable and useful well stimulation method, demand for the technology fueled
the guar-based fluids development.
Wide interest to HF led to several important achievements between the end of
1960s and the middle of 1970s, contributed to the development of the fluids used
today. Studies conducted include the use of fluids with high viscosity, computer
modeling for simulating hydraulic fracturing operations, proppant quality
improvement, fractures monitoring, rheology research, application of massive
hydraulic fracturing, use of higher concentrations of proppant, studies of fracture
conductivity damage, and implementation of technology using foam as a HF fluid
(Ogneva et al., 2020).
The crosslinked guar gum-based fluid appeared at the end of 1950s. The cost
reduction of technology was carried out by using improved borate crosslinkers in
connection with pH optimization (Jennings Jr, 1996). Today more than 90% of HF
operations are performed with water-based borate-crosslinked gelled fluids.
The guar-based HF fluids composition is selected for each formation
individually. There are basic components, such as gelling agent, crosslinker, breaker,
in addition, depending on the characteristics of candidate well there are several
modifying additives: clay stabilizer, demulsifier, biocide, heat stabilizer, friction
reducer, etc. The guar-based HF fluid is very sensitive to water quality, that cause
higher costs because of water preparation and preheating. Also, when the gel breaks
down, insoluble deposits can form, clogging the proppant pack by 10-50% and
sometimes more.
More and more new chemicals are used in modern HF operation. Researchers
are pushed by economic, logistical, technological, and other factors to find new
compositions and compounds. New HF fluids include systems based on viscoelastic
surfactant (VES) (Al-Muntasheri, 2014; Chieng et al., 2020; Daeffler et al., 2019;
Durairaj, 2013; Feng et al., 2018; Lu et al., 2017; Mao et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2017;
X. Yang et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018), and synthetic polymers, such as
polyacrylamide (PAM) (Li et al., 2015, 2018; Z. Yang et al., 2018). Each of these
systems has advantages and disadvantages.
1.2.
The problem of clay swelling.
The problem of clay swelling was faced since the moment of transition from
hydrocarbon to mineralized and then to freshwater base HF fluid. Hydrocarbon
deposits in terrigenous reservoirs are characterized by the presence of clay minerals.
The ingress of fresh water into such reservoirs during technological operations can
lead to a decrease in the efficiency of operations and irreversible consequences.
Fluid can seep into porous media and affect water-sensitive rocks, disrupting their
stability and changing their established equilibrium. Such influence lead to
unpleasant consequences in the form of swelling and migration of clays, which in
turn will lead to a decrease in permeability (H. Li et al., 2021; Z. Li et al., 2021;
Valaskova and Martynková, 2012; Velde and Barré, 2010). As a result, one of the
most important parameters of the fracturing fluid is its effect on water-sensitive
formation areas.
Thе structural layer is the main classification attribute of clay minerals. There
are several types of clay minerals based on it: the minerals with 1:1, 2:1, 2:1:1 layer
types. Also, there are mixed-layer minerals, which structure formed by an ordered
or disordered alternation of two or more types of layers (Fink, 2012; Meunier, 2005;
Velde and Barré, 2010). The smallest crystalline plates (single layers) of clay
particles form a package with parallel basal surfaces. Single layers in turn consist of
several oxygen-molecule connected sub-layers. Sub-layers connect with covalent
forces ensured the stability of the single layer.
The scheme of smectite group clay structure is shown on Figure 1. Its
structural layer represented with 2:1 configuration of tetrahedrons and octahedrons.
Figure 1 – Schematic representation of the structure of the smectite group clay mineral.
The crystal lattice structure determines the properties of the clay mineral. The
following properties of clay minerals are distinguished: hydrophilicity, sorption and
ion exchange capacity, strength, plasticity, swelling ability, etc. Swelling is a
complex physical and chemical process that leads to deformation, structure
breakdown and, in final stage dispersion of clays. This process starts from thin cover
layer swelling of clay surface with fluid contact. It gradually spreads deep into the
formation due to capillary impregnation of rocks with water phase and development
of diffusion-osmotic processes. The clay layers are held together in the crystal lattice
mainly by Van der Waals forces. Exposure of charge-compensating ions leads to
splitting of the crystal lattice along the basal surfaces to form tiny scales no larger
than 2 microns in size (Benyahia et al., 2020; Krupskaya et al., 2019; Osipov and
Sokolov, 1978).
The swelling can be crystallinity or osmotic (Anderson et al., 2010). Figure 2
shows the clay swelling scheme with water contact. Crystalline swelling occurs due
to hydration of exchange cations of dry clay. Osmotic swelling is caused by a large
difference between the ion’s concentration near the surface and in the interlayer of
the clay and in the surrounding fluid.
Figure 2 – Scheme of the clay swelling process in the presence of water
Before interacting with a liquid, clay minerals have an excessive negative
charge on their surface. When clays encounter with water, the water molecules turn
their negative dipoles to the exchange cations compensated the negative charge
which leads to hydration (Quainoo et al., 2020). However, the result of this
interaction leads to a staggered expansion of the clay due to the weak electrostatic
force. This type of swelling depends on ions content and their concentration in the
solution (Wang et al., 2017; Wilson and Wilson, 2014).
As a rule, all types of clays undergo crystalline swelling in the presence of an
aqueous solution. It occurs when the first a single layer and then subsequent layers
of cations in the interlayer spaces are formed sequentially. The typical range
indicated for crystalline swelling shows spacing between layers from 9 Å to 20 Å
(Anderson et al., 2010). This is due to negatively charged ions firmly holding
cations. As the number of water molecules increases, the distance between the layers
increases because of their negative charge compensation by water molecules
(Müller-Vonmoos and Løken, 1989; Rahman et al., 2020).
Osmotic swelling occurs because of the difference in ion concentration –
interlayer concentration of cations higher than its concentration in solution. The
decrease of cations concentration between layers causes the movement of water from
the surrounding solution, thereby increasing the interlayer distance. The repulsive
forces increase due to the formation of an electrical double layer (EDL) and, at a
certain size, compensate for the Van der Waals forces that bind the clay mineral
layers (Kottsova et al., 2021; Müller-Vonmoos and Løken, 1989; Tchistiakov,
2000). This mechanism is a property of certain classes of clay minerals, which
contain cations with high exchange capacity in the interlayer space. A typical
example is the sodium form of montmorillonite (smectite). This type of clay
minerals can increase the interlayer swelling distance from > 20 Å to 130 Å
compared to the volume obtained by the crystalline swelling mechanism (Benyahia
et al., 2020; Fink, 2012; Meunier, 2005). For example, when drilling, osmotic
swelling can instantly lead to instability and, if not addressed, wellbore collapse
(Anderson et al., 2010; Heidug and Wong, 1996). In conditions of limited volume,
the swelling process is reduced to filling the free space with clay particles, which
causes irreversible damage to permeability.
1.3.
Clay stabilizers
During hydraulic fracturing and other well operations, rock may encounter
fresh process water, which is the basis of most injected fluids. Such contact can lead
to clay swelling and, consequently, to a decrease or complete lack of effectiveness
of the work performed (Abrams et al., 2016; Feng et al., 2018; Karazincir et al.,
2017; Mihail et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2018). To reduce the adverse effect on the
formation, special additives, clay stabilizers, are introduced into the composition of
process fluids. They are inorganic (Ahmed et al., 2019; Murtaza et al., 2020; Smaida
et al., 2021) and organic (Ahmed et al., 2019; M. Silin et al., 2022) salts, polymers
(Cescon et al., 2018; Ismail et al., 2014; Ma et al., 2019; M. Silin et al., 2022),
cationic surfactants (Bi et al., 1999; Moslemizadeh et al., 2016; Ouellet-Plamondon
et al., 2014), etc.
2. Material and methods
2.1.
Methods of clay swelling analysis
The phenomenon of swelling is based on the action of adsorption, osmotic and
capillary forces. Swelling is determined by the mass amount of liquid absorbed, the
increase in volume of the original substance, the amount of heat released during
swelling and other methods.
The interest of many researchers to the issue of studying the swelling of clays
and methods of assessing this phenomenon is accompanied by numerous
publications on the design of surface structures, underground structures, such as
tunnels, storage facilities, mines, oil and gas wells (Abrams et al., 2016; Balaban et
al., 2015; Brochard, 2021; Howard et al., 2012; H. Li et al., 2021; Z. Li et al., 2021;
Moisa et al., 2014; Tchistiakov, 2000). In modern world practice, there are many
methods for studying swelling (Table 1). However, the question related to the
interpretation of the experimental data and their extrapolation to the real reservoir
conditions is acute.
Table 1
Methods of clay swelling analysis
Test title
Sedimentatio
n test
Evaluation
principle
Slurry settling
rate
observation
Output parameter
Slurry settling
percentage in the
allotted time
Comments
Links
Simplicity, does not
require special
equipment. Low
accuracy, strongly
influenced by viscosity,
density. It is impossible
to evaluate opaque
(Maley et al., 2013; Mihail
et al., 2022)
liquids. Difficult to
evaluate interface.
Water
separation
test
Capillary
suction test
(CST)
Hot rolling
test
Resistant test
under
dynamic
conditions
Resistant test
under static
conditions
Volumetric
hardness test
Determination
of mass of
separated
liquid after
centrifugation
Determination
of the liquid
propagation
time from one
electrode to the
other
Reduction of
core material
fraction size
after hot
rolling
Failure
assessment of
the compacted
sample under
dynamic
conditions
Failure
assessment of
the compacted
sample under
static
conditions
Resistance to
penetration
after exposure
to liquid
Linear
swelling test
Increasing the
sample volume
Water
adsorption
test
Determination
of fluid
absorption
activity.
Mass of separated
liquid. With
modification - liquid
retention coefficient,
showing the amount
of liquid adsorbed by
the mass unit of the
sample.
Increased accuracy, low
labor costs. Selection of
slurry concentration is
necessary.
Capillary
impregnation time
Mobility of the unit.
There are consumables.
Low accuracy, strongly
affected by viscosity
and colmatants.
Weight of the initial
fraction of grains,
which remained on
the sieve after the
study
Included in the
standard. Unable to
examine weakly
condensed materials.
Degree of
destruction of the
compacted sample
(M. A. Silin et al., 2022)
(Abrams et al., 2016;
Balaban et al., 2015;
Howard et al., 2012;
Maley et al., 2013; Ruyle,
2017)
(API-13I, 2009; Jain et al.,
2015; Jain and Mahto,
2015)
(Ahmadi and Shadizadeh,
2012)
The method is
evaluative.
Degree of
destruction of the
compacted sample
The method is
evaluative in nature, the
visual method
Load when pushing
the sample through
the perforations
The method
complements resistance
tests under dynamic or
static conditions
Coefficient of linear
expansion
Direct method of
swelling estimation.
Long study time, does
not take into account
pore space.
Sample humidity;
amount of absorbed
liquid
Suitable for well
swollen samples. In
samples with low
swelling, there will be
inaccuracy of tests due
to capillary retention.
(AL-Bazali, 2013; Jain and
Mahto, 2015)
(Ahmed et al., 2019;
Gholami et al., 2018)
(Beg et al., 2018;
Magadova et al., 2020;
Mihail et al., 2022;
Murtaza et al., 2020; Naik
Parrikar et al., 2022;
Savari et al., 2013; M. A.
Silin et al., 2022; Zhao et
al., 2009)
(BARATI et al., 2016;
Chenevert, 1970; Ni et al.,
2019)
Fracture test
Crack
spreading
observation
Measurement
Zeta potential of the electric
test
double layer in
the dispersion
Video fixation of
crack propagation
Evaluative visual
method.
The value of the zeta
potential
There are limitations in
the suspension
concentration when
working with the
device. Work with low
concentrations of
inhibitors.
Wettability
alteration test
Studies of the
effect of
mineral
surface
Changes in the
modification
wetting angle
by interaction
with a swelling
inhibitor
It is difficult to obtain
an even surface to
determine wetting. Best
suited for hydrophobic
reagents.
Interlayer
spacing
measurement
test
X-ray
diffraction
analysis
(XRD)
Changing the
interlayer distance
Multistep methodology.
Many parameters affect
the accuracy of the
study.
Surface layer
observation
Visual assessment of
surface layer formation
and pore space sealing
CEC value
A characteristic that
shows the tendency of a
clay sample to hydrate.
Good for determining
the inhibitory capacity
of salt solutions.
Changing the
position of the band
A good inhibitor is an
inhibitor with a higher
band
Scanning
electron
microscope
test Scanning
Cation
exchange
capacity
(CEC) test
Atomic force
microscopy
test
Analysis with
a scanning
electron
microscope
(SEM)
Measurement
of the number
of
exchangeable
cations present
in clay
minerals
Measurement
of aggregation
2.2.
(Ahmed et al., 2019;
Muhammed et al., 2021)
(Ahmed et al., 2019;
Koteeswaran et al., 2017;
Mohan and Fogler, 1997;
Tchistiakov, 2000)
(Jian-gen Xu et al., 2017;
Jingshui Xu et al., 2017;
Zhong et al., 2015)
(Abrams et al., 2016;
Benyahia et al., 2020;
Muhammed et al., 2021;
Xie et al., 2017)
(Abrams et al., 2016;
Benyahia et al., 2020)
(Erkekol et al., 2006; Kahr
and Madsen, 1995; Khodja
et al., 2010)
(An and Yu, 2018)
Linear swelling test
Among the methods of clay swelling analysis there is only a few straight
methods. One of them is Linear swelling test. It was noticed that evaluation
according to this method, there is an error in the coefficient calculation caused by
pore space and lack of straight recommendations. This gives reason for a more indepth study of this method and its improvement.
According to the method, the research is carried out on devises for assessing
linear expansion (Figure 3).
Figure 3 – 1—dial gauge; 2—instrument cover; 3—glass; 4—measuring cell cover; 5—
measuring cell; 6—piston; 7—bottom of the measuring cell; 8—bracket.
The swelling coefficient or linear expansion coefficient (LE), determined by
the formula:
𝐾
where 𝑉
𝑉
,
𝑉
(1)
– sample volume after swelling, mm3, 𝑉 – dry sample volume,
mm3.
The dry sample volume determined by the formula:
𝑉
𝐻 ∙ 𝜋𝑟с ,
(2)
where 𝐻 – dry sample heigh, mm, 𝑟 – inner cell radius, mm.
The swelling volume after 7 days of test determined by the formula:
𝑉
where 𝐻
2.3.
𝐻
∙ 𝜋𝑟с ,
(3)
– swollen sample heigh, mm, 𝑟 – inner cell radius, mm.
Materials
The experiment on swelling by linear swelling test was carried out with clay
samples and core material. The studies were conducted at room temperature for 7
days. The physical and chemical parameters of the investigated rock samples are
presented in the Table 2.
Table 2
The physical and chemical parameters of the rock samples
Rock
ξ- potential
(HARIBA Scientific nano
partica SZ-100)
Crystallinity (ARL X’TRA)
Contents of Group I and
Group II metals oxides
(ARL PERFORM’X)
Bentonite
(Armenia)
CEC
Montmorillonite
Humidity (105C)
Bulk density
True density
Weight loss on ignition
Units of
measure
Palygorskite
Parameter
Bentonite
(USA)
Samle
% mass
g/cm3
g/cm3
% mass
mg-eq per
100 g of dry
powder
5,94
0,966
2,287
11,46
8,38
0,822
2,347
18,93
8,55
0,623
2,256
18,27
5,42
0,716
2,430
13,98
6,26
0,611
2,287
14,28
97,30
51,46
41,87
85,25
9,83
mV
-59,83
-16,75
-21,43
-56,70
-49,53
%
25,15
29,40
45,70
34,80
74,20
% mass
7,05
9,17
14,50
12,93
20,31
3. Results and discussion
3.1.
The problem of linear swelling test
First tests were carried out with 4g of the sample without pressing. Figure
Объем swухания
навески глины Vsw, см³
shows the dependence of the swelling volume on the volume of dry samples.
Глина Бентонит США Вайоминг
Глина Бентонит Саригюх
Глина Монтмориллонит Франция
Глина Палыгорскит
Керн заглинизированный
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Объем навески глины Vd, см³
5.0
Figure 4 – dependence of the swelling volume on the volume of dry weight of clay-bearing rock
samples. Weight of the sample – 4 g, ageing – 7 days, distilled water.
6.0
As can be seen from the results of determining the slope angle tangent by the
graphical method, there is a wide scatter of values for bentonite clay (USA). To
reduce the error, additional studies were carried out. The sample mass was reduced
to 1 g. Further reduction of the sample mass in cells with an inner diameter of 25
mm leads to uneven coverage of the area, which in turn leads to an increase in the
error due to uneven impregnation of the rock sample. In addition, the pressed
samples were prepared under pressure of 250 bar in 10 minutes for testing.
Figure shows the dependence of the swelling volume on the volume of dry
Объем swухания
навески глины Vsw, см³
samples for different form and sample weight.
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
1г
таблетка
4г
1г
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Объем навески глины Vd, см³
3.0
Figure 5 – dependence of the swelling volume on the volume of dry weight of bentonite
(USA). Weight of the sample – 1 and 4 g, ageing – 7 days, distilled water.
The blue dotted line shows the trend line of 4 g sample, the black one shows
the trend line of unpressed 1 g sample. These lines do not equally describe the
behavior of the same clay sample, which, based on research theory, is wrong. The
red dotted line shows the trend line of pressed 1 g sample. The bulk density of
pressed and unpressed samples is different because of pore space. It makes the
comparison of pressed and unpressed samples incorrect without pore space
accounting. In addition, there were many problems with pressing, and the following
tests were conducted with unpressed specimens.
Figure shows the dependence of the swelling volume on the volume of dry
samples for different sample weight.
3.5
Объем swухания навески
глины Vsw, см³
10.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Объем навески глины Vd, см³
Глина Бентонит США Вайоминг
Глина Бентонит Саригюх
Глина Монтмориллонит Франция
Глина Палыгорскит
Керн заглинизированный
Figure 6 – dependence of the swelling volume on the volume of dry weight of bentonite (USA).
Weight of the sample – 1–4 g, ageing – 7 days, distilled water.
During the study of swelling, it was observed that the graph of the volume of
swollen sample from the volume of dry clay in the case of very active samples does
not cross the zero value. This effect caused by lack of swelling time – 7 days is not
enough for 2, 3 and 4 g of high-active bentonite clay. From the obtained experience
for 1 g sample 90% swelling occurs within 7 days, the remaining 10% for another
21 days. It means that for 25mm inner cell diameter 1 g of sample is preferred.
To increase accuracy, it was decided to reduce the mass of the sample. The
study on the 25 mm diameter cells of samples with small loading is inexpedient –
the sample unevenly covers the bottom of the cell, which leads to an increase in
error. The new cells were printed on a 3-D printer with an internal diameter of 20
and 15, reducing the weight to 0.64 and 0.36 g, respectively.
Figure shows the results of bentonite (USA) swelling assessment studies using
cells of different diameters.
6.0
Объем swухания навески
глины Vsw, см³
12.0
10.0
8.0
1г
6.0
2г
4.0
Снижения диаметра
ячейки
0,64г
0,36г
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
4г
3г
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Объем навески глины Vd, см³
Figure 7 – dependence of the swelling volume on the volume of dry weight of bentonite
(USA). Weight of the sample – 0,36–4 g, ageing – 7 days, distilled water.
The green color in the graphs indicates the results obtained using 0.36 and
0.64 g clay powder (0.25 and 0.45 cm3). As can be seen from the results, the
dependence of the swelling volume of the clay powder with a decrease in the volume
of the clay sample tends to zero. It indicates a high error in the data obtained when
using 2, 3 and 4 g of clay powder loading (in 25mm diameter cell), since the
dependence does not tend to zero (blue dotted line). It is clearly visible in the case
of the study of swelling in distilled water.
During laboratory studies, it was possible to obtain additional information on
swelling – the amount of retained water after swelling. As described above, there is
a method of assessing the swelling of clays by the amount of adsorbed fluid. After
the swelling time had passed, the free liquid (if any) was removed from the cells and
the mass of the adsorbed liquid was found, knowing the mass of the cell and the dry
sample weight.
3.2.
Calculation of the refined swelling coefficient
The swelling process is linear and can be described by the following equation:
𝑦
𝑘∙𝑥
𝑏,
𝑏~ 𝐹 , 𝐹 , 𝐹
(4)
where 𝑦 is a sample volume after swelling, 𝑥 is a dry sample volume, 𝑘 –
swelling coefficient and 𝑏 – change of sample volume depending on Archimedes
force (𝐹 ), gravity (𝐹 ) and piston pressure (𝐹 ).
Equation () can be rewritten as:
𝑉
𝐾
∙𝑉
𝑏.
(5)
There is a sample volume at which the expansion force of swelling clay
particles will not be able to lift the piston. And the dependence of the volume of the
final swelling on the volume of the initial sample, the value of "𝑏" takes a negative
value. If the piston decreases to a certain value, there will be no increase of 𝑉 .
Therefore, to assess swelling, it is recommended to use a piston with a minimum
mass. For every mass of the sample there is a critical mass of the piston which not
allowed to increase the volume during swelling and, when calculating the swelling
coefficient there will be an error due to not considering the piston pressure.
Assume that the study is not affected by the mass of the piston (since a piston
made of low-density material is used), the Archimedean force acting on the clay
sample in the system of communicating vessels and the force of gravity at its small
values can be neglected. Then 𝑏 becomes zero and equation () can be written as:
lim 𝑏
∆ →
0
𝑉
𝐾
∙𝑉 ,
(6)
from which the swelling coefficient can be expressed:
𝐾
𝑉
.
𝑉
(7)
The value of swelling coefficient according to equation () has low error when
there is a minimum difference between bulk density and true sample density. Using
bulk material to assess swelling leads to the formation of pore space ().
Figure 8 – Illustration of the pore space in the measuring cell
The swelling process proceeds with the expansion of clay particles, which
leads to the filling of the free pore space, and then, because of the pressure of
swelling to the rise of the piston. Lack of consideration of this fact leads to an
increase in the swelling coefficient error. Pore space reduction can be achieved by
pressing the test sample, but rise some problems:

Stresses generated by pressing samples with high clay content led to
deformation after stress relief; moistening the sample solves this problem but
reduces the accuracy of the study.

Pressing may decrease the pore space but cannot takes it away
completely.

Liquid can overflow on top of the tablet between the cell wall and the
pressed sample. Thus, some of the clay is in a shell of swollen clay, which
complicates the process of impregnation.

Pressed sample of high swelling clay when contacting with water cracks
and increases the contact surface, that lead to lens formation of water trapped inside
the swollen clay.
It should also be taken into account that after the peak of the swelling there is
subsidence. Subsidence is the compaction of the soil by the action of a constant load
during soaking or thawing.
Considering the above, we obtain a refined expression for finding the swelling
coefficient:
𝐾
,
where, 𝑉 is the pore space volume, 𝐶
(8)
is the swelling liquid, 𝑉 is the volume
of subsidence.
Using a cylindrical cell, we get:
𝑉
where, 𝐻
𝐻 𝜋𝑟 ,
(9)
is the sample maximum height after swelling (before subsidence).
𝑉
𝐻 𝜋𝑟 ,
where, 𝐻 is the height of the dry sample.
(10)
The pore space volume (𝑉 ) can be found:
𝑉
𝑉
𝑉
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝑚
,
𝜌
(11)
where, 𝑉 is the sample volume without pore space i.e., true volume, 𝑚 is the
sample mass, 𝜌 is the true sample density, calculated by the pycnometer using the
inert liquid phase.
The volume of subsidence following the peak of swelling:
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝑉
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 𝜋𝑟 ,
(12)
where, 𝐻 is the sample volume after the study, 𝐻 is the subsidence height.
Substituting expressions 9-12 into equation 8, we obtain expressions to
calculate the swelling coefficient through the height of linear expansion for a
cylindrical cell:
𝑉
𝐾
𝑉𝐶
𝑉
𝑉
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝑚
𝐶
𝜌
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝑚
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 𝜋𝑟 ∙ 𝐶
∙𝐶
𝜌
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 ∙ 𝜋𝑟
𝑚
∙𝐶
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 𝜋𝑟 ∙ 𝐶
𝜌
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 ∙ 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 ∙ 𝜋𝑟
𝐻
𝐻 𝜋𝑟
𝐻 ∙𝐶
𝐻
𝐻
𝑚 ∙𝐶
𝜋𝑟 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 𝐻
(13)
𝐻
To determine the content of the swelling liquid (𝐶 ) it is necessary to
experimentally obtain the mass of the retained liquid in the non-swelling liquid
sample, 10% potassium chloride solution can act as the liquid phase.
The swelling liquid content is determined by the formula:
𝑚
𝑚
𝑚
𝑚
𝐶
𝑚
𝑚
where, 𝑚
fluid, 𝑚
3.3.
(14)
is the mass of the sample after full swelling into investigated
is the mass of the sample after soaking it in an inert solution.
Applying the new methodology
According to the study of swelling the need of selecting the sample mass for
the cell and tacking the swelling process to the minimum average daily growth were
noticed. In the case with Wyoming bentonite, the study was conducted for 28 days
before full swelling. According to observation, 90% of swelling (linear growth) for
1g of sample in distillate water was after 7 days from the beginning of test. The table
N shows the clay swelling coefficients comparison.
Table 3
Comparison of the results of linear swelling coefficients and swelling
coefficients according to the refined expression considering the pore space for
bentonite clay of the Wyoming deposit.
Type of fluid
Linear swelling
coefficient (K)
Linear swelling
coefficient with
pore space
accounting (Ksw)
2,0 % KCl water solution
1,92
1,93
0,73%
Distillate water
6,10
6,59
8,84%
3,90
4,02
3,00%
3,88
4,03
3,62%
0,2 % Potassium citrate solution
4,12
4,20
2,05%
Polysaccharide-based destructed
fracture gel
3,42
3,53
3,33%
VES-based destructed fracture gel
1,77
1,84
3,54%
PAM-based destructed fracture gel
3,68
3,79
3,09%
0,2 % Hollin-chloride (70%) water
solution
0,2 % Quaternary ammonium
cation solution
Error
𝐾
𝐾
𝐾
The results show that if the pore space is not considered, the underestimation
of the swelling is obtained. For example, in the case of Wyoming bentonite in
distilled water, up to 8.84% swelling is not accounted for.
Table N shows the clay swelling coefficients comparison of different clays
and rock.
Table 4
Comparison of the results of linear swelling coefficients and swelling
coefficients according to the refined expression considering the pore space for
bentonite clay of different clays and rock.
Type of fluid
Linear swelling
coefficient with
pore space
accounting (Ksw)
Bentonite (USA)
1,918
1,932
6,050
6,585
Bentonite (Armenia)
1,444
1,476
1,526
1,558
Montmorillonite
1,547
1,570
1,604
1,625
Palygorskite
1,424
1,450
1,486
1,513
Rock
0,997
1,104
1,020
1,173
Linear swelling
coefficient (K)
2,0 % KCl water solution
Distillate water
2,0 % KCl water solution
Distillate water
2,0 % KCl water solution
Distillate water
2,0 % KCl water solution
Distillate water
2,0 % KCl water solution
Distillate water
Error
𝐾
𝐾
𝐾
0,7%
8,8%
2,2%
2,1%
1,5%
1,3%
1,8%
1,8%
10,6%
15,0%
The results show that in each case the swelling is underestimated, and in the
case of rock the error is up to 15% of sample swelling.
4. Conclusion
Research into the influence of fluid on the rock is necessary to avoid problems
with formation damage. For a more accurate assessment, the following
recommendations for linear swelling instrument analysis are suggested:

to assess the effect of swelling inhibitors, it is best to use samples of
clay with high ratio of swelling,

using a press to form tablets in some cases is difficult and impractical,
so it is better to use a bulk sample,

for each cell to select the minimum sample volume of the test material
to reduce the time of complete swelling,

the weight of the piston and rod of the measuring device must exert
minimum pressure on the sample, or a correction factor must be introduced to
account for their influence. The plot of the volume of the swollen sample versus the
volume of the dry sample should intersect the oY axis at or below zero,

swelling should be carried out to the minimum daily growth of the
swelling volume.
When conducting research on the methodology of the linear swelling, it was
found that the lack of recommendations for selecting the sample weighting leads to
an increase in error due to the lack of the necessary swelling residence time. By
conducting additional studies with a decrease in the diameter of the device cell, it
was shown that with the mass of the sample tending to zero, the dependence of the
swelling volume on the volume of the sample also tends to zero. An improved
method for assessing the swelling of clays has been presented which, along with the
linear expansion of the rock sample, takes into account the reduction of pore space
volume by swelling particles. A refined formula for calculating the swelling
coefficient has been proposed.
Funding
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of
the Russian Federation under agreement №075-15-2022-300 dated 18.04.2022
within the framework of the development program for a world-class Research Center
«Efficient development of the global liquid hydrocarbon reserves».
Acknowledgments
The authors express their deep gratitude to the faculty of the Department of
Technology of Chemical Substances for the Oil and Gas Industry of Gubkin
University for valuable advices on theoretical material and assistance in
experimental research.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
ORCID
Borodin Sergei https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6894-1446
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