Загрузил Natalie Krasovskaya

Vilenkin Kombinatorika

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isvrvk Òjtrqxzvk uv tv wnénxzjks¹z xwvxvijuq snz·qrvk
² zv n xwvxvijuq j jézqssnéqxzvk ² xwvxvijuq Æxnmv
wv wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹ wvsy·jnu ⋅ ⋅ = xwvxvivk
Ævvin wyxz qunnzx¹ Q wénlunzvk vltvmv zqwj Q wénl
unzvk léymvmv zqwj QN wénlunzvk Nmv zqwj mln wénlunz€
vltvmv q zvmv n zqwj kxn n éjosq·qu€ léym vz léymj Òvmlj
·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr ëzq} wénlunzvk k rvzvé€} kxn wénlunz€
vltvmv q zvmv n zqwj xzv¹z é¹lvu éjktv Q Q QN
Ívxzévprj snxztq|€
Êo wsqz xn·ntqnu × xu xzévqzx¹ snxztq|j knlyj¹
qo zv·rq $ k zv·ry % éqx èjxxzv¹tqn $& éjktv u
j éjxxzv¹tqn &% ² u ƀxvzj rj lvp xzywntrq éjktj
xu j nn ¡qéqtj ² |nsvn réjztvn xu frvsrquq xwv
xvijuq uv tv wvxzévqz snxztq|y"
Êo yxsvkq¹ ojlj·q kqltv ·zv snxztq|j lvs tj qunz xzywntnr q xvxzv¹z qo ©isvrvkª lsqtvp xu Ívëzvuy
xzywntrq uv tv xzévqz k unxzj} ² tj·qtj¹ x tj·jsj
xjuvp wnékvp wsqz€ zv·rq $ q rvt·j¹ rvt|vu wvxsnltnp
wsqz€ wvl zv·rvp % Òjrqu viéjovu tjlv qo unxz k€iéjz
j ëzv uv tv xlnsjz & = xwvxvijuq
èn¡nttj¹ ojlj·j wv}v j tj ojlj·y vi yrévzqznsn yrévzq
zns tn }vzns xzjkqz é¹lvu lky} zqmévk j xzévqzns snxztq|€
tn uv nz lnsjz xzywntrq lkvptvp k€xvz€ Ëv un ly ëzquq
ojlj·juq nxz xynxzknttvn vzsq·qn Ïrévzqznsí i€s kj nt
wvé¹lvr k rvzvévu ¡sq zqmé€ vltv lnsv wvxzjkqz kwnénlq
èqx ­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
kxn} zqméj ‘j}j j léymRH ² zqméj ¬rijéj ¬ ls¹ xzévqzns¹
snxztq|€ kxn unxzj mln nxz wvl~nu vlqtjrvk€ Çévun zvmv
yrévzqzns lvs nt i€s y·qz€kjz q wvé¹lvr éjxwvsv ntq¹
skvk j ls¹ xzévqzns¹ snxztq|€ kxn unxzj mln uv tv xlnsjz
wvl~nu vlqtjrvk€ Ívëzvuy k€ivé y xzévqzns¹ snxztq|€
unt¡n ·nu y yrévzqzns¹ cxsq i€ snxztq|j qunsj k€xvzy
u q lsqty u zv i€sv i€ xzywntrq q unxz mln
q} uv tv xlnsjz Ê vzknz i€s i€ & = ¬ y yrévzqzns¹ k
zv·tv zjrvu n xsy·jn wvsy·qsvx kjéqjtzvk êzv q
wvt¹ztv ² vt uvm wnénxzjks¹z un ly xvivp skvk xwvxvijuq q zqmévk xwvxvijuq j kxnmv
⋅ = xwvxvijuq ¬ ⋅ = Æ vinu kqln én¡nttj¹ xnp·jx ojlj·j {véuysqéynzx¹ zjr
frvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv éjxxzjkqz P tysnp q Q
nlqtq| zjr ·zvi€ tqrjrqn lkn nlqtq|€ tn xzv¹sq é¹lvu"
Æ xjuvu lnsn rj lyí snxztq|y uv tv oj¡q{évkjz wvx
snlvkjznstvxzí tysnp q nlqtq| tys votj·jnz unxzv mln
svujtj¹ qlnz kwéjkv j nlqtq|j ² unxzv mln vtj qlnz kkné}
Ëjwéquné snxztq|j qoviéj nttj¹ tj éqx ¡q{éynzx¹ zjr
Íéq ëzvu wvxrvsry xzywntnr lkvptvp k€xv
z€ tj snxztq|n tn lvs tv i€z k wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq tn uvmyz
qlzq lkn nlqtq|€ wvlé¹l
êzj ojlj·j én¡jnzx¹ zv·tv zjr n rjr éjoviéjtt€p k€¡n
·jxzt€p xsy·jp ftj·jsj k€wqx€kjnu P tysnp bs¹ nlqtq|
wvsy·jnzx¹ P + unxzv ² lkj unxzj wv réj¹u q nn P − unxz k wévun yzrj} un ly tys¹uq Ëj síivn qo ëzq} P + unxz uv tv wvxzjkqz vlty qo Q nlqtq| ¬ ëzv uv nz i€z
xlnsjtv &QP+ xwvxvijuq
Êzjr xynxzkynz &QP+ xwvxvivk éjxxzjkqz P tysnp q Q
nlqtq| zjr ·zvi€ tqrjrqn lkn nlqtq|€ tn ¡sq é¹lvu
Ëj rtq tvp wvsrn xzv¹z rtqm frvsrquq xwvxvijuq
uv tv k€iéjz qo tq} rtqm zjr ·zvi€ tqrjrqn lkn qo
tq} tn xzv¹sq é¹lvu"
êzj ojlj·j xkvlqzx¹ r zvsrv ·zv én¡nttvp dj¡q{éynu
rj l€p k€ivé rtqm wvxsnlvkjznstvxzí tysnp q nlqtq|
Êunttv rj lvp vxzjksnttvp rtqmn xvwvxzjkqu j rj lvp
ko¹zvp ² Æ énoyszjzn wvsy·qzx¹ wvxsnlvkjznstvxz qo
nlqtq| q tysnp Íéq ëzvu zjr rjr tnso¹ iéjz xzv¹qn
é¹lvu rtqmq zv k wvsy·nttvp wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq tn lvs tv
i€z lky} qlyq} wvlé¹l nlqtq| Ëv ·qxsv wvxsnlvkjznstvx
znp qo nlqtq| q tysnp k rvzvé€} tqrjrqn lkn nlqtq|€
tn xzv¹z é¹lvu éjktv & = Ævvin nxsq tj wvsrn xzvqz Q rtqm q k€iqéjízx¹ N rtqm
zjr ·zvi€ tqrjrqn lkn qo tq} tn xzv¹sq é¹lvu zv ëzv uv tv
è€|jéq rvévs¹ ¬ézyéj
&NQ−N+
xlnsjz
xwvxvijuq Ìzxílj kqltv ·zv ojlj·j éjoén¡quj
sq¡ wéq N ≤ Q + Ìinn ·qxsv xwvxvivk k€iéjz tnxrvsrv rtqm qo Q zjr
·zvi€ k€iqéjnu€n rtqmq tn xzv¹sq é¹lvu éjktv
&Q+ + &Q + &Q− + è€|jéq rvévs¹ ¬ézyéj
dj réyms€u xzvsvu rvévs¹ ¬ézyéj xql¹z é€|jénp Êo
tq} rj l€p kéj lynz xv xkvquq xvxnl¹uq q zvsrv x tquq Ëjlv k€iéjz é€|jénp ·zvi€ vxkvivlqz ojrvslvkjttyí
wéqt|nxxy tv xénlq k€iéjtt€} é€|jénp tn lvs tv i€z
kéjmvk frvsrquq xwvxvijuq ëzv uv tv xlnsjz"
êzj ojlj·j wv}v j tj ojlj·y v rtq tvp wvsrn tv vzsq·j
nzx¹ vz tnn znu ·zv é€|jéq xql¹z tn k é¹l j wv réymy Ëv
nn snmrv xknxzq r xsy·jí rvmlj é€|jéq xql¹z k é¹l bs¹ ëzvmv
kvounu rjrvmvtqiyl é€|jé¹ xrj nu xëéj Éjtxnsvzj Æxn
k€iqéjnu€n rvuiqtj|qq é€|jénp éjxwjljízx¹ tj lkj rsjxxj
² k vltq} qo tq} xëé Éjtxnsvz y·jxzkynz j k léymq} tnz
Ívlx·qzjnu xrvsrv rvuiqtj|qp k}vlqz k rj l€p rsjxx
cxsq xëé Éjtxnsvz vzwéjks¹nzx¹ vxkviv ljz ojrvslvkjttyí
wéqt|nxxy zv tq nmv xvxnl xwéjkj tq nmv xvxnl xsnkj y n tn
wéquyz y·jxzq¹ k ëzvp ërxwnlq|qq Ìxzjízx¹ é€|jénp qo
rvzvé€} tjlv k€iéjz xwyztqrvk ls¹ xëéj Éjtxnsvzj Òjr
rjr xvxnlq Éjtxnsvzj tn y·jxzkyíz k ërxwnlq|qq zv tjlv sq¡
wévxsnlqz ·zvi€ xénlq k€iéjtt€} é€|jénp tn i€sv kéjmvk
z n ·zvi€ tqrjrqn lkj qo tq} tn xqlnsq é¹lvu Ëv qxrsí
·ntqn xëéj Éjtxnsvzj q nmv lky} xvxnlnp éjoé€kjnz |nw
é€|jénp q uv tv x·qzjz ·zv vtq xql¹z tn oj réyms€u
xzvsvu j k vlqt é¹l ¬ k ëzvu xsy·jn k€iéjz é€|jénp qo
­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
zéniynu€u viéjovu uv tv & = xwvxvijuq Êzjr k wnék€p
rsjxx k}vlqz rvuiqtj|qp
Ònwné wvlx·qzjnu xrvsrv rvuiqtj|qp k}vlqz kv kzvévp
rsjxx Òjr rjr xëé Éjtxnsvz tn y·jxzkynz k ërxwnlq|qq zv nmv
uv tv xéjoy qxrsí·qz qo ·qxsj é€|jénp réymsvmv xzvsj ¬
zvmlj |nw é€|jénp éjoé€kjnzx¹ q vxzjízx¹ é€|jénp
éjxwvsv ntt€} k é¹l Êo tq} tjlv k€iéjz y·jxztqrvk
ërxwnlq|qq zjr ·zvi€ xénlq k€iéjtt€} tn i€sv lky} xql¹q}
é¹lvu êzv uv tv xlnsjz & = xwvxvijuq Òjrqu viéjovu
vinn ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjktv Ævvin nxsq oj réyms€u xzvsvu xql¹z Q é€|jénp q tjlv
k€iéjz N é€|jénp zjr ·zvi€ k q} ·qxsv tn wvwjsq tqrjrqn
lkj xvxnlj zv ëzv uv tv xlnsjz &NQ−−N− + &NQ−N xwvxvijuq
êzv yzkné lntqn lvrjo€kjnzx¹ zv·tv zjr n rjr q k€¡n
Æxn rvuiqtj|qq é€|jénp éjoiqkjíz tj lkj rsjxxj k ojkqxq
uvxzq vz zvmv y·jxzkynz qsq tnz k tq} é€|jé Éjtxnsvz
Çvuiqtj|qp mln vt y·jxzkynz iylnz &NQ−−N− j rvuiqtj|qp k
rvzvé€n vt tn k}vlqz &NQ−N Énmrv wévkné¹nzx¹ ·zv
&NQ−−N− + &NQ−N = Q &NQ−N = QN &NQ−−N−
Q−N
Ëjwéquné wéq Q = N = wvsy·jnu ⋅ & = ⋅ = djlj·q
% & ! : ' $ % & ' (%
! % $7
< $ %7
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fkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp
ïqxsj &NQ visjljíz |ns€u é¹lvu ojun·jznst€} xkvpxzk
êzq xkvpxzkj uv tv lvrjo€kjz wvéjotvuy Æ tnrvzvé€} xsy
·j¹} ylvitnn kxnmv wé¹uv kvxwvsovkjzx¹ {véuysvp Q &NQ =
N (Q − N)
Ìltjrv ·jxzv yljnzx¹ wvsy·qz lvrjojznsxzkv qo rvuiqtj
zvét€} xvviéj ntqp wvlx·qz€kjnu ·qxsv rvuiqtj|qp tnrvzv
évmv kqlj q éjoiqkjnu ëzq rvuiqtj|qq tj rsjxx€ ino viq}
ësnuntzvk Ívxsn ëzvmv tj}vlqu xrvsrv rvuiqtj|qp k}vlqz
k rj l€p rsjxx frsjl€kj¹ wvsy·ntt€n ·qxsj xtvkj wvsy·jnu
·qxsv kxn} rvuiqtj|qp ljttvmv kqlj êzv q ljnz qxrvuvn
xvvztv¡ntqn
Ëj·tnu x xjuvmv wévxzvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹
&NQ = &QQ−N
Ìtv xéjoy k€znrjnz qo {véuys€ Ænl nxsq ojuntqz k
ëzvp {véuysn N tj Q − N zv Q − N ojuntqzx¹ tj Q − (Q − N) = N
q k énoyszjzn utv qznsq xzv¹qn k otjuntjznsn wvunt¹ízx¹
unxzjuq Ëv éjkntxzkv snmrv lvrjojz q tn wéqinmj¹ r
¹ktvuy kqly ·qxsj xv·nzjtqp cxsq k€iéjz qo Q éjosq·t€}
ësnuntzvk tnrvzvévn xv·nzjtqn qo N ësnuntzvk zv vxzjtyzx¹
tnk€iéjtt€uq Q − N ësnuntzvk rvzvé€n xjuq viéjoyíz xv·nzj
tqn ©lvwvstqznstvnª r k€iéjttvuy cxsq n k€iéjz tj
vivévz lvwvstqznstvn xv·nzjtqn qo Q − N ësnuntzvk zv lvwvs
tqznst€u r wvsy·nttvuy xv·nzjtqí qo Q − N ësnuntzvk iylnz
qx}vltvn xv·nzjtqn qo N ësnuntzvk Òjrqu viéjovu xv·nzjtq¹
qo N q qo Q − N ësnuntzvk viéjoyíz kojqutv lvwvstqznst€n
wjé€ wvzvuy ·qxsv ëzq} xv·nzjtqp vltv q zv n &NQ = &QQ−N
& " % - (( ! − N " ! ! %
D NQ = QQ−N 2 − N %
Ív·zq xzvs n wévxzv lvrjo€kjnzx¹ xvvztv¡ntqn
&NQ = &NQ−− + &NQ−
fkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp
bs¹ ëzvmv kxn xv·nzjtq¹ qo Q ësnuntzvk D D DQ wv
N éjovinu tj lkj rsjxxj Æ wnék€p qo tq} kvplyz xv·nzjtq¹
xvlné jqn ësnuntz D j kv kzvévp ² xv·nzjtq¹ tn xvlné j
qn ëzvmv ësnuntzj cxsq qo síivmv xv·nzjtq¹ wnékvmv rsjxxj
yljsqz ësnuntz D zv vxzjtnzx¹ xv·nzjtqn qo Q − ësnuntzj
D DQ wv N − ïqxsv zjrq} xv·nzjtqp éjktv &NQ−− fv·n
zjtq¹ kzvévmv rsjxxj ¹ks¹ízx¹ xv·nzjtq¹uq qo Q − ësnuntzj
D DQ wv N Ê} ·qxsv éjktv &NQ− Ívxrvsry síivn xv·n
zjtqn qo Q ësnuntzvk D D DQ wv N wéqtjlsn qz vltvuy
q zvsrv vltvuy qo ëzq} rsjxxvk j vinn ·qxsv ëzq} xv·nzjtqp
éjktv &NQ zv wéq}vlqu r éjkntxzky Ðvéuysj ljnz wévxzvp xwvxvi wvxsnlvkjznstvmv k€·qx
sntq¹ otj·ntqp &NQ ftj·jsj tjlv tjwqxjz otj·ntqn & = êzv
iylnz ©tysnkj¹ª xzévrj Æ xsnlyínp wnékvp xzévrn tjwq¡nu
otj·ntq¹ & = q & = zjr ·zvi€ otj·ntqn & vrjojsvx tjl
wévun yzrvu un ly ëzquq lkyu¹ ·qxsjuq bjsnn u€ otjnu
·zv & = & = êzq ·qxsj ojwq¡nu kv kzvévp xzévrn ¬ un ly
tquq ojwq¡nu ·qxsv & Ëv wv {véuysn & = & + &
dtj·qz & éjktv xyuun ·qxns wénl€lynp xzévrq xzv¹q}
xsnkj q xwéjkj vz tnmv & = + = Ív zvuy n wéjkqsy
ojwvst¹nu vxzjst€n xzévrq xtj·jsj wq¡nu wv ivrju otj·ntq¹
&Q = &QQ = j kxn wévun yzv·t€n otj·ntq¹ k€·qxs¹nu rjr
xyuu€ ·qxns wénl€lynp xzévrq xzv¹q} xsnkj q xwéjkj vz
k€·qxs¹nuvmv otj·ntq¹ Æ énoyszjzn wvsy·jnu zjrvp ·qxsvkvp
zénymvstqr
êzvz zénymvstqr ·jxzv tjo€kjíz zénymvstqrvu Íjxrjs¹
Ìltjrv nn lv Íjxrjs¹ nmv otjs qzjs¹txrqp
ujznujzqr Ëqrrvsv Òjézjs¹ ¬ oj utvmv snz
lv Òjézjs¹ ëzvz zénymvstqr kxzén·jsx¹ k éjivzj} jéjixrq}
ujznujzqrvk ­q¹xëllqtj q Ìujéj ®jp¹uj Ê xju Íjxrjs
utvmv qu ojtqujk¡qpx¹ tjo€kjs nmv ©jéq{unzq·nxrqu
­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
zénymvstqrvuª Ívëzvuy q u€ iylnu ·jxzv tjo€kjz nmv wévxzv
jéq{unzq·nxrqu zénymvstqrvu
@ " ! % / 2 0
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Íéq xvxzjksntqq jéq{unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj rj lvn
·qxsv (Q − )p xzévrq y·jxzkynz k viéjovkjtqq lky} ·qxns
xsnlyínp Qp xzévrq ² xzv¹nmv xsnkj q xzv¹nmv xwéjkj
vz tnmv Ívëzvuy nxsq xsv qz ·qxsj Qp xzévrq ·néno vltv
zv k wvsy·nttyí xyuuy kvplyz wv vltvuy éjoy kxn ·qxsj
(Q − )p xzévrq frsjl€kjz ·qxsj ·néno vltv uv tv lkyu¹
xwvxvijuq ² tj·jk x wnékvmv ·qxsj xzévrq qsq tj·jk xv kzvévmv
·qxsj Æ vivq} xsy·j¹} wvsy·qzx¹ vltj q zj n xyuuj éjktj¹
xyuun ·qxns k (Q − )p xzévrn
bvrjojttvn xkvpxzkv jéq{unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj uv tv
ojwqxjz zjr
&Q + &Q + &Q + = &Q + &Q + &Q + =
−
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Q−
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xyuu€ ·qxns (Q − )p xzévrq Êt€uq xsvkjuq wéq wnén}vln
r xsnlyínp xzévrn jéq{unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj xyuuj ·q
xns k xzévrn ylkjqkjnzx¹ Ëv k tysnkvp xzévrn xzvqz zvsrv
vltv ·qxsv ls¹ tnn xyuuj éjktj = Ívëzvuy k Qp xzévrn
xyuuj ·qxns éjktj Q
&Q + &Q + &Q + + &QQ = Q
êzv xvvztv¡ntqn uv tv lvrjojz q tn éjxxujzéqkj¹ xv·n
zjtq¹ qo unt¡nmv ·qxsj ësnuntzvk Ævounu qx}vltvn utv n
xzkv qo Q ësnuntzvk D D DQ ïzvi€ ojljz rjrvnsqiv
xv·nzjtqn qo ëzq} ësnuntzvk tjlv ls¹ rj lvmv ësnuntzj DL
xlnsjz k€ivé iéjz nmv k xv·nzjtqn vivotj·qu ëzvz kjéqjtz
|q{évp qsq tn iéjz vivotj·qu ëzv |q{évp Ívëzvuy
rj lvn xv·nzjtqn ojljnzx¹ wvxsnlvkjznstvxzí Q |q{é rj lj¹ qo rvzvé€} uv nz wéqtqujz otj·ntqn qsq wéq·nu
·qxsv nlqtq| vwénlns¹nz xrvsrv ësnuntzvk iylnz k xv·nzjtqq
Ëjwéquné vwénlns¹nz xv·nzjtqn qo vltvmv ësnuntzj
D j ² xv·nzjtqn qo ësnuntzvk D DQ
fkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp
Çvsq·nxzkv
kxn} zjrq} wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp éjktv Q
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ëzv $Q) z n wéjkj¹ ·jxz ¬ snkj¹ ·jxz wvsy·qzx¹
nxsq éjoiqz kxn wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq tj méyww€ xvlné jqn
vlqtjrvk€n rvsq·nxzkj nlqtq| Ívxsnlvkjznstvxz qo vltq}
tysnp ojljnz ©wyxzvnª xv·nzjtqn ² k€iéjtv ësnuntzvk qo
Q q} ·qxsv &Q wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq x vltvp nlqtq|np ²
xv·nzjtq¹ qo Q ësnuntzvk wv q} ·qxsv &Q xv kxnuq Q
nlqtq|juq ² xv·nzjtq¹ qo Q ësnuntzvk wv Q q} ·qxsv &QQ Æ
xyuun vw¹z wvsy·jnzx¹ rvsq·nxzkv kxn} kvouv t€} xv·nzjtqp
@ % B " 0
$" " >) .? % ! $" " 0 " >8? − > ?% D$" 0
0
" − % B ,( − N) ,( − N) = NQ >% % A?% ,(. ) + ,() − )) + % + ,(Q ) = AQ
)0 >8
! ? A0 > ! ?%
( " ∑
3( ) = Q
Q + Q + Q = Q
!" " " % % " 0
,( ) ,( )% 1 " 0
$" " ! > % % ! $"
? 2 " $ " %
4 !$ ∑
Q + + QN = Q
3( %%% N) = Q
>)=?
!" > " ?%
èjxxuvzéqu xv·nzjtq¹ ino wvkzvéntqp qo Q ësnuntzvk
D D DQ q éjxrsjxxq{q|qéynu q} wv ·qxsy k}vl¹q} k
xv·nzjtqn ësnuntzvk cxsq k xv·nzjtqn k}vlqz N ësnuntzvk zv
­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
zjrq} xv·nzjtqp &NQ q k tq} k}vlqz N ⋅ &NQ ësnuntzvk Æxnmv kv
kxn} xv·nzjtq¹} iylnz ⋅ &Q + ⋅ &Q + ⋅ &Q + + Q ⋅ &QQ ësnunt
zvk f léymvp xzvévt€ nxsq ësnuntz DL k}vlqz k tnrvzvévn
xv·nzjtqn zv vxzjst€n k}vl¹qn k ëzv xv·nzjtqn ësnuntz€
viéjoyíz xv·nzjtqn qo Q − ësnuntzj Æxnmv zjrq} xv·nzjtqp
Q− ls¹ rj lvmv qo léymq} Q − ësnuntzvk tjlv xlnsjz
k€ivé iéjz nmv k xv·nzjtqn qsq tnz Ívëzvuy kxnmv kv kxn}
xv·nzjtq¹} iylnz Q ⋅ Q− ësnuntzvk Ívsy·jnzx¹ éjkntxzkv
⋅ &Q + ⋅ &Q + ⋅ &Q + + Q ⋅ &QQ = Q ⋅ Q−
¬ znwné éjxxuvzéqu xv·nzjtq¹uq x wvkzvéntq¹uq xv
xzjksntt€n qo ësnuntzvk Q + zqwvk wv P xrj nu
__ qo Q + P
iyrk D E F [ ïqxsv zjrq} xv·nzjtqp éjktv &P
Q+ = &Q+P
èjovinu kxn ëzq xv·nzjtq¹ tj rsjxx€ vztnx¹ r Nuy rsjxxy
xv·nzjtq¹ k rvzvé€n N éjo k}vlqz iyrkj D Ìxzjst€n P − N
unxz uvmyz i€z ojt¹z€ vxzjk¡quqx¹ iyrkjuq E F [ ·qxsv
rvzvé€} éjktv Q Ívëzvuy k Np rsjxx k}vlqz xzvsrv xv·nzj
tqp xrvsrv uv tv xvxzjkqz xv·nzjtqp x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo
−N
ësnuntzvk Q zqwvk wv P − N z n &P
Q+P−N− dtj·qz vinn ·qxsv
kxn} xv·nzjtqp éjktv
P−
&P
Q+P− + &Q+P− + + &Q + &Q−
f léymvp xzvévt€ u€ kqlnsq ·zv ëzv ·qxsv éjktv &P
Q+P
Òjrqu viéjovu lvrjojtv éjkntxzkv
−
P
P
&Q− + &Q + &Q+ + + &P
Q+P− + &Q+P− = &Q+P
djunt¹¹ olnx Q tj Q + P tj P − q qxwvsoy¹ éjkntxzkv
wvsy·jnu ·zv
&QQ + &QQ+ + &QQ+ + + &QQ+P− + &QQ+P− = &QQ++P
ïjxzt€uq xsy·j¹uq {véuys€ wéq Q = ¹ks¹ízx¹
+ + + P = P(P+ ) ⋅ + ⋅ + + P(P + ) = P(P + )(P + ) fkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp
⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ + + P(P + )(P + ) =
P(P + )(P + )(P + ) =
f wvuví {véuys snmrv tjpzq xyuuy rkjléjzvk
q xyuuy ryivk tjzyéjst€} ·qxns vz lv P Ðvéuysy uv tv wnénwqxjz zjr
P(P + )(P + )
( + + + P) + ( + + + P) =
fsnkj kzvéj¹ xyuuj k€·qxsntj k {véuysn q wvzvuy
+ + + P =
P(P + )(P + ) − P(P + ) = P(P + )(P + )
=
Òv·tv zjr n qo {véuys€ k€kvlqu ·zv
+ + + P = P (P+ ) Íénlvxzjks¹nu ·qzjznsí wvsy·qz jtjsvmq·t€u viéjovu
{véuys€ ls¹ xyuu ivsnn k€xvrq} xznwntnp tjzyéjst€} ·qxns
Ënrvzvé€n {véuys€ v·nkqlt€u viéjovu wvsy·jízx¹ qo
rvuiqtjzvét€} xvviéj ntqp Ívxuvzéqu tjwéquné tj {vé
uysy
N P−N
P−
P P
&S &P
Q−S + &S &Q−S + + &S &Q−S + + &S &Q−S = &Q Ívt¹ztv ·zv én· qlnz v kxn} xv·nzjtq¹ ino wvkzvéntqp qo
Q ësnuntzvk wv P Çj lvn zjrvn xv·nzjtqn k€iqéjnzx¹ k lkj
ëzjwj xtj·jsj inénzx¹ tnrvzvévn ·qxsv ësnuntzvk qo rjrq}zv
S ësnuntzvk j wvzvu tnlvxzjíqn inéyzx¹ qo vxzjst€}
Q − S ësnuntzvk dtj·qz kxn Q ësnuntzvk tjovknu q} iyrkjuq
lnsqu tj S ©msjxt€}ª q Q − S ©xvmsjxt€}ª fv·nzjtq¹ rsjxxq
{q|qéynu wv rvsq·nxzky k}vl¹q} k tq} msjxt€} iyrk Çj lvn
xv·nzjtqn qo Q iyrk wv P xvlné qz tnrvzvévn ·qxsv N msjxt€}
≤ N ≤ P q} uv tv k€iéjz &NS xwvxvijuq bs¹ rj lvmv
−N
zjrvmv xwvxvij nxz &P
Q−S xwvxvivk k€iéjz tnlvxzjíqn P − N
−N
xvmsjxt€n kxnmv &NS ⋅ &P
Q−S xwvxvivk Æ xyuun wv kxnu N wvsy·j
ízx¹ kxn xv·nzjtq¹ ino wvkzvéntqp qo Q ësnuntzvk wv P
Ìzunzqu ·jxzt€p xsy·jp {véuys€ cxsq wvsv qz k
tnp Q = P + S q kvxwvsovkjzx¹ éjkntxzkvu zv wvsy·qu
P
P
&S &P + &S &P + + &P
S &P = &S+P
­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
Æ ·jxztvxzq wéq S = P qunnu éjkntxzkv
(&S) + (&S) + + (&SS) = &SS
Æ {véuysn k rj lvu xsjmjnuvu xyuuj kné}tq}
qtlnrxvk éjktj P j tq tq} Q Íéq ëzvu tq tqn qtlnrx€
wvxzv¹tt€ j kné}tqn unt¹ízx¹ fnp·jx u€ k€knlnu jtjsvmq·
tyí {véuysy k rvzvévp wéq xyuuqévkjtqq unt¹ízx¹ tq tqn
qtlnrx€ j kné}tqn wvxzv¹tt€
bs¹ ëzvmv xtvkj kvounu S éjosq·t€} msjxt€} iyrk q
Q − S éjosq·t€} xvmsjxt€} iyrk q xvxzjkqu qo tq} kxnkvouv t€n xv·nzjtq¹ x wvkzvéntq¹uq wv P ësnuntzvk Ìw¹z éjovinu
ëzq xv·nzjtq¹ tj rsjxx€ vztnx¹ r Nuy rsjxxy xv·nzjtq¹
xvlné jqn N msjxt€} q P − N xvmsjxt€} iyrk Ívlx·qzjnu
·qxsv xv·nzjtqp k}vl¹q} k Np rsjxx
Çj lvn xv·nzjtqn ëzvmv rsjxxj xvlné qz xv·nzjtqn x wvkzv
éntq¹uq wv N ësnuntzvk qo S msjxt€} iyrk q xv·nzjtqn x
wvkzvéntq¹uq wv P − N ësnuntzvk qo Q − S xvmsjxt€} iyrk
−N
Ívëzvuy k Np rsjxx k}vlqz &NN+S− &P
P+Q−S−N− xv·nzjtqp fsnlv
kjznstv vinn ·qxsv éjxxujzéqkjnu€} xv·nzjtqp éjktv
P−
P
&S− &P
P+Q−S− + &S &P+Q−S− + + &P+S− &Q−S−
f léymvp xzvévt€ ëzq xv·nzjtq¹ ljíz kxnkvouv t€n xv·nzjtq¹
x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo ësnuntzvk
Q éjosq·t€} zqwvk wv P j wv
__
zvuy q} ·qxsv éjktv &QP = &P
P+Q− ΀ wéq}vlqu r zv lnxzky
P
P−
P
&S− &P
P+Q−S− + &S &P+Q−S− + + &P+S− &Q−S− = &P+Q−
Ínénwq¡nu ëzv zv lnxzkv zjr ·zvi€ wéq xyuuqévkjtqq
unt¹sqx sq¡ tq tqn qtlnrx€ bs¹ ëzvmv tjlv rv kxnu
·sntju wéquntqz zv lnxzkv &TU = &UU−T ΀ wvsy·qu
S− &Q−S− = &Q− &SS−− &QP−+SQ−−S− + &SS− &QP−+SQ−−S− + + &P
+S− Q−S−
P+Q−
êzy {véuysy uv tv qtj·n wnénwqxjz xsnlyíqu viéjovu oj
untqk S tj S + Q tj Q + q P tj P − Q Q+
Q−S
Q−S + + &S
&SS &QP−−SS + &SS+ &P
−S−
P−Q+S &Q−S = &P+
΀ kqlqu ·zv olnx wéq xyuuqévkjtqq kné}tqn qtlnrx€
vxzjízx¹ wvxzv¹tt€uq j tq tqn unt¹ízx¹ wéq·nu xyuuj
kné}tq} qtlnrxvk éjktj Q j tq tq} P
fkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp
+ ! !$ % 1 " "$ - ' %%% T -0 > 8 8 $ 0
2 ?% R " 0
" ! 280
% % %%%
-0 % @ ! " ! > %%% T? "$ . ≤ L ≤ L + + %%% + T = % G %%% T -0 %
B ! ! $(P %%% T)%
6 " $(P %%% T) 0
P
P
P
T
Q Q %%% Q T % " 0
P
>A;?
∑
P+P++PT=P
P
P
P
&Q Q %%% QTT = Q + + %%% + T = 0
! ( P %%% T) "$
+ + %% + T = %
3 ! " "
∑
P+P+ +PT=P
P
P
P
P
&Q+P− Q+P− %%% QTT+PT− = Q+P−
+ + %%% + T = " !8" ( P %%% T)%
>A5?
cn vltv xkvpxzkv xv·nzjtqp yxzjtjksqkjnzx¹ zjr ΀
qunnu zv lnxzkv
−N
N P
&NQ &P
Q−N = &P &Q " " 0
! % 1 " $
/ 0
% . ! ! ' 1 2 / 1 2 − N > #? / % 4! − N ( " − N 0
" " 2 >.?% < ! 0
! ­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
(" $ − N 0
" " 2 >.?%
djwq¡nu zv lnxzkv wéq N = P q xsv qu
wvsy·qk¡qnx¹ éjkntxzkj Òjr rjr wv {véuysn P
&P + &P + &P + + &P
P= P−
P P
P zv wvsy·jnu ·zv &Q &P
Q + &Q &Q− + + &Q &Q−P = &Q qsq
P P
P Q−P
&Q &QQ−P + &Q &QQ−−P
+ + &Q &Q−P = &Q djlj·q
% 1 (UQ++ − UQ) UQ−− = ⎡⎣(UQ) − &UQ++&UQ−−⎤⎦%
% 1 ? Q + *Q + &Q = F !? ) + EQ + )AQ + *Q = ( + ))F
? Q + )=Q + *Q + Q = F
? ) + )=Q + *Q + A=Q = ( + ) − %
% 1 (A − ),
)
) ⋅
)
) ⋅
)
+
+
+ %%% =
%
>( − )), ,T
S(Q − ),T ⋅ A, S( − A),T A, ⋅ S( − ),T
% 1 , ( − )),
( + − )), ( + − ), ( − )) ( + − )
⋅
− %%% =
%
− ⋅
+
,
)
, ( − ) ,
( − =),
)⋅
( − A),
% 1 P
Q+P = ∑ ,( %%% P − − %% − P + ))
8 (" " + A + %%% + P = %
% 6 " 2 8 0
* + %%% + [ + 3) + (3 + + %%% + * + )
A
$ '
? Q + AQ + Q + &Q + % + QQF
!? Q + AQ + Q + &Q + % + ( + ))&QQF
? Q + AQ + Q + &Q + % + ( − ))&QQF
? Q + Q + :Q + &Q + % + (AQ + ))QQF
? Q − AQ + Q − &Q + % + (−))Q( + )QQF
+ * + %%% + + 3 =
( +
ïjxzt€p xsy·jp {véuys€ krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp
Q
? Q
Q
Q %%% + (=Q − ))QF
? Q − AQ + Q − =Q + %% + (−))QQQF
+ %%% + ) QQF
? Q + ) Q + ) &Q + Q
A
Q+
+
+
+
? )A Q + ) Q + )= Q + ): Q + %% + ) QQF
+A
(−))Q Q
F
? Q − )A Q + ) Q − )= Q + %%% +
+) Q
? (Q) − (Q) + (Q) − (&Q) + %%% + (−))Q(QQ)%
% + " . ) A % % % % % % )5:E )5:;
) : % % % % % % % % 5):
% % % % % % % % % % % %
% % % % % % % % % % %
. ) %%% )5:;% - $ " " " $ "$ % 1 " )5:;%
ïjxzt€p xsy·jp {véuys€ krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp
Îtvmqn xkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp k€kvl¹zx¹ tj vxtvkn {véuys€
krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp xu w ïqxsv xsjmjnu€} k ëzvp
{véuysn knxuj knsqrv ² vtv éjktv Q Ëv k tnrvzvé€}
xsy·j¹} yljnzx¹ wvsy·qz vzknz x unt¡qu ·qxsvu xsjmjnu€}
êzv iylnz k xsy·j¹} rvmlj ·qxsv 1(D DQ) ësnuntzvk visj
ljíq} xkvpxzkjuq D DQ ojkqxqz tn vz xjuq} ëzq}
xkvpxzk j sq¡ vz rvsq·nxzkj vltvkénunttv k€wvst¹nu€}
xkvpxzk z n
1 = 1 ·qxsv kxn} ësnuntzvk 1(D) = 1(D) = = 1(DQ) = 1
1(DD) = 1(DD) = = 1(DDN) = 1(DD) = = 1(DQ−DQ) = 1
1(DDD) = 1(DDD ) = = 1(DQ−DQ−DQ) = 1
1(DDDDQ) = 1Q
Èylnu x·qzjz kné}tíí xzév·ry x 1 tysnkvp zvmlj k
wnékvp xzévrn ësnuntzvk zqwj 1(DL) iylnz &Q wvëzvuy
1(D) + 1(D) + + 1(DQ) = &Q 1
­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
Òv·tv zjr n kv kzvévp xzévrn ësnuntzvk zqwj 1(DLDM) iylnz
&Q wvëzvuy 1(DD) + + 1(DQ−DQ) = &Q 1 xyuuj éjxwévxzéj
tntj nxznxzknttv tj kxn kvouv t€n xv·nzjtq¹ lky} xkvpxzk
qo Q k zénznp xzévrn xyuuj iylnz &Q 1 k wvxsnltnp
&QQ1Q Ívëzvuy k éjxxujzéqkjnuvu xsy·jn {véuysj krsí·ntqp
q qxrsí·ntqp wéqtqujnz kql
_ _ _
_
1(DDD DQ) = 1 − &Q 1 + &Q 1 − + (−)Q &QQ 1Q
dtjrvwnénuntt€n xyuu€ xv·nzjtqp
¬ znwné wnénplnu r k€kvly ljstnp¡q} xkvpxzk xv·nzjtqp
êzq xkvpxzkj wv}v q tj lvrjojtt€n éjtnn tv vzsq·jízx¹ vz
tq} znu ·zv otjrq xsjmjnu€} unt¹ízx¹ ² wvxsn wsíxj qlnz
uqtyx wvzvu vw¹z wsíx q z l
Íévxznp¡np qo zjrq} {véuys ¹ks¹nzx¹
&Q − &Q + &Q + + (−)Q&QQ = êzv zv lnxzkv xéjoy k€znrjnz qo éjkntxzkj ² xyuuj
xv·nzjtqp wv ·nztvuy ·qxsy ësnuntzvk éjktj xyuun xv·nzjtqp
wv tn·nztvuy ·qxsy ësnuntzvk
- 2 ! % 4( 0
" %%% Q $ ! '
$ ! ( ! % # " " % & ! " ( " " " $ ! % > $ ?% - " 2 0
>A?%
bvrj nu wéq P > ivsnn xsv tyí {véuysy
P−
P−
P P &Q &P
Q − &Q &Q− + &Q &Q− − + (−) &Q &Q−P = bs¹ lvrjojznsxzkj éjxxuvzéqu xv·nzjtq¹ qo Q ësnuntzvk
D DQ wv P Ìivotj·qu ·néno ⟨D DN⟩ xkvpxzkv xv·nzjtq¹
ojrsí·jínnx¹ k zvu ·zv k ëzv xv·nzjtqn ojknlvuv k}vl¹z
ësnuntz€ D DN ïqxsv 1(D DN) zjrq} xv·nzjtqp éjktv
−N
&P
Q−N k tq} N unxz ojt¹z€ ësnuntzjuq D DN j tj
vxzjk¡qnx¹ P − N unxz nxz Q − N wénzntlntzvk Ìinn ·qxsv
dtjrvwnénuntt€n xyuu€ xv·nzjtqp
&P
Q
xv·nzjtqp éjktv
ëzv 1 vtv wvsy·jnzx¹ wéq N = j
xv·nzjtqp tn visjljíq} tq vltqu qo xkvpxzk ⟨D⟩ ⟨DQ⟩
wéq P > tn xynxzkynz k rj lvn xv·nzjtqn k}vl¹z
_ _ _ rjrqnzv
_
ësnuntz€ Ívëzvuy k tj¡nu xsy·jn 1(DDD DQ) = −N
1N = &P
Q−N Ívlxzjks¹¹ ëzq otj·ntq¹ k {véuysy wéq}vlqu
r zv lnxzky Òv·tv zjr n lvrjo€kjízx¹ xvvztv¡ntq¹
Q Q P−Q
P−
P−
&Q &P
Q+P− − &Q &Q+P− + &Q &Q+P− − + (−) &Q &P− = j
nxsq P ≥ Q
P P P−
P−
&Q &P
Q+P− − &Q &Q+P− + &Q &Q+P− − + (−) &Q &Q− = i
nxsq P < Q
Êunttv éjxxuvzéqu xv·nzjtq¹ x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo Q ësn
untzvk D D DQ wv P q vivotj·qu ·néno ⟨DN⟩ ≤ N ≤ Q
xkvpxzkv xv·nzjtq¹ ojrsí·jínnx¹ k zvu ·zv xénlq nmv ësn
untzvk nxz DN q i€z uv nz léymqn ësnuntz€ Òvmlj
1(D DN) ² ·qxsv xv·nzjtqp k rvzvé€n ojknlvuv k}vl¹z
ësnuntz€ D DN
Êo rj lvmv zjrvmv xv·nzjtq¹ uv tv yljsqz wv vltvuy
ësnuntzy D DN Æ énoyszjzn wvsy·qzx¹ tnrvzvévn xv·nzjtqn
x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo Q ësnuntzvk D DQ wv P − N Íéq ëzvu
viéjztv lvijks¹¹ r xv·nzjtqí x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo ësnuntzvk
D DQ xvlné jnuy P − N ësnuntzvk wv vltvuy ësnuntzy
D DN wvsy·qu xv·nzjtqn xvlné jnn P ësnuntzvk k
rvzvévu ojknlvuv wénlxzjksnt€ D DN Ìzxílj k€znrjnz
·zv ·qxsv 1(D DN) éjktv ·qxsy xv·nzjtqp x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo
−N
Q ësnuntzvk wv P − N z n 1(D DN) = &P
Q+P−N−
bjsnn vinn ·qxsv xv·nzjtqp x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo Q ësnunt
zvk D DQ wv P éjktv &P
Q+P− ëzv 1 j xv·nzjtqp tn
visjljíq} tq vltqu qo xkvpxzk ⟨DN⟩ ≤ N ≤ Q_ tn
xynxzkynz
_ _
_
Ívlxzjks¹¹
tjplntt€n
otj·ntq¹
1(DDD DQ) = −N
1N = &P
Q+P−N− k {véuysy wéq}vlqu r zv lnxzkju ­sjkj ,, è¬dÎcÕcËʉ ÍcècfÒ¬ËÌÆÇÊ Ê fÌïcÒ¬Ëʉ
Ëjrvtn| lvrj nu wéq P < Q zv lnxzkv
&QQP − &Q(Q − )P + &Q(Q − )P − + (−)Q−&QQ− ⋅ P = bs¹ ëzvmv éjxxuvzéqu éjounntq¹
_ x wvkzvéntq¹uq qo Q
ësnuntzvk wv P q vivotj·qu ·néno ⟨DN⟩ xkvpxzkv éjounntq¹
xvxzv¹nn
k zvu ·zv k tnmv tn k}vl¹z ësnuntz€ zqwj DN Òvmlj
_
_
1(D DN) ² ·qxsv éjounntqp x wvkzvéntq¹uq xvlné jq}
P ësnuntzvk xénlq rvzvé€} tnz ësnuntzvk D DN z n
k€iqéjz wéq}vlqzx¹ sq¡ qo Q − N ësnuntzvk DN+ DN+ DQ
¬ _ ·qxsv
zjrq} éjounntqp éjktv (Q − N)P zjr ·zv
_
1(D DN) = (Q − N)P Ìinn ·qxsv éjounntqp éjktv QP
_ Ëjrvtn|
_ éjounntqp tn visjljíq} tq vltqu qo xkvpxzk
⟨D⟩ ⟨DQ⟩ tn xynxzkynz Æ xjuvu lnsn nxsq éjounntqn
_
tn visjljnz tq vltqu qo xkvpxzk ⟨DN⟩ zv vtv xvlné qz kxn Q
ësnuntzvk Ëv u€ wénlwvsjmjnu ·zv ·qxsv
_
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sjlnp xzv¹z tj lvxrn qo mvéqovtzjsnp q knézqrjsnp ΀
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·qxsv sjlnp lvs tv qunz kql qsq rvmlj tj lvxrn tnz
|ntzéjstvmv wvs¹ qsq + rvmlj vtv nxz Ònu xju€u u€
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sjlnp tj lvxrn
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vwénlnsnttvxzq inénu lqjmvtjs wév}vl¹yí ·néno tq tnn
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tq tnu snkvu ymsy sqiv tnz Æ wnékvu xsy·jn k€·nérqkjnu
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tvxqznstv k€iéjttvp lqjmvtjsq ƀ
·nértnu knézqrjsq q mvéqovtzjsq tj rv
zvé€} xzv¹z ëzq sjlq q xvurtnu é¹l€
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rj lyí mvéqovtzjs wvwjlnz zvsrv
vlqt {néo j wvzvuy uv tv ojwqxjz
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z n tnrvzvévp wnénxzjtvkrvp ·qxns Ëjwéquné wnénxzj
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knézqrjsq q zénznp mvéqovtzjsq éqx q z l êzy ojlj·y
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wv vz ·qxns tj rj lvp méjtq Æ énoyszjzn xyuuj v·rvk
yunt¡qzx¹ tj Q Êt€uq xsvkjuq ·qxsv xwvxvivk wvsy·qz
1 v·rvk wéq iévxjtqq Q rvxznp éjktv &(Q 1 − Q) Ëjwéquné
nxsq ·qxsv rvxznp éjktv j xyuuj v·rvk ² zv ·qxsv
xwvxvivk éjktv &( ) Ív zjisq|n ls¹ P = tj}vlqu ·zv vtv
éjktv f·jxzsqk€n zévssnpiyxt€n iqsnz€
cn tn zjr ljktv k jkzviyxj} q zévssnpiyxj} wjxxj qé€
wéq rj lvp wvnolrn wvsy·jsq y rvtlyrzvéj qsq k rjxxn iqsnz
x ¡nxzqotj·t€u tvunévu tj t€tn¡tq} vltvéjovk€} zjsvtj}
zv n nxz tvuné tv vt lnx¹zqotj·t€p Ënrvzvé€n sílq
x·qzjsq zjrvp iqsnz ©x·jxzsqk€uª nxsq k nmv tvunén xyuuj
|q{é k wnékvp wvsvkqtn tvunéj éjkt¹sjx xyuun |q{é kzvévp
wvsvkqt€ tvunéj Ëjwéquné iqsnz x tvunévu qunnz
éjkt€n xyuu€ wnék€} q wvxsnltq} zén} |q{é
wvëzvuy vt x·jxzsqk€p ¬ tn
rvzvé€n x·qzjsq iqsnz x·jxzsqk€u nxsq xyuuj |q{é xzv¹q}
tj ·nzt€} unxzj} i€sj éjktj xyuun |q{é xzv¹q} tj tn·nz
t€} unxzj} Ëjwéquné iqsnz x·qzjnzx¹ x·jxzsqk€u
² Ëv nxsq u€ wnék€n zéq
|q{é€ tvunéj wnénxzjkqu tj n n q n unxzj vz tj·jsj j wvxsnltqn zéq |q{é€ ² tj n n q n unxzj zv x·jxzsqk€p
iqsnz wnékvmv zqwj wnénplnz k x·jxzsqk€p iqsnz kzvévmv zqwj
uv tv wévlnsjz q viéjztyí vwnéj|qí Ívëzvuy q} rvsq·n
xzkj éjkt€ frvsrv n xynxzkynz ©x·jxzsqk€}ª tvunévk vz
lv "
ïzvi€ vzknzqz tj ëzvz kvwévx xtj·jsj tjplnu xrvsrv
zén}otj·t€} ·qxns qunnz ljttyí xyuuy |q{é 1 wéq ëzvu u€
vztvxqu r zén}otj·t€u q ·qxsj kqlj q lj n dlnx
·qxsv xsjmjnu€} xyuuj éjktj 1 j xsjmjnu€n ² vz lv wvëzvuy zjrq} ·qxns iylnz &( 1) Êunnz unxzv énryééntztvn
xvvztv¡ntqn
&( 1) = &( 1) + &( 1 − ) + + &( 1 − )
Òv·tv zjr n
&( 1) = &( 1) + &( 1 − ) + + &( 1 − )
‰xtv ·zv &( 1) = nxsq ≤ 1 ≤ q &( 1) = k
wévzqktvu xsy·jn Ívsoy¹x ëzquq xvvztv¡ntq¹uq ino zéylj
f·jxzsqk€n zévssnpiyxt€n iqsnz€
ojwvst¹nu xsnlyíyí zjisq|y otj·ntqp &(N 1) ls¹
N = q 1 vz lv 1
N=
N=
N=
1
N=
N=
N=
Ìiéjzqu ktqujtqn tj tnrvzvéyí xquunzéqí ëzvp zjisq|€
Ívxrvsry wéq ojuntn rj lvp qo zén} |q{é tj nn lvwvstntqn
lv xyuuj |q{é unt¹nzx¹ x 1 tj − 1 zv k€wvst¹nzx¹
éjkntxzkv & ( 1) = &( − 1) ¬tjsvmq·tv k€wvst¹ízx¹
éjkntxzkj & ( 1) = &( − 1)
ïzvi€ tjpzq znwné ·qxsv x·jxzsqk€} iqsnzvk tjlv kvoknx
zq k rkjléjz ·qxsj zénznp xzévrq q xsv qz wvsy·jíqnx¹
énoyszjz€ Æ xjuvu lnsn rj l€p x·jxzsqk€p iqsnz qunnz
vlty q zy n xyuuy |q{é xzv¹q} tj wnék€} zén} q wvxsnltq}
zén} unxzj} Íyxz ëzj xyuuj éjktj 1 ïqxsv xzv¹nn tj 1u
unxzn zénznp xzévrq tj¡np zjisq|€ wvrjo€kjnz xrvsrv
zén}otj·t€} ·qxns qunnz xyuuy |q{é 1 Êt€uq xsvkjuq vtv
wvrjo€kjnz xrvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv k€iéjz wnékyí wv
svkqty ¡nxzqotj·tvmv tvunéj iqsnzj fzvsrquq n xwvxvijuq
uv tv k€iéjz kzvéyí wvsvkqty tvunéj iqsnzj Òjr rjr ëzq
k€ivé€ tn ojkqx¹z léym vz léymj zv wv wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹
·qxsv x·jxzsqk€} tvunévk x xyuuvp |q{é tj ·nzt€} unxzj}
éjktvp 1 iylnz ⎡⎣&( 1)⎤⎦ ¬ zvmlj wv wéjkqsy xyuu€ vinn
·qxsv ©x·jxzsqk€}ª tvunévk éjktv
( + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + ) = Ívxrvsry kxnmv ¡nxzqotj·t€} tvunévk uqssqvt x·jxzsq
k€u ¹ks¹nzx¹ wéqunétv vlqt iqsnz qo béymj¹ {véuj vzknzj wvsy·jnzx¹ xsnlyíqu viéjovu djun
tqu wvxsnltqn zéq |q{é€ x·jxzsqkvmv iqsnzj q} lvwvstntq¹uq
lv Ëjwéquné kunxzv kvounu Òvmlj nxsq
xyuuj wnék€} zén} |q{é éjktj 1 zv xyuuj wvxsnltq} zén}
xzjtnz − 1 q wvsy·qzx¹ iqsnz xyuuj |q{é rvzvévmv éjktj
­sjkj ,9 è¬dÈÊcËʉ
tjwéquné + + + + + = Òjr rjr |q{é€ k
iqsnzn wéqtqujíz otj·ntq¹ vz lv ·qxsv |q{é k rj lvu
tvunén éjktv j q} xyuuj éjktj zv ·qxsv x·jxzsqk€}
iqsnzvk éjktv &( ) Ævz zvsrv tj}v lntqn ëzvmv ·qxsj
lvkvstv zéylvnurv nxsq tn wvsovkjzx¹ rvuwíznévu ² ls¹
ëzvmv tjlv wvxzévnttyí tjuq zjisq|y otj·ntqp &(N 1) lv
xzévqz lv otj·ntqp N = Æ w u€ yrj nu ivsnn wévxzyí {véuy vzknzj ëzvp
ojlj·q
Ënrvzvé€n xkvpxzkj ·qxns 2 3 ïqxsj &P(Q N) visjljíz é¹lvu xkvpxzk tjwvuqtjíq}
xkvpxzkj ·qxns &NQ êzv tn ylqkqznstv wvxrvsry k xqsy
wvxzévntq¹ jéq{unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj qunnu &(Q N) = &NQ
Æ wnékyí v·nénl vzunzqu ·zv &P(Q 1) vzsq·tv vz tys¹
sq¡ wéq ≤ 1 ≤ Q(P − ) êzv xéjoy xsnlynz qo zvmv ·zv
rj lj¹ xsnlyíj¹ xzévrj Pjéq{unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj
lsqttnn wénl€lynp tj P − bjsnn wvrj nu ·zv ·qxsj &P(Q 1) visjljíz xsnlyíqu
xkvpxzkvu xquunzéqq
&P(Q 1) = &P(Q Q(P − ) − 1)
bs¹ ëzvmv xvwvxzjkqu rj lvuy Qotj·tvuy ·qxsy k Pq·tvp
xqxznun x·qxsntq¹ ©lvwvstqznstvn ·qxsvª wvsy·jínnx¹ wy
znu ojunt€ rj lvp |q{é€ nn lvwvstntqnu lv P − Ëjwéquné
k xnunéq·tvp xqxznun x·qxsntq¹ lvwvstqznst€u r iylnz ·qxsv ‰xtv ·zv nxsq xyuuj |q{é ljttvmv
Qotj·tvmv ·qxsj éjkt¹sjx 1 zv xyuuj |q{é lvwvstqznstvmv
·qxsj éjktj Q(P − ) − 1 Ívëzvuy Qotj·t€} ·qxns x xyuuvp
|q{é 1 xzvsrv n xrvsrv q x xyuuvp |q{é Q(P − ) − 1
Ëv ëzv q k€éj ntv éjkntxzkvu Òjr rjr vinn rvsq·nxzkv Qotj·t€} ·qxns k Pq·tvp
xqxznun x·qxsntq¹ éjktv PQ xu w zv qunnz unxzv xvvztv
¡ntqn
&P(Q ) + &P(Q ) + + &P(Q Q(P − )) = PQ
bvrj nu znwné xvvztv¡ntqn
&P(N ) &P(Q − N 1) + &P(N ) &P(Q − N 1 − ) + + &P(N 1) &P(Q − N ) = &P(Q 1) Ënrvzvé€n xkvpxzkj ·qxns 2 3 mln ≤ N ≤ Q bs¹ ëzvmv éjovinu kxn Qotj·t€n ·qxsj x xyuuvp
|q{é éjktvp 1 tj rsjxx€ Ç Vuy rsjxxy vztnxnu ·qxsj xyuuj
wnék€} N |q{é rvzvé€} éjktj V Òvmlj xyuuj wvxsnltq}
Q − N |q{é iylnz éjktj 1 − V Ív wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹ wvsy
·jnu ·zv k Vp rsjxx k}vlqz &P(N V) &P(Q − N 1 − V) ·qxns Òjr
rjr vinn rvsq·nxzkv Qotj·t€} ·qxns x xyuuvp |q{é 1 éjktv
&P(Q 1) zv wv wéjkqsy xyuu€ wvsy·jnu xvvztv¡ntqn Æ
·jxztvxzq wéq N = xvvztv¡ntqn wéqkvlqz r éjkntxzky zjr rjr &P( 1) = wéq ≤ 1 ≤ P − q &P( 1) = wéq
1 < qsq 1 ≥ P
Ëjrvtn| wvrj nu ·zv qunnz unxzv éjkntxzkv
&P(Q 1) = &Q &P−(Q 1 − Q) + &Q &P−(Q − 1 − Q + ) + +
V
+ &Q &P−(Q − V 1 − Q + V) +
+ &Q3 &P−( 1) bs¹ ëzvmv éjovinu kxn Qotj·t€n ·qxsj k Pq·tvp xqxznun
x·qxsntq¹ xyuuj |q{é rvzvé€} éjktj 1 tj rsjxx€ Ç Vuy
rsjxxy ≤ V ≤ Q vztnxnu ·qxsj k Pq·tvp ojwqxq rvzvé€}
kxzén·jnzx¹ évktv V tysnp
Ëjplnu xrvsrv ·qxns k}vlqz k Vp rsjxx Çj lvn ·qxsv
Vmv rsjxxj uv nz i€z k€iéjtv k lkj ëzjwj ftj·jsj k€inénu
unxzj tj rvzvé€} xzv¹z tysq Òjr rjr éjxxujzéqkjízx¹
Qotj·t€n ·qxsj j rvsq·nxzkv tysnp éjktv V zv ëzv uv nz
i€z xlnsjtv &VQ xwvxvijuq Ívxsn ëzvmv k€·nértnu kxn tysq q
yunt¡qu rj lyí vxzjk¡yíx¹ |q{éy tj ΀ wvsy·qu
(Q − V)otj·tvn ·qxsv ojwqxjttvn |q{éjuq P − z n
·qxsv k (P − )q·tvp xqxznun x·qxsntq¹ xyuuj |q{é ëzvmv
·qxsj éjktj 1 − (Q − V) = 1 − Q + V Çvsq·nxzkv zjrq} ·qxns
éjktv &P−(Q − V 1 − Q + V) Êo wévknlntt€} éjxxy lntqp
kqltv ·zv k Vp rsjxx k}vlqz &VQ &P−(Q − V 1 − Q + V) ·qxns
Òjr rjr vinn rvsq·nxzkv Qotj·t€} ·qxns quníq} xyuuy
|q{é 1 éjktv &P(Q 1) zv k xqsy wéjkqsj xyuu€ wvsy·jnu
xvvztv¡ntqn Òjr rjr &(Q N) = &NQ zv qo xvvztv¡ntq¹ xsnlynz ·zv
& (Q N) = & &N−Q + & &N−3+ + + &Q &N
Q Q
Q Q−
Q
ƀéj ntqn &P(Q N) ·néno iqtvuqjst€n rvë{{q|qntz€ ls¹
P = q z l wvsy·jnu wéqunt¹¹ {véuysy tnxrvsrv
éjo
­sjkj ,9 è¬dÈÊcËʉ
Íévisnuj jiqzyéqntzj
Ívxzywjíqp k ytqknéxqznz lvs nt xljz ërojuntj
frvsrv nxz kjéqjtzvk yxwn¡tv xljz ërojunt€ q wvxzy
wqz nxsq wév}vltvp ijss éjknt "
êzj ojlj·j wv}v j tj ojlj·y v réjztvu iévxjtqq rvxzq
Òvsrv znwné rj lvn ©iévxjtqnª z n rj l€p ërojunt ljnz
qsq ijssvk ¡nxz ijssvk oj vlqt ërojunt wvsy·qz
tnso¹ j x lkvprvp k ytqknéxqznz tn wéqtqujíz Îv tv
kvxwvsovkjzx¹ zjisq|np ls¹ P = nxsq ojuntqz ëzq énoys
zjz€ tj q ijssj z n x·qzjz wénk€¡ntqn v|ntrq tjl Òvmlj énoyszjz rj lvmv qo ërojuntvk yunt¡qzx¹ tj j
vij¹ xyuuj ijssvk ² tj Ívëzvuy tjlv én¡qz zjryí
ojlj·y xrvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv wvsy·qz tn untnn v·rvk iévxj¹ éjoj rvxz tj rvzvévp tjtnxnt€ |q{é€ q " Òjr rjr ·qxsv iévxjtqp éjktv zv inénu k zjisq|n ls¹
P = xzévry otj·ntqp &( 1)
Æ ëzvp xzévrn tjx qtznénxyíz ·nz€én wvxsnltq} ·qxsj
frsjl€kj¹ q} wvsy·jnu + + + = dtj·qz yxwn¡tv
xljz ërojunt€ uv tv xwvxvivu
= $' '>
(, . . .) (, , . 4) (, , , 4) (, , . .) (, , , .) (, , , ,)
# 0 '2 $' ' ' ? # # $ %8 $ # ' $> , + + . + 4 , + + . + . = $' $ ' .@
? 3( % %) + 3(% 4) = @ ⋅ .@
%@ ⋅ %@ + 4@ ⋅ = %7 %8 #
%7 $ ? # ' $
%9 %: / $
Ïwsjzj lntnm
Æ rv¡nsrn sn jz uvtnz€ k q rvwnnr wv vltvp uvtnzn rj lvmv lvxzvqtxzkj frvsrquq
xwvxvijuq uv tv ywsjzqz ëzquq uvtnzjuq rvwnprq ino
xlj·q"
Æ vzsq·qn vz éjxxuvzéntt€} k€¡n ojlj· olnx wvé¹lvr
uvtnz tn qméjnz évsq ² kj tv sq¡ rjrqn qunttv uvtnz€
inéyzx¹ ls¹ ywsjz€ tv ojzv rj lj¹ uvtnzj nxz k nlqtxzknttvu
ëronuws¹én
Ìivotj·qu ·néno )(N N NP 1) ·qxsv xwvxvivk rvzv
é€uq uv tv ywsjzqz 1 rvwnnr x wvuví uvtnz éjosq·tvmv
2 A' Ïwsjzj lntnm
lvxzvqtxzkj N N NP rvwnnr iné¹ tn ivsnn ·nu wv vltvp
uvtnzn rj lvmv lvxzvqtxzkj èjovinu kxn xwvxvi€ ywsjz€ tj
lkj rsjxxj k ojkqxquvxzq vz zvmv qxwvsovkjtj qsq tnz uvtnzj
lvxzvqtxzkvu k NP rvwnnr
cxsq vtj qxwvsovkjtj zv vxzjnzx¹ ywsjzqz xyuuy k
1 − NP rvwnnr x wvuví uvtnz k N N NP− rvwnnr ¬
ëzv uv tv xlnsjz )(N N NP− 1 − N2) xwvxvijuq cxsq
n uvtnzj k NP rvwnnr tn qxwvsovkjtj zv tjlv vwsjzqz kxí
xyuuy k 1 rvwnnr x wvuví uvtnz k N N NP− rvwnnr
¬ ëzv uv tv xlnsjz )(N N NP− 1) xwvxvijuq Ìzxílj
xsnlynz ·zv qunnz unxzv énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn
)(N N NP 1) =
= )(N N NP− 1 − N2) + )(N N NP− 1)
êzv xvvztv¡ntqn wvokvs¹nz xknxzq ojlj·y v k€ivén qo P
uvtnz r ojlj·n v k€ivén qo P − uvtnz Ívkzvé¹¹ ëzv n
éjxxy lntqn xkvlqu r ojlj·n v k€ivén qo P − uvtnz q z l
wvrj tn lvplnu sqiv lv ojlj·q vi ywsjzn tysnkvp xyuu€ sqiv
lv ojlj·q v k€ivén qo vltvp uvtnz€ Ìin ojlj·q én¡jízx¹
vltvotj·tv Íéq ëzvu k }vln k€·qxsntq¹ utvmqn xsjmjnu€n
vziéjx€kjízx¹ Ænl nxsq 1 > N + N + + N2 zv uvtnz tn
}kjzjnz tj vwsjzy wvrywrq q )(N N NP 1) = Çévun
zvmv k ojwqxq )(N N NP 1) kxnmlj uv tv k€·nértyz zn
NM rvzvé€n ivs¡n 1 ² vtq tn uvmyz y·jxzkvkjz k vwsjzn
xyuu€ 1 rvwnnr tjwéquné )( ) = )( ) Íéquntqu vwqxjtt€p unzvl r én¡ntqí tj¡np ojlj·q Ív
xvvztv¡ntqí k€kvlqu xtj·jsj ·zv
)( ) = )( ) +
+ )( ) = )( )
zjr rjr + + + + + + < q wvzvuy rjr y n
vi~¹xt¹svx )( ) = bjsnn wvsy·jnu ·zv
)( ) =
= )( ) + )( )
ƀ·qxsqu wnékvn xsjmjnuvn
)( ) = )( ) =
= )( ) + )( ) = + )( ) + )( ) = ­sjkj ,9 è¬dÈÊcËʉ
ƀ·qxsqu kzvévn xsjmjnuvn
)( ) =
= )( ) + )( ) = )( )
zjr rjr + + + + < q
)( ) = )( ) + )( ) = + = Ìrvt·jznstv wvsy·jnu ·zv
)( ) = Êzjr zéniynuyí ywsjzy uv tv wévqoknxzq xwvxvijuq j
qunttv
+ + + + + + + + + + + + Ívrywrj rvt{nz
Æ ujmjoqtn wévljízx¹ rvt{nz€ tnxrvsrq} kqlvk kqlj
² wv rvwnprq oj ¡zyry q kqlj ² wv rvwnprq oj ¡zyry
frvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv rywqz rvt{nz€ tj rvwnnr
nxsq iéjz tn ivsnn vltvp rvt{nz€ rj lvmv kqlj"
ïqxsv xwvxvivk uv tv rjr q éjt¡n vivotj·qz ·néno
)( ) dlnx k xrvirj} kxzén·jízx¹ vlqtjrvk€n ·q
xsj tv vtq vivotj·jíz éjot€n rvt{nz€ zjr ·zv rj lvn ·qxsv
uv tv ywvzénis¹z rjr xsjmjnuvn sq¡ vlqt éjo wvëzvuy
xvvztv¡ntqn
)(N N NP 1) =
= )(N N NP− 1 − NP) + )(N N NP− 1)
iylnz xwéjknlsqkv q ls¹ ëzvmv ivsnn vinmv xsy·j¹ èn¡ntqn
ojlj·q wvsy·jnzx¹ qo xsnlyíq} xvvztv¡ntqp
)( ) = )( ) + )( ) =
= )( ) + )( ) + )( ) =
= )( ) = )( ) + )( ) = + )( ) + )( ) = Êzjr wvrywry uv tv xlnsjz xwvxvijuq tnwénunttv
rywqz wv vltvp rvt{nzn vivq} kqlvk wv rvwnprq q lvijkqz
r tqu síiyí qo zén} rvt{nz wv rvwnprq
Çjojsvx i€ xzvsrv n én¡ntqp lvs tj qunz zjrj¹
ojlj·j
Æ rv¡nsrn sn jz zéq uvtnz€ wv rvwnprq q lkn uvtnz€
wv rvwnprq frvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv ywsjzqz x wvuv
í ëzq} uvtnz xyuuy k rvwnnr"
êzv ojkqxqz vltjrv vz zvmv rjrqn qunttv uvtnz€ sn jz
k rv¡nsrn cxsq uvtnz€ wv rvwnprq éjktv rjr q uvtnz€
wv rvwnprq éjosq·qu€ tjwéquné éjot€} mvlvk k€wyxrj Çjr éjount¹z méqknttqr"
zv ojlj·j xvkwjljnz x éjoviéjttvp q ywsjzy uv tv wévqoknxzq
xwvxvijuq cxsq n kxn uvtnz€ wv rvwnprq tnéjosq·qu€
zv vxzjnzx¹ nlqtxzkntt€p xwvxvi ywsjz€ ² vin uvtnz€ wv
rvwnprq q vltj uvtnzj k rvwnprq
Òjrqu viéjovu ojlj·q tj ywsjzy quníz éjot€p }jéjrzné
k ojkqxquvxzq vz zvmv éjosq·qu€ qsq tnz uvtnz€ vltvmv q
zvmv n lvxzvqtxzkj èjoviéjtt€p k€¡n unzvl én¡ntq¹ mvlqzx¹
sq¡ k xsy·jn rvmlj kxn uvtnz€ lj n vlqtjrvkvmv lvxzvqtxzkj
x·qzjízx¹ éjosq·t€uq
Ívrj nu znwné rjr én¡jz ojlj·y k xsy·jn rvmlj uvtnz€
vltvmv lvxzvqtxzkj x·qzjízx¹ tnéjosq·qu€uq
Æ rv¡nsrn sn jz uvtnz wv rvwnprq q uvtnz wv
rvwnprq frvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv ywsjzqz ëzquq
uvtnzjuq xyuuy k rvwnprq nxsq uvtnz€ vltvmv lvxzvqt
xzkj tnéjosq·qu€"
Ìivotj·qu ·qxsv én¡ntqp ojlj·q ·néno Φ( ) olnx
votj·jnz ·zv y tjx uvtnz wv rvwnprq nxz ¡zyr j
² ·zv uvtnz wv rvwnprq nxz ¡zyr èjovinu kxn
xwvxvi€ én¡ntq¹ ojlj·q tj rsjxx€ k ojkqxquvxzq vz zvmv
xrvsrv qxwvsovkjtv rvwnn·t€} uvtnz cxsq tjwéquné
qxwvsovkjt€ lkn zjrqn uvtnz€ zv vxzjnzx¹ ywsjzqz rvwnnr
x wvuví rvwnn·t€} uvtnz j nxsq qxwvsovkjt€ kxn w¹z
uvtnz zv vxzjnzx¹ ywsjzqz sq¡ rvwnnr cxsq n rvwn
n·t€n uvtnz€ xvkné¡nttv tn qxwvsovkjsqx ls¹ ywsjz€ zv
kxn rvwnprq tjlv ywsjzqz rvwnn·t€uq uvtnzjuq Òjrqu
viéjovu qunnz unxzv éjkntxzkv
Φ( ) = Φ( ) + Φ( ) + Φ( ) +
+ Φ( ) + Φ( ) + Φ( )
Íévlvs jz ljs¡n tn tjlv zjr rjr y tjx zvsrv w¹z rv
wnn·t€} uvtnz ‰xtv ·zv qun¹ sq¡ lnx¹z rvwnn·t€} uv
tnz tnkvouv tv ywsjzqz rvwnprq wvëzvuy Φ( ) = bjsnn v·nkqltv ·zv tn·nztyí xyuuy tnkvouv tv ywsjzqz
rvwnn·t€uq uvtnzjuq j ·nztyí uv tv ywsjzqz nlqtxzknt
t€u viéjovu Ívëzvuy qo {véuys€ xsnlynz
Φ( ) = Φ( ) + Φ( ) = + = cxz zvsrv lkj xwvxvij ywsjz€ = ⋅ + ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅ Çjr éjount¹z méqknttqr"
Çvmljzv wévnol tj unzév vwsj·qkjsx¹ rvwnn·tvp uvtnzvp
éjomvkvé wv znsn{vtyjkzvujzy ² rvwnn·tvp ·zvi€ k€wqz
xzjrjt mjoqévkjttvp kvl€ x xqévwvu tjlv i€sv vwyxzqz k
jkzvujz rvwnn·tyí uvtnzy j ino xqévwj ² rvwnn·tyí
­sjkj ,9 è¬dÈÊcËʉ
uvtnzy Ê énmys¹étv tjlv i€sv éjountqkjz méqknttqr uvtnzy
k rvwnnr tj ivsnn unsrqn Ævz q én¡qu zjryí ojlj·y
frvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv éjount¹z uvtnzy k rvwnnr
tj uvtnz€ k q rvwnnr"
êzj ojlj·j wv}v j tj én¡jk¡yíx¹ k wénl€lynu wytrzn
Òvsrv znwné ·qxsv uvtnz éjotvmv lvxzvqtxzkj tn vméjtq·ntv
Ívëzvuy ·qxsv én¡ntqp u€ vivotj·qu zjr Φ( )
èjxxy lj¹ zv·tv zjr n rjr q k wénl€lynu wytrzn éjovinu
kxn xwvxvi€ éjountj tj rsjxx€ wv ·qxsy k}vl¹q} k tq}
w¹zj·rvk qsq Φ( ) = Φ( ) + Φ( ) + Φ( ) ‰xtv ·zv Φ( ) = ² éjount¹z rvwnnr uv tv
nlqtxzkntt€u viéjovu
ïzvi€ xvx·qzjz Φ( ) éjovinu kxn xwvxvi€ éjountj
rvwnnr uvtnzjuq rvwnprq tj rsjxx€ k ojkqxquvxzq
vz zvmv xrvsrv inéyz rvwnn·t€} uvtnz ΀ wvsy·qu
Φ( ) = Φ( ) + Φ( )
wnékvn xsjmjnuvn xvvzknzxzkynz xsy·jí rvmlj tn inénzx¹ tq
vltj rvwnn·tj¹ uvtnzj j kzvévn ² rvmlj inéyz vlty zjryí
uvtnzy Íévlvs j¹ k€·qxsntq¹ lv}vlqu lv xzévrq
Φ( ) = Φ( ) + Φ( ) + Φ( ) + Φ( ) + Φ( )
Æxn ëzq xsjmjnu€n éjkt€ zjr rjr síij¹ xyuuj rvwnprjuq
éjountqkjnzx¹ nlqtxzkntt€u viéjovu Êzjr Φ( ) = Òv·tv zjr n wvlx·qz€kjnzx¹ ·zv Φ( ) = Æxnmv
wvsy·jnu xwvxvivk
Æunxzv xvvztv¡ntq¹ uv tv i€sv ko¹z xtj·jsj xvvz
tv¡ntqn
Φ( ) = Φ( ) + Φ( )
Ìtv wvrjo€kjnz ·zv xwvxvi€ éjountj éjxwjljízx¹ tj zn
mln tn qxwvsovkjt tq vlqt w¹zj·vr q tj zn mln }vz¹ i€ vlqt
w¹zj·vr qxwvsovkjt
Ævvin nxsq tjlv éjount¹z 1 rvwnnr uvtnzjuq lvxzv
qtxzkvu k N N NP rvwnnr zv ls¹ ·qxsj xwvxvivk éjountj
Φ(N N NP 1) knétv énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn
Φ(N N NP 1) =
= Φ(N N NP− 1) + Φ(N N
NP 1 − N2)
ènryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn wvrjo€kjnz ·zv sqiv u€ tn
qxwvsoynu tq vltvp uvtnz€ k NP rvwnnr tjiqéj¹ kxí xyuuy
bqjméjuutj¹ zn}tqrj
uvtnzjuq k N N NP− rvwnnr sqiv }vz¹ i€ vltj qo uvtnz
k NP rvwnnr qxwvsovkjtj zvmlj tjlv tjiéjz vxzjk¡yíx¹
xyuuy k 1 − NP rvwnnr uvtnzjuq k N N NP rvwnnr
cxsq n rjr ëzv i€sv k w uvtnz€ tn lvs t€ wvkzv
é¹zx¹ zv xvvztv¡ntqn ojunt¹nzx¹ xvvztv¡ntqnu
)(N N NP 1) =
= )(N N NP− 1) + )(N N NP− 1 − NP)
B
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$ $ 4 , 2 - $ # / '
% , 3
$2 - $ # $ '
%/ %, / ,/ 3
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bqjméjuutj¹ zn}tqrj
Ínékvtj·jst€n unzvl€ lvrjojznsxzkj znvénu v éjoiqntq¹}
·qxns i€sq knxuj xsv t€ Çjr q kv utvmq} kvwévxj} ujzn
ujzqrq wéqksn·ntqn mnvunzéq·nxrq} xvviéj ntqp ywévxzqsv q
xlnsjsv tjms¹lt€uq lvrjojznsxzkj ëzq} znvénu
Çj lvn éjoiqntqn ·qxsj 1 tj xsjmjnu€n uv tv qoviéjoqz
k kqln lqjméjuu€ Çj lj¹ xzévrj lqjméjuu€ xvxzvqz qo xzvs
rq} zv·nr xrvsrv nlqtq| k}vlqz k xvvzknzxzkyínn xsjmjn
uvn Ëjwéquné éjoiqntqí = + + + xvvzknzxzkynz lqj
méjuuj tj éqx èjoiqntq¹ vzsq·jíqnx¹ sq¡ wvé¹lrvu xsjmjnu€} u€
iylnu éjxxujzéqkjz rjr vlqtjrvk€n bs¹ zjrq} éjoiqntqp
xzévrq k lqjméjuun uv tv éjxwvsv qz zjr ·zvi€ q} lsqtj
tn yi€kjsj xkné}y ktqo Çévun zvmv wnék€n zv·rq k rj lvp
xzévrn u€ iylnu qoviéj jz k vltvu q zvu n xzvsi|n Òjrqn
lqjméjuu€ iylnu tjo€kjz tvéujst€uq
f wvuví lqjméjuu snmrv lvrjo€kjz éjosq·t€n xkvpxzkj
éjoiqntqp bvrj nu tjwéquné ·zv ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjoiqntq¹
·qxsj 1 tj tn ivsnn ·nu P xsjmjnu€} zjrvn
éjoiqntq¹ 1 + P tj évktv P xsjmjnu€}
n rjr q xwvxvivk
Æ xjuvu lnsn lqjméjuuj qoviéj jíj¹ éjoiqntqn ·qxsj
1 tj tn ivsnn ·nu P xsjmjnu€} xvxzvqz qo 1 zv·nr éjxwvsv
ntt€} tn ivsnn ·nu k P xzévrj} bvwvstqu nn xkné}y
tysnk€uq xzévrjuq zjr ·zvi€ k tnp xzjsv P xzévr q lvijkqu
èqx ­sjkj ,9 è¬dÈÊcËʉ
èqx 2
èqx 2
r rj lvp qo zjrq} lqjméjuu xsnkj xzvsin| xvxzv¹qp qo P
zv·nr xu éqx mln qoviéj ntv ëzv wénviéjovkjtqn ls¹
1 = P = Ívsy·qzx¹ lqjméjuuj xvxzv¹j¹ qo 1 + P zv·nr
éjxwvsv ntt€} k P xzévrj} wéq·nu k rj lvp xzévrn vrj nzx¹
}vz¹ i€ vltj zv·rj Ìiéjztv nxsq ojljtj lqjméjuuj xvxzv¹j¹
qo 1 + P zv·nr éjxwvsv ntt€} k P xzévrj} zv vziéjx€kj¹
nn wnék€p xzvsin| u€ wvsy·qu lqjméjuuy qo 1 zv·nr wéq·nu
·qxsv xzévr iylnz tn ivs¡n ·nu P xkné}y uvmyz wv¹kqzx¹
tysnk€n xzévrq q} uv tv tn y·qz€kjz ΀ yxzjtvkqsq kojqutv vltvotj·tvn xvvzknzxzkqn un ly
lqjméjuujuq lky} kqlvk Ívëzvuy ·qxsv lqjméjuu vivq} kqlvk
vlqtjrvkv
Ënxrvsrv xsv tnn lvrjo€kjnzx¹ xsnlyíj¹ znvénuj znv
énuj êpsnéj ïqxsv xwvxvivk éjoiqntq¹ ·qxsj 1 tj tn ivsnn ·nu P xsj
P(P + )
tj
mjnu€} éjktv ·qxsy xwvxvivk éjoiqntq¹ ·qxsj 1 +
P tnéjkt€} ·jxznp
Çj lvn éjoiqntqn ·qxsj 1 tj tn ivsnn ·nu P xsjmjnu€}
qoviéjoqu k kqln tvéujstvp lqjméjuu€ qo 1 zv·nr vtj iylnz
xvlné jz tn ivsnn ·nu P xzévr Ìw¹z lvwvstqu nn xkné}y
tysnk€uq xzévrjuq zjr ·zvi€ k tnp xzjsv P xzévr j ojznu
lvijkqu r rj lvp zjrvp lqjméjuun xsnkj éjktvinléntt€p
wé¹uvymvst€p zénymvstqr qo P xzévr tj éqx qoviéj ntv
zjrvn wénviéjovkjtqn wéq 1 = P = Òjr rjr ·qxsv zv·nr
k zénymvstqrn éjktv P(P+ ) zv u€ wvsy·qu tvéujstyí
lqjméjuuy qo 1 + P(P+ ) zv·nr xvlné jyí P xzévr
Íéq ëzvu kxn xzévrq lqjméjuu€ iylyz éjosq·tvp lsqt€ Æ
xjuvu lnsn lsqt€ xzévr qx}vltvp lqjméjuu€ wéq lkq ntqq
xkné}y ktqo tn yi€kjíz j lsqt€ xzévr zénymvstqrj kxn kénu¹
yknsq·qkjízx¹ dtj·qz wvxsn lvijksntq¹ zénymvstqrj wvsy
·jnzx¹ lqjméjuuj lsqt€ xzévr rvzvévp kxn kénu¹ éjxzyz
fsnlvkjznstv xzévr vlqtjrvkvp lsqt€ i€z tn uv nz
bkvpxzkntt€n lqjméjuu€
Ìiéjztv qo rj lvp tvéujstvp lqjméjuu€ ls¹ éjoiqntq¹
·qxsj 1 + P(P+ ) tj P tnéjkt€} xsjmjnu€} uv tv yljsqz
xsnkj éjktvinléntt€p wé¹uvymvst€p zénymvstqr xvlné j
qp P xzévr q wvsy·qz lqjméjuuy ls¹ éjoiqntq¹ 1 tj tn
ivsnn ·nu P xsjmjnu€} êzv xvvzknzxzkqn un ly lqjméjuujuq
lky} kqlvk wvrjo€kjnz ·zv ·qxsv q} vlqtjrvkv Ònu xju€u
tj¡n yzkné lntqn lvrjojtv
bkvpxzkntt€n lqjméjuu€
Ëjé¹ly x lvijksntqnu xzvsi|vk qsq zénymvstqrvk ·jxzv
qxwvsoyíz wvkvévz lqjméjuu tj ° x wvxsnlyínp tvéujsq
oj|qnp éqx cxsq xlnsjz zjrvn wénviéjovkjtqn nn éjo
zv xtvkj wvsy·qu qx}vltyí lqjméjuuy Ívëzvuy kxn lqjméjuu€
éjxwjljízx¹ tj lkvpxzkntt€n léym léymy wjé€ lqjméjuu }vz¹
tnrvzvé€n lqjméjuu€ vrjo€kjízx¹ wéq ëzvu lkvpxzkntt€uq
xjuq xnin tjwéquné lqjméjuuj tj éqx Ívsoy¹x lkvpxzknttvxzí lqjméjuu uv tv xéjktqkjz
éjoiqntq¹ wvl·qtntt€n tnrvzvé€u yxsvkq¹u tj knsq·qty xsj
mjnu€} x éjoiqntq¹uq wvl·qtntt€uq yxsvkq¹u tj ·qxsv
xsjmjnu€} Ëjwéquné xwéjknlsqkv xsnlyínn yzkné lntqn
èjoiqntqp ·qxsj 1 tj xsjmjnu€n tn wénkvx}vl¹qn P
xzvsrv n xrvsrv éjoiqntqp 1 tj tn ivsnn ·nu P xsjmjnu€}
Æ xjuvu lnsn lqjméjuu€ qoviéj jíqn éjoiqntqn 1
tj xsjmjnu€n tn wénkvx}vl¹qn P xvxzv¹z qo xzévr tq vltj
qo rvzvé€} tn lsqttnn ·nu P dtj·qz k zjrq} lqjméjuuj}
tn ivsnn ·nu P xzvsi|vk ¬ nxsq wvknétyz zjryí lqjméjuuy
tj ° zv wvsy·qzx¹ lqjméjuuj xvlné jj¹ tn ivsnn ·nu P
xzévr z n qoviéj jíj¹ éjoiqntqn zvmv n ·qxsj 1 tj tn
ivsnn ·nu P xsjmjnu€}
Òv·tv zjr n lvrjo€kjnzx¹ xsnlyínn yzkné lntqn
èjoiqntqp ·qxsj 1 tj P xsjmjnu€} xzvsrv n xrvsrv
éjoiqntqp 1 tj xsjmjnu€n tn wénkvx}vl¹qn P }vz¹ i€ vltv
qo rvzvé€} éjktv P
bjsnn éjxxuvzéqu éjoiqntq¹ ·qxsj 1 tj ·nzt€n xsjmjnu€n
êzq éjoiqntq¹ qoviéj jízx¹ lqjméjuujuq xzévrq rvzvé€} xv
lné jz ·nztvn ·qxsv zv·nr Ëv zvmlj k lkvpxzknttvp lqjméjuun
èqx èqx èqx ­sjkj ,9 è¬dÈÊcËʉ
iylnz ·nztvn rvsq·nxzkv xsjmjnu€} rj lvmv kqlj éqx Ìzxílj k€kvlqu zjrvn yzkné lntqn
èjoiqntqp ·qxsj 1 tj ·nzt€n xsjmjnu€n xzvsrv n
xrvsrv éjoiqntqp k rvzvé€n rj lvn qo ·qxns k}vlqz x
·nztvp réjztvxzí éjoyunnzx¹ tnrvzvé€n qo ·qxns uvmyz
xvkxnu tn k}vlqz zjr rjr tys ² ·nztvn ·qxsv ¬tjsvmq·tv lvrjo€kjnzx¹ xsnlyínn yzkné lntqn
èjoiqntqp ·qxsj 1 tj tn·nzt€n xsjmjnu€n xzvsrv n
xrvsrv éjoiqntqp 1 k rvzvé€n rj lvn qo xsjmjnu€} révun
tjqivs¡nmv k}vlqz x ·nztvp réjztvxzí j tjqivs¡nn
xsjmjnuvn ² x tn·nztvp réjztvxzí
;# $ Q ' $ Q Q
' 0 ' 2
;# $ U + [ U + [
' # $ U '
;# $ $ Q ' $' $ U − % $ $ Q U
Ðvéuysj êpsnéj
Æ xk¹oq x tnrvzvé€uq kvwévxjuq éjoiqntqp êpsné qoy·qs
inxrvtn·tvn wévqoknlntqn
$ = ( − [)( − [)( − [) ( − [Q) èjxrévnu k ëzvu wévqoknlntqq wnék€n xrvirq ΀
wvsy·qu k€éj ntqn
$ = > − [ − [ + [ + [ − [ − [ + [ + @ ×
Q
× ( − [ )( − [ ) ( − [ ) mln k rkjléjztvp xrvirn zv·rjuq vivotj·nt€ xsjmjnu€n xv
lné jqn [ k ivsnn k€xvrvp xznwntq ·nu ΀ tn xzjsq
k€wqx€kjz ëzq ·snt€ zjr rjr wvxsn yutv ntq¹ rkjléjztvp
xrvirq tj − [ − [ q z l vtq qount¹zx¹ ƀwqxjtt€n
n ·snt€ ivs¡n unt¹zx¹ tn iylyz Ívëzvuy nxsq éjxré€z
kxn xrvirq zv wvsy·qzx¹ inxrvtn·t€p é¹l wnék€n ·snt€ rv
zvévmv quníz kql
$ = − [ − [ + [ + [ − [ − [ + [ + Æqltv ·zv wvxsn lky} vzéq|jznst€} ·sntvk qlyz lkj wvsv
qznst€} wvzvu xtvkj lkj vzéq|jznst€} q z l Ìltjrv
ojrvt wv rvzvévuy qlyz wvrjojznsq ëzq} ·sntvk ysvkqz mv
éjolv zéyltnn Íyznu lsqznstvmv ërxwnéquntzqévkjtq¹ êpsné
yxzjtvkqs xsnlyínn wéjkqsv
Ðvéuysj êpsnéj
cxsq wénkéjzqz inxrvtn·tvn wévqoknlntqn
( − [)( − [)( − [) ( − [Q) k é¹l zv k ëzvu é¹ly iylyz vzsq·t€ vz tys¹ sq¡ xsjmjnu€n
N
kqlj (−) [
N ±N
mln N ² tjzyéjstvn ·qxsv
Ònvénuj êpsnéj qunnz ivs¡vn otj·ntqn tn zvsrv k znvéqq
éjoiqntqp tj xsjmjnu€n tv q k znvéqq ëssqwzq·nxrq} {ytr|qp
q léymq} kvwévxj} ujznujzq·nxrvmv jtjsqoj Ìltjrv ivs¡qt
xzkv lvrjojznsxzk ëzvp znvénu€ lvkvstv xsv t€ ΀ wéqkn
lnu xnp·jx knxuj wévxzvn mnvunzéq·nxrvn lvrjojznsxzkv znv
énu€ êpsnéj Íénlkjéqznstv tju wvtjlviqzx¹ x{véuysqévkjz
ëzy znvénuy tj ¹o€rn znvéqq éjoiqntqp
Íéq éjxré€zqq xrvivr k k€éj ntqq xsjmjnuvn ± [1
kxzénzqzx¹ xzvsrv éjo xrvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv éjoiqz
·qxsv 1 tj éjosq·t€n xsjmjnu€n Íéq ëzvu nxsq ·qxsv xsjmj
nu€} ·nztv zv wv¹ks¹nzx¹ [1 j nxsq ëzv ·qxsv tn·nztv zv
wv¹ks¹nzx¹ −[1 Ëjwéquné éjoiqntqí = + + + xvvz
knzxzkynz xsjmjnuvn (−[)(−[)(−[)(−[) = [ j éjoiqntqí
= + + ² xsjmjnuvn (−[)(−[)(−[) = −[ Òjrqu viéj
ovu rvë{{q|qntz wéq [1 k éjosv ntqq éjknt éjotvxzq
un ly rvsq·nxzkvu éjoiqntqp 1 tj ·nztvn ·qxsv éjosq·t€}
xsjmjnu€} q rvsq·nxzkvu éjoiqntqp 1 tj tn·nztvn ·qxsv
éjosq·t€} xsjmjnu€} Ònvénuj êpsnéj yzkné ljnz xsnlyínn
cxsq ·qxsv 1 tn uv nz i€z wénlxzjksntv k kqln
N ± N zv vtv qunnz vlqtjrvkvn rvsq·nxzkv éjoiqntqp
1=
tj ·nztvn q tj tn·nztvn ·qxsv éjosq·t€} xsjmjnu€} ¬ ls¹
N ± N éjotvxz un ly ëzquq rvsq·nxzkjuq
·qxns kqlj 1 =
N
éjktj (−) Êt€uq xsvkjuq nxsq N ·nztv zv tj ivs¡n éjoiqntqp
tj ·nztvn ·qxsv xsjmjnu€} j nxsq N tn·nztv zv tj ivs¡n
éjoiqntqp tj tn·nztvn ·qxsv xsjmjnu€}
ïzvi€ lvrjojz znvénuy êpsnéj wvrj nu tnxrvsrv xwvxv
ivk wénkéjntq¹ lqjméjuu€ x ·nzt€u ·qxsvu xzévr k lqjméju
uy qo xzvsrq} n zv·nr x tn·nzt€u ·qxsvu xzévr q viéjztv
Òjr rjr u€ éjxxujzéqkjnu sq¡ éjoiqntq¹ tj éjosq·t€n
xsjmjnu€n zv tvéujst€n lqjméjuu€ zjrq} éjoiqntqp xvxzv
¹z qo tnxrvsrq} zéjwn|qp wvxzjksntt€} léym tj léymj
Ìivotj·qu ·qxsv zv·nr k kné}tnp xzévrn lqjméjuu€ ·néno P
­sjkj ,9 è¬dÈÊcËʉ
j ·qxsv xzévr tq tnp zéjwn|qq ·néno Q tj éqx xsnkj
qoviéj ntj lqjméjuuj ls¹ rvzvévp P = Q = Íénviéjovkjtqn Íénlwvsv qu ·zv lqjméjuuj xvlné qz
tn untnn lky} zéjwn|qp wéq·nu P ≤ Q Æ ëzvu xsy·jn vziévxqu
wnékyí xzévry qo P zv·nr tv ylsqtqu wvxsnltqn P xzévr
tq tnp zéjwn|qq tj vlty zv·ry éqx Ívxsn ëzvmv vinn
·qxsv zv·nr tn qountqzx¹ kxn xzévrq vrj yzx¹ éjosq·tvp
lsqt€ tv ·nztvxz ·qxsj xzévr qountqzx¹
Òv·tv zjrvn n wénviéjovkjtqn uv tv xlnsjz nxsq lqj
méjuuj xvxzvqz qo vltvp zéjwn|qq tv Q ≥ P + tj éqx kné}t¹¹ xzévrj qx·nojnz tj vxzjk¡q}x¹ Q − xzévrj} lvs t€
wvunxzqzx¹ P zv·nr Íénviéjovkjtqn Íyxz znwné lqjméjuuj vw¹z xvlné qz
tn untnn lky} zéjwn|qp tv P > Q Òvmlj vz rj lvp xzévrq
wvxsnltnp zéjwn|qq kvounu wv vltvp zv·rn q xvxzjkqu qo tq}
wnékyí xzévry qo Q zv·nr tvkvp lqjméjuu€ éqx êzv
uv tv xlnsjz zjr rjr P > Q q wvëzvuy xvxzjksnttj¹ xzévrj
rvév·n wnékvp xzévrq qx}vltvp lqjméjuu€ Çévun zvmv zjr
rjr u€ ko¹sq kxn xzévrq tq tnp zéjwn|qq zv k wvsy·qk¡npx¹
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P−U Q−U U
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U
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( % U S " U−S
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N=
3))4
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1 1 3 +)4 0 7'(4) = 7' (4) 3' ([) ≡ (2 + 2 4 + )( + 4 + )
3)*4
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( + [ 1 Q Q
() + 4)Q = ∑ NQ 4N 7 N=
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Q
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7 ,, 1 3 9C4
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N
Q
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% 1 . '
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> ) ( − ) − ) P − ) . 0 3)$4 > )
7(Q Q PF 4) =
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. 1 − ) 0 > )
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3)94
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Q +$ 3* * , , 9 9 C4 7(* * , , 9 9 CF 4) = 3(* , , 9 9 CF 4) +
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⎡
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Q# ⎦
+# 6# <#
(Q − +)
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= Q ⎢) −
Q−
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N % % >Q = 'Q− − Q− + Q− − + (−))Q−'
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>Q− + >Q− = Q−
Q−
Q−
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_
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% %1 ' " ' %
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%& &' %& /' %C C'@
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Q + 6 5 5
èqx ( U 0 S [ [ 5 6US Q + ' ( P + P + P + ' 4 P + C P + + (6P + +)
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+< +1 ' ( +C / = <6 5
C= &6 5 1= 61 <C 5 F= +6 6? &C
5 +?= 66 /6 5 +6= +& 5 +&=
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svujt€} tn wnénxnrjíq} wé¹uyí 0 = − k€éj jnzx¹ {véuy
svp
−3+ P
$(3 ) − $( + 3 − ) = .N − .N+ =
. N+P
N+P
+
P+N
Êzjr rvsq·nxzkv v·nénlnp wéq rvzvé€} tn wévqx}vlqz
ojlné rq éjktv − 3+ + &PP+N mln ² ·qxsv wvszqttqrvk
3 ² ·qxsv éyisnp Æ ·jxztvxzq nxsq = 3 zv v·nénl wévplnz
ino ojlné rq k + &NN xsy·j¹} q ojlné qzx¹ k + &NN
xsy·j¹} Íéq ivs¡q} = 3 v·nénl ·jn kxnmv ojlné qzx¹
Ëj¡j ojlj·j wvstvxzí én¡ntj
èjxxuvzéqu znwné tnrvzvévn vivintqn ëzvp ojlj·q
@ #' " # " " A
+ # "
> 3 # # # "
­nvunzéq·nxrvn wénlxzjksntqn ëzvp ojlj·q iylnz wv·zq zjrqu
n Òvsrv ojwénztvp wé¹uvp znwné iylnz wé¹uj¹ 0 = − A − tjsq·qn A wvszqttqrvk k rjxxn wvokvs¹nz svujtvp yrsvtqzx¹
tj A nlqtq| ksnkv ino ojlné rq v·nénlq j yrsvtqzx¹ tj A + nlqtq| vtj y n tn qunnz wéjkj Ívëzvuy znwné
′(3 − − A − + 3) y ?′ okntnk ksnkv + A + okntnk
­sjkj 9, ÈÉϐb¬Ëʉ ÐÊ­ÏèËÔc ïÊfɬ Ê ÌÈÌÈÕcËʉ
kwéjkv
3 − A − ·qxsv tnisjmvwéq¹zt€} wnénxzjtvkvr
3( + A + 3 − A − ) j ·qxsv isjmvwéq¹zt€} éjktv
iylnz
P−T−
.P
P+N − .P+N cxsq wéq ëzvu 3 ≤ A zv v·nénl tjknét¹rj wévplnz ino
ojlné rq ² wvszqttqrvk rvzvé€n i€sq k rjxxn x xjuvmv
tj·jsj }kjzqz ·zvi€ ylvksnzkvéqz kxn} ksjlns|nk éyisnp
cxsq n 3 > + A zv v·nénl tjknét¹rj ojlné qzx¹ ² vinmv
·qxsj wvszqttqrvk k rjxxn q k v·nénlq tn }kjzqz ·zvi€ ljz
xlj·y kxnu ksjlns|ju éyisnp
Æ wév|nxxn wév}v lntq¹ v·nénlq uvmsq i€z uvuntz€
rvmlj k rjxxn tn vxzjkjsvx tq vltvmv wvszqttqrj q v·nénl
tn vxzjtjksqkjsjx sq¡ wvzvuy ·zv wvrywjk¡qp k ëzvz
uvuntz iqsnz i€s rjr éjo visjljznsnu wvszqttqrj Ívlx·qzjnu
·qxsv éjxxzjtvkvr wéq rvzvé€} tq éjoy tn iylnz zjrvmv
réqzq·nxrvmv uvuntzj Êt€uq xsvkjuq én¡qu zjryí ojlj·y
! # " # 3
# #' -# -
#' " ' ' #' #' "
êzj ojlj·j zv n én¡jnzx¹ unzvlvu wvlx·nzj svujt€} Ëv
znwné tjlv qxrjz svujt€n wnénxnrjíqn wé¹uyí 0 = sq¡
k tj·jsn rvvélqtjz q wéq 3 = k zv·rn $( ) Ívxrvsry
qo yxsvkq¹ ojlj·q ¹xtv ·zv kwnénlq lvs t€ xzv¹z lkj
visjljzns¹ wvszqttqrj zv wnékvmv qo tq} uv tv vzknxzq k
xzvévty q zvmlj wvsy·qu én¡nttyí k€¡n ojlj·y tv ls¹
xsy·j¹ rvmlj tj 3 éyisnp wéq}vlqzx¹ − wvszqttqr Ívë
zvuy ·qxsv isjmvwéq¹zt€} éjxxzjtvkvr wéq 3 < éjktv
P−
.P
P+N− − .P+N− =
−3 P
N .P+N−
cxsq n 3 = zv tjlv vzknxzq k xzvévty q oju€rjínmv
v·nénl visjljzns¹ éyis¹ wévknézn xjuq ·zv k ëzvu xsy·jn
k rvt|n tn uv nz tj}vlqzx¹ visjljzns wvszqttqrj ΀
wvsy·qu vzknz .N−N−
Æj tvn xsnlxzkqn Ìivotj·qu ·néno BQ ·qxsv .QQ
+
wvrjo€kjínn kv xrvsrq} xsy·j¹} wév}vlqz ino ojlné rq
v·nénl qo visjljznsnp éyisnp q wvszqttqrvk ΀ lvrj nu
xnp·jx ·zv ëzq ·qxsj ylvksnzkvé¹íz énryééntztvuy xvvztv¡n
tqí
BQ = BBQ− + BBQ− + + BV−BQ−V + + 7Q−B
djlj·j v lky} ¡néntmj}
bs¹ lvrjojznsxzkj éjovinu kxn kjéqjtz€ tj rsjxx€ vz
tnx¹ r 9uy rsjxxy v·nénlq k rvzvé€} sq¡ wvxsn zvmv rjr
wévplyz 9 wvrywjznsnp k wnék€p éjo vitjéy qkjíz vzxyzxzkqn
k rjxxn wvszqttqrvk Æ ëzvu xsy·jn xénlq wnék€} 9 wvrywj
znsnp qunnzx¹ 9 ·nsvknr x wvszqttqrjuq q 9 ·nsvknr x éyis¹uq
j ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjxxzjtvkrq wéq rvzvé€} k rjxxn tj wnék€}
9 − ¡jmj} i€s }vz¹ i€ vlqt wvszqttqr éjktv rjr u€
kqlnsq 9 .V−V− = BV− fénlq vxzjk¡q}x¹ − 9 sílnp y
− 9 éyisq q y
− 9 wvszqttqrq èjxxzjkqz q} zjr ·zvi€
v·nénl q wvzvu wév¡sj isjmvwvsy·tv uv tv BQ−V xwvxvijuq
Æxnmv wv wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹ wvsy·jnu ·zv k 9u rsjxxn
iylnz BV−BQ−V éjxxzjtvkvr ¬ zjr rjr vinn ·qxsv isjmvwvsy·
t€} éjxxzjtvkvr éjktv BQ zv k€wvst¹nzx¹ éjkntxzkv Íéq
ëzvu B = + ! " ! # $ % " & & " "' ( $) $ *
" & & *( ! & +N $& ! ( +N − ! "' ,$ Q ) "' & + ! & Q ) " & (& & - ) & " (. * " & / *
" Q "'
Q 0 =
= Q = Q = +
!
QQ
djlj·j v lky} ¡néntmj}
Æ rvuiqtjzvéqrn ·jxzv i€kjnz ·zv lkn tj wnék€p koms¹l
knxuj ljsnrqn léym vz léymj ojlj·q vrjo€kjízx¹ wv xyzq lnsj
vlqtjrvk€uq èjxxuvzéqu zjryí ojlj·y
& + 3 ≥ P ! # "
3 #' " ­sjkj 9, ÈÉϐb¬Ëʉ ÐÊ­ÏèËÔc ïÊfɬ Ê ÌÈÌÈÕcËʉ
èqx - " #'- "'
#' " > #' " ' "
Ìrjo€kjnzx¹ én¡ntqn ëzvp ojlj·q xkvlqzx¹ r y n éj
oviéjttvp ojlj·n vi v·nénlq k rjxxy Ívxzjkqu sílnp zén
iynu€u viéjovu q ljlqu kxnu xzv¹qu k wnékvp ¡néntmn wv
wvszqttqry j kxnu xzv¹qu kv kzvévp ¡néntmn wv éyisí
wvxsn ·nmv k€xzévqu kxn} wv éjt qéy k vlty rvsvtty Ívsy
·qzx¹ v·nénl qo 3 visjljznsnp éyisnp q visjljznsnp wvs
zqttqrvk Êo yxsvkq¹ ojlj·q xéjoy xsnlynz ·zv ëzj v·nénl
wévplnz ino ojlné rq Æ xjuvu lnsn wyxz rzvzv ojtqujnz
n unxzv kv kzvévp ¡néntmn Òvmlj xénlq ksjlns|nk éyisnp
sq¡ − k€¡n tnmv ¬ xénlq ksjlns|nk wvszqttqrvk wv
réjptnp unén ·nsvknr k€¡n tnmv ² xzv¹qp wé¹uv wnénl
tqu q − xzv¹q} k wnékvp ¡néntmn wnénl znuq rzv k€¡n
tnmv k nmv ¡néntmn Ívëzvuy rvmlj vt wvlvplnz r rjxxn zju
iylnz }vz¹ i€ vlqt wvszqttqr q xlj·j nuy vinxwn·ntj
Ìiéjztv wyxz ojljtj tnrvzvéj¹ éjxxzjtvkrj + 3 ·nsvknr
wv éjt qéy tnrvzvé€n ·nsvknr x wvszqttqrjuq vxzjst€n
3 ·nsvknr x éyis¹uq q v·nénl wév}vlqz ino ojlné rq ƀin
énu znwné kxn} visjljznsnp wvszqttqrvk q wvxzjkqu q} wv
éjt qéy k wnékyí ¡néntmy j k ojz€svr r tqu wvxzjkqu wv
éjt qéy 3 visjljznsnp éyisnp Íénlvxzjks¹nu ·qzjznsí wév
knéqz ·zv ëzj éjxxzjtvkrj visjljnz ty t€uq xkvpxzkjuq
dtj·qz ·qxsv kvouv t€} éjxxzjtvkvr sílnp k lkn ¡néntmq
éjktv ·qxsy v·nénlnp wéq rvzvé€} tn iylnz ojlné rq
12 & 3
' 4((' " "' ≥ Q ≥ ≥ P ! " P
# ! + = + + + P !$ # !$ " " %5
6 $ % "' $" ( $&
Ì·nénlq q xkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp
Ì·nénlq q xkvpxzkj xv·nzjtqp
ƀknlntt€n k wénl€lyq} wytrzj} {véuys€ wvokvs¹íz
yxzjtvkqz ljstnp¡qn xkvpxzkj ·qxsj xv·nzjtqp .NP
èjovinu tj rsjxx€ kxn tnisjmvwéq¹zt€n wnénxzjtvkrq
qo 3 iyrk ©éª q iyrk ©wª ² wéq rvzvé€} v·nénl k rjxxy
ojlné qkjnzx¹ Ìztnxnu r 9uy rsjxxy kxn wnénxzjtvkrq ls¹
rvzvé€} ojlné rj kwnék€n wévqx}vlqz tj unxzn 9 + zvmlj
wnénl tqu xzvqz 9 iyrk ©éª q 9 iyrk ©wª tj tnu xzvqz iyrkj
©éª j v·nénl kwsvz lv ëzvmv unxzj wév}vlqz ino ojlné rq
‰xtv ·zv 9 uv nz wéqtqujz otj·ntqn 3 − Ëjplnu xrvsrv wnénxzjtvkvr k}vlqz k 9p rsjxx Ëj wnék€}
9 unxzj} uvmyz xzv¹z síi€n isjmvwéq¹zt€n wnénxzjtvkrq qo
9 iyrk ©éª q 9 iyrk ©wª ² knl lv unxzj 9 + v·nénl tn
vxzjtjksqkjnzx¹ Çjr u€ kqlnsq ·qxsv zjrq} wnénxzjtvkvr
éjktv 9 + .VV bjsnn tj unxzn 9 + xzvqz iyrkj ©éª j wvxsn
tnn ² síij¹ wnénxzjtvkrj vxzjk¡q}x¹ 3 − 9 − iyrk ©éª q
− 9 iyrk ©wª ïqxsv ëzq} wnénxzjtvkvr éjktv
−V−
$(3 − 9 − − 9) = .P
P+N−V−
Òjrqu viéjovu k xqsy wéjkqsj wévqoknlntq¹ ·qxsv tnisj
mvwéq¹zt€} wnénxzjtvkvr 9mv rsjxxj éjktv 9 + .VV.PP−+VN−−V−
Òjr rjr vinn ·qxsv tnisjmvwéq¹zt€} wnénxzjtvkvr éjktv
P− j ·qxsv rsjxxvk éjktv 3 − zv wvsy·jnu wéq 3 ≤ .P
+N
xvvztv¡ntqn
P−
−
..P
P+N− + ..P+N− +
P−
P−
P−
+ ..P+N− + +
3 &P−.N−P+ = &P+N
êzv xvvztv¡ntqn ¹ks¹nzx¹ ·jxzt€u xsy·jnu {véuys€
P−
∑ ⎛⎝.VV−T − .V−VT−−T⎞⎠ &PP−+NV−+T−V− = .PP−+NT−
V=T
wv¹ks¹ínnx¹ .−T x·qzjnzx¹ éjkt€u tysí Ðvéuysj vivijnz tj xsy·jp rvmlj y rjxxqéj i€sv
k ojwjxn A wvszqttqrvk
cn vltv xvvztv¡ntqn un ly ·qxsjuq .P
Q wvsy·jnzx¹
xsnlyíqu viéjovu djljlqu ·qxsv C ≤ C ≤ 3 q éjovinu
utv nxzkv kxn} isjmvwéq¹zt€} wnénxzjtvkvr tj rsjxx€ vztnx¹
mln
A<3≤+A
­sjkj 9, ÈÉϐb¬Ëʉ ÐÊ­ÏèËÔc ïÊfɬ Ê ÌÈÌÈÕcËʉ
r 9uy rsjxxy kxn wnénxzjtvkrq xvlné jqn xénlq wnék€} C
ësnuntzvk évktv 9 iyrk ©éª Òvmlj ·qxsv iyrk ©wª xénlq wnék€}
C ësnuntzvk éjktv C − 9 Òjr rjr iyrk ©wª lvs tv i€z tn
unt¡n ·nu iyrk ©éª zv 9 ylvksnzkvé¹nz tnéjkntxzkju
≤ 9 ≤ C
Ëjplnu ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr k 9u rsjxxn Çj lj¹ zjrj¹
wnénxzjtvkrj éjxwjljnzx¹ tj lkn ·jxzq vltj xvxzvqz qo wnék€}
C iyrk j léymj¹ ² qo wvxsnltq} + 3 − C iyrk Æ wnékyí ·jxz
k}vlqz C − 9 iyrk ©wª q 9 iyrk ©éª Íéq ëzvu zjr rjr kx¹
wnénxzjtvkrj isjmvwéq¹ztj zv q nn ·jxz xvxzv¹j¹ qo wnék€}
C iyrk zv n isjmvwéq¹ztj ¬ qo C − 9 iyrk ©wª q 9 iyrk ©éª
uv tv xvxzjkqz CC −− 99++ .VO zjrq} wnénxzjtvkvr
Ívxsn zvmv rjr wévplnz wnékj¹ ·jxz wnénxzjtvkrq k rjxxn
iylnz C − 9 wvszqttqrvk Æzvéj¹ ·jxz wnénxzjtvkrq xvxzvqz
qo − C + 9 iyrk ©wª q 3 − 9 iyrk ©éª ïqxsv wnénxzjtvkvr
wéq rvzvé€} ëzj ·jxz v·nénlq wév}vlqz ino ojlné rq k€·qx
s¹nzx¹ wv {véuysn w k rvzvévp tjlv ojuntqz A tj
C − 9 3 tj 3 − 9 q tj − C + 9 Êo ëzvp {véuys€ k€znrjnz
·zv kzvéj¹ ·jxz wnénxzjtvkrq uv nz i€z k€iéjtj
−V
P+V−O−
.P
P+N−O − .P+N−O xwvxvijuq Ív wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹ wvsy·j
nu ·zv ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr k 9u rsjxxn éjktv
C − V + V ⎛ P−V
P+V−O−⎞ −.
. &
C−9+
O ⎝ P+N−O
P+N−O ⎠
Òjr rjr vinn ·qxsv isjmvwéq¹zt€} wnénxzjtvkvr qo iyrk
©wª q 3 iyrk ©éª éjktv − 3+ + .PP+N zv wvsy·jnu zv lnxzkv
−3+ P
C − 9 + V P−V
P+V−O−
∑ O − 9 + .O ⎛⎝.P+N−O − .P+N−O ⎞⎠ = + .P+N
V=
>O@
dlnx ·néno >C4@ vivotj·ntj |nsj¹ ·jxz ·qxsj C .SU x·qzjnzx¹
éjkt€u tysí wéq D < ïqzjzns ino zéylj k€knlnz jtjsvmq·
t€n xvvztv¡ntq¹ yxzjtjksqkj¹ zn qsq qt€n unzvl€ éjoiqntq¹
wnénxzjtvkvr tj rsjxx€
Ï ‘nuj}jtxrvp |jéq|€
Ænétnux¹ r isy ljtq¹u zvsw€ sílnp wv vxq /0 Òvsrv
znwné iylnu x·qzjz ·zv xsnkj vz zv·rq / qo rvzvévp vtq
k€¡sq wévxzqéjízx¹ ksjlntq¹ ‘nuj}jtxrvp |jéq|€
Ï ‘nuj}jtxrvp |jéq|€
x€méjk¡np xzvs wn·jstyí évs k xylin tnojlj·sqkvmv |jé¹
bvlvtj q nmv x€tvknp Òvz rzv wvwjljs k nn |jéxzkv viéjztv
y n tn kvokéjjsx¹ ΀ zv n iylnu x·qzjz ·zv zn rzv
wvwjljíz tj snkyí wvsvkqty vxq zju q vxzjízx¹ Òéniynzx¹
k€¹xtqz xrvsrv ·nsvknr vxzjtnzx¹ y ‘nuj}jtxrvp |jéq|€
q mln vrj yzx¹ vxzjst€n sílq ·néno ·jxvk wvxsn k€}vlj
Q ·nsvknr qo zv·rq /
Ìrjo€kjnzx¹ ëzj ojlj·j xkvlqzx¹ r éjxxuvzénttvp tjuq
k€¡n ojlj·n vi v·nénlq k rjxxy rqtvznjzéj Æ xjuvu lnsn
wnénlkq ntq¹ tnrvzvévmv ·nsvknrj k€¡nl¡nmv qo zv·rq /
uv tv x·qzjz tnrqu kjéqjtzvu éjxwénlnsntq¹ k v·nénlq wvs
zqttqrvk q éyisnp cmv uv tv qoviéjoqz zjrvp n svujtvp
rjr q wévlkq ntqn v·nénlq k rjxxy rj lvuy wnénlkq ntqí
tjwéjkv xvvzknzxzkynz okntv svujtvp qlynn tjwéjkv q kkné}
ywsjzj wvszqttqrj j rj lvuy lkq ntqí tjsnkv ² okntv
svujtvp qlynn tjsnkv q kkné} ywsjzj éyis¹ q qo~¹zqn qo
rjxx€ wvszqttqrj cxsq k ëzvp wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq éjo
kxzén·jnzx¹ wnénlkq ntqn kwéjkv q − éjo ksnkv tjwvutqu
·zv rj l€p éjo ² tj nlqtq|€ lsqt€ zv k rvt|n
lkq ntq¹ ·nsvknr wvwjljnz k zv·ry N ⎛⎝ − ⎞⎠ Ìltjrv ëzv
xsy·qzx¹ sq¡ k zvu xsy·jn nxsq tj¡ wyztqr wv lvévmn tn
ymvlqz k ‘nuj}jtxrvn |jéxzkv z n tq k vlqt uvuntz kénuntq
·qxsv wnénlkq ntqp ksnkv tn vrj nzx¹ ivs¡n ·qxsj wnénlkq
ntqp kwéjkv Ívxsnltnn yxsvkqn éjktvxqstv zvuy ·zv svuj
tj¹ qoviéj jíj¹ lkq ntqn v·nénlq tn qunnz viq} zv·nr
x wé¹uvp 0 = − Îv tv xrjojz ·zv ylkvnttj¹ rvvélqtjzj
unxzvtj}v lntq¹ wyztqrj éjktj rvsq·nxzky wvszqttqrvk
quníq}x¹ k rjxxn j wvwjljtqn r ‘nuj}jtxrvp |jéq|n xvvz
knzxzkynz zvuy ·zv v·nénl k rjxxy ojlné qzx¹
dtj·qz ·qxsv sílnp wvwjk¡q} k zv·ry N ⎛⎝ − ⎞⎠ éjktv
·qxsy xsy·jnk rvmlj v·nénl k rvzvévp xzv¹z visjljznsnp
wvszqttqrvk q − N visjljznsnp éyisnp wévplnz ino ojlné rq
¬ u€ otjnu ·zv ëzv ·qxsv vzsq·tv vz tys¹ sq¡ nxsq
≥ − Æ ëzvu xsy·jn vtv éjktv xu − + .N = (N − + ) .NQ − .NQ+ =
Q ( − N) ( + )
+
Êzjr ·néno ·jxvk wvxsn k€}vlj Q ·nsvknr qo zv·rq / k
zv·ry N ⎛⎝ − ⎞⎠ mln ≥ wéqlyz tn wvwjk r ‘nuj}jtxrvp
|jéq|n .NQ − .NQ+ ·nsvknr
­sjkj 9, ÈÉϐb¬Ëʉ ÐÊ­ÏèËÔc ïÊfɬ Ê ÌÈÌÈÕcËʉ
Ònwné y n tnzéyltv wvlx·qzjz xrvsrv ·nsvknr vxzjtnzx¹
k ‘nuj}jtxrvu |jéxzkn bs¹ ëzvmv xsv qu xtj·jsj ·qxsj
.NQ − .NQ+ ls¹ kxn} lvwyxzqu€} otj·ntqp Ëjqunt¡qu lv
wyxzqu€u otj·ntqnu ls¹ ·nzt€} ¹ks¹nzx¹ = Q bs¹
tn·nzt€} = C + qunnu .QO = .QO+ z n .QO − .QO+ = wvëzvuy uv tv tj·jz x = O = ⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ Ëjqivs¡qu lvwyxzqu€u
¹ks¹nzx¹ = Q
Êzjr kxnmv lv¡sq lv |nsq tn ojxzé¹k k ‘nuj}jtxrvu
|jéxzkn
Q
N
N+
N+
N+
Q+
N
(.Q − &Q ) + (.Q − .Q ) + + (.Q − .Q ) = .Q
⎡ Q⎤
·nsvknr mln = ⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ z n .Q⎣ ⎦ ·nsvknr ¬ zjr rjr kxnmv qo
zv·rq / k€¡sv Q ·nsvknr zv kv ksjlntq¹} ‘nuj}jtxrvp |j
⎡Q ⎤
éq|€ vxzjsqx Q − .Q⎣⎦ ·nsvknr
cxsq i€ ‘nuj}jtxrvn |jéxzkv tj·qtjsvx tn xsnkj vz zv·rq
2() j xsnkj vz zv·rq / ⎛⎝− A ⎞⎠ zv lv zv·rq N ⎛⎝ − ⎞⎠ lv¡sq i€
−A
.NQ − .NQ+T+ ·nsvknr ≥ vxzjst€n ojxzé¹sq i€ kv ksj
lntq¹} ‘nuj}jtxrvp |jéq|€ êzv xéjoy k€znrjnz qo énoyszj
zvk w ls¹ kjéqjtzj rvmlj k rjxxn qotj·jstv i€sv A wvs
zqttqrvk
Æ {vsrsvétvu kjéqjtzn ojlj·q v isy ljtq¹} rjr u€
mvkvéqsq k zv·rn / tj}vlqsvx wqznptvn ojknlntqn dlnx y n
éjoyunnzx¹ tn i€sv tqrjrvp ‘nuj}jtxrvp |jéq|€ j wévxzv
xsnkj vz zv·rq / i€sj k€é€zj rjtjkj rylj q wvwjljsq
tnyunéntt€n wvrsvttqrq Èj}yxj
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Íéq ëzvu wvxrvsry k tj·jsn kzvévmv unx¹|j tqrzv tn év ljsx¹
wnék€uq lkyu¹ |q{éjuq y kxn} wjé iylyz ­ntnjsvmq¹ qx}vltvp
wjé€ ojljnzx¹ wvxsnlvkjznstvxzí kqlj Çévun zvmv zjr rjr
tvkvév lnttj¹ wjéj tj·qtjnz ljkjz wvzvuxzkv sq¡ tj·qtj¹ xv kzv
évmv unx¹|j xv lt¹ év lntq¹ tq k rjrvp mntnjsvmqq tn kxzénzqzx¹
lky} nlqtq| wvlé¹l
Íéq yrjojttvu wéjkqsn éjosq·t€u wvxsnlvkjznstvxz¹u vzkn·jíz
éjosq·t€n wjé€ révsqrvk q viéjztv lkn éjosq·t€n wjé€ révsqrvk
kxnmlj quníz éjotyí ©mntnjsvmqíª zjr rjr wv yxsvkqí révs·q}j
ljnz wéqwsvl xvxzv¹qp zvsrv qo vltvp wjé€ révsqrvk
Òjrqu viéjovu XQ éjktv ·qxsy wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp lsqt€ Q qo
tysnp q nlqtq| tj·qtjíq}x¹ |q{éjuq q tn xvlné jq} lky}
nlqtq| wvlé¹l djuntqu znwné rj lyí zjryí wvxsnlvkjznstvxz
tvkvp wvxsnlvkjznstvxzí qo nlqtq| q lkvnr wv xsnlyínuy wéjkq
sy vziéjx€kjnu wnékyí nlqtq|y q ojunt¹nu rj lyí wjéy |q{é tj j vxzjk¡qnx¹ tysq tj zjr rjr lky} wvlé¹l qlyq} nlqtq|
i€z tn uv nz zv wnénl rj lvp nlqtq|np xzvqz }vz¹ i€ vlqt tys Æ énoyszjzn wvsy·qu wvxsnlvkjznstvxz qo nlqtq| q lkvnr xyuuj
·qxns k rvzvévp tj unt¡n lsqt€ qx}vltvp wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq ¬
ëzv q wvrjo€kjnz ·zv XQ éjktv ·qxsy wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp qo nlqtq|
q lkvnr x xyuuvp ·qxns Q − z n XQ = )(Q − )
Êzjr éjxxuvzéqu wvxsnlvkjznstvxz qo ·qxns q x
xyuuvp kxn} ·qxns − bvwyxzqu ·zv k ëzy wvxsnlvkjzns
tvxz k}vlqz $ lkvnr Òvmlj k tnn k}vlqz nn − − $ nlqtq|
j kxnmv − − $ |q{é ƀiéjz qo − − $ unxz ls¹ |q{é zn
$ tj rvzvé€} xzv¹z lkvprq ≤ $ ≤ − uv tv 'NQ−−N
xwvxvijuq Íéqunt¹¹ wéjkqsv xyuu€ wéq}vlqu r xvvztv¡n
tqí
%Q = &Q− + 'Q− + + &SQ−S−
mln ( = − nxsq tn·nztv q ( = − nxsq ·nztv ( ²
tjqivs¡nn lvwyxzquvn otj·ntqn $ Êt€uq xsvkjuq ( ²
|nsj¹ ·jxz ·qxsj − gnsj¹ ·jxz ·qxsj ) vivotj·jnzx¹
vi€·tv >)@ Òjrqu viéjovu ( = ⎡⎣ − ⎤⎦
Ìw¹z snmrv wvlx·qzjz ·zv % = djlj·q
èjxxujzéqkjnzx¹ é¹l ·qxns Ðqivtj··q X = X = X = X = X = X = q z l XQ+ = XQ + XQ+ bvrj qzn xsnlyíqn
xvvztv¡ntq¹ ls¹ ·qxns Ðqivtj··q
j XQ+P = XQ−XP + XQXP+
­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
i ls¹ síi€} P q Q = NP ·qxsv XQ lnsqzx¹ tj XP
k lkj xvxnltq} ·sntj é¹lj Ðqivtj··q kojqutv wévxz€
Ëjplqzn tjqivs¡qp viqp lnsqzns mv q mv ·sntvk
é¹lj Ðqivtj··q
Ëjplnzx¹ sq xénlq wnék€} wnék€} ·sntvk é¹lj
Ðqivtj··q ·qxsv vrjt·qkjínnx¹ ·nz€éu¹ tys¹uq"
Æ é¹ln Ðqivtj··q k€iéjtv wvlé¹l qlyq} ·qxns bvrj qzn
·zv q} xyuuj tn k}vlqz k ëzvz é¹l
bvrj qzn ·zv
j X + X + + XQ = XQ+ − i X + X + + XQ− = XQ
k X + X + + XQ = XQXQ+
m XQ+ = XQXQ+ + (−)Q
l XX + XX + + XQ−XQ = XQ
n XX + XX + + XQXQ+ = XQ+ − QX + (Q − )X + (Q − )X + + XQ− + XQ = XQ+ − (Q + )
X
−
o X + X + + XQ = Q+ q XQ = XQ+ + XQ − XQ−
bvrj qzn ·zv síivn tjzyéjstvn ·qxsv 1 uv tv wénlxzjkqz
k kqln xyuu€ ·qxns Ðqivtj··q wéq·nu rj lvn ·qxsv iylnz k}vlqz
k xyuuy tn ivsnn vltvmv éjoj q tqrjrqn lkj xvxnltq} ·qxsj tn kvplyz
kunxzn
Ënrvzvé€p js{jkqz xvxzvqz qo ¡nxzq iyrk rvzvé€n ls¹
wnénlj·q wv znsnméj{y rvlqévkjt€ zjr • ² • • ² ² • ² ² • Íéq
wnénlj·n vltvmv xsvkj tn xlnsjsq wévun yzrvk vzlns¹íq} iyrky vz
iyrk€ zjr ·zv wvsy·qsjx xwsv¡tj¹ |nwv·rj zv·nr q zqén xvxzv¹j¹
qo otjrvk frvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv wév·qzjz wnénljttvn
xsvkv"
frvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv wév·qzjz xsvkv nxsq k tnmv kv¡sv
Q zv·nr q zqén"
èjoiqntq¹ {qmyé
ènryééntzt€n xvvztv¡ntq¹ wéqunt¹ízx¹ q ls¹ én¡ntq¹
utvmq} ojlj· mnvunzéq·nxrvp rvuiqtjzvéqrq Ëjplnu tjwéq
uné # Ìivotj·qu ëzv ·qxsv ·néno *(Q) Íévknlnu ( + )í
wé¹uyí zjr ·zvi€ vtj wnénxnrjsj kxn éjtnn wévknlntt€n
wé¹u€n Òvmlj tj tnp iylnz zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ rvzvé€n
éjoiqkjíz nn tj + ·jxz Çj lj¹ qo ëzq} ·jxznp wéqtjlsn
qz méjtq|n vltvp tvkvp ·jxzq wsvxrvxzq Òjrqu viéjovu u€
wvsy·qsq ls¹ *() énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn
*( + ) − *() = + èjoiqntq¹ {qmyé
ïzvi€ tjpzq vzxílj *() wévxyuuqéynu ëzq xvvztv¡ntq¹
vz = lv = $ − q y·znu ·zv *() = Ívsy·jnu
*($) = + ( + + + $) = $
+
$ + dtj·qz wé¹u€} uvmyz lnsqz wsvxrvxz tn ivsnn ·nu tj
+ + ·jxznp
Èvsnn xsv tvn énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn wvsy·jnzx¹ wéq
én¡ntqq xsnlyínp ojlj·q
! # ( + )" # " " +, -" "" "
Ìivotj·qu qxrvuvn ·qxsv xwvxvivk ·néno 9(Q) ïzvi€ rjrzv
ywvé¹lv·qz tjivé wvsy·jíq}x¹ zénymvstqrvk k€lnsqu k
qx}vltvu utvmvymvstqrn QQ+Q+ ©ijovkyíª xzvévty
Q+Q+ Æ rj lvu éjoiqntqq ëzvmv utvmvymvstqrj tj zén
ymvstqrq tjplnzx¹ vlqt q zvsrv vlqt zénymvstqr xv xzvév
tvp Q+Q+ cmv zénznp kné¡qtvp uv nz i€z síij¹ qo
kné¡qt Q
cxsq ëzvp zénznp kné¡qtvp ¹ks¹nzx¹ V ≤ . ≤ − zv
wvxsn yljsntq¹ zénymvstqrj VQ+Q+ utvmvymvstqr éjxwj
ljnzx¹ tj (. + )ymvstqr q ( − . + )ymvstqr k rj lvu qo
rvzvé€} k€lnsnt€ ©ijovk€nª xzvévt€ VQ+ q VQ+ éqx
êzvz wév|nxx ojrjt·qkjnzx¹ éjoiqntqnu qx}vltvmv utvmv
ymvstqrj tj zénymvstqrq wéq·nu nxsq }vz¹ i€ tj vltvu
ëzjwn ijovkj¹ xzvévtj kvplnz k léymvp zénymvstqr zv q
wvsy·jíqnx¹ éjoiqntq¹ tj zénymvstqrq iylyz éjosq·t€uq
Ëv (. + )ymvstqr uv tv éjoiqz tj zénymvstqrq 9(V − )
xwvxvijuq j ( − . + )ymvstqr ² 9(Q − .) xwvxvijuq q ëzq
xwvxvi€ tnojkqxqu€ Ívëzvuy k xqsy wéjkqsj wévqoknlntq¹
·qxsv éjoiqntqp tj·qtjíq}x¹ x zénymvstqrj VQ+Q+
éjktv 9(V − ) ⋅ /( − .) Æ xsy·jn rvmlj . = qsq . = ljs¡n
èqx ­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
lnsqzx¹ sq¡ vltj ·jxz q wvëzvuy tjlv wvsv qz /() = Íéqunt¹¹ wéjkqsv xyuu€ yin ljnux¹ ·zv xwéjknlsqkv énryé
éntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn
/() = /()/(Q − ) + /()/( − ) + + /( − )/()
mln /() = êzv xvvztv¡ntqn x znu n xju€u tj·jst€u
yxsvkqnu y n wv¹ks¹svx y tjx k w wéq én¡ntqq ojlj·q
vi v·nénlq k rjxxy rqtvznjzéj q wéq éjxxuvzéntqq wév|nxxj
wvxsnlvkjznst€} éjoénojtqp xjtzqunzévkvp sntz€ Ívxrvsry
0 = /() = 9() = /()/() q 0 = 0 0 zv 0 = 9() bjsnn wv
sy·jnu 9() = /()9() + 9()/() q 0 = 0 0 + 00 = /() q
z l Êzjr kxn ·snt€ vinq} wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp xvkwjljíz
Òjrqu viéjovu 9(Q) = 0 = 'Q Q
+
Q
bs¹ én¡ntq¹ rvuiqtjzvét€} ojlj· ·jxzv wéqunt¹íz qx
wvsovkjtt€p olnx unzvl Ïxzjtjksqkjíz ls¹ ljttvp ojlj·q
énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn q wvrjo€kjíz ·zv vtv xvkwjljnz x
énryééntzt€u xvvztv¡ntqnu ls¹ léymvp ojlj·q én¡ntqn rv
zvévp tju y n qoknxztv cxsq wéq ëzvu xvkwjljíz q tj·jst€n
·snt€ wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp k lvxzjzv·tvu ·qxsn k w u€
vxzjtvkqux¹ wvlévitnn tj zvu xrvsrv ·sntvk lvs t€ xvkwj
ljz zv vin ojlj·q quníz vlqtjrvk€n én¡ntq¹
èjxxzjtvkrj xrvivr
΀ y n otjnu ·zv ·qxsv wév|nxxvk wvxsnlvkjznstvmv
lnsntq¹ utv nxzkj qo + ësnuntzvk éjxwvsv ntt€} k tnrv
zvévu wvé¹lrn éjktv 0Q = + 'QQ èjxxuvzéqu tnxrvsrv
wéqunévk zjrq} wév|nxxvk
Íyxz ljt€ ·qxns Q xzv¹q} k vwénlnsnttvu
wvé¹lrn Æ xqsy xv·nzjznstvmv ojrvtj yutv ntq¹ wévqoknln
tqn ëzq} ·qxns uv tv k€·qxsqz éjot€uq xwvxvijuq xv}éjt¹¹
wvé¹lvr xvutv qznsnp Ëjwéquné zéq ·qxsj uv tv wnénutv
qz lkyu¹ xwvxvijuq (1)2 = (12) ·nz€én ·qxsj ² w¹zí
xwvxvijuq q z l 3# # , ‰xtv ·zv rj l€p xwvxvi wnénutv ntq¹ xkvlqzx¹ r wév|nxxy
éjoiqntq¹ ljtt€} ·qxns tj ·jxzq qo vltvmv ësnuntzj rj lj¹
Ëjwéquné yutv ntqn ·nz€én} ·qxns wv {véuysn (1) (FG) xkv
lqzx¹ r zjrvuy wév|nxxy éjoiqntq¹ _1 _ 2_4 j yutv ntqn ëzq}
n ·qxns wv {véuysn ((1)2)4 ² r wév|nxxy éjoiqntq¹ _1_2_4
Ívëzvuy ·qxsv éjosq·t€} xwvxvivk yutv ntq¹ éjktv ·qxsy
èjxxzjtvkrj xrvivr
éjosq·t€} wév|nxxvk éjoiqntq¹ utv nxzkj qo ësnuntzvk z n
0Q− = 'QQ−−
Ëv révun xv·nzjznstvmv xkvpxzkj yutv ntqn visjljnz q
wnénunxzqznst€u xkvpxzkvu cxsq y·nxz nmv zv ·qxsv wév
|nxxvk yutv ntq¹ yknsq·qzx¹ k éjo ² knl ·qxns uv tv
wnénxzjkqz léym x léymvu xwvxvijuq j wvzvu wvlknémjz
wnénxzjksntt€n ·qxsj znu qsq qt€u éjoiqntq¹u Ìzxílj xsn
lynz ·zv wvstvn ·qxsv xwvxvivk wnénutv qz ljtt€n ·qxns
éjktv ( − ) 'QQ−−
Ç ëzvuy énoyszjzy uv tv wéqpzq q tnwvxénlxzknttv tn
vwqéj¹x tj {véuysy ls¹ ·qxsj wév|nxxvk éjoiqntq¹ êzvz
k€kvl ljnz tvk€p unzvl wvsy·ntq¹ {véuys€ ls¹ ·qxsj wév
|nxxvk éjoiqntq¹ j znu xju€u q ls¹ ojlj·q vi v·nénlq k rjxxy
wéq yxsvkqq ·zv ·qxsv éyisnp k v·nénlq éjktv ·qxsy wvszqt
tqrvk Ënwvxénlxzkntt€p k€kvl ojrsí·jnzx¹ k xsnlyínu Íénl
wvsv qu ·zv u€ y n tj¡sq ·qxsv Φ() xwvxvivk wnénutv qz
·qxns Íéqxvnlqtqu r tqu nn vlqt xvutv qzns Q+
ƀ¹xtqu xrvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv wéqxvnlqtqz ëzvz xv
utv qzns r vltvuy qo wévqoknlntqp ·qxns Q
ïqxsv Q+ uv tv yutv qz tj kxn wévqoknlntqn wvxzjkqk
sqiv tj wnékvn unxzv sqiv tj wvxsnltnn êzv ljnz lkj xwvxvij
wéqxvnlqtntq¹ Ëv Q+ uv tv wéqxvnlqtqz q tj vltvu qo
wévun yzv·t€} ëzjwvk Ïutv ntqn ·qxns xkvlqzx¹ r − wvxsnlvkjznst€u wnénutv ntq¹u tj rj lvu qo rvzvé€} wn
énutv jízx¹ lkj xvutv qzns¹ Ç rj lvuy qo ëzq} wévqoknln
tqp (56) ·qxsv Q+ uv tv wvlrsí·qz xwvxvijuq ²
((Q+5)6) ((5Q+)6) (5(Q+6)) (5(6Q+)) Ëv zjr rjr nxz
− wévqoknlntqn q r síivuy qo tq} uv tv wéqxvnlqtqz
Q+ zv kxnmv wvsy·jnu − xwvxvivk
bvijks¹¹ r tqu lkj xwvxvij v rvzvé€} mvkvéqsvx ktj·jsn
wvsy·jnu − xwvxvivk wéqxvnlqtntq¹ Q+ r rj lvuy qo
Φ() xwvxvivk wnénutv ntq¹ ·qxns Q Ìzxílj k€
znrjnz ·zv Φ( + ) = (Q − )Φ(Q) Ëv Φ() = Ívëzvuy
Φ() = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (Q − ) = Q−⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ( − ) êzvz vzknz xvkwjlj
nz x wvsy·ntt€u éjtnn zjr rjr
( − )
Q−
= ( − ) 'Q−
Φ() = Q− ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ( − ) =
( − )
­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
èjxxuvzéqu znwné vwnéj|qí lnsntq¹ djwq¡nu k€éj ntqn
Q
êzj ojwqx tn qunnz xu€xsj nxsq tn yrjojt wvé¹lvr k rvzvévu
lvs t€ k€wvst¹zx¹ lnsntq¹ ƀ¹xtqu xrvsrquq xwvxvijuq
uv tv wéqljz xu€xs ëzvuy k€éj ntqí bs¹ ëzvmv ojunzqu
·zv rj l€p xwvxvi yrjojtq¹ wvé¹lrj lnsntq¹ uv nz éjxxuj
zéqkjzx¹ q rjr wév|nxx éjoiqntq¹ k€éj ntq¹ qo ësnuntzvk
Q tj ·jxzq qo vltvmv ësnuntzj vwqxjtt€p k€¡n
¬ u€ kqlnsq ·zv ·qxsv zjrq} wév|nxxvk éjktv 'QQ−− dtj·qz
k€éj ntqí uv tv wéqljz xu€xs 'Q− xwvxvijuq
Q−
djlj·j v tnwnénxnrjíq}x¹ }vélj}
Æ tnrvzvé€} kvwévxj} rkjtzvkvp }quqq kvotqrjnz xsnlyí
j¹ ojlj·j
7 ! # - +, "
Íéq = nxz vlqt xwvxvi zjrvmv xvnlqtntq¹ wéq = ²
lkj xwvxvij éqx ïzvi€ tjpzq ·qxsv xwvxvivk 8() ls¹
síivmv k€knlnu énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn ls¹ 8() Ævo
unu zv·ry éqx cn uv tv xvnlqtqz sq¡ x síivp qo
zv·nr V+ wvzvuy ·zv x vinq} xzvévt vz V+ lvs tv
vxzjzx¹ ·nztvn ·qxsv zv·nr Æ xvvzknzxzkqq x ëzqu kxn xwvxvi€
xvnlqtntq¹ zv·nr éjxwjljízx¹ tj rsjxx€ k ojkqxquvxzq vz zvmv
xrvsrv wjé zv·nr vxzjnzx¹ k ·jxzq V+
cxsq x vltvp xzvévt€ vxzjnzx¹ . zv·nr zv wv léymyí
xzvévty vxzjnzx¹ (Q − . − ) zv·nr Ònu xju€u vxzjk¡qnx¹
èqx èqx − ls¹ .
Ëvkvn én¡ntqn ojlj·q uj vélvuj
zv·nr éjoiqkjízx¹ tj . zv·nr q (Q − . − ) zv·nr Ëv
zv·nr uv tv )(V) xwvxvijuq wévknxzq vzénorq zjr ·zvi€
vtq tn wnénxnrjsq léym léymj j ls¹ (Q − . − ) zv·nr ëzv
uv tv xlnsjz )(Q − . − ) xwvxvijuq Ív wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹
wvsy·jnu ·zv k .p rsjxx k}vlqz 8(V)8( − . − ) xwvxvivk
wévknlntq¹ vzénorvk Íéq ëzvu tjlv x·qzjz 8() = wvzvuy
·zv wéq . = u€ vzxnrjnu wjéy zv·nr vz vxzjst€}
(Q − ) q k ljstnp¡nu wvsy·jnu )(Q − ) xwvxvivk dtj·qz
vinn ·qxsv kxn} xwvxvivk éjktv
)(Q) = 8()8( − ) + 8())( − ) + + 8( − )8()
΀ wvsy·qsq zv xjuvn énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn rvzvévuy
ylvksnzkvé¹íz ·qxsj 0Q = Q + 'QQ Òjr rjr )() = 0 = zv
ls¹ kxn} qunnu 8(Q) = 0Q Êzjr kné¡qt uv tv
0Q = 'QQ xwvxvijuq xvnlqtqz wvwjétv tn wnénxnrjíq
+
uqx¹ vzénorjuq
Ëvkvn én¡ntqn ojlj·q uj vélvuj
Ȁkjíz rvuiqtjzvét€n ojlj·q k rvzvé€} wéq}vlqzx¹ xv
xzjks¹z tn vltv énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn j |nsyí xqxznuy
xvvztv¡ntqp xk¹o€kjíyí tnxrvsrv wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp
êzq xvvztv¡ntq¹ k€éj jíz ·snt€ wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp ·néno
wénl€lyqn ·snt€ tn zvsrv ljttvp tv q vxzjst€} wvxsn
lvkjznstvxznp Ëjwvutqu éjxxuvzénttyí k w ojlj·y uj
vélvuj
9 : # #
"
" +, ! # # " ;
cxsq u€ tjplnu rjrvpzv xwvxvi éjxxjlrq é€|jénp zv
wnénxj qkj¹ q} wv réymy wvsy·qu nn xwvxvivk fnp·jx
u€ tn iylnu x·qzjz éjosq·t€uq xwvxvi€ wvsy·jíqnx¹ léym
qo léymj zjrvp |qrsq·nxrvp wnénxjlrvp véqntzqéy¹x tn tj
unxzj oj xzvsvu j tj rvtrénzt€} xvxnlnp rj lvmv é€|jé¹ èjxxuvzéqu viyí ojlj·y Íyxz ·qxsv é€|jénp éjktv ïnéno <Q vivotj·qu ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjxxjlrq wéq rvzvé€}
tqrjrqn lkj kéjmj tn xql¹z é¹lvu ·néno 'Q ² ·qxsv xwvxvivk
wéq rvzvé€} é¹lvu xqlqz évktv vltj wjéj kéjmvk q ·néno
=Q ² ·qxsv xwvxvivk wéq rvzvé€} nxz évktv lkn wjé€
kéj lyíq} xvxnlnp
­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
ƀknlnu {véuysy k€éj jíyí <Q+ ·néno <Q 'Q q =Q
wéq > Íyxz + wjéj é€|jénp xqlqz zjr ·zv tqrjrqn
lkj kéjmj tn xql¹z é¹lvu ΀ iylnu x·qzjz ·zv kxn kéj lyíqn wjé€ é€|jénp ojtyunévkjt€ Ívwévxqu kxzjz qooj
xzvsj wjéy é€|jénp x tvunévu + Òvmlj wv¹k¹zx¹ tvk€n
wjé€ xvxnlnp zn rvzvé€} y¡nl¡qn é€|jéq éjolns¹sq wvëzv
uy kvouv t€ zéq xsy·j¹ xénlq vxzjk¡q}x¹ oj xzvsvu tn
wv¹kqsvx tq vltvp wjé€ xvxnlnpkéjmvk wv¹kqsjx vltj zjrj¹
wjéj wv¹kqsqx lkn zjrqn wjé€
ƀ¹xtqu znwné xrvsrquq xwvxvijuq uv tv xtvkj wvxj
lqz y¡nl¡q} é€|jénp oj xzvs zjr ·zvi€ wvxsn ëzvmv tn i€sv
tq vltvp wjé€ xvxnlnpkéjmvk
Íévn kxnmv wvxjlqz q} nxsq oj xzvsvu é¹lvu xql¹z lkn
wjé€ kéjmvk Æ ëzvu xsy·jn vlqt qo ktvk wéq¡nl¡q} xjlqzx¹
un ly é€|jé¹uq wnékvp wjé€ j léymvp ² un ly é€|jé¹uq
kzvévp wjé€ êzv uv tv xlnsjz lkyu¹ xwvxvijuq Ëv zjr rjr
·qxsv xwvxvivk éjxxjlrq é€|jénp wéq rvzvé€} lkn wjé€
xvxnlnp vrjojsqx kéjmjuq éjktv =Q zv kxnmv wvsy·qsvx
=Q xwvxvivk
Íyxz znwné é¹lvu xqlqz zvsrv vltj wjéj kéjmvk Ìlqt
qo knétyk¡q}x¹ lvs nt xnxz un ly tquq Òvmlj oj xzvsvu
vrj yzx¹ + é€|jénp un ly rvzvé€uq nxz + unxz
tv lkj unxzj é¹lvu x zvsrv ·zv xnk¡qu mvxznu ojwénzt€ ls¹
kzvévmv é€|jé¹ q nuy vxzjnzx¹ − unxz Òjr rjr wnék€u
uv nz kvpzq síivp qo lky} k€¡nl¡q} é€|jénp zv wvsy·jnzx¹
( − ) xwvxvivk éjxxjlrq Ëv ·qxsv xsy·jnk rvmlj é€|j
énp xnsq zjr ·zvi€ évktv vltj wjéj kéjmvk vrjojsjx xvxnl¹uq
éjktv 'Q Ívëzvuy u€ wvsy·jnu ( − ) 'Q xwvxvivk wvxjlqz
mvxznp zéniynu€u viéjovu
Ëjrvtn| wyxz tqrjrqn lkj kéjmj tn xql¹z é¹lvu Æ ëzvu
xsy·jn wnék€p é€|jé xjlqzx¹ un ly síi€uq lkyu¹ mvxz¹uq
² ëzv vt uv nz xlnsjz xwvxvijuq Ívxsn ëzvmv ls¹ nmv
kéjmj vxzjtnzx¹ − unxz ² vt uv nz ojt¹z síivn unxzv
révun lky} unxz xvxnltq} x zvsrv ·zv xnk¡qu é€|jénu
Òjrqu viéjovu nxsq é€|jénp y n xqlnsq ty t€u viéjovu
zv knétyk¡q}x¹ mvxznp uv tv wvxjlqz ( − ) xwvxvijuq
Æxnmv n k ëzvu xsy·jn wvsy·jnzx¹ ( − ) <Q xwvxvivk
Òénu¹ éjoviéjtt€uq xsy·j¹uq qx·néw€kjízx¹ kxn kvouv tvxzq Ívëzvuy qunnz unxzv énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn
<Q+ = ( − ) <Q + ( − ) 'Q + =Q
Ëvkvn én¡ntqn ojlj·q uj vélvuj
êzvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ nn tnlvxzjzv·tv ·zvi€ tjpzq <Q ls¹
kxn} otj·ntqp Ëjlv nn yotjz rjr k€éj jízx¹ 'Q+ q
=Q+ ·néno <Q 'Q q =Q
Íénlwvsv qu ·zv xénlq + é€|jénp oj xzvsvu vrjoj
sjx évktv vltj wjéj kéjmvkxvxnlnp ( > ) ΀ otjnu ·zv ëzv
uv nz wévqovpzq k 'Q+ xsy·j¹} Æv qoin jtqn xxvé€ wvwévxqu
q} yljsqzx¹ qooj xzvsj Òvmlj vxzjtnzx¹ é€|jénp wéq·nu
kvouv tv vltv qo lky} sqiv xénlq vxzjk¡q}x¹ tnz kéjmvkxv
xnlnp sqiv nxz évktv vltj wjéj zjrq} kéjmvk ² lv y}vlj
wvrqtyk¡q} ojs vtq xqlnsq wv vin xzvévt€ vz tq} q znwné
vrjojsqx é¹lvu
Æ wnékvu xsy·jn uv tv wvxjlqz wjéy y¡nl¡q} un ly
síi€uq lkyu¹ é€|jé¹uq z n xwvxvijuq j zjr rjr q}
nn uv tv wvunt¹z unxzjuq zv wvsy·qzx¹ xwvxvivk
Çvuiqtqéy¹ q} xv kxnuq xwvxvijuq wvxjlrq wjé é€|jénp
wéq rvzvé€} tnz xvxnlnpkéjmvk wvsy·jnu <Q xwvxvivk
Æv kzvévu xsy·jn y¡nl¡q} uv tv wvxjlqz zvsrv é¹lvu
viéjztv éjolnsqk wv¹kqk¡yíx¹ wjéy kéjmvk ² qtj·n wv¹kqzx¹
kzvéj¹ wjéj kéj lyíq} xvxnlnp qsq qx·notyz vin Ëv zjr rjr
é€|jénp uv tv wvxjlqz 'Q xwvxvijuq zjr ·zvi€ i€sj
zvsrv vltj wjéj kéj lyíq} xvxnlnp zv u€ wvsy·jnu 'Q
kjéqjtzvk kvokéjzqk¡q}x¹ é€|jénp uv tv wvunt¹z unxzjuq Ëjrvtn| tvuné y¡nl¡np q knétyk¡npx¹ wjé€ é€|jénp
uvm i€z síi€u vz lv + Ìzxílj k€znrjnz ·zv énryé
éntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn ls¹ 'Q+ qunnz kql
'Q+ = ( + ) <Q + ( + ) 'Q
Ëjrvtn| éjoinénu xsy·jp rvmlj xénlq + é€|jénp i€sv
lkn wjé€ kéjmvkxvxnlnp Ëvunéj ëzq} wjé uv tv k€iéjz
'Q+ = (+ ) xwvxvijuq djuntqu rj lyí wjéy vltqu tvk€u
é€|jénu wéq·nu iylnu x·qzjz tvk€} lky} é€|jénp kéjmjuq
Òvmlj oj xzvsvu iylyz xqlnz é€|jénp wéq·nu xénlq tq}
sqiv tn iylnz tq vltvp wjé€ kéjmvkxvxnlnp nxsq tvk€n é€|jéq
tn xql¹z é¹lvu sqiv zvsrv vltj zjrj¹ wjéj
Ínék€p kjéqjtz uv nz i€z k <Q xsy·j¹} Ænétyzx¹ r
qx}vltvp rvuwjtqq u€ uv nu xwvxvijuq isjmvljé¹ kvouv tvxzq qountqz wvé¹lvr é€|jénp k rj lvp wjén Ívëzvuy
wnék€p kjéqjtz wéqkvlqz r 'Q+ <Q = ( + )<Q xwvxviju
­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
Æzvévp n kjéqjtz uv nz i€z k &Q xsy·j¹} qunnzx¹
'Q xsy·jnk rvmlj rjrj¹tqiyl wjéj kéjmvk xqlqz é¹lvu nxsq
yrjojz rjrj¹ qunttv wjéj lvs tj xqlnz é¹lvu wvsy·qu k
éjo unt¡n xsy·jnk dlnx zv n uv tv knétyzx¹ r qx}vltvp rvuwjtqq xwv
xvijuq q u€ wvsy·jnu kxnmv ( + ) 'Q xwvxvivk Ìzxílj
k€znrjnz ·zv wéq ≥ =Q+ = (Q + ) <Q + ( + ) 'Q
΀ wvsy·qsq xqxznuy énryééntzt€} xvvztv¡ntqp
<Q+ = ( − ) <Q + ( − ) 'Q + =Q
'Q+ = ( + ) <Q + ( + ) 'Q
=Q+ = ( + ) <Q + ( + ) 'Q
xwéjknlsqk€} wéq ≥ Ënwvxénlxzkntt€p wvlx·nz wvrjo€kj
nz ·zv < = ' = = = Ívëzvuy qo xvvztv¡ntqp k€znrjnz ·zv < = ' = = = Íévlvs j¹ ljsnn ëzv
ylvitv lnsjz tj rvuwíznén k kqln ësnrzévttvp zjisq|€ lv}vlqu lv < = 3
3
3
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èjoviéjttj¹ ojlj·j wv}v j tj xsnlyíyí ojlj·y tjo€kjn
uyí ·jxzv ©ojlj·np v mvxz¹}ª u€ nn éjxxujzéqkjsq k w ! # "
# , " "
êzj ojlj·j én¡jnzx¹ wéqunétv zjr n rjr q ojlj·j v
éjxxjlrn é€|jénp ftj·jsj éjxxj qkjíz ntqt cxsq ojty
unévkjz unxzj zv sqiv kxn ntqt€ vrj yzx¹ tj ·nzt€}
unxzj} sqiv vtq ojpuyz tn·nzt€n unxzj Ëv ·qxsv ·nzt€} unxz
éjktv q ntqt€ uvmyz xnxz tj tq} xwvxvijuq fzvs
rquq n xwvxvijuq vtq uvmyz ojt¹z tn·nzt€n unxzj dtj·qz
ntqt uv tv wvxjlqz ⋅ xwvxvijuq ¬ wvzvu éjxxujzéq
kjíz xsy·jq rvmlj tq vlqt qo uy np tn xqlqz é¹lvu xv xkvnp
ntvp rvmlj é¹lvu xqlqz vltj xywéy nxrj¹ wjéj q tjrvtn|
rvmlj é¹lvu xql¹z lkn xywéy nxrqn wjé€ Íénlvxzjks¹nu
·qzjznsí xvxzjkqz xvvzknzxzkyíyí xqxznuy énryééntzt€}
xvvztv¡ntqp
ènryééntzt€n zjisq|€
ènryééntzt€n zjisq|€
Æ rvuiqtjzvéqrn ·jxzv kxzén·jízx¹ knsq·qt€ ojkqx¹qn
tn vz vltvmv j vz tnxrvsrq} ·qxns Ëjwéquné ·qxsv 'NQ
ojkqxqz q vz q vz $ cxsq éjxxujzéqkjnuj¹ knsq·qtj
8( $) ojkqxqz vz lky} tjzyéjst€} ·qxns q $ zv nn otj·ntq¹
uv tv éjxwvsv qz k kqln zjisq|€ wvunj¹ 8( $) tj wnén
xn·ntqq p xzévrq q $mv xzvsi|j f zjrquq knsq·qtjuq u€
y n tnvltvréjztv xzjsrqkjsqx ² jéq{unzq·nxrqp rkjléjz
jéq{unzq·nxrqp zénymvstqr q )jéq{unzq·nxrqn zénymvstq
rq qunsq kql qunttv zjrq} zjisq|
Íéq ëzvu kv kxn} wéqunéj} un ly ësnuntzjuq zjisq|€
xynxzkvkjsq ojkqxquvxzq êzq ojkqxquvxzq wvokvs¹sq k€·qx
s¹z ësnuntz€ p xzévrq zjisq|€ wv ësnuntzju wénl€lynp
xzévrq q i€z uv nz tnxrvsrqu wénl¡nxzkyíqu ësnuntzju
p xzévrq Ívëzvuy nxsq i€sj ojljtj wnékj¹ xzévrj zjisq|€
q wnék€n ësnuntz€ léymq} xzévr kxn vxzjst€n xzévrq uv tv
i€sv k€·qxs¹z vlty oj léymvp
bs¹ jéq{unzq·nxrvmv rkjléjzj énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn
qunsv kql
8( $) = 8( − N) + 8( $ − )
j méjtq·t€n tj·jst€n yxsvkq¹ ojljkjsqx zjr 8( ) = 8( $) = wéq $ > tjwvutqu ·zv ls¹ jéq{unzq·nxrvmv rkjl
éjzj tyunéj|q¹ xzévr q xzvsi|vk tj·qtjsjx x tys¹ bs¹ jéq{unzq·nxrq} w¹zqymvstqrj q ¡nxzqymvstqrj én
ryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn zv n qunsv kql j vméjtq·ntq¹
wéqkvlqsq r zvuy ·zv tnrvzvé€n ësnuntz€ zjisq|€ lvs t€
i€sq ojknlvuv éjkt¹zx¹ tysí
Ívlvit€p kql qunnz q énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn ls¹ jéq{
unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj q )jéq{unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj
Êunttv ls¹ )jéq{unzq·nxrvmv zénymvstqrj
)( $) = 8( − $ − ) + ) +
+ 8( − N − ) + ) + + 8( − $)
Íéq ëzvu 8( ) = q 8( $) = nxsq $ > Òjisq|€ 8( $) wvxzévntt€n tj vxtvkn énryééntzt€} xv
vztv¡ntqp vivijíz énryééntzt€n wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq q u€
iylnu tjo€kjz q} k ljstnp¡nu # Òénzn én¡ntqn wévisnu€ uj vélvuj
Æ rj·nxzkn nn vltvmv wéqunéj tj qxwvsovkjtqn énryééntz
t€} zjisq| wéqknlnu nn vltv én¡ntqn wévisnu€ uj vélvuj
Çjr ·qzjzns wvutqz én· ¡sj v ·qxsn xwvxvivk éjxxjlqz
é€|jénp oj réyms€u xzvsvu zjr ·zvi€ tqrjrqn lkj kéjmj
tn xqlnsq é¹lvu j xénlq é€|jénp i€sv wjé kéjmvk ­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
Ìivotj·qu ·néno 8() ) ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjxxjlrq wéq
rvzvé€} é¹lvu xql¹z évktv ) wjé kéjmvk ΀ k€knlnu xnp·jx
énryééntztyí {véuysy k€éj jíyí )() + ) ·néno
)($ ) $ = ) − ) ) + ) + Èylnu x·qzjz ·zv xtj·jsj oj xzvsvu xqlnsq wjé é€|jénp
wéq·nu ≥ j wvzvu wéq¡sj ( + )¹ wjéj q xnsj oj xzvs
Ívlx·qzjnu kv xrvsrq} xsy·j¹} oj xzvsvu vrj yzx¹ ) wjé
xvxnlnpkéjmvk êzv uv nz wévqovpzq ·nz€éu¹ xwvxvijuq
j dj xzvsvu i€sj ) − wjéj kéjmvk xqlnk¡q} é¹lvu êzv
uvmsv xsy·qzx¹ )() − ) xwvxvijuq ïzvi€ oj xzvsvu vrj
ojsvx ) wjé kéj lyíq} xvxnlnp tvkj¹ wjéj lvs tj xnxz
é¹lvu tn éjoiqk tq vlty qo y n xynxzkvkjk¡q} wjé xvxnlnp
kéjmvk Ëv un ly é€|jé¹uq nxz wévun yzrvk j xj
lqzx¹ tnso¹ k ) − wévun yzrvk Ìxzjnzx¹ − ) + wév
un yzrvk rylj uvmyz é¹lvu xnxz ktvk wéq¡nl¡qn é€|jéq
Òjr rjr wéq ëzvu wéq¡nl¡qn é€|jéq uvmyz nn unt¹zx¹
unxzjuq zv kxnmv wvsy·jnu ( − ) + ) 8() − ) xwvxvivk
i dj xzvsvu y n i€sv ) wjé é¹lvu xql¹q} kéjmvk Æ ëzvu
xsy·jn ktvk wéq¡nl¡qn uvmyz k€iéjz vltv qo lky} sqiv
xnxz kévo tn éjolnsqk wéq ëzvu tq vlty wjéy xvxnlnpkéjmvk
sqiv xnxz é¹lvu un ly lkyu¹ kéj lyíquq xvxnl¹uq Énmrv
wvlx·qzjz ·zv wnékvn uv tv wévlnsjz ( − ))( − ) − )
xwvxvijuq j kzvévn ) xwvxvijuq Òjr rjr wjé é€|jénp
uvmyz xnxz 8() ) xwvxvijuq zjr ·zvi€ é¹lvu vrjojsqx
) wjé kéjmvk zv kxnmv wvsy·jnu ⎡⎣( − )) − + )⎤⎦ 8() )
xwvxvivk
k bjsnn éjxxuvzéqu xsy·jp rvmlj xénlq é€|jénp é¹lvu
xqlnsj ) + wjéj kéjmvk ëzv uv nz xsy·qzx¹ )() + Q)
xwvxvijuq Æ ëzvu xsy·jn vlqt qo ktvk wéq¡nl¡q} lvs nt
xnxz un ly vltvp qo wjé kéjmvkxvxnlnp j kzvévp lvs nt xnxz
zjr ·zvi€ tn éjoiqz tq vlty zjryí wjéy Ínékvn uv tv
xlnsjz ) + j kzvévn − ) − xwvxvijuq Æxnmv wvsy·jnu
() + )( − ) − ) kvouv tvxznp utv qzns wv¹kqsx¹ wv
zvuy ·zv síivp qo lky} ktvk wéq¡nl¡q} uv nz xnxz un ly
kéjmjuq Ívëzvuy éjxxujzéqkjnu€p xsy·jp ljnz kxnmv
() + )( − ) − ) 8() + ) kvouv tvxznp
m Ëjrvtn| wénlwvsv qu ·zv i€sv ) + wjé xvxnlnpkéj
mvk êzv uvmsv xsy·qzx¹ )() + ) xwvxvijuq ïzvi€ vrjoj
svx zvsrv ) wjé xvxnlnpkéjmvk rj l€p qo ktvk wéq
¡nl¡q} é€|jénp lvs nt éjoiqz vlty wjéy kéj lyíq}
xvxnlnp Ínék€p é€|jé uv nz xnxz ) + xwvxvijuq wvxsn
·nmv kzvévuy vxzjnzx¹ sq¡ ) + unxzv Æxnmv wvsy·jnu
() + )() + ) 8() + ) kvouv tvxznp
èn¡ntqn énryééntzt€} xvvztv¡ntqp
Énmrv kqlnz ·zv u€ qx·néwjsq kxn kvouv tvxzq wéq
rvzvé€} xénlq + é€|jénp oj réyms€u xzvsvu vrj yzx¹
) wjé xvxnlnpkéjmvk Ívëzvuy )() + ) ylvksnzkvé¹nz wéq
≥ xsnlyínuy énryééntztvuy xvvztv¡ntqí
8() + ) =
= ( − ) + ) 8() − ) + >( − )) − + )@ 8() ) +
+ () + )( − ) − ) 8() + ) + () + )() + ) 8() + ) Ënwvxénlxzkntt€p wvlx·nz wvrjo€kjnz ·zv 8( ) = 8( ) = 8( ) = u€ tn x·qzjnu éjosq·t€uq xwvxvi€
éjxxjlrq wvsy·jíqnx¹ léym qo léymj |qrsq·nxrvp wnénxzj
tvkrvp Ìw¹z ojwvst¹¹ x wvuví {véuys€ ësnrzévttyí
zjisq|y otj·ntqp 8() ) lv}vlqu lv 8( ) = 3
( 3)
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( 3)
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èn¡ntqn énryééntzt€} xvvztv¡ntqp
΀ iylnu mvkvéqz ·zv $ nxsq vtv wvokvs¹nz k€éjoqz >( + $) ·néno >()
>( + ) >( + $ − ) Ëjwéquné
>( + ) = >() >( + ) − > (Q + ) + ² énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn kzvévmv wvé¹lrj j
>( + ) = >() >( + ) + >( + )
² énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn zénznmv wvé¹lrj
cxsq ojljtv énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn $mv wvé¹lrj zv nuy
uv nz ylvksnzkvé¹z inxrvtn·tv utvmv wvxsnlvkjznstvxznp
bnsv k zvu ·zv wnék€n $ ësnuntzvk wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq uv tv
ojljz xvkné¡nttv wévqokvstv ² un ly tquq tnz tqrjrq}
xvvztv¡ntqp Ëv nxsq wnék€n $ ësnuntzvk ojljt€ zv kxn
vxzjst€n ësnuntz€ vwénlns¹ízx¹ xvkné¡nttv vltvotj·tv ²
ësnuntz >($ + ) k€éj jnzx¹ k xqsy énryééntztvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹
­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
·néno >() >($) ësnuntz >($ + ) ² ·néno >() >($ + ) q
z l
Ívsoy¹x énryééntzt€u xvvztv¡ntqnu q tj·jst€uq ·sn
tjuq uv tv vlqt oj léymqu k€wqx€kjz ·snt€ wvxsnlvkjzns
tvxzq wéq·nu éjtv qsq wvoltv u€ wvsy·qu síivp nn ·snt
Ìltjrv wéq ëzvu tju wéqlnzx¹ k€wqxjz q kxn wénl€lyqn
·snt€ ² knl tn yotjk q} u€ tn yotjnu q wvxsnlyíq}
·sntvk Ëv kv utvmq} xsy·j¹} u€ }vzqu yotjz zvsrv vlqt
vwénlnsntt€p ·snt wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq j vxzjst€n ·snt€ tju
tn ty t€ Æ ëzq} xsy·j¹} ylvitnn qunz ¹ktyí {véuysy ls¹
mv ·sntj wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq ΀ iylnu mvkvéqz ·zv tnrv
zvéj¹ wvxsnlvkjznstvxz ¹ks¹nzx¹ ljttvmv énryé
éntztvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ nxsq wéq wvlxzjtvkrn ëzvp wvxsnlvkj
znstvxzq xvvztv¡ntqn zv lnxzknttv k€wvst¹nzx¹ Ëjwéquné
wvxsnlvkjznstvxz Q ¹ks¹nzx¹ vltqu qo
én¡ntqp énryééntztvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ I( + ) = >( + ) − >()
Æ xjuvu lnsn nxsq I() = Q zv
>( + ) − >() = ⋅ Q+ − ⋅ Q = ( − ) ⋅ Q+ = Q+ = >( + )
wéq síivu Ívëzvuy >() = Q ¹ks¹nzx¹ én¡ntqnu yrjojttvmv
xvvztv¡ntq¹
èn¡ntqn énryééntztvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ $mv wvé¹lrj tjo€kj
nzx¹ #, nxsq vtv ojkqxqz vz $ wévqokvst€} wvxzv¹tt€}
' 'N q wyznu wvlivéj ëzq} wvxzv¹tt€} wvokvs¹nz wvsy
·qz síivn én¡ntqn ljttvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ Ëjwéquné ls¹
xvvztv¡ntq¹
I( + ) = >( + ) − >(Q)
viqu én¡ntqnu iylnz
I() = ' ⋅ Q + & ⋅ Q
Æ xjuvu lnsn snmrv wévknéqz ·zv wvxsnlvkjznstvxz vi
éjjnz xvvztv¡ntqn k zv lnxzkv Ívëzvuy tju tjlv zvsrv
wvrjojz ·zv síivn én¡ntqn ëzvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ uv tv wénl
xzjkqz k kqln Ëv síivn én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ vltv
otj·tv vwénlns¹nzx¹ otj·ntq¹uq I() q I() Ívëzvuy tju tjlv
lvrjojz ·zv ls¹ síi€} ·qxns q 1 tjplyzx¹ zjrqn otj·ntq¹
' q ' ·zv ' + ' = q ' + ' = 1 Ëv snmrv kqlnz
·zv wéq síi€} otj·ntq¹} q 1 xqxznuj yéjktntqp
⎧
' + ' = D
⎪
⎨ ⎪ ' + ' = 1
⎩
fsy·jp wvxzv¹tt€} rvë{{q|qntzvk
qunnz én¡ntqn Ívëzvuy lnpxzkqznstv ¹ks¹nzx¹ viqu én
¡ntqnu xvvztv¡ntq¹ fsy·jp wvxzv¹tt€} rvë{{q|qntzvk
bs¹ én¡ntq¹ énryééntzt€} xvvztv¡ntqp viq} wéjkqs
kvvin mvkvé¹ tnz Ìltjrv xynxzkynz knxuj ·jxzv kxzén·jí
qpx¹ rsjxx xvvztv¡ntqp én¡jnu€p nlqtvviéjot€u unzvlvu
êzv ² énryééntzt€n xvvztv¡ntq¹ kqlj
>( + N) = I( + $ − ) + I( + $ − ) + + N >()
mln N ² tnrvzvé€n ·qxsj Òjrqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ tj
o€kjíz -?? ftj·jsj u€ éjxxuvzéqu rjr én¡jízx¹ zjrqn xvvztv¡ntq¹
wéq $ = z n qoy·qu xvvztv¡ntq¹ kqlj
>( + ) = I( + ) + >()
èn¡ntqn ëzq} xvvztv¡ntqp vxtvkjtv tj xsnlyíq} yzkné lntq¹}
@ >() >() + "
+# < >(Q) = >() + <>()
-" Æ xjuvu lnsn wv yxsvkqí qunnu
>( + ) = >( + ) + >()
>( + ) = >( + ) + >()
Ïutv qu ëzq éjkntxzkj tj q < xvvzknzxzknttv q xsv qu
wvsy·ntt€n zv lnxzkj ΀ wvsy·qu ·zv
>( + ) + <>( + ) =
= >>( + ) + <>( + )@ + >>() + < I()@
¬ ëzv q votj·jnz ·zv >() + % >() ¹ks¹nzx¹ én¡ntqnu
xvvztv¡ntq¹ @ A " A = A + A A AQ− " >( + ) = D I( + ) + >()
­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
Æ xjuvu lnsn nxsq >() = AQ− zv >( + ) = UQ q
>( + ) = UQ+ Ívlxzjks¹¹ ëzq otj·ntq¹ k xvvztv¡ntqn wvsy·jnu éjkntxzkv AQ+ = AQ + D AQ− Ìtv xwéjknlsqkv zjr
rjr wv yxsvkqí qunnu A = A + 7 + ^AQ−` s+# >() = AQ+P = bs¹ lvrjojznsxzkj lvxzjzv·tv qxwvsovkjz yzkné lntqn wvsv qk k = AP + < = Êo yzkné lntqp q k€znrjnz xsnlyínn wéjkqsv én¡n
tq¹ sqtnpt€} énryééntzt€} xvvztv¡ntqp kzvévmv wvé¹lrj x
wvxzv¹tt€uq rvë{{q|qntzjuq
>( + ) = D >( + ) + >()
! A = A + rvzvévn tjo€kjnzx¹ " @ - A A #, I(Q) = ' UQ− + ' AQ−
ïzvi€ lvrjojz ëzv wéjkqsv ojunzqu xtj·jsj ·zv wv yz
kné lntqí én¡ntq¹uq tj¡nmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ ¹ks¹ízx¹
>() = AQ− q >() = AQ− ¬ zvmlj wv yzkné lntqí ¹ks¹nzx¹
nmv én¡ntqnu q ' AQ− + ' AQ− Ëjlv zvsrv wvrjojz ·zv
síivn én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ uv tv ojwqxjz k ëzvu kqln
Ëv síivn én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ kzvévmv wvé¹lrj vwénlns¹nzx¹
otj·ntq¹uq I() q I() Ívëzvuy lvxzjzv·tv wvrjojz ·zv xq
xznuj yéjktntqp
' + ' = ⎧
⎨
'A +
⎩ 'A = 1
fsy·jp wvxzv¹tt€} rvë{{q|qntzvk
qunnz én¡ntqn wéq síi€} D q E êzqu én¡ntqnu ¹ks¹nzx¹
1 − A
A − 1
& =
& = A − A
A − A
fsy·jp rvmlj vij rvét¹ yéjktntq¹ xvkwjljíz léym x
léymvu u€ éjoinénu tnxrvsrv wvo n ¬ xnp·jx wéqknlnu
wéquné tj lvrjojttvn wéjkqsv
Íéq qoy·ntqq ·qxns Ðqivtj··q u€ wéq¡sq r énryééntz
tvuy xvvztv¡ntqí
I(Q) = I( − ) + >( − )
bs¹ tnmv }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn qunnz kql A = A + Çvét¹uq ëzvmv rkjléjztvmv yéjktntq¹ ¹ks¹ízx¹ ·qxsj
A = +√⎯⎯ A = −√⎯⎯ Ívëzvuy vinn én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ Ðqivtj··q qunnz kql
Q
Q
⎯⎯ ⎞
⎯⎯ ⎞
⎛ + √
⎛ − √
I(Q) = ' ⎝ ⎠ + ' ⎝ ⎠
u€ kvxwvsovkjsqx yzkné lntqnu q ko¹sq wvrjojznsq kunxzv − ΀ tjo€kjsq ·qxsjuq Ðqivtj··q én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹
ylvksnzkvé¹ínn tj·jst€u yxsvkq¹u >() = q >() = z n wvxsnlvkjznstvxz ïjxzv i€kjnz
ylvitv lvijkqz r ëzvp wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq ktj·jsn ·qxsv q
éjxxujzéqkjz wvxsnlvkjznstvxz ‰xtv ·zv ëzj wvxsnlvkjznstvxz ylvksnzkvé¹nz zvuy n xjuvuy
énryééntztvuy xvvztv¡ntqí q tj·jst€u yxsvkq¹u
>() = >() = Ívsjmj¹ k {véuysn = q = wvsy·jnu
ls¹ ' q ' xqxznuy yéjktntqp
⎧
' + & = ⎪
⎨ ⎯
√⎯
(' − ') = ⎪
⎩ Ìzxílj tj}vlqu ·zv & = − ' = √⎯⎯ q wvzvuy
Q
Q
⎤
⎡
I(Q) = ⎢⎛⎝ +√⎯⎯ ⎞⎠ − ⎛⎝ −√⎯⎯ ⎞⎠ ⎥ ⎦
⎯⎯ ⎣
√
Ëj wnék€p koms¹l rj nzx¹ ylqkqznst€u ·zv ëzv k€éj ntqn
wéq kxn} tjzyéjst€} otj·ntq¹} wéqtqujnz |nsv·qxsntt€n
otj·ntq¹ Ëv ëzv xzjtvkqzx¹ ivsnn wvt¹zt€u nxsq ojunzqz
­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
·zv wvxsn éjxré€zq¹ kxn} xrvivr k€éj ntqn iylnz qunz kql
+ 1√⎯⎯ tv wéq ojuntn √⎯⎯ tj −√⎯⎯ k€éj ntqn tn qountqzx¹
wvunt¹nz otjr q wnék€p xvutv qzns q rkjléjztj¹ xrvirj wvëzvuy kxnmlj iylnz 1 = fsy·jp éjkt€} rvétnp }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvmv yéjktntq¹
Ìxzjtvkqux¹ znwné tj xsy·jn rvmlj vij rvét¹ }jéjrznéqx
zq·nxrvmv yéjktntq¹ xvkwjljíz A = A Æ ëzvu xsy·jn k€éj n
tqn ' AQ− + ' AQ− y n tn iylnz viqu én¡ntqnu Ænl qooj
zvmv ·zv A = A ëzv én¡ntqn uv tv ojwqxjz k kqln
I(Q) = (' + ') UQ− = & AQ−
Ï tjx vxzjnzx¹ zvsrv vltv wévqokvstvn wvxzv¹ttvn ' q k€
iéjz nmv zjr ·zvi€ ylvksnzkvéqz lkyu tj·jst€u yxsvkq¹u
>() = >() = 1 kvvin mvkvé¹ tnkvouv tv Ívëzvuy tju tjlv
tjpzq rjrvntqiyl kzvévn én¡ntqn vzsq·tvn vz >() = AQ−
Ìrjo€kjnzx¹ zjrqu én¡ntqnu ¹ks¹nzx¹ >() = AQ− Æ xjuvu
lnsn nxsq rkjléjztvn yéjktntqn A = A + qunnz lkj xvkwj
ljíq} rvét¹ A = A zv wv znvénun Æqnzj = A = − A
Ívëzvuy tj¡n yéjktntqn ojwqx€kjnzx¹ zjr A = AA − A ¬
zvmlj énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn qunnz zjrvp kql
I(Q + ) = A I( + ) − A >()
Íévknéqu ·zv >() = AQ− lnpxzkqznstv ¹ks¹nzx¹ nmv én¡n
tqnu ΀ qunnu >( + ) = (Q + ) AQ+ j >( + ) = (Q + ) AQ
Ívlxzjks¹¹ ëzq otj·ntq¹ k xvvztv¡ntqn wvsy·jnu v·nkql
tvn zv lnxzkv ( + ) AQ+ = ( + ) AQ+ − Q AQ+ dtj·qz AQ−
² kzvévn én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ dtj¹ lkj én¡ntq¹ >() = AQ− q >() = AQ− xvvztv¡ntq¹
u€ y n uv nu tjwqxjz nmv vinn én¡ntqn
>(Q) = ' AQ− + ' AQ− = (' + ' ) AQ−
Ævz znwné wyznu wvlivéj ' q ' uv tv ylvksnzkvéqz síi€u
tj·jst€u yxsvkq¹u
fsy·jp éjkt€} rvétnp }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvmv yéjktntq¹
Éqtnpt€n énryééntzt€n xvvztv¡ntq¹ x wvxzv¹tt€uq rvë{
{q|qntzjuq wvé¹lvr rvzvé€} ivs¡n lky} én¡jízx¹ zjrqu
n xwvxvivu Íyxz xvvztv¡ntqn qunnz kql
I(Q + $) = >( + N − ) + + N I()
fvxzjks¹nu }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn AN = AN− + + DN
cxsq kxn rvétq A AN ëzvmv jsmniéjq·nxrvmv yéjktntq¹ $p
xznwntq éjosq·t€ zv vinn én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ qunnz
kql >(Q) = ' AQ− + ' UQ− + + 'N AQN −
cxsq n tjwéquné A = A = = AV zv ëzvuy rvétí xvvz
knzxzkyíz én¡ntq¹
>() = AQ− >() = AQ− >() = AQ− >V() = V− AQ−
énryééntztvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ Æ vinu én¡ntqq ëzvuy
rvétí xvvzknzxzkynz ·jxz (' + ' + ' + + &V V−) AQ−
fvxzjks¹¹ zjrqn k€éj ntq¹ ls¹ kxn} rvétnp q xrsjl€kj¹ q}
wvsy·jnu vinn én¡ntqn xvvztv¡ntq¹ Ëjwéquné én¡qu énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn
I( + ) = >( + ) − >( + ) − >( + ) + >()
®jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn qunnz olnx kql
A − A + A + A − = èn¡j¹ nmv wvsy·jnu rvétq A = A = A = A = − dtj
·qz vinn én¡ntqn tj¡nmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ uv tv ojwqxjz k xsn
lyínu kqln I(Q) = (' + ' + ' ) ⋅Q + ' ⋅(−)Q
djlj·q
Ëjplqzn vinn én¡ntqn énryééntzt€} xvvztv¡ntqp
n DQ+ − DQ+ + DQ+ − DQ = j DQ+ − DQ+ + DQ = DQ+ + DQ+ + DQ+ + DQ = i DQ+ + DQ+ − DQ = k DQ+ − DQ+ + DQ = o DQ+ + DQ = m DQ+ + DQ = q DQ+ + DQ+ − DQ = Q
l DQ+ + DQ+ + DQ = Ëjplqzn DQ otj¹ énryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn q tj·jst€n
·snt€
j DQ+ − DQ+ + DQ = D = D = −
i DQ+ − DQ+ + DQ = D = D = ­sjkj 9,, ècÇÏèècËÒËÔc fÌÌÒË̑cËʉ
k DQ+ + DQ+ + DQ = D = − D = −
m DQ+ − DQ+ + DQ+ − DQ = D = D = − D = −
Ëjplqzn zjryí wvxsnlvkjznstvxz ·zv D = FRV ϕ D = FRV ϕ
q DQ+ − DQ+ FRV ϕ + DQ = bvrj qzn ·zv wvxsnlvkjznstvxz x viqu ·sntvu DQ = QW wéq
≤ W ≤ N − ylvksnzkvé¹nz xvvztv¡ntqí
DQ+N − &NDQ+N− + &NDQ+N− − + (−)N&NNDQ = èjxxujzéqkjízx¹ kxn Néjounntq¹ ·qxns Q wéq
rvzvé€} ·nzt€n ·qxsj xzv¹z tj unxzj} x ·nzt€uq tvunéjuq x·qzj¹
vz tj·jsj j tn·nzt€n ² tj unxzj} x tn·nzt€uq tvunéjuq Q ≤ frvsrv zjrq} éjounntqp éjxwvsv ntv k wvé¹lrn kvoéjxzjtq¹ ·qxns
tjwéquné quníz kql "
ènryééntzt€n xvvztv¡ntq¹ q wnénlj·j qt{véuj|qq
Æ znvéqq wnénlj·q qt{véuj|qq wéq}vlqzx¹ én¡jz xsnlyí
yí ojlj·y
! ,+ " #, B " " C " ² C ) " ² CP ! #, ,+ - " 0 "
Íéq ëzvu y·qz€kjízx¹ sq¡ ©ujrxqujst€nª xvvintq¹
r rvzvé€u tnso¹ wéqxvnlqtqz tq vltvmv xqmtjsj tn k€pl¹
oj éjurq wénlvxzjksnttvmv squqzj kénuntq
Ìivotj·qu ·qxsv xvvintqp rvzvé€n uv tv wnénljz oj
kénu¹ 0 ·néno 8(7) èjxxy lj¹ zv·tv zjr n rjr k ojlj·n v
tjrsnprn ujévr wvsy·jnu ·zv 8(7) ylvksnzkvé¹nz xvvztv¡n
tqí
8(7) = 8(0 − C) + 8(0 − C) + + 8(0 − CP)
Íéq ëzvu 8() = q 8(7) = nxsq 0 < Èylnu x·qzjz ·qxsj 0 C CP |ns€uq q vivotj·qu
·néno A AN rvétq }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvmv yéjktntq¹ ls¹
xvvztv¡ntq¹ Òvmlj vinn én¡ntqn yéjktntq¹ wéqtqujnz
kql )(0) = 'A7 + + 'NA7N Íyxz A ² tjqivs¡qp wv jixv
síztvp knsq·qtn qo rvétnp }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvmv yéjktntq¹
Òvmlj wéq ivs¡q} otj·ntq¹} 0 kxn xsjmjnu€n iylyz wéntnién
quv ujs€ wv xéjktntqí x wnék€u q u€ wvsy·qu ·zv
8(0) D 'A7 êzv éjkntxzkv wvokvs¹nz wéqisq nttv v|ntqkjz
·qxsv xvvintqp rvzvévn uv tv wnénljz oj kénu¹ 0 x wvuv
í ljttvp xqxznu€ xqmtjsvk
­sjkj 9,,,
è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
!
" # $ % !
$ = & # ' ( ( !
% $ ) # bnsntqn utvmv·sntvk
* + !
, () () - ( () ./ () ./ () = J([)([) + ()
() () () = 0 ) !
& − 1 + + 2 = ([ − + 3)(& + 4) + (− − 3) . &3/
() + # () , !
5 67 ) &1
3 3 − 8 . èqx èqx ­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
èqx 32 ( ( / % #$$ +# !
3 + + + + + Q + - () = D + + Q Q () = E + + P P %
() !
≠ 0 I([) = J([)() + U() U([) ≠ I([) J([) 67 + [ + + + N N + .3/
) &2 . &3/ !
I([) = & − 1 + [ + 2 J([) = − + 3
9 ( ≠ 0 U([) ≠ : I([) J([) .3/ ¬smniéjq·nxrqn léviq q xznwntt€n é¹l€
- I([) J([) - ¬smniéjq·nxrqn léviq q xznwntt€n é¹l€
# ( () ()
()
()
= + F + F +
+ N N + 3 "= 3 + + [ + + + Q + .1/
3−
*
#
.1/ 3 9 !
' = 30
30
; !
3 + 03 + 003 + 0003 + 9 !
% %
< 3= 33= 333=
3333= ) ( 30
; ( 9 !
# ( (
3333 = 30
; 3 9 !
.1/ = 30
.1/ 31 : 1 !
3 + 31 + 34 + 3> + + 3N + ? 1
3
3 31 3 24 3 @> 1 − 3N 8 # 1
1
A = 4 .1/ − 32 3 + 4 + 4 + + N + ­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
, # ( 3 B 13 >B C ( !
( − 32 * # + + + + Q + .2/
D ! − ( + D + + DQ) ( E ε > 0 + + + Q !
" . ε/ ε<
F − ( + + + Q) F < ε
≥ "
- # ( ! # + + + Q + = + + + Q + , .2/ # ( + 30 = 3 + 03 + 003 + + 00003 + ;
1 = 3 + 3 + 3 + > + + 3N + 1
3 + 4 + 4 + + N + ? F [ F < 3 3 + + + + [Q + 3 3−
F [ F ≥ * # Q+
3 + + + + [Q = 3 − 3−[
+
Q
( F [ F < 3 F [ F > 3 + = 3
= − 3 3 + 3 + 3 − 3 + 3 − 3 + ¬smniéjq·nxrqn léviq q xznwntt€n é¹l€
E F [ F < 3 $ .1/ <
3 = 3 + + + + + Q + .4/
3−
A .4/ % # $ (
.4/ A
F [ F < 3 3 3−
3
F [ F < 3 # $%
D $ 3−
3 + + + + + Q + 9 +
() () + + + + N N + .B/
A ()
.B/ ()
!
E # N % F N F F F < ) $ 3 − = 3 !
3
F F < 3 G $ − @ + 3−
= 1 = B # F F < − 3
− + 30
A (
(0) = E ≠ 0 E F F < U ()
= F + F + F + + N N + () ­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
- !
$ - ( HIJ = − 2K
LMH = 3 − 1K
+
−
−
BK
+
+
@K
[
;K
−
[ −
.&/
4K &K >K 5 +
&[ = 3 + + [1K + [2K + E $ .>/ &=3+3+ 3
.@/
.>/
.;/
2K + ? .;/ & ( + & ( 1@3>1>3>1>;04B
.&/ .@/ .>/ A ( '!( () )
$ +
* ! ) E () = + + + + DNN + () = + + + + ENN + = = N = N bnpxzkq¹ tjl xznwntt€uq é¹ljuq
+ + $ I([) J([) I([) = + + +
+ DNN + .30/
J([) = + + +
+ ENN + .33/
9
bnpxzkq¹ tjl xznwntt€uq é¹ljuq
I([) + J([) = ( + + + + NN + ) +
+ (E + + +
+ ENN + )
A !
.# !
% !
/ + # ([) + () = ( + E) + ( + ) +
N
+ (D + ) [ + + (DN + N) + .31/
.31/ ! .30/ .33/
+ !
$ ([) ([) ([) () = ( + + + + NN + ) ×
× ( + + + + NN + )
.32/
A !
.32/ !
. # / ) ( ' # * < A (
+ = ( + ) 9 <
+ + = (E + DE + ) - #$$ Q Q + D Q− + D EQ− + + N Q−N + + DQ 9 I([) () = D + (D E + ) + ( E + + D ) [ + +
Q
+ (D Q + Q− + Q− + + N Q−N + + Q ) + .34/
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
.34/ .30/ .33/
- .30/ () = + 1 + ( + 1 D) + 1( + ) [ + + + .33/ +
# + + + + Q Q + .3B/
( + + + N [N + ) ( + F + + Q [Q + ) =
N
= + + + + N + .3&/
5 #
+ ( + ) + + ( Q + Q− + + Q )Q + $ 5 # .30/ ⎧ = ⎪
⎪ + = ⎨
⎪ + Q− + + Q = Q
⎪ Q
⎩
C ( ( !
#$$ F F FQ E F = + E = − F =
F
− - #$$ F
FQ− FQ E Q = Q − Q− − − EQ C E ≠ 0
Íéquntntqn xznwntt€} é¹lvk ls¹ lvrjojznsxzkj zv lnxzk
E .3B/ !
( ( .3&/ .3B/ ( .30/ .33/ $ I() ([)
9 !
. % / C ( !
$ 9 D + + + Q [Q
= +F +
+ E + + P [P + FN N + A F + + + N [N + D + + + Q [Q E + + + P [P E # ( + +
+ P P) ( + + + N N + ) =
.34/
= + +
+ QQ
$!
Íéquntntqn xznwntt€} é¹lvk ls¹ lvrjojznsxzkj
zv lnxzk
' ( !
5 # ( $ ( ( + $ #$$ C 3 = + [ + + + + Q + 3−
- # 3 = 3 + 1 + 2 + 4 + + ( + 3)Q + .3@/
(3 − )
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
, − 3 = 3 − 1 + 2 − 4 + + (−3)Q( + 3)Q + .3>/
(3 + )
+ .3@/ .3>/
3 ⋅ 3 = 3 + N3 ⋅ (−1) + 1 ⋅ @ + N3 ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ (−1) + 2 ⋅ 3O +
(3 − ) (3 + )
+ + N3 ⋅ (−)Q ⋅ ( + 3) + 1 ⋅ (−)Q− + + ( + 3) ⋅ 3O Q + .3;/
A #$$ !
( . # #$$!
/ "#$$ Q 3 ⋅ (1 + 3) − 1 ⋅ 1Q + 2 ⋅ (1 − 3) − + (1 + 3) ⋅ 3
3
) $ (
(3 − ) ( + [)
3 3
=
(3 − ) ( + [)
(3 − )
3
.3@/
G (3 − )
<
3
Q
= + 1 + 2 + 4 + + ( + 3) + .10/
(3 − )
$ +# #$$ Q .3;/ #$$ Q .10/ A( ( !
<
3 ⋅ (1 + 3) − 1 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ (1 − 3) − + (1 + 3) ⋅ 3 = + 3
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq
G #
% ( $ + !
Q A
+ + + + Q Q + , # ! $ I([) $ ( I([) ( $ !
Q Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q iqtvuqjst€n rvë{{q|qntz€
3 = + + + + Q + !
) $
3−[
$ 3 !
3−[
3 3 3 3 G $ .3@/ !
3 1 2 4 3 $ (3 − )
) $ !
Q ' ( # $ # " $!
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q iqtvuqjst€n rvë{{q|qntz€
) ( $ ( !
#$$ +Q +Q +QQ
+
)( . 14/ = 3 Q
(3 + )Q = +Q + +Q + +Q + + +NQ N + + &Q
.13/
Q[ (3 + )Q $ +NQ = 0 3 ' ( # $ +NQ ( 5 +NQ+ = +NQ + +NQ− 5 # !
.13/ 3 + (+Q + +Q + + +NQ− [N− + +NQ N + + +QQ Q) (3 + [)
- # )( 9 $ + 3 +# #$$ N +NQ+ - N < +NQ N 3 +NQ− N− +# #$$ N
+NQ + +NQ− ) Q+ =
(3 + )
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
+# #$$ N C +NQ+ = +NQ + +NQ−
9 1Q = +Q + +Q + +Q + + +QQ
$ .13/ = 3
, .13/ = − 0 = +Q − +Q + +Q − +Q + + (−)N+NQ + + (−3)Q&QQ
E +NQ +NQ <
+Q + +Q + +Q + + +QP + = &Q + +Q + + +QP+ + A ( , + 3/ , . qz
Éíivw€zt€p énoyszjz wvsy·qzx¹ nxsq k éjkntxzkn
[=L
Íévxzvp wvlx·nz
Ívëzvuy
wvsv
L = − Q = P
wvrjo€kjnz ·zv (L + ) = (− + L + ) = L = −
utquj¹ nlqtq|j
(L + )P = (−)P
΀ wvsy·jnu zjrqu viéjovu éjkntxzkv
(−)P = &P + &PL + &PL + &PL + &PL +
+ &P
P=
= &P + &PL − &P − &PL + &P +
+
P
P
&
Ìzlns¹¹ k ëzvu éjkntxzkn lnpxzkqznstyí q utqu€n ·jxzq wéq
}vlqu r zv
lnxzkju
−
P
&
−
&P + &P − &P + − &P
P = −
P
&
ƀ¹xtqzn
Q
= P +
Q
xjuq
= P +
P
&P + &P − + &P
P = (−) rjrqn
Q
zv
= P +
lnxzkj
wvsy·jzx¹
nxsq
wvsv
qz
: ( $ &VQ+P = +Q+VP + +Q+VP− +
+ +NQ+VP−N + + &QQ+VP−Q
. V − < 0 V − > , &VP−N = 0 #
/
5 Q
N N
Q Q
(3 + ) = +Q + +Q + +Q + + +Q + + +Q bévit€n wénlunz€
+ +WP W +
(3 + )P = +P + +P + +P +
P
+ +P
P # #$$ V
* # . - = , = / +QQ = (+Q)
+ (&Q) +
+ (+QQ)
. +NQ = +QQ−N/
djlj·q
Ëjplqzn xyuuy rvë{{q|qntzvk utvmv·sntj wvsy·jínmvx¹ wéq
éjxré€zqq xrvivr k utvmv·sntn
([ −
j
\ + ])(\ − \ + \ + ]) + ([ + \ − )
Ívrj
wv i
rj
cxsq
Q
¹ks¹nzx¹ isq
k€wqxjz
kxn
jp¡qu |ns€u r
ëzq
éjounntq¹
lvmv wénlunzj ¹ks¹nzx¹ isq
Q≥
H ⋅ Q − qzn ·zv wvstvn ·qxsv éjounntqp qo
zv
jp¡qu |ns€u r
·qxsv
wénlunzvk
wv¹ksntqp
H(Q − )(Q − )
[P wvsy·jíqpx¹ wvxsn éjxré€zq¹
N
( + [) + ( + [)N+ + + ( + [)Q q ywévntq¹
Ëjplqzn rvë{{q|qntz wéq
xrvivr k kێj
ntqq
P < N Q ≥ P ≥ N
( + [ + [)Q = D + D[ + D[ + + DQ[Q
DD − DD + DD − DD + − DQ−DQ = D − D + D − + (−)QD = D + (−)Q−D
èjoinéqzn vzlnstv xsy·jq
j
i
Íyxz
Q− Q
DU − &QDU− + &QDU− − + (−)U&UQD = m
D + D + D + =
Ëjplqzn rvë{{q|qntz wéq
j
( + [ + [ +
+ [Q−)
i
tn réjztv =
(Q − )
wvsy·jíqpx¹ wvxsn éjxré€zq¹
xrvivr q wéqknlntq¹ wvlvit€} ·sntvk k k€éj
U
nxsq
(Q + ) D + D + D +
[N qzn ·zv
Q
k
bvrj
( + [ + [ +
ntqq
+ [Q−)W
bévit€n wénlunz€
+P
, Q P , ) % & @Q;
) +P
Q +# ­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
+P
, Q ( C C A
+!
+P
. Q ( ,/ 5 # +P
( <
Q
( − , + 3) .11/
3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ ⋅ ,
+ .11/ ( !
.11/
$ +P
U ( <
+P
Q =
+P
U =
( − 3)
( − 3) ( − , + 3)
3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ ⋅ ,
.12/
' +P
Q (
P
+U 5 .12/ % # '!
+P
Q ( P
+Q ( ) +P
Q
+ = − 9
(−)(− − ) (− − , + 3)
=
+P
−U =
3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ ⋅ ,
(U + 3) ( + , − 3)
= (−3)P +P
= (−3)P
U+P−
3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ ⋅ ,
+ ;0
è¹l ˁízvtj
# ( $ )( C R ( + )Q A S D# Q
( + )
è¹l ˁízvtj
- P , )( ? +
P )( % $ ( + )Q E
% F F < ( ( + )U = U + U− +
( − 3) U− ( − ) ( − + 3) U−N N
+
+ +
+ =
3⋅1
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ N U−N N
U−
U− U
= + +U D [ + +U + + +U + .14/
+NU % $ .12/ 9 - % = !
+NU ( − )
( # #$$ E # bvrjojznsxzkv {véuys€
lq{{nént|qjstvmv
qx·qxsntq¹
ls¹ kxn} otj·ntqp
U
tn
iylnu
lvrjo€kjz
q éjxxuvzéqu sq¡ xsy·jp rvmlj
U = −Q
vzéq|jznstvn ·qxsv
k vinu kqln zéniynz wéquntntq¹
΀
Æ ëzvu xsy·jn wvlsn
U
{véuysy
² |nsvn
jj¹ lvrjojzns
xzky {véuysj wéqtqujnz xsnlyíqp kql
D−Q−[ +
Q
(D + [)−Q = D−Q −
&
Êtj·n ëzv éjkntxzkv uv
⎛ +
⎝
[
D
j ojuntqk
⎞
⎠
[
D
Q
−
=
tj
( − W)−Q =
Q=
Q+D
Q
− −[
W <
−W
−
zvmlj _ _
[ N
+ (−)N &NQ+N− ⎛ ⎞ +
⎝D⎠
W <
wéq _ _
wvsy·qu xsnlyínn éjkntxzkv
+ &Q W + &Q+ W + &Q+ W +
qunnu
+ (−)N &QN +N−D−Q−N[N +
tv wnénwqxjz zjr
[
[ − &Q ⎛ ⎞ + &Q+ ⎛ ⎞ −
⎝D⎠
⎝D⎠
cmv q iylnu lvrjo€kjz
Íéq
&
&NQ+N− = &NN = + &NQ+N− WN +
x wvuví qtlyr|qq wv
Q
q wvzvuy lvrjo€kjnuvn xvvztv¡n
tqn wéqtqujnz xsnlyíqp kql
Ëv ëzv ² y
−W
= + W + W + W +
n qoknxztj¹ tju {véuysj
+ WN +
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
Íénlwvsv
qu znwné ·zv y
n lvrjojtv éjkntxzkv
q wvrj
nu
·zv qo tnmv xsnlynz éjkntxzkv
( − W)−Q− =
bs¹ ëzvmv yutv
·snt€ xvvztv¡ntq¹
( − W)−Q− =
+ &Q+ W + &Q+ W + &Q+ W +
qu vin ·jxzq éjkntxzkj
+ &QN+N WN +
tj xvvzknzxzkyíqn
( + &Q W + &Q+ W + &Q+ W + + &NQ+N− WN + ) ×
znwné
΀ wvsy·qu ·zv
× ( + W + W + W +
¬
éjxrévnu
xrvirq
&Q− + &Q + &Q+ + + &NQ+N− = &NQ+N
q
xu
kvxwvsoynux¹
énoyszjzn r lvrjo€kjnuvuy xvvztv¡ntqí
+ WN +
zv
)
lnxzkvu
k w ΀ wéqlnu k
E .1@/ ) F . F < , # . = −3 # 6(7 $
1−Q = 3 − +Q + +Q+ − +Q+ + .1>/
( % 3Q 1
- TUVVV + !
!
A $ .1>/ . / - TVT !
$ .1>/ ) #
P .1B/ . −W ( + .)
−Q
=
3 − +Q W + +Q+ . − +Q+ W + + (−3)N+NQ+N− .N + .1;/
' Q
( + .) =
+NQ
+Q + +Q . + +Q . + + +NQ .N + + +QQ .Q
.20/
Êoksn·ntqn rkjléjzt€} rvétnp
+N−Q = (−3)N+NQ+N−
+NQ = 0
, .1;/ .20/ . + !
+NQ = 0 0 ≤ < Êoksn·ntqn rkjléjzt€} rvétnp
9 )( . /
+ = 31 3
=− 1
+ = 31 $ )( 3 ⎛ 3 − 3⎞
3 ⎛3 ⎞ ⎛3 ⎞
⎠ 1 ⎝ 1 − 3⎠ ⎝ 1 − 1⎠ ⎝
1
3
+
3 + +
[ +
3⋅1
3⋅1⋅2
3 ⎛ 3 − 3⎞ ⎛ − + 3⎞
⎠
1 ⎝1 ⎠ ⎝1
+ +
N + 3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ ⋅ + # (3 + ) =
3 − 3 [ +
1
1⋅4
3 ⋅ 2 − + (−3)N− 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − 2) N + +
1⋅4⋅&
1 ⋅ 4 ⋅ ⋅ 1
9 = − 31
(3 + ) =
+
3 − 31 + 3 ⋅ −
1⋅
3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ [ + + (−3)N ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − ) N + −
1 ⋅ 4 ⋅ ⋅ 1⋅4⋅&
+ $ 5 #
3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − 2) =
(1 − 1)K
3 +N− =
N−
N−
1 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ N
⋅ ((−3)K) ⋅ 1N−
−
(3 + ) =
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − 3) = (1)K = 3 &N 1 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ N
1N (K) N N
+#
(3 + ) =
3 + 31 − 3 + +
1⋅1
3 + − + (−3)N− +N− N + +
−
2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1N− N
.23/
3 − 3 + + 3 + − + (−3)N 3N +NN N + .21/
1
1
1
C F F < 3 ' (
( $ .23/ .21/ ) −
(3 + ) =
⎯⎯⎯
√
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
20 = √⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
+ ⎯B = B √
+ 01 = B (3 + 01) ≈
3
3 01 +
≈ B ⎛⎝3 + ⋅ 01 −
1
⋅4
3 ⋅ 2 01⎞ = B4@@B
⎠
1⋅4⋅
. √⎯⎯⎯
20 = B4@@1/ A !
$ ( #$$ !
( * # !
.21/ + #$$ N
N
(−3)
(+N + ++N− + +&N− + + &N )
N
N
N−
N−
- ) N
⎡
−
⎣(3 + [)
⎤ ⎦ =
3 3+[
= 3 − [ + [ − + (−3)NN + 3+
' #$$ [N &NN + &+N−N− + +&N−N− + + +NN = 1N
Êoksn·ntqn rkjléjzt€} rvétnp
G .23/
( &N−N−
3 ⋅ ( − )
+
++N−N−
1 ⋅ ( − 1)
+
&+N−N−
− 2)
⋅(
+
+N−N−
&N−N−
=
( − 3) ⋅ 3
+
N ≥ 5 .23/ .21/ !
3 + + + − + (−3)N− +N− N + ⎤⎥ ×
⎦
1 ⋅ 1 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1N− N−
N
⎡
⎤
(−3)
3
3
3
× ⎢3 − + + + − + + + N +NN N + ⎥ ⎣
⎦
1
1
1
1
# !
3 #$$ # . /
( A( +N−N− + 31 &+N−N− + 32 ++N−N− + + 3 +N−N− = &NN
≥ 3
) =
⎡ 3
⎢3 + −
⎣ 1
−
(3 + ) (3 + [)
A(
⎡ ⎢3 + −
⎣ 1
−
= (3 + )
+ [ +
1⋅
& −
2⋅
⎡
× ⎣3 − + − +
+
(−3)N− N− N
+
&
⋅ 1N− N−
⎤
⎦
⎥ ×
+ (−3)NN + ⎤⎦ =
N
(−3) N N
3 3 3 = − + + + [ − & + + N +N + 1
1
1
1
# !
#$$ N
3 − 3 + − + − − N− +N−N− = 3N− +NN
2⋅1
1⋅
⋅
1
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q énryééntzt€n xvvztv¡ntq¹
$ - ( + () = D + + + DQ[Q () = E + + + EP[P
% ≠ 0 < , () %
()
. ( /
()
()
= F + + F[ +
+ NN + .22/
+ + + Q Q = ( + + + P [P)( + + + N N + )
# #$$ N ' , <
= = = 3<
+ = D
.24/
= 1<
+ + = = , − 3< P− + P− + + P− = P−
. N = 0 < ≤ , − 3/ G !
( <
≥ 0<
N+P + N+P− + + PN = 0
.2B/
() P P+ 9 #$$ N .22/
( ( .2B/ "#$$ !
# * , P− A .2B/ P− $
èjosv ntqn tj ësnuntzjét€n léviq
P−
P−
()
+ + + P− =
()
+ + + P P
!"# $ %
& " N
& ' !"# & ( &" %
&&" " &"
'
) * $ & ) &% ( N
èjosv ntqn tj ësnuntzjét€n léviq
+ %&
& ) , !"#
&% '
" ' - % & & % &%
J([) = EP ( − )U
( − N)
V
+ EP [P = J([) = E + E [ +
. "
&" & )
"
") , ( & , /
[ − ( − )
U
([ − )U
N
N
)
− N ( − N
0&
NV
( − N)V
& P−
P− = + + + U +
( − )U
+ + + P [P
− ( − )
N
NV
N
+
+ +
+ +
V
( − N)
[ − N ( − [N)
+ + +
1
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
$& (
'
P ( − )U
1 & (!! # '
V
( − ) N
"
NV
,
+ +
&
(!! # (!! # "&%
,
&
2 0 "
, &
&
(!! # 0 "
-"
' & "
− + + 3
& %
.
− + − + = ( − 3)( − ) = ( − 3)( + 3)( − 4)( + 4) ( % %
&
− + + 3
+
=
( − 3)( + 3)( − 4)( + 4) − +
3
+
−
+
4
'
+4
- &" & ) "& − + + 3 = $( + )( − )( + ) +
+ %( − 3)([ − 4)([ + 4) + ([ − 3)([ + 3)( + 4) + ( − 3)([ + 3)( − 4)
5 =
$ % 3 )
= −3
=−
.
=
"
% 3
& =
6
, ,
− = = −3 = 4 = −4
& "&
-( &"
, &
. & &
− 4 + + 3
3
3
6
−
+
=−
+
( − 3)( + 3)( − 4)( + 4)
− 3 ( + 3) 34( − 4) ( + 4)
LU
( − L)U
− 4)
34(
=−
3
4
−
⎛3 − ⎞ = −
⎝
4 ⎠
3
4
⎛
⎜3 + + +
4
⎝
+
− 4 + + 3
=
([ − )( + )( − )([ + 4)
−
−
(3 + )− −
3
4
−
⎛3 − ⎞ +
⎝
4 ⎠
6
7
Q + ⎞
⎟
Q
4
- &
% & & 7 "& = (3 − )
7
% "
!&" $ ) $ &
3
&
⎠
−
⎛3 + ⎞ =
⎝
⎠
èjosv ntqn tj ësnuntzjét€n léviq
⎡3 − [ + [ − + (−3)QQ + ⎤ −
⎦
⎣
Q Q ⎤
Q
(−3) ⎞ 6 ⎡
⎛ ⎜ + + + + Q + ⎟ + ⎢3 − + − +
Q + ⎥⎦ ⎠ 7 ⎣
⎝ 4 4
4 4
4
4
= (3 + + + + Q + ) −
−
3
4
8" " (!! # 3
−
&
[Q
FQ =
%
⋅ (−)Q −
[
&
"&
!&" 3
6
Q + 7 ⋅ 4Q ⋅ (−)
4 ⋅ 4
Q
+ "% & %
'
" ' , , " , . & &
& ) % ( & , " 0 F
([)
") % ", ( &
&% '
' &
" D
FP−
DP−
9
)
(!! # & ' *
!&" &
(!! # & ()
N
= + + + + N + ()
& ")
([) ( ()
()
%
+ +
P
+ P
$ ( & %") ( & ") %
!&" $ ) :(!
! # N
"& ;' & & " ' N
N+ − *N+ + N = <
=
, "
=
3
,
= −
*
= 3 = − 4
= ( *
=
4 ( &"
J() = 3 − * + 0 !&" "& = = 3
= + = − 1 ( &" I([) = 3 − 1 .& && & "%
3 − 1
'
& = 3 − 4 + 3 − + ­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
> ' & %
3
− 1
3
− + 3
− 1
$ 3
− * + [ = (3 − 4)(3 − )
(
&"
3
− = (3 −
+ 9 %
3
=
- =
* =
− 4
3
+
3
− [
& "&
− 1 = (3 − ) + %( − 4)
=−
, &
=
3
4
, &
−
=
= * ⋅ (3 − 4)− − ⋅ (3 − )− =
− * + 3 − 4 3 − N
N
= * ⋅ ?3 + 4 + + + (4[) + @ − ⋅ ?3 + + 6 + + () + @
3
3
− 1
3
− 1
=
)(3 − )
4
"
Q = * ⋅ 4Q − ⋅ Q
0 % ' &" "
3<4
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q ojlj·j v éjoiqntq¹}
-
'
'
" &"
Q = Q− + Q− +
"
= 3
& 74 5 &
+ Q−
6
' ' & & A &
B & %& 6 > ( " ") "% "&
' $ ' & & &
' &
' )
'
& ") !"# )
I([) = + [ + +
+ QQ +
- % &
)([) = [I() = + + +
&
)([)
+ QQ+ +
<
+ " & () = + ( + ) + +
Q+
+ (7Q− + Q− + + Q−)
+
Ívsqtvuqjstj¹ {véuysj
$ " &"
' )
Q− + Q− +
=
() = + +
- "
=
3 )([) − 6
+ Q− = Q
+ QQ+ +
)([) − C
0 () = )() − )([)
> !"#
"
&
3
" 3
- <
& & & " - !&" 3
([) =
;' , & () = <
"
3 − ⎯
±√
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
3
4
"
&&
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
3 − ⎯[ = (3 − ) =
=
=
() =
3
4
3
− 4 −
⎡3 − ⎛3 − 4 −
⎣
⎝
−
4
4
=+
B !&" <
5 ) & & &
−
4
Q
Q+
[
+ 3 Q
Q Q+ − ⎞⎤ =
Q
⎠⎦
3
Q Q+ − [ + + + 3 Q −
4
−
4
−
−
4
+
3
4 "& Q =
4
3
+
Q
Q
" ' ) "&" &
74
Ívsqtvuqjstj¹ {véuysj
$ & !&" " & $ ) &%
%
( + + )
( + + ) = ?([ + )
= ( + ) +
% % &
0&
+ @ =
( + ) +
( + )
( + )
( + \) +
( + )
( + ) +
!&" &
; % &
$ ) & + " & ( + + ) = + + + + + [\ + ] + +
+ + [ + + \ + 34 + 34 + 34 ­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
$
( + + ]) '&
% B & )
"
& (!! # & ,
%
!&" "
D ( &"
" )") % % ( + +
5 " !&" " " "
& $ ) & N Q−N
& + P)Q
-
!&" ( + )Q
%
3(N Q − ) +% %
%
( + + + P)Q (!! # & N N
N
PP " 3( P) + %& ,
E
(!! # &
&
&& '&
&%
( + +
&
+ P)Q
&%
, F ( &
" &% & & "
,
"
$
P
% & . " " ,
% (!! # &
& "
%
"&
)
,
N N
P
&
N
PP
%
""
P
"
""
&
2
, N N
)
(!! # &
& ∑
N
(!! # !&" " &% ( + + + P)Q =
/
N
N
N
$( P) [ PP
N+N++NP= Q
PP % "%
3( P) + + + P = -( &" 3(N N P)
=4
!"#C >") &
F %
P " P
3( P)
"
& 0 (
&
""
& %
-( &"
"&& &% # , # ,
&,
*
+ + + P
Ívsqtvuqjstj¹ {véuysj
$& & 3(N N
F ( -( &"
&
( + +
P) =
G G
+ P)
P
( P) " P) 3( P) = $( N P)
%
(!! # 5 & % * > (!! # , & = + + + P
$ & =
*
+
<
*
$
( + \ + )
&
≥ ≥ ≥ P
&%&
H
& "
&, & , " * &% &, ) & /
*
$(4
&
$(*
< <)
4 3)
=
=
3
+ < * = +
= + 3 + 3
$(
3 <)
=
*
3
*
+ < * = +
= 4 + 4 + 3
$(
4 <)
=
4
+
<
$(
3<
3 3)
=
4<
< -( &"
( + + ) = + \ + + *\ + * + [ + * + * +
+ * + 3< + 3< + 3< + 3< + 3< + 3< +
+ 4< + + 4< + < + <\] + <
I&" &" * $( P)
= = = P
Q=
=
3( &,/
"&%
&
% " &
( !
NP)
= + + + P
, # ,
+ + + P
3(N N
∑
N+N++NP= Q
&, "
> %
" & "&& # $ & ") " *
3(N N
' /
P) = $( − 3 P) +
+ 3( − 3 P) + + $( P)
NP − 3)
1
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
H
% &%
( + +
+ P)Q =
( + +
+ P) =
V
∑
$( ∑
$(% %
N+N++NP= Q
O+O++OP= V
(!! # , " &
%
3( =
N
N N
P) P2
∑
NL+OL=UL
3( "&& O O
%P) , UP) =
%
P) $(O O
;"&
' , OP)
7
%P) ,
+ % = ) ") 7 &% "
"
!"# % !"#
&
U
U U
# ,
!&" O
PP
PP
( P)
(% %
+
+
=
+
+
+ P % % + %P =
+ % = P + %P = P + &
# * $ ( &
"
"% - & "
(
% ' % djlj·q
!" ##$ %&" ' ( (' ')*
(+ + [ − [) [, ( (+ + [ − [) [,
(+ + -[ − [) [
!" ##$' [ [ ' ( (' ') ( + [ + [)
. / ')" ( + [ − [) ( − [ + [)
( ( ##$ [ ' ( (' 0
!" / ' %& / ') ([ + [ + + [Q) (' !" ( " ##$ / ) (D + E + F), ( (D + E + F + G)
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q éjoiqntq¹ ·qxns
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q éjoiqntq¹ ·qxns
E JK & '
& 5
') & )
, !"#
9 &
Q
& + + +
Q
I([)
.
I([)
& Q
&
I([) = + D + +
Q
Q +
Q
+
A !"# E & , , "
( & %
Q
Q + % +
-"
& & " "&&
&
& &
A &
%
, &"
"&&
& &
N
-( &"
&
$ & "
1
&
&% " 17 & &
*< " "& %
"&& &
( &
Q
(3 + N) -
Q
Q
Q
L
M
V
A L M
V
&
(3 + Q)(3 + Q)
-
> ,% &
N
& % &, &
"
"&&
&
&%
3 4 * 3< 3*
& % 4<
% (3 + [)(3 + )(3 + [)(3 + [)(3 + )(3 + )(3 + )(3 + )
(!! # # " & "
&,
5 (!! ' &
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& ) , !"#
' (() * +##
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E ( & &
[
,
*
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"" "#,
& 46
&,
0&
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
èqx & &
" + * =
# 46 > ( ,
'
& % I([) = ( + + + + P + ) (3 + + + + Q + )
- )
6
#
A # * F (!! # & & + * =
46 E " '
(!! # " '" "
E& &% "
E & !&" & . % 6 I([) =
3
3−
⋅
3
3
=
−[
& 3−
3
− + &
(!! # 9 & & "& ") & ) &
&
"
- %
"
& $ ( &
/0# ( (() * 12)# 3( & (4"" 15" (#5"#(#5" 13" 167
(4"8 " +3#5"#(6
E ( &
" !"# &
I([) = (3 + [D + [D + + ND + ) (3 + [E + E + + VE + ) × ×
× (3 + P + P + + [TP + ) =
3
(3 − D) (3 − E) (3 − P)
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q éjoiqntq¹ ·qxns
$ & & ") !"# )
I() =
(3 − ) ( − ) (3 − ) (3 − )
-&% % &
3
, & 3+
& "
3
I() =
I() =
3
− − + + − − + E + 4 + [ + + + 7 + 3< +
+ 3 + 3 + [ + 4[ + 46 + + < + :(!! # ;"& & & % E& ( &% & &
, (!! # = '& "
&
(!! # &
3
3−
− + + − − + M&% & Q
(!! # = $ + $ + $ + + $QQ + & &
/
= </
3
= ≥ /
<
= Q − Q− − Q− + Q− + $Q− − Q− − Q− + $Q−
$
≥3
"
&)
(!! # ' )
Q
/
N =
< <
% " <
= 3
" &"
Q = Q− + Q− − Q− − Q− + Q− + Q− − Q−
- (
& "
&
( & ) # " (!! # N/
3 3 4 7 3< 3 3 4< 4 46 < 1 * 4
13 7< 63 3<4 33 ;
& & &" 31 4<
" 3 E &
&
&% "&& ,
&, &) ,
* & &,
&
> ( !"#
I([) = ( + + )
1 A &
%
&
&
&
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
"&&" ,
-
( &
&, &) , *
"&
&, ; = [ (3 + + ) &% !&" +
&
+ =
3+
& "
& ( + + ) =
%
* $ &
"
& − [
3 − [
3
()
-( &"
&%
[(3 − )
−
= [ (3 − ) (3 − ) (3 − )
() =
- !&" & $ ) (3 − [ ) =
− + − + 3
!&" $ ) (3 − [)
−
=
3
&&
334 !&" N N + N+
+ 4< + +
+ [ +
4*
3<
-( &"
() = [(3 − + − [ + ) ×
× (3 + + 3< + 4< + * + *[ + 7[ + 34< + 3* + )
-&% (
'
&
+ + + + %
+
% 3
, & "
") =
31
/
&%
3 & 37 A 3< & 36 A &
4< A & &
E
V
&
&
&
&, &) ,
& &, "
"
"&&"
&%
& Q
Q
Q
+ [ + + V
)
&, !"# & -( &"
Q + Q + + QV)N
([) = (
= "
") ) A ( &
& ") % I([)
"
V
Q
) ( ")
Q
V
"
!&
")
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q éjoiqntq¹ ·qxns
$ & &
&
&
&% "
4* 1 =
")
!"# )
I([) = ( + + [ + + [ + [)
-
!&" "&&
!"# ) &% I([) =
.
−
(3 − )
(3 − )
!&" & $ ) − * + − + − ) ×
× (3 + + 47 + 7 + 43< + 4 + )
43
9
; *1 & "&& ( &
I([) = (3 + [ + + + P−)Q =
= P( <) + P( 3) +
") "
" ,%
"&&
&,
&
!"# &, , & (!
& , &"
0 ( "
A !&" $ ) + " &
0 ( % %
")& /
(3 − [)
= (3 − )(3 − )−
(3 − )
% &
() = (3 − +
! # & P( &)
P(Q 4) ") !"# ) I([) = (3 + [ + [ +
; (3 − P)Q
/
+ P−)Q =
+
1
P(Q &) P( &)
!&" +
&%
(3 − P)Q
−Q
PQ
Q = (3 − ) (3 − [) (3 − )
−Q
(3 − )
3
- +
"&"
"&& & −
< 3 4 !&" & &
$ ) "&
() = ⎡⎣3 − QP + QP − + (−)N&NQ[NP +
× ⎛⎝3 + &Q +
QP⎤
+ (−3)Q Q
Q ⎦ ×
S
S
Q+ + + &Q+S− + ⎞⎠
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
" 1
"&
N N 1−NP
N N Q−
P( &) = ∑ (−3) Q Q+1−NP− = ∑ (−3) Q Q+1−NP−
N
N
"&& = <
≤ &
3 4 *<
, E *6 & & " A " ,
"&& ,
, # ! ,
, # ! H
&
, & 6 "
(
41) .
(
41)
=
41
∑ (−)N&N
N=
( &"
& &%& ( ,
,
"&&
# !
"&& # !
!&" −N = & − & +
=
djlj·q
1 [ + [ + + [S = P !" *</
4*4
$ '
P S O Q 2
" %& ≤ O ≤ [N ≤ Q
/ ' $ ' 3 " / %& *
'" ( '" ", '" ( '" " ' '" $ 2 " 4) '" $
/ + ' - ' 2 $ ' 5 / ) ( " 0
( 5 & ( " $ ) (' %( "0
1 ) ) " ' + ( " $ 6+ 2 ( '" 7+ 2
'"
U U
U
8 ( + ⋅ - ⋅ ⋅ N N &" / U
/ ' ' U / ' U
1 ) / &" #$"
( '( Q / ( −U −U −−U
U
U
U
N
(+ − W) (+ − W) (+ − WN+) N (+ − W) ! / &% #$%
( ' )
U U
U
Q / ( + ⋅ - ⋅ ⋅ N N
8 6 / " 7 2 " 9 2
" 5 ( ) / ) - % (' ) '" +- 0
( / / :NQ ( / Q / '
N 1 ) + − :Q + -; ⋅ :Q − ; ⋅ :Q + = Q > +
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q tjivé€ mqé
: S ≥ T ≥ U 2 $ ' S<T+U 8 S ' T ( ' U ' 1 ) V + V + + − S + T- + U ( / ) $ ' ) '" V 4 / T + U < S0
!" ' +/
' / S + T + U = - V
Íévqokvl¹qn {ytr|qq q tjivé€ mqé
E & , &)
.
%
/ 3 4 * 3< &
# $
"& 7 9 ' & 3 3* -
( &
3
4
=
=
=
) # &
%
"
& &/
3
4
*
4
&
/ 3 4 +
3
1
=
=
=
=
+
+
+
7
3
6
4
4
3<
+
3
33
= 7
= 7 + 3
= 7 + 4
=7+4+
34
3
3
3
3*
=
=
=
=
7
7
7
7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3
4
+ Q
4
E
& & 3 4 4 &%
&
& "
)
3 (4Q − 3)
" '" 5 " % &% $ , !"#
")
&" & ) H
%
I() = (3 + [)( + )(3 + )
)
"&& Q
⎛ + ⎞
⎠
⎝
1
(!! # & &
&
Q
3 4 4 E&
I() 3 − (3 − )(3 + ) = 3 − "&% &
"
&% %
3
[
[
% & &
"&& & & & 3
− " Q+
)( )=− & " & # # (3 −
Q+
3 −
$ ( !&" &" ( ) =
3 −
(3 − )(3 + ) =
-( &"
&
, & & Q+
4
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
-( &"
Q+−
([) = 3 + + + + + + + - " Q+ − 3
4
3 "&& 3
+
3
&
+
&% 3
Q
& +
H
&%
) %
&%
,
,
'
)
&
3 4 Q
4
&
&
& )
"
& + "&
)
) # &%
$
E ( &
Q
3
−
Q+ − 3
4
& & ± ± Q
±
'
"
"
Q+ − 3
4
& ' %
N O / 3 6 41 3
N
+
" ( "
%
&% "& '
B
& "
( & , ) &&
" "
%
( & &%
&& & & " &
& A
)
3 & & " & 0
, ++ + +
3
% Q
& & " ) "
3 4 7 4 &
= 4Q+ − 3
B '
0&
Q+ − 3
&%
4
"&& ,
% =
NPO
N O
")
&" &% '" %") ' &&"
" " % ,
2 ( " % % ,
%
# ([) = (− + 3 + )(− + 3 + )
"&%
([)
3
− Q
([− +
3
Q
+ )
/
djlj·q
djlj·q
1 ) &% ( / * +
- - + - - + - - ) %( " ')'" $ ' 8 $ / < / = ) / + 4 / (' / ' / $ ) (' ( %(%
')%&% $ ' + < 0
> ) / &% ) / ' / +
< +
Q
1 $ " (Q + +)- − + / /
+ 1 ) ) Q / " $
/ ' " ) ( ( %(% +
(Q + +)-Q+ − + 8 + - Q : / Q ) / ) ' 0
1 ) P > Q
Q Q(Q − +) (Q − [ + +)
Q &[&U -Q + +
P++
Q Q
=
∑ P(P − +) (P − [ + +) P − Q + +
∑ &[+U = Q + + [=
[ = Q
P(P + +)
P(P + +) (P + Q − +)
=
1 ) P
+ + + ⋅ - + +
+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Q
Q(Q + +) (Q + P − +)
Q Q(Q + +)
= +
+ +
+
+ ⋅ - ⋅ ⋅ P
+⋅Q &[−
1 ) ∑ [Q− = [= &Q− Q + Q &[−
Q+T++
1 ) ∑ Q[− =
[= &Q+T (T + +)(T + -)
Q &[Q−−
(Q + T + +)
1 ) ∑ [ =
(T + +)(T + )(T + )
&
[ = Q+ T
( -Q − + ) ;
1 ) (&Q) + -(&Q) + (&Q) + + Q(&QQ) =
?(Q − +);@
> ')
>(+ + [)S+ ± ( − [)S+@ ?(+ + [)S ± (+ − [)S@
($ / ' # '
- ∑ &S+V&SP−V = &PS+ + (−+)P&PS V
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
- ∑ &S+V&SP−V+ = &PS++ − (−+)P&PS V
+
P P
- ∑ &S+V+&SP−V = &P
S+ + (−) &S V
- ∑ &S+V+&SP−V+ = &PS++ + (−+)P&PS +
V
- ∑ &SS−+V−&SS+P−V = &SS+P + &SS+P
V
- ∑ &SS−+V−&SS+P−V+ = &SS+P+ + &SS+P
V
- ∑ &SS−+V&SS+P−V = &SS+P+ − &SS+P
V
- ∑ &SS−+V&SS+P−V+ = &SS+P+ − &SS+P+
V
) $ ' $ ' /
V
' Q
⎯⎯
√
> ( ⎛⎝− +- + L - ⎞⎠ ) *
− &Q + 9&Q − -6&Q + = (−+)Q-QABC -Qπ ,
Q+
( &Q − &Q + 9&Q − &Q + = (−+) -Q+ CDE -Qπ ⎯⎯
√
π
π
: ε = ABC + L VLQ > ( (+ + [)Q [ = + [ = ε [ = ε [ = L ) *
&Q + &Q + &Q + = + ⎛⎝-Q + - ABC Qπ ⎞⎠ ,
( &Q + &Q + &Q + = + ⎛⎝-Q + - ABC (Q − -)π ⎞⎠ ,
&Q + &Q + &Q + = + ⎛⎝-Q + - ABC (Q + -)π ⎞⎠ ,
Q
+
−
Q
⎛
&Q + &Q + &Q + = - ⎝- + - ABC QFπ ⎞⎠ 8/ ) ( + [)S(+ + [)−N− = (+ + [)S−N− ' V V Q−V Q
∑ (−+) &N+V&S = &S−N− / $ '
V
$ ' / V
' djlj·q
( 8/ ) (+ − [) P (+ − [)−T− = ( − [)−P−T− ' ∑ &PS−V&TT−V = &SS+−TP+
V
8/ ) (+ + [)Q = (+ − [)Q(+ − [)−Q ' ∑ (−+)V&QQ+N−V&VQ+ = ∑ &QN+
V
V
8/ ) (+ + [)Q(+ − [)−Q = (+ − [)−Q ' ∑ &NQ−V&QV +V− = &NQ+N−
V
8/ ) (+ − [)−S− = (+ + [)−S−(+ − [)−S− ' ∑ (−+)V&SS+N−V&SS+V = &NS+N
V
N
N=S 8/ ) (+ − [)N ⎡⎣+ − ⎛⎝ [ ⎞⎠ ⎤⎦ = ( − -[)N
+−[
S N = − S ' ∑ &VS+V&SS++PV+ = -P−&P
+S−
V
S + P S
1 ) ∑ &VS+V&SS++PV = -P− P &P
+S−
V
N
N=S 8/ ) (+ − [)N ⎡+ + [ ⎤ = ( + [)N
− −
⎣
( − [) ⎦
' # '
∑ (−+)V&VS+V−&PP++−SV+V -V = ∑ (−+)V&VS+V−&PP+−V S+V− -V = (−+)P&SP+P−
V
V
∑ (−+)V&VS&PS−+V−V -V = ∑ (−+)V&VS&PS−−VV -V = &PS V
V
5 &% ) (S + P − +);
∑ &VS+P&SS+P−V = -P (S + P) S; (-P); V
(S + -P);
∑ &VS++P+&SS+P−V = -P (-S + -P + +) S; (-P + +); V
V
P− &S
P S
V−
S
S
∑ &S+P&S+P−V = S+P− ∑ &S+P+&S+P−V = - &S+P
V
V
> # '
>(+ + [)S ± ( − [)S@ = (+ + [)S + (+ − [)S ± (+ − [)S
>(+ + [)S + (+ − [)S@ ?(+ + [)S − ( − [)S@ = (+ + [)S − (+ − [)S
N=−S
­sjkj 9,,, è‰bÔ Ê ÍèÌÊdÆÌb‰ÕÊc ÐÏËÇgÊÊ
) ' $ ' / S ) - ∑ &SV&SP−V = &PS + (−+)P&PS - ∑ &SV&SP−V+ = &PS +
V
V
- ∑ &SV+&SP−V+ = &SP+ + (−+)P&PS +
V
- ∑ &SS+V&SS+P−V = &SS++P+ + &SS+P
V
- ∑ &SS−+V&SS−+P−V = &SS−+P+ − &SS+P - ∑ &SS+V&SS+P−V+ = &SS++P+
V
V
P
(−+)P
8/ ⎛⎝+ − +[ ⎞⎠ (+ − [)−Q− = P (+ − [)P−Q− ' [
∑ (−+)V&PP−N+V&QQ+V = &NP−Q−
V
1 ) P ≠ Q
∑ (−+)V&VP&QV = ⎨ (−+)Q ⎩
V
⎧
P = Q
8/ (+ − [)−Q (+ − [K)Q = (+ + [ + + [K−)Q ' P > KQ − +
∑ (−+)V&QP−−VK&VQ = ⎧⎨ +
P = KQ − +
⎩
V
(+ + [ + + [K−)Q
' 8/ ) (+ − [)−Q− ( − [K)Q =
+−[
Q &V = KQ P ≥ KQ
∑ (−+)V&P
−VK Q
V
8/ ) (+ + [)N (+ − [)N = (+ − [)N N = S N = −S
' P P
⎧
& P −V V
V
P
(−
)
+
S
∑ (−+) &S &S = ⎨
P ,
V
⎩
P
P
⎧
& P P ⎪
(−
)
+
S+ ∑ (−+)V&SS+P−V&SS+V = ⎨⎪
V
P ⎩
P P
⎧
1 ) ∑ (−+)V(&VP) = ⎨ (−+) &P P ·nztv
P V
⎩
( / ') D(D + +)(D + -) (D + Q − ) / (D)Q
Q
1 ) (D + E)Q = ∑ &PQ (D + P)Q−P(E − P + +)P
P=
­sjkj ,;
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΀ y n mvkvéqsq k w ·zv xynxzkynz éjxwvsv ntq¹
kvxuq {néonp tj ¡j}ujztvp lvxrn wéq rvzvé€} tq vlqt qo
tq} tn uv nz ko¹z léymvmv cxsq tjplntv vltv qo zjrq}
éjxwvsv ntqp zv snmrv wvsy·qz nn tnxrvsrv éjxwvsv ntqp
x znu n xkvpxzkvu ² lvxzjzv·tv wvknétyz lvxry tj ° °
° qsq vzéjoqz nn k vltvp qo lqjmvtjsnp sqiv k vltvp qo
sqtqp lns¹q} lvxry wvwvsju Íéq síivu qo ëzq} wénviéj
ovkjtqp {néoq xzv¹k¡qn tj éjot€} mvéqovtzjs¹} knézqrjs¹}
q lqjmvtjs¹} xv}éjt¹z zv n xkvpxzkv
Òjrqu viéjovu utv nxzkv kxn} éjxwvsv ntqp {néonp
éjxwjljnzx¹ tj rsjxx€ ërkqkjsntztvxzq xvxzv¹qn qo éjxwvsv
ntqp rvzvé€n wnénkvl¹zx¹ léym k léymj yrjojtt€uq wénvi
éjovkjtq¹uq êzq rsjxx€ ërkqkjsntztvxzq wvléymvuy tjo€kj
ízx¹ Ævvin mvkvé¹ rj lj¹ véiqzj xvxzvqz qo éjxwvsv ntqp {néonp ² knl u€ yrjojsq wénviéjovkjtqp
rvzvé€n uv tv wéquntqz r ojljttvuy éjxwvsv ntqí ·zvi€
wvsy·qz qo tnmv tvk€n Ëv qtvmlj éjxwvsv ntqn vrjo€kjnzx¹
yxzvp·qk€u q wnén}vlqz wéq tnrvzvé€} wénviéjovkjtq¹} xjuv
k xni¹ Òvmlj wvsy·qzx¹ véiqzj qo unt¡nmv ·qxsj éjxwvsv n
tqp Íévknérj wvrjo€kjnz ·zv véiqz xvxzv¹z qo éjxwvsv
ntqp {néonp j vltj véiqzj ² qo éjxwvsv ntqp wéq
wvkvévzj} tj ° éjxwvsv ntq¹ k}vl¹qn k ëzy véiqzy
wnén}vl¹z xjuq k xni¹
ïzvi€ wvsy·qz wvst€p xwqxvr éjxwvsv ntqp lvxzjzv·tv
yrjojz wv vltvuy éjxwvsv ntqí k rj lvp véiqzn qsq rjr
mvkvé¹z xlnsjz Æ rj·nxzkn zjrvmv xwqxrj
uv tv k€iéjz xsnlyíqp
olnx yrjojt€ tvunéj mvéqovtzjsnp ojt¹z€} wvsnp k knézqrjs¹} èjxxuvzénttj¹ xnp·jx ojlj·j xk¹ojtj x vinp ojlj·np vi
véiqzj} k utv nxzkn vztvxqznstv tnrvzvévp xvkvrywtvxzq
wénviéjovkjtqp utv nxzkj tjo€kjnzx¹
vzviéj ntqn wéq rvzvévu rj lvuy ësnuntzy qo xvvzknz
xzkynz vlqt q zvsrv vlqt ësnuntz zvmv n utv nxzkj wéq ëzvu wénviéjovkjtqq wéq·nu síivp
ësnuntz qo ¹ks¹nzx¹ viéjovu vltvmv q zvsrv vltvmv
ësnuntzj Ìiéjo ësnuntzj wéq wénviéjovkjtqq vivotj
·jíz () cxsq ² tnrvzvéj¹ xvkvrywtvxz wénviéjovkjtqp
utv nxzkj zv vztvxqznstv ëzvp
xvkvrywtvxzq tjo€kjíz utv nxzkv viéjovk wéq kxn} wénviéj
ovkjtq¹} qo Íéq tnrvzvé€} yxsvkq¹} u€ q} k€¹xtqu tq n kxn utv
nxzkv éjxwjljnzx¹ tj véiqz€ xkvq} ësnuntzvk q ojlj·j
xvxzvqz k zvu ·zvi€ tjpzq ·qxsv zjrq} véiqz Ìzknz éjoyun
nzx¹ ojkqxqz tn zvsrv vz utv nxzkj tv q vz xvkvrywtvxzq
wénviéjovkjtqp ®vévkvl
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cxsq i€ vtq xzv¹sq tj unxzn zv wvsy·qsvx i€ = wnénxzjtvkvr tjlv yrjojz tj vréy tvxzq zv·nr q wvxzjkqz
tj rj lyí zv·ry vlty qo zjt|yíq} Ëv zjr rjr zjt|yíqn
réy jzx¹ zv q} tj·jstvn wvsv ntqn vztvxqznstv vréy jí
q} wénlunzvk tn xynxzknttv j kj tv sq¡ kojqutvn éjx
wvsv ntqn Ívëzvuy éjot€n tj·jst€n wnénxzjtvkrq wnén}v
l¹qn léym k léymj wéq réy ntqq zjt|vkq| tjlv x·qzjz
ërkqkjsntzt€uq Òjrqu viéjovu utv nxzkv kxn} tj·jst€}
éjxxzjtvkvr zjt|yíq} éjxwjljnzx¹ tj rsjxx€ ërkqkjsntztvx
zq wéq·nu k vlqt q zvz n rsjxx wvwjljíz éjxxzjtvkrq
wvsy·jíqnx¹ léym qo léymj kéjntqnu wv réymy Ì·nkqltv
·zv rj l€p rsjxx xvlné qz wv éjxxzjtvkvr ² qo ljttvmv
éjxwvsv ntq¹ zjt|yíq} uv tv wvsy·qz nn xlnsjk wv
kvévz€ tj ° ° ° ° q ° Êzjr utv nxzkv kxn}
éjxxzjtvkvr éjxwjljnzx¹ tj rsjxx€ xvxzv¹qn qo éjx
xzjtvkvr Ívëzvuy ·qxsv éjosq·t€} rsjxxvk éjktv ² ëzv q nxz ·qxsv éjosq·t€} xwvxvivk vémjtqovkjz }vévkvl
Ævvin nxsq éjxxujzéqkjz wnénxzjtvkrq % wénlunzvk éjx
wvsv ntt€} tn k é¹l j wv réymy q x·qzjz vlqtjrvk€uq
éjxwvsv ntq¹ wnén}vl¹qn léym k léymj wéq kéjntqq zv
·qxsv éjosq·t€} wnénxzjtvkvr éjktv % % = (% − )
Òvz n vzknz uv tv wvsy·qz qtj·n bs¹ ëzvmv vxzjtvkqu
}vévkvl k zvz uvuntz rvmlj wnénl tjuq ² xjuj¹ xquwjzq·tj¹
lnky¡rj Ìxzjst€n % − lnky¡nr uv tv wnénxzjks¹z rjr
ymvltv ² kvz q wvsy·jnzx¹ &Q− = (% − ) wnénxzjtvkvr
¬ znwné xvx·qzjnu ' ' " Ív jtjsvmqq x zvsrv ·zv én¡nttvp ojlj·np uv tv wvly
ujz ·zv ·qxsv éjosq·t€} v nénsqp éjktv ( − ) = = Ëv v nénsn uv tv tn zvsrv wvknétyz wv réymy tv q
wnénknétyz tj léymyí xzvévty Ívëzvuy rsjxx€ ërkqkjsntz
tvxzq xvxzv¹z y n tn qo j qo éjxxzjtvkvr iyxqt q ·qxsv
zjrq} rsjxxvk éjktv Ævvin
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rj lvmv zjt|yínmv êzvz wéquné wvrjo€kjnz ·zv {véuysq
évkrq rvuiqtjzvét€} ojlj· lvs t€ i€z ·nzrquq ² xsnlynz
vltvotj·tv vwénlns¹z rjrqn kjéqjtz€ u€ x·qzjnu éjosq·t€
uq j rjrqn ² vlqtjrvk€uq
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Æ ëzvp ojlj·n lkj xwvxvij éjxréjxrq ryij x·qzjízx¹ mnv
unzéq·nxrq vlqtjrvk€uq nxsq tnkvouv tv éjosq·qz lkj éjx
réj¡ntt€} ryij wvxsn zvmv rjr q} iévxqsq k un¡vr q
wnénun¡jsq zju Êt€uq xsvkjuq lkj xwvxvij éjxréjxrq mnv
unzéq·nxrq vlqtjrvk€ nxsq vtq uvmyz i€z wnénknlnt€ léym
k léymj lkq ntqnu ryij
Ïotjnu xtj·jsj xrvsrv xwvxvivk éjxréjxrq ryij mnvunzéq
·nxrq tnvzsq·qu€ vz ljttvmv Íyxz ryi éjxréj¡nt rjrquzv
viéjovu ­éjt vréj¡nttyí k ins€p |knz uv tv qsq vxzjkqz
tj unxzn qsq wnénknxzq k síiyí qo vxzjst€} méjtnp Æxnmv
wvsy·jnzx¹ k€ivé qo kvouv tvxznp cxsq ëzvz k€ivé y n
wévqoknlnt zv xynxzkyíz xjuvxvkunntq¹ ryij wéq rvzv
é€} insj¹ méjt xv}éjt¹nz k€iéjttvn wvsv ntqn ryi uv tv
kéjjz tj yms€ ° ° ° q ° xv}éjt¹¹ insyí méjt
tj unxzn Ív wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹ wvsy·jnu ·zv rj l€p
rsjxx mnvunzéq·nxrq vlqtjrvk€} éjxréjxvr ryij tjx·qz€kjnz
⋅ = xwvxvij éjxréjxrq
¬ zjr rjr vinn ·qxsv xwvxvivk wvréjxqz méjtnp ryij
k |knzvk éjktv zv ·qxsv mnvunzéq·nxrq éjosq·t€}
xwvxvivk éjktv Êzjr ryi uv tv éjxréjxqz
mnvunzéq·nxrq éjosq·t€uq xwvxvijuq
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xzkj} wénviéjovkjtq¹} ëzq} utv nxzk q véiqzj} vztvxqznstv
ëzq} wénviéjovkjtqp Æ ojlj·n v }vévkvln i€sv utv nxzkvu
éjosq·t€} éjxxzjtvkvr zjt|yíq} wv réymy Íénviéjovkjtq¹
uq ljttvp éjxxzjtvkrq ¹ks¹sqx nn kéjntq¹ j véiqzjuq ²
xvkvrywtvxzq wnénxzjtvkvr wvsy·jnu€} qo ljttvp x wvuví
kéjntqp Æ ojlj·n vi v nénsn r wvkvévzju wéqxvnlqt¹svx
wnénkvéj·qkjtqn v néns¹ isjmvljé¹ ·nuy wévqov¡sv xsq¹tqn
wjé véiqz kvvin ·nu ivs¡n u€ inénu wénviéjovkjtqp znu
ivs¡n xzjtvkqzx¹ ësnuntzvk k véiqzj} ¬ k ojlj·n v éjxréjxrn
ryij ësnuntzjuq utv nxzkj i€sq éjosq·t€n xwvxvi€ éjx
réjxrq j wénviéjovkjtq¹uq ² kéjntq¹ ryij wnénkvlqk¡qn
vlqt xwvxvi éjxréjxrq k léymvp
Æv kxn} ëzq} wéqunéj} i€sj vltj vij¹ ·nézj ² k rj lvu
qo tq} véiqz€ xvxzv¹sq qo vltvmv q zvmv n ·qxsj ësnuntzvk
k wnékvu wéqunén kv kzvévu q k zénznu Òjr i€kjnz
tn kxnmlj Íéq éjxxzjtvkrn {néonp vrjojsvx ·zv véiqz
xvlné jz wv éjxxzjtvkvr j vltj ² sq¡ éjxxzjtvkrq êzv
i€sv xk¹ojtv x lvijkv·tvp xquunzéqnp wvxsnltnp éjxxzjtvkrq
² vtj wnén}vlqsj xjuj k xni¹ wéq |ntzéjstvp xquunzéqq
ïzvi€ sy·¡n éjoviéjzx¹ k xqzyj|qq éjxxuvzéqu nn vlqt
wéquné j qunttv tjplnu $ (
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rq vlqtjrvk€uq nxsq vtq uvmyz i€z wvsy·nt€ léym qo léymj
kéjntq¹uq rkjléjzj kvréym |ntzéj
‰xtv ·zv mnvunzéq·nxrq vlqtjrvk€n xwvxvi€ éjxréjxrq
quníz vlqtjrvkvn rvsq·nxzkv ins€} j zvmlj q ·nét€} kné¡qt
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vlqt xwvxvi éjxréjxrq Ív·zq xzvs n wévxz xsy·jp rvmlj
vltj qo kné¡qt ·nétj¹ j zéq ² ins€n dlnx nxz xwvxvij
éjxréjxrq tv kxn vtq mnvunzéq·nxrq vlqtjrvk€ éqx cn
lkj xwvxvij éjxréjxrq wvsy·jnu nxsq wvréjxqu kxn kné¡qt€
k ·nét€p |knz qsq kné¡qt€ k ·nét€p j vlty k ins€p
Ëju vxzjsvx éjoviéjz xsy·jp rvmlj lkn kné¡qt€ ins€n
j lkn ² ·nét€n Ìinn ·qxsv xwvxvivk zjrvp éjxréjxrq éjktv
- = éqx Ìtq éjxwjljízx¹ tj lkn méyww€ ² xwvxvij
wéq rvzvé€} vltv|knzt€n kné¡qt€ tj}vl¹zx¹ tj vltvp xzvévtn
rkjléjzj q xwvxvij wéq rvzvé€} zjrqn kné¡qt€ ¹ks¹ízx¹
rvt|juq lqjmvtjsq Énmrv kqlnz ·zv rjr wnék€n xwvxvij
zjr q kzvé€n xwvxvij éjxréjxrq mnvunzéq·nxrq ërkqkjsntzt€
j wvzvuy qunnu nn lkj rsjxxj ërkqkjsntztvxzq
Æxnmv wvsy·qsvx mnvunzéq·nxrq éjosq·t€} xwvxvivk éjx
réjxrq rkjléjzj
Çjr q k xsy·jn éjxxzjtvkrq {néonp wéq·qtj wv rvzvévp
vlqt xwvxvi éjxréjxrq ljs klkvn unt¡n ësnuntzvk véiqz€
·nu léymvp ojrsí·jnzx¹ k nmv xquunzéq·tvxzq cxsq wvréjxqz
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k ins€p |knz lkn xvxnltqn kné¡qt€ zv kxn kéjntq¹
rkjléjzj kvréym |ntzéj ljíz tvk€n xwvxvi€ éjxréjxrq cxsq
n wvréjxqz k ins€p |knz wévzqkvwvsv t€n kné¡qt€ rkjl
éjzj zv wéq kéjntqq tj ° ëzvz xwvxvi éjxréjxrq wnén}vlqz
xju k xni¹
Ìéiqz€ q méyww€ wénviéjovkjtqp
Çsí·vu wvokvs¹íqu ujznujzqrn én¡jz xju€n éjosq·
t€n wévisnu€ kxré€kj¹ q} viqn ·néz€ q yxzéjt¹¹ kxn
sq¡tnn q xsy·jptvn ¹ks¹nzx¹ unzvl wvxzévntq¹ ujznujzq·nx
rq} uvlnsnp ïzvi€ wvxzévqz ujznujzq·nxryí uvlns rvzvéj¹
mvlqsjx i€ kv kxn} éjxxuvzéntt€} k€¡n ojlj·j} wvwéviynu
xtj·jsj k€¹xtqz rjrvp lvs tj i€z xvkvrywtvxz wén
viéjovkjtqp utv nxzkj ls¹ zvmv ·zvi€ vtv éjxwjsvx tj
tnwnénxnrjíqnx¹ véiqz€ bs¹ ëzvmv kknlnu ls¹ ësnuntzvk
utv nxzkj zjrvn kojqutvn vztv¡ntqn ©ësnuntz uv nz
i€z wvsy·nt qo ësnuntzj x wvuví wénviéjovkjtq¹ qo
utv nxzkj ª ΀ y n otjnu qo w ·zv nxsq ëzv vztv¡n
tqn vrj nzx¹ én{snrxqkt€u xquunzéq·t€u q zéjtoqzqkt€u
zv vtv iylnz vztv¡ntqnu ërkqkjsntztvxzq j zvmlj kxn utv n
xzkv éjxwjlnzx¹ tj rsjxx€ ërkqkjsntztvxzq wv ëzvuy vztv
¡ntqí êzv q iylnz qxrvu€u éjoiqntqnu tj véiqz€
. / kknlnttvmv vztv¡ntq¹ votj·jnz wvwévxzy
·zv rj l€p ësnuntz qo lvs nt wvsy·jzx¹ xju qo xni¹
wéq tnrvzvévu wénviéjovkjtqq wéqtjlsn jnu xvkvrywtv
xzq êzv wévn kxnmv vinxwn·qz wvzénivkjk ·zvi€ xv
lné jsv ' # vivotj·jnuvn vi€·tv
iyrkvp 0 z n wénviéjovkjtqn wéq rvzvévu kxn ësnuntz€ qo
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ësnuntz wvsy·jnzx¹ qo ësnuntzj rjrquzv wénviéjovkjtqnu
qo zv k xkví v·nénl lvs nt wvsy·jzx¹ qo x wvuví
i€z uv nz qtvmv wénviéjovkjtq¹ qo bviqzx¹ ëzvmv zv n
tnxsv tv bvxzjzv·tv wvzénivkjz ·mvi€ kunxzn x rj l€u
wénviéjovkjtqnu xvkvrywtvxz xvlné jsj # (
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rvzvévn vwénlns¹nzx¹ zjr nxsq wnénkvlqz
k zv − wnénkvlqz viéjztv k Ònwné vxzjsvx vinxwn·qz éjxxujzéqkjn
uvmv vztv¡ntq¹ Ìtj votj·jnz ·zv nxsq k nxz wénviéjovkj
tqn wnénkvl¹nn rjrvpzv ësnuntz k q wénviéjovkjtqn
1 wnénkvl¹nn k 2 zv k lvs tv i€z q wénviéjovkjtqn
wnénkvl¹nn tnwvxénlxzknttv k 2 bs¹ ëzvmv lvxzjzv·tv
·zvi€ kunxzn x q 1 xvlné jsv q} # ,* z n
wénviéjovkjtqn 3 = J ° vwénlns¹nuvn zjr ls¹ kxn} qo qunnu K() = 1(())
Êzjr ls¹ zvmv ·zvi€ xvkvrywtvxz wénviéjovkjtqp utv
nxzkj vwénlns¹sj éjoiqntqn ëzvmv utv nxzkj tj véiqz€
lvxzjzv·tv ·zvi€ k€wvst¹sqx xsnlyíqn zéq yxsvkq¹
j xvlné qz zv lnxzknttvn wénviéjovkjtqn 0
i kunxzn x rj l€u wénviéjovkjtqnu xvkvrywtvxz xvlné qz viéjztvn wénviéjovkjtqn −
k kunxzn x síi€uq lkyu¹ wénviéjovkjtq¹uq q 1 xvkvryw
tvxz xvlné qz q} rvuwvoq|qí 1 ° Æ ujznujzqrn wéqt¹zv tjo€kjz xvkvrywtvxz wénviéjovkj
tqp visjljíyí yrjojtt€uq zénu¹ xkvpxzkjuq $## # (
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éjxxujzéqkjz tn wévxzv síi€n xvkvrywtvxzq wénviéjovkjtqp
utv nxzkj j sq¡ méyww€ wénviéjovkjtqp z n zénivkjz
k€wvstntq¹ xkvpxzk j i q k Òvmlj uv tv i€z yknéntt€u
·zv éjxwjljnzx¹ tj tnwnénxnrjíqnx¹ véiqz€ vztvxqznstv
ëzvp méyww€
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Êzjr wnék€p ¡jm xlnsjt ² wvxzévntj ujznujzq·nxrj¹
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nxzkv q méywwj wénviéjovkjtqp ëzvmv utv nxzkj Òéniy
nzx¹ tjpzq ·qxsv véiqz k wéq lnpxzkqq méyww€ êzj uvlns
v}kjz€kjnz q utvmqn ojlj·q v rvzvé€} éjxxrjo€kjsvx éjtnn
k ·jxztvxzq wvlx·nz ·qxsj wnénxzjtvkvr x wvkzvéntq¹uq k ëzvu
xsy·jn xvxzvqz qo kxn} wnénxzjtvkvr % = % + % + + %N
ësnuntzvk 4 |knzvk j méywwj ² qo wénviéjovkjtqp xkvl¹
q}x¹ r kojqutvuy wnénunntqí vltv|knzt€} ësnuntzvk cxsq 1 ² rjrvnzv wénviéjovkjtqn utv nxzkj zv uv nz
xsy·qzx¹ ·zv tnrvzvé€n ësnuntz€ ëzvmv utv nxzkj vxzjízx¹
wéq ëzvu wénviéjovkjtqq tnwvlkq t€uq Ëjwéquné nxsq ² utv nxzkv méjtnp ryij j 1 ² kéjntqn ryij tj °
° qsq ° rvmlj ryi tnqounttv xzvqz tj méjtq 5 zv xjuj
méjt 5 q wévzqkvwvsv tj¹ np méjt 6 wnén}vl¹z xjuq k xni¹
΀ iylnu vivotj·jz ·néno ψ(J) ·qxsv ësnuntzvk qo vxzjí
q}x¹ tnwvlkq t€uq wéq wénviéjovkjtqq 1 j ·néno ψ(*)
xyuuy ψ(J) ls¹ kxn} 1 qo Æ éjxxuvzénttvu xsy·jn ψ(J) = k xni¹ wnén¡sq lkn méjtq bs¹ zv lnxzknttvmv wénviéjovkjtq¹ ryij qunnu ψ(H) = kxn méjtnp wnén}vl¹z k xni¹ j ls¹ kéjntq¹ 7 ryij kvréym
lqjmvtjsq tj ° qsq ° qunnu ψ(U) = tq vltj méjt tn
wnén¡sj k xni¹ Êunnu ψ(U) = q ls¹ kéjntq¹ ryij kvréym
vxq wév}vl¹np ·néno xnénlqt€ wévzqkvwvsv t€} éniné
Ìinn ·qxsv tnwvlkq t€} ësnuntzvk ls¹ kxn} ësnuntzvk méyw
w€ kéjntqp ryij snmrv wvlx·qzjz ψ(*) = + ⋅ ⋅ = #"$()& # *#+#&
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rj lj¹ qo wjé wévzqkvwvsv t€} méjtnp vxzjnzx¹ tj unxzn
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ly lkyu¹ kvouv
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⋅ Æxnmv wv wéjkqsy xyuu€ tvunévk
j ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = tvunévk
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nlqtq|
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lvuy
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k€iéjtt€} Ívëzvuy qunnu xwvxvivk k€ivéj ryé Òjr rjr wv yx
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lvmv__qo
rj
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) P =
P
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− $
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znwné ls¹
tn mvénz Æ éyxxrvu js{jkqzn iyrk€ tv wv réjptnp
unén x iyrk Ó h quntj tn tj·qtjízx¹ Ívëzvuy vinn ·qxsv éjo
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Ív wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹ ·zv unt¡n ⋅
rtqm uv
tv wnénwsnxzq k wnénwsnz€ |knzvk xwvxvijuq
Êo tq} tn ivsnn ·nu k lkj |knzj rtqmq iylyz wnénwsnznt€ k ⋅ xsy·j¹}
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n tj lnsqzx¹ >@
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n tj}vlqu ·zv ·qxns tn lnsqzx¹ tq tj
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⋅ ·qxns
bvwvstqu ·qxsj vz lv kwnénlq tys¹uq lv xnuq
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xvlné
−
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ly q qunnzx¹
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·nu wvsvkqtj Çj
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p
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n wv
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·qxns cxsq
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·qxsv
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lj¹
xsy·j¹} tn·nzt€u ²
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q tn ojznu wnékyí
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tv
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uq uv
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rj
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tn
Q
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qunnu
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x rj
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$ =
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= xwvxvi cxsq xénlq rjéz tn lvs tv i€z wjé zv qunnu
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iyit€
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éjo wvëzvuy xyuuj
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wnék€n
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n lkn
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lj¹ |q{éj k rj
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lvu éjoé¹ln kxzén
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lj¹ |q{éj wvkzvé¹nzx¹ k rj
lvu éjoé¹ln
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nz xzv¹z sqiv |q{éj sqiv j
tv wnénxzjks¹z
·jnu tn·nzt€} ·qxns Òv·tv zjr
3 = xwvxvijuq Æxnmv wvsy
n wvsy·jnu ·zv rvsq·nxzkv ·nz
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i 3( ) k 3( )
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vzknz 3( )
j Çj lj¹ |q{éj wv¹ks¹nzx¹ k rj lvu éjoé¹ln éjo k
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lyí
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xwvxvivk éjolnsj Íéq x}nun
+ + tjlv k€iéjz ls¹ kzvévmv {éyrzj qo xwvxvivk Òjr
rjr lkj ·nsvknrj quníz wvévkty ¹isvr zv ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr sílnp
éjktv 3( ) = Íéq x}nun + + tjlv k€iéjz vlqt {éyrz qo ls¹ wnékvmv q vlqt {éyrz qo vxzjk¡q}x¹ ls¹ kzvévmv dlnx zjr n
( ) wnénxzjtvkrq sílnp
Òv·tv zjr n éjxxujzéqkjízx¹ vxzjst€n x}nu€ Æxnmv wvsy·jnu
+ 3( ) + ( ) + + = xwvxvivk éjxwénln
sntq¹
¹isvr lns¹zx¹ wv vltvp qo x}nu + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + jtjsvmq·
tv wénl€lynp ojlj·n wvsy·jnu
(
+
+
& +
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xwvxvivk éjxwénlnsntq¹
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(
Çvsvly uv tv xljz qmévrju
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xwvxvijuq cxsq rj l€p lvs nt qunz wv vltvp rjézn rj lvp ujxzq zv ls¹ rj lvp ujxzq
wvsy·jnu wnénxzjtvkry qo rjéz wvxrvsry wnénxzjtvkrq ujxznp tn
ojkqx¹z léym vz léymj zv wv wéjkqsy wévqoknlntq¹ wvsy·jnu
() xwvxvivk Æ zénznu xsy·jn vlqt qmévr k€iqéjnu€p xwvxv
ijuq uv nz k€iéjz wv rjézn rj lvp ujxzq xwvxvijuq Ívxsn
ëzvmv vxzjk¡qnx¹ rjéz rj lvp ujxzq uv tv éjolnsqz tj méyww€
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xwvxvijuq
j
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()
() ⋅ ()
èjovinu rjéz rj lvp ujxzq wv x}nun êzv
xwvxvijuq ls¹ rj lvp ujxzq ­éyww€ qo uv tv xlnsjz
⋅ ()
rjéz uv tv éjoljz qmévrju xwvxvijuq j méyww€ qo rjéz rj lvp
ujxzq ² xwvxvijuq Æxnmv wvsy·jnu () ⋅ xwvxvivk éjxwénlnsntq¹
⎤ ⋅ ⋅ ( = ()
méyww Çjéz€ n uv tv éjoljz ⎡⎢
xwvxv
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⎥ () ⋅ ()
⎣ ⋅ () ⎦
ijuq
ƀiqéjnu w¹zvmv y·jxztqrj éjolnsj xwvxvivk éjxwvsjmjnu
wnénl tqu k js{jkqztvu wvé¹lrn wv quntju vxzjst€} Ívxsn ëzvmv
éjxwvsjmjnu kxnuq xwvxvijuq wénlunzvk wv wvé¹lry q vzx·qz€kjnu
méyww€ wv wénlunzj q méywwy k wénlunzj ­éywwy k wénlunzj
vzljnu w¹zvuy y·jxztqry éjolnsj j vxzjst€n méyww€ ljnu vxzjst€u
wnékyí méywwy ² wnékvuy kzvéyí ² kzvévuy q z l Òjr rjr wvé¹lvr ësnuntzvk k méywwj} tn qméjnz évsq wvsy·jnu
⋅ ) =
xwvxvivk éjolnsj
() ⋅ & (
Æv kzvévu xsy·jn jtjsvmq·tv wvsy·jnu
& ⋅ () ⋅ ()
xwvxvivk
ftj·jsj k€inénu rtqm ls¹ & êzv uv tv xlnsjz & xwvxv
ijuq Ìxzjk¡qnx¹ rtqm uv tv xwvxvijuq éjolnsqz un ly $
q % Æxnmv qunnu xwvxvivk éjolnsj
wjxxj qévk uvmyz éjxwénlnsqzx¹ un ly ëzj juq xwvxv
ijuq Êo tq} k xsy·j¹} tj ljttvu ëzj n k ² tj ljtt€} lky}
ëzj j} q k ² tj ljtt€} zén} ëzj j} tn k€plnz tq vlqt wjxxj qé
Ìzknz − ⋅ + ⋅ − & ⋅ = wvsy·jnu wv {véuysn krsí
·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp
cxsq ·nét€p ¡jé wvsv nt Q + xwvxvi zv ls¹ rj lvp qo
Q vxzjk¡q}x¹ syo tjlv xlnsjz k€ivé ² rsjxz k tnn ins€p ¡jé qsq
tnz Q xwvxvivk qzvmv ( + )Q xwvxvivk cxsq ·nét€p ¡jé tn wv
sv nt zv ls¹ rj lvp qo + syo tjlv xlnsjz k€ivé ² rsjxz k
tnn ins€p ¡jé qsq tnz Q+ xwvxvivk tv vlqt kjéqjtz tnlvwyxzqu
² kv kxn syo€ rsjxz ¡jé€ tnso¹ wvsy·jnzx¹ Q+ − xwvxvivk
Êzvmv ( + )Q + Q+ − = ( + )Q − j Íyxz wnék€p wvsy·qs wénlunzvk wnékvmv kqlj wénl
unzvk kzvévmv kqlj q wénlunzvk zénznmv kqlj Òvmlj + + = Q
wéq·nu ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ Òjrqu viéjovu tju tjlv
tjpzq ·qxsv én¡ntqp yéjktntq¹ + + = Q k |ns€} tnvzéq|jzns
t€} ·qxsj} tn wénkvx}vl¹q} cxsq vziévxqz yxsvkq¹ ≤ ≤ ≤ zv ·qxsv én¡ntqp
éjktv ·qxsy xwvxvivk éjolnsj vlqtjrvk€} wénlunzvk un ly zénu¹
sq|juq z n Q+ Ëjplnu znwné ·qxsv én¡ntqp k rvzvé€}
> Ìtv éjktv vinuy ·qxsy én¡ntqp k |ns€} tnvzéq|jznst€}
·qxsj} yéjktntqp + = ≤ < z n éjoiqntqí − tj xyuuy
zén} xsjmjnu€} q − ëzv uv tv xlnsjz Q+ xwvxvijuq Æ
xzvsrq} n tv léymq} én¡ntq¹} > q > Ìziéjx€kj¹ q}
wvsy·jnu Q+ − Q+ = + + én¡ntqp
i ¬tjsvmq·tv wvsy·jnu Q+ − Q+ = ( + )( + + ) én
¡ntqp
k Òjr rjr ·jxzq tnéjosq·qu€ zv én¡ntq¹ q − − − yéjktntq¹ + + = vzv lnxzks¹ízx¹ Ìltv én¡n
tqn j qunttv = = = vzv lnxzks¹nzx¹ wéq ëzvu x xjuqu
xvivp j vxzjst€n ² x vzsq·t€uq vz tq} én¡ntq¹uq Ívëzvuy vzknz
+
+ ¬tjsvmq·tv éjxxujzéqkjnzx¹ xsy·jp rvmlj
qunnz kql
qunnu knq kqlvk
dlnx yéjktntqn qunnz kql + + + P = q tjlv tjpzq
·qxsv nmv |ns€} én¡ntqp ylvksnzkvé¹íq} yxsvkq¹u ≤ N ≤ wéq kxn} ≤ ≤ cxsq vziévxqz vméjtq·ntq¹ N ≤ zv wvsy·jnu
P−
PQ+P− én¡ntqp Ëjplnu ·qxsv én¡ntqp ls¹ rvzvé€} > Ìtv
éjktv vinuy ·qxsy én¡ntqp kxn} yéjktntqp + + + P = mln
−
≤ < − z n P
n én¡ntqp ls¹ rvzvé€}
PQ+P−Q− fzvsrv
−
> q z l dtj·qz tjlv vziévxqz P&P
PQ+P−Q− én¡ntqp Íéq
ëzvu tnrvzvé€n én¡ntq¹ vziéjx€kjízx¹ lkj l€ tjwéquné zn ls¹
rvzvé€} > q > Íéqunt¹¹ {véuysy krsí·ntqp q qxrsí
·ntqp wéq}vlqu r lvrjo€kjnuvuy énoyszjzy
j êzv éjoiqntqn éjounntqp tj rsjxx€ wv ·qxsy ¡jévk k
u ¹qrn
i êzv k€ivé qo ¹qrvk xvlné jq} rj l€p ¡jévk
Ìivotj·qu ·néno rvsq·nxzkv wénlunzvk wnékvmv
kqlj j ·néno ² kzvévmv kqlj wvsy·jnu€} xvvzknzxzknttv
sq|juq q
ëzv vwénlns¹nz q éjxwénlnsntqn wénlunzvk zénznmv
kqlj Òvmlj qunnu yéjktntq¹ + + = q + + = wéq·nu lvs t€ k€wvst¹zx¹ yxsvkq¹ N + N ≤ Q = cxsq
vziévxqz kxn vméjtq·ntq¹ N + \N ≤ Q zv wvsy·qu Q+ én¡ntqp wné
kvmv yéjktntq¹ q Q+ én¡ntqp kzvévmv yéjktntq¹ j kxnmv Q+ Q+
én¡ntqp
Íéq ëzvu nxsq yxsvkqn + \ ≤ tjéy¡jnzx¹ + \ ≥ + zv
wvxrvsry + [ + + + + = ·qxsv zjrq} én¡ntqp éjktv
·qxsy tnvzéq|jznst€} én¡ntqp tnéjkntxzkj + [ + + ≤ Q − qo rvzvévmv k ·jxztvxzq xsnlynz + \ ≤ Q − + \ ≤ Q − ¬
ëzv ·qxsv éjktv ·qxsy xwvxvivk éjoiqz − tj xyuuy tnvzéq|j
znst€} xsjmjnu€} q vxzjzvr z n Q+
Ïxsvkqí + \ ≤ Q tn ylvksnzkvé¹íz xzvsrv n én¡ntqp q nn
xzvsrv n ² yxsvkqí + \ ≤ Q wéq·nu wnénxn·ntqp olnx tnz Ìz
iéjx€kj¹ ëzq én¡ntq¹ wvsy·jnu Q+&Q+ − Q+ én¡ntqp
Íéq = qunnu én¡ntqn
è¹l uv nz xvlné jz qsq ·nét€p ¡jé cxsq vt xvlné
qz ·nét€} ¡jéj zv ·nzknéz€p ¡jé uv tv k€iéjz = xwvxv
ijuq wvxsn ·nmv wnénxzjks¹z ·nét€} ¡jéj q ¡jé qtvmv |knzj
3( ) xwvxvijuq Æxnmv ( ) xwvxvivk ¬ uv tv ko¹z ·nét€}
¡jéj wvsy·jnu
( )
Æxnmv uv tv xvxzjkqz
kvouv tvxznp j nxsq zv kvouv tvxznp
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ivéry k rvzvéyí uvmyz kvpzq wénlunzvk Ívxsn zvmv rjr
xlnsjtj ëzj k€ivérj lvijkqu tnlvxzjíqn wénlunz€ qo ·qxsj vlq
tjrvk€} Ívëzvuy qunnu Q xwvxvivk k€ivéj ïqxsv wnénxzjtvkvr kxn}
()
wénlunzvk éjktv
Q ()
éjktv ·qxsy xwvxvivk éjosv qz wénlunzvk wv
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()Q
wv k tnéjosq·qu€} ¹qrvk Ív zvp n wéq·qtn |ns€u ¹ks¹nzx¹
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zvmlj
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()P
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()
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² éj|qvtjstvn ·qxsv rkjléjz rvzvévmv ² |nsvn ·qxsv dtj·qz q
xjuv ëzv ·qxsv ² |nsvn
Ìlqt qo zén} wvsy·jnz rtqm êzq rtqm uv tv k€iéjz
Q xwvxvijuq Ìxzjst€n rtqm éjxwénlns¹nu un ly vxzjk¡quqx¹
Q
lkyu¹ sq|juq Çj lj¹ qo rtqm uv nz wvwjxz sqiv r vltvuy sqiv
r léymvuy j wvzvuy ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjxwénlnsntq¹ ëzq} rtqm éjktv
Q Ívxrvsry rtqm uv tv vzljz síivuy qo zén} zv wvsy·jnu
⋅ Q QQ xwvxvivk Ëv wéq ëzvu iylnz y·zntv zéq l€ rj lvn éjxwén
lnsntqn kqlj + + Ívëzvuy vzknz ⋅ Q QQ − ( )
bvijkqu r iyrkju vlqtjrvk€} ©wnénmvévlvrª q éjxxuv
zéqu kxn wnénxzjtvkrq wvsy·ntt€} vi~nrzvk wéq rvzvé€} tq vltj
wnénmvévlrj tn xzvqz k tj·jsn qsq rvt|n q tqrjrqn lkn wnénmvévlrq
tn xzv¹z é¹lvu Èyrk€ wnénxzjks¹ízx¹ xwvxvijuq j ls¹ wnénmv
évlvr qunnu unxzv q q} uv tv wvxzjkqz xwvxvijuq Ï·qz€kj¹
·zv wvé¹lvr xsvk tnxynxzknt wvsy·jnu
⋅ j Îy ·qt uv tv éjoiqz tj wjé€
xwvxvivk
() ⋅ xwvxvijuq y·qz€
kj¹ wnénxzjtvkrq ktyzéq wjé q wnénxzjtvkrq xjuq} wjé djznu nt
qt€ éjoiqkjízx¹
xwvxvijuq olnx y n qméjnz évs wvé¹lvr
()
()
wjé Æxnmv xwvxvivk
⋅ i ftj·jsj k€inénu vltvmv uy ·qty q vlty ntqty rvzvé€n
vrj yzx¹ k zvp n svlrn ·zv q k€iéjttj¹ éjtnn wjéj xwvxvivk ()
Ívxsn ëzvmv éjoiqkjnu vxzjk¡q}x¹ tj méyww€ xwvxvijuq Æxnmv
⋅ ()
xwvxvivk
⋅ k cxsq ljtt€n lkvn uy ·qt x ntjuq wvwjljíz k vlty q zy n
()
svlry zv vxzjst€n uvmyz éjoiqzx¹ tj méyww€ xwvxvijuq cxsq
⋅ n vtq wvwjljíz k éjot€n méyww€ zv ëzq méyww€ uv tv lvwvstqz
()
( ) xwvxvijuq wvxsn ·nmv éjoiqz vxzjst€} tj méyww€ xwv
⋅ ()
()
+ xvijuq Æxnmv wvsy·jnu xwvxvivk
⋅ ⋅ Æxn wénlunz€ uv tv wnénxzjkqz ( + ) xwvxvijuq Ívxsn
ëzvmv k€inénu ·nsvknr qo rvzvé€n wvsy·jz rj l€p + wénl
unzvk US xwvxvivk q éjoljlqu qu wénlunz€ wv wvé¹lry k€ljkj¹
xvvzknzxzknttv qsq + wénlunzvk Òjr rjr énoyszjz tn ojkqxqz
vz wvé¹lrj ësnuntzvk k méywwj} zv US ( + ) tjlv éjolnsqz tj
( )S−U>( + )@U = ( )S(T + )U
­sjkj ,9
Ìivotj·qu ·qxsv xwvxvivk tjrsnqz ujérq tj xyuuy ·néno
() ènryééntztvn xvvztv¡ntqn qunnz kql
() = )(1 − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ( − )
Êxwvsoy¹ ëzv xvvztv¡ntqn q éjkntxzkv () = wvsy·jnu ·zv
() = Ìivotj·qu ·néno ( ) ·qxsv xwvxvivk tjiéjz ijssvk k
}vln ërojuntvk tn wvsy·qk wéq ëzvu tq vltvp lkvprq Òvmlj ¹xtv
·zv ( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) Íénlxzjks¹¹ rj lvn qo xsj
mjnu€} jtjsvmq·t€u viéjovu ·néno tnxrvsrv ¡jmvk wvsy·qu vzknz
Ívxzévqu kojqutv vltvotj·tvn xvvzknzxzkqn ·qxns vz lv
Q q ·qxns x tys¹uq vz lv Q+ bs¹ = kxn snmrv xzjkqu k
xvvzknzxzkqn ↔ ↔ ↔ ↔ ↔ bjsnn
ls¹ = xzjkqu k xvvzknzxzkqn ↔ q ↔ q q kvvin rj lvuy otj·tvuy ·qxsy ino tysnp xzjkqu k xvvzknzxzkqn
wj·ry ( + )otj·t€} ·qxns wvsy·jíq}x¹ kxzjkrvp tys¹ wvxsn
vltvp qo |q{é k wj·rn iylnz rjr éjo tysnp f ·qxsjuq xvlné
jquq k ojwqxq kxn iylnz______
tnutvmv
xsv tnn Ëjovknu _
!"#$ tn xvlné jqu tysnp méywwy
kxnuq
·qxns wvsy·jíq}x¹ kxzjkrvp P tysnp
______
_ kvouv t€uq xwvxvijuq
k wévun yzrq un ly |q{éjuq ·qxsj DEF$ qsq k rvt|n ·qxsj kxnmv
k tq} iylnz ( + ) NN−+P− |q{é Æ
N unxz Òjrq} ·qxns iylnz &NN+−P
−
_______
( + )wj·rn kv msjkn x znu n otj·t€u ·qxsvu !"#$ iylnz &NN−+P
tysnp Ëv ( + ) N−
N− ·qxsv k tq} iylnz ( + ) NN+−P
N+P− = ( + ) N+P
( + )( + − ) ( + )( + )
ëzv éjkntxzkv snmrv wévkné¹nzx¹
=
( − )
(P + )( − )
Ëjrvtn| k ·qxsn Q iylnz + |q{éj j k ·qxsn Q+ rjr éjo
+ tys
béymvp xwvxvi én¡ntq¹ ëzvp ojlj·q ² wvlx·qzjz rvsq·nxzkv |q{é
k ·qxsj} vz lv Q q rvsq·nxzkv tysnp k ·qxsj} vz lv Q+
ïqxsv xwvxvivk éjount¹z éyis uvtnzjuq k q rvwnnr
éjktv
·qxsy
|ns€}
tnvzéq|jznst€}
én¡ntqp
yéjktntq¹
+ = ‰xtv ·zv uv nz wéqtqujz síivn ·nztvn otj·ntqn
vz lv xwvxvivk Íéq éjountn tj uvtnz€ k q rvwnnr tjlv
én¡jz yéjktntqn + = dlnx wéqtqujnz sq¡ otj·ntq¹ xwvxvivk j Ëjlv tjpzq ·qxsv |ns€} tnvzéq|jznst€} én¡ntqp yéjktn
tq¹ + + = qsq ·zv zv n xjuvn tnéjkntxzkj + ≤ ‰xtv ·zv uv nz wéqtqujz sq¡ otj·ntq¹ q rvzvé€u
xvvzknzxzkyíz q kvouv t€} otj·ntqp j kxnmv wvsy·jnu
én¡ntqp
i
Êxwvsoy¹ énryééntzt€n xvvztv¡ntq¹ tj}vlqu ·zv
( ) = f wvuví énryééntztvmv xvvztv¡ntq¹ wvsy·jnu ·zv ojlj·j
qunnz én¡ntq¹
Êoviéjoqu rj lvn éjoiqntqn ·qxsj tj xsjmjnu€n k kqln zv
·n·tvp lqjméjuu€ cxsq lvijkqz r ëzvp lqjméjuun xzvsiqr qo zv·nr wvsy·qu lqjméjuuy ls¹ éjoiqntq¹ ·qxsj tj xsjmjnu€}
Ínék€p xzvsin| éjoiqntq¹ + tj + xsjmjnu€} xvlné qz
+ zv·nr Ìziéjx€kj¹ nmv wvsy·jnu lqjméjuuy éjoiqntq¹ tj xsj
mjnu€n
Èylnu vivotj·jz ·nzt€n ·qxsj |q{évp j tn·nzt€n ² |q{
évp vxzjzrjuq vz lnsntq¹ tj Ínék€n ësnuntzj rj lvp xzévrq
vwénlns¹ízx¹ wnék€uq ·nz€éu¹ ësnuntzjuq wénl€lynp xzévrq
Ínék€n ësnuntzj kzvévp xzévrq quníz ojwqx zénznp ² ·nzknézvp ² w¹zvp ² q ¡nxzvp rjr kzvévp ² wvxsn
·nmv |qrs wvkzvé¹nzx¹ Ívëzvuy k rj lvp xzévrn iylnz }vz¹ i€ vltv
·nztvn ·qxsv ïqxns lns¹q}x¹ tj tnz y n k p xzévrn
xwvxvij wvxrvsry uvtnz }kjzjnz tjlv éjoiqz k xyuuy
zén} xsjmjnu€} ·nét€} ¡jéj uv tv éjosv qz k wjrnzvk xwvxvijuq
bs¹ ins€} q xqtq} ¡jévk qunnu xzvsrv n xwvxvivk Ív wéjkqsy
wévqoknlntq¹ wvsy·jnu ( ) xwvxvivk
Òjrqu n viéjovu wvsy·jnu vzknz Íyxz wnéqunzé éjoiqz tj zéq ·jxzq xzvévt€ zéniynu€u
viéjovu = ! + " + # wéq·nu ! ≤ " ≤ # Òvmlj ! ≠ ² k wévzqktvu
xsy·jn u€ qunsq i€ " + # = − q wvzvuy " ≠ # tv " + > #
©tnéjkntxzkv zénymvstqrjª ·nmv tn uv nz i€z Çévun zvmv
! + " > # wéq·nu ·qxsj ! + " q # quníz vlqtjrvkyí ·nztvxz dtj·qz
! + " ≥ # + Ëv zvmlj ·qxsj ! − " − # − viéjoyíz éjoiqntqn ls¹
− wéq·nu (! − ) + (" − ) > F − Ònu xju€u yxzjtjksqkjnzx¹ koj
qutv vltvotj·tvn xvvzknzxzkqn un ly zénymvstqrjuq x wnéqunzéjuq
q − Ëju tjlv tjpzq rvsq·nxzkv zévnr tjzyéjst€} ·qxns zjrq} ·zv ≤ ≤ + + = q + > Êo ëzq} tnéjkntxzk k€
znrjnz ·zv uv nz wéqtqujz otj·ntq¹ ylvksnzkvé¹íqn tnéjknt
xzkju ≤ ≤ cxsq = zv + = wéq·nu ≤ ≤ Ívë
zvuy ≤ ≤ q u€ qunnu zénymvstqrvk x = Òv·tv zjr n
yxzjtjksqkjnu ·zv ·qxsv zénymvstqrvk ls¹ rvzvé€} = éjktv xvvzknzxzknttv j kxnmv qunnu zénymvs
tqrj
Òv·tv zjr n wvsy·jnu ·zv ·qxsv zénymvstqrvk x wnéqunzévu
éjktv Ævounu zénymvstqr x wnéqunzévu Íyxz nmv xzvévt€
éjkt€ Íéqijks¹¹ r lsqtju ëzq} xzvévt wv wvsy·qu ·qxsj
+ + + ¹ks¹íqnx¹ lsqtjuq xzvévt zénymvstqrj x wnéq
unzévu + Ëv révun zvmv qunnu zénymvstqrq xv xzvévtjuq
( + + ) ( Q + ) ( + + + ) rvzvé€n tn
uvmyz i€z wvsy·nt€ vwqxjtt€u viéjovu wvxrvsry wéq viéjztvu
wév|nxxn xyuuj lky} unt¡q} xzvévt xzjtvkqzx¹ unt¡n zénznp xzv
évt€
Íyxz = Ëju tjlv tjpzq rvsq·nxzkv zévnr tjzyéjst€}
·qxns zjrq} ·zv ≤ \ ≤ + + ] = q + > ] Êo ëzq}
tnéjkntxzk xsnlynz ·zv ≤ ≤ − Íéq ëzvu nxsq = zv
+ = − j ·qxsv |nsv·qxsntt€} én¡ntqp ëzvmv yéjktntq¹ zj
rq} ·zv ≤ ≤ ] = éjktv − + cxsq n = + zv qunnu
− + én¡ntqp Ívëzvuy ·qxsv zénymvstqrvk éjktv
Q−
∑
N=Q
( −
+ ) +
Q−
∑ ( − + ) = N=Q
Ìxzjst€n xsy·jq éjoiqéjízx¹ zv·tv zjr
n Íéq wnén}vln vz
r + uv tv qxwvsovkjz én¡ntq¹ wénl€lyq} ojlj·
Ìméjtq·ntq¹ ≤ ! ≤ " ≤ % ! + " ≥ % + ojljíz tj wsvxrvxzq
&!" ymvstqr qo |nsv·qxsntt€} zv·nr (! ") ·qxsv zv·nr k rvzvévu
snmrv wvlx·qz€kjnzx¹
Êxwvsoypzn wénl€lyyí ojlj·y
Íé¹u€n wnékvmv wy·rj éjoiqkjíz wsvxrvxz tj ·jxznp
Ínékj¹ wé¹uj¹ kzvévmv wy·rj wnénxnrjnzx¹ xv kxnuq wé¹u€uq wné
kvmv wy·rj q ljnz + tvk€} ·jxznp Æxn vxzjst€n wé¹u€n kzvévmv
wy·rj quníz + zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ x éjtnn wévknlntt€uq wé¹u€uq
Ívëzvuy u€ qunnu kxnmv + + + ( − )( + ) ·jxznp
bvrj nu yzkné lntqn x wvuví qtlyr|qq wv ·qxsy ' réq
k€} cxsq ' = zv vtv v·nkqltv zjr rjr zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ tnz q
·qxsv visjxznp éjktv Íyxz yzkné lntqn y n lvrjojtv ls¹ ' réqk€} Ævounu xqxznuy
kxíly
qo ' réqk€} quníq} U zv·nr wnénxn·ntqp réjztvxzq
= Òvmlj vtq vméjtq·qkjíz + + + + QU+ + oju
rtyz€} visjxznp Íévknlnu réqkyí ' + wyxz vtj qunnz U zv·nr
wnénxn·ntq¹ réjztvxzq
x éjtnn wévknlntt€uq réqk€uq j kxnmv
+ + + U+ + zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ êzq zv·rq wnénxn·ntq¹ éjo
iqkjíz nn tj + + + U+ + ·jxznp Çj lj¹ ·jxz wévknlnttvp
réqkvp xvvzknzxzkynz vltvp tvkvp visjxzq j wvzvuy znwné ·qxsv vi
sjxznp vrj nzx¹ éjkt€u
( + + + +
QU+ + ) + ( + + + U+ + )
Ëv nxsq tvkj¹ réqkj¹ wév¡sj ·néno zv·ry wnénxn·ntq¹ réjztvxzq
éjtnn wévknlntt€} réqk€} zv znwné ëzj zv·rj xzjsj zv·rvp wnén
xn·ntq¹ réjztvxzq + Ìivotj·qu ·néno U′ rvsq·nxzkv zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ réjztvxzq k
tvkvp xqxznun réqk€} ‰xtv ·zv U′+ = U+ − U+ + U+ vz éjtnn
U+ zv·nr
+ yknsq·qk¡q} nn q wéqijkqz U+ zv·nr
qunk¡q}x¹ zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ réjztvxzq
qunk¡q} réjztvxz
qunk¡q} réjztvxz
+ tjlv vzt¹z
q yknsq·qk¡q} nn Ëv zvmlj
+ ′ + ′ + + U′+ + =
= + (Q − + ) + ( − + ) + (U+ − NU+ + U+) + =
= ( + Q +
+ + U+ + ) + ( + + + U+ + )
΀ lvrjojsq zjrqu viéjovu ·zv + ′ + ′ + + U′+ + éjktv
·qxsy visjxznp ls¹ tvkvp xqxznu€ réqk€} xu {véuysy Æ xqsy
wéqt|qwj ujznujzq·nxrvp qtlyr|qq yzkné lntqn knétv ls¹ síivmv
·qxsj réqk€}
Íyxz ·nztv = Òvmlj xsnlyíquq xwvxvijuq uv nz
i€z wénlxzjksntv k kqln xyuu€ lky} xsjmjnu€}
= + ( − ) = + ( − ) = = N + Ëv rjézy x ·qxsvu uv tv k€tyz nlqtxzkntt€u viéjovu x ·qxsvu
² lkyu¹ xwvxvijuq q z l ¬ lkn rjéz€ x ·qxsvu ≥ uv tv
k€iéjz N xwvxvijuq Ívëzvuy kxnmv qunnu
( − )
( − ) + (N − ) + + ( − )( + ) +
=
N−
∑ '( − ') +
( − )
V=
=
=
( − ) ( − )
=
xwvxvivk wvsy·qz xyuuy = cxsq n tn·nztv = − zv
= + ( − ) = + (N − ) = = ( − ) + q ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjktv
N−
∑ '( − V − ) =
( − )( − )
V=
=
( − )
j Íyxz tj wsvxrvxzq wévknlntj − wé¹uj¹ Íévknlnu nn
vlty wé¹uyí Ìtj éjoiqkjnzx¹ zv·rjuq wnénxn·ntq¹ x éjtnn wévknlnt
t€uq wé¹u€uq tj ·jxznp rj lj¹ qo rvzvé€} xvvzknzxzkynz vltvuy
tvkvuy ryxry wsvxrvxzq wéq ëzvu wé¹u€} éjoiqkjíz wsvxrvxz tj
·jxz ÊFwvsoy¹ {véuysy + + + =
( + )
wvsy·jnu ·zv
++
wé¹u€} éjoiqkjíz wsvxrvxz tj + ( + + + Q) = Q ·jx
znp
i Ìivotj·qu ·néno () ·qxsv ·jxznp tj rvzvévn wsvxrvxznp
lns¹z wévxzéjtxzkv Íyxz y n wévknlntj − wsvxrvxz Íévknlnu
nn vlty í wsvxrvxz Ìtj wnénxnrjnzx¹ x éjtnn wévknlntt€uq wsvx
− + rvxz¹uq wv − wé¹uvp rvzvé€n lns¹z nn tj
·jxznp Çj lj¹ qo ëzq} ·jxznp xvvzknzxzkynz tvkvp ·jxzq wévxzéjtxzkj Ívëzvuy
qunnu 3(N) = ( − ) +
− + xzkv tj ·jxz wvëzvuy
wéq·nu wsvxrvxznp lns¹z wévxzéjt
Q
3(Q) = + ∑ ( − + ) ·jxznp Íéqunt¹¹
N= {véuys€ xyuu€ ·qxns vz lv q xyuu€ rkjléjzvk ·qxns vz lv
xu w tj}vlqu ·zv (Q) = ( + )( − + )
cxsq tn wéqunt¹z ëzq {véuys€ tv otjz ·zv xyuuj '} xznwntnp
iylnz utvmv·sntvu (' + )p xznwntq vz zv unzvlvu tnvwénlnsnt
t€} rvë{{q|qntzvk wvsy·qu ·zv (Q) = + + + ' wéq·nu
() = () = () = () = vzrylj tj}vl¹zx¹ q (
Íéq lvijksntqq ( + )p wsvxrvxzq r éjtnn wévknlntt€u wsvxrvxz¹u kvotqrjnz tvk€} ·jxznp j + + + + + ( − ) =
= − + Çj lj¹ ktyzéntt¹¹ zv·rj wnénxn·ntq¹ lqjmvtjsnp vltvotj·tv
vwénlns¹nzx¹ ojljtqnu kné¡qt ymvstqrj ² rvt|vk wnénxnrjí
q}x¹ lqjmvtjsnp Ívëzvuy ·qxsv ktyzénttq} zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ lqj
( − )( − )(Q − )
mvtjsnp éjktv Q =
Ëjplnu znwné vinn ·qxsv zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ lqjmvtjsnp Êo
rj lvp kné¡qt€ ymvstqrj k€}vl¹z − lqjmvtjsnp j kxnmv u€
( − )
lqjmvtjsnp Çj lj¹ lqjmvtjs
wnénxnrjnzx¹ xv
qunnu
kxnuq lqjmvtjs¹uq xvnlqt¹íquq kné¡qt€ vzsq·t€n vz
q Ívëzvuy zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ lqjmvtjsq
x vxzjst€uq lqjmvtjs¹uq
( − )
− ( − ) + Ï·qz€kj¹ ·zv vinn ·qxsv lqjmvtjsnp
iylnz
éjktv
( − )
rj lj¹ zv·rj wnénxn·ntq¹ x·qzjnzx¹ wéq ëzvu lkj l€
q Q zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ lqjmvtjsnp ² ktyzénttqn wvsy·jnu ·zv ·qxsv
( − )( − )( − )
ktn¡tq} zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ éjktv
Èylnu wévkvlqz lqjmvtjsq wvxsnlvkjznstv qo kné¡qt Q Çj lj¹ tvkj¹ lqjmvtjs ljnz xzvsrv tvk€} ·jxznp tj
xrvsrv ryxrvk vtj éjoiqkjnzx¹ éjtnn wévknlntt€uq lqjmvtjs¹uq
z n tj vlty ·jxz ivs¡n ·nu ·qxsv zv·nr nn wnénxn·ntq¹ x éjtnn
wévknlntt€uq lqjmvtjs¹uq Ívxrvsry rj lj¹ zv·rj wnénxn·ntq¹ wéq
ëzvu wvsy·jnzx¹ vlqt éjo zv vinn ·qxsv tvk€} ·jxznp éjktv xyuun
·qxsj lqjmvtjsnp q ·qxsj zv·nr wnénxn·ntq¹ Òjr rjr ktj·jsn u€
qunsq vlty ·jxz zv kxnmv qunnu
1() = + (− ) + ( − )(− )( − ) = ( − )(− + ) + ·jxznp xu wénl€lyyí ojlj·y ¬ uv tv lvrjojz ·zv 1() iylnz
utvmv·sntvu p xznwntq ojznu tjpzq ·zv 1() = 1() = 1() = 1() = 1() = q ljsnn unzvlvu tnvwénlnsntt€} rvë{{q
|qntzvk tjpzq ëzvz utvmv·snt 1() = − + − Q + fvx·qzjnu xyuuy ymsvk kxn} wvsy·qk¡q}x¹ zénymvstqrvk
fyuuj ymsvk quníq} kné¡qty k vltvp qo ktyzénttq} zv·nr éjktj
° Òjr rjr qunnzx¹ zjrq} zv·nr zv qu xvvzknzxzkyíz yms€
xyuuj rvzvé€} éjktj ° ⋅ Ònwné éjxxuvzéqu yms€ kné¡qt€
rvzvé€} xvkwjljíz x kné¡qtjuq ymvstqrj Ê} xyuuj éjktj xyu
un ktyzénttq} ymsvk ymvstqrj z n éjktj ° ⋅ Æxnmv wv
sy·jnu ° ⋅ Òjr rjr xyuuj ymsvk rj lvmv zénymvstqrj éjktj
° zv wvsy·qzx¹ zénymvstqrvk Æ vinu xsy·jn + − zénymvstqrj
cxsq lvijkqz r kné¡qtju síivmv utvmvymvstqrj tn xvlné
jnmv zv·ry ëzy zv·ry wvsy·qu utvmvymvstqr xvlné jqp
Ònu xju€u yxzjtvksntv kojqutv vltvotj·tvn xvvzknzxzkqn un ly
utv nxzkvu kxn} utvmvymvstqrvk tn xvlné jq} q ·jxzí utv
nxzkj utvmvymvstqrvk xvlné jq} Íéq ëzvu xvvzknzxzkqq tnz
utvmvymvstqrvk xvvzknzxzkyíq} zénymvstqrju vltvp qo kné¡qt
rvzvé€} ¹ks¹nzx¹ Ívëzvuy utvmvymvstqrvk xvlné jq} zv·ry
ivs¡n
Êo + ( + ) + + ( + ) = (N + )( + ) = wvsy·jnu
( + )( + ) = ⋅ + = = + + + Êo én
¡ntq¹ kqltv ·zv xvutv qznsq + q + éjotvp ·nztvxzq bjs
¡n qxwvsoynu éjkntxzkj ( + P)( + ) = ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ ( + P)( + ) = ⋅ = ⋅ Çj l€p qo qmévrvk x€méjnz wjézqq j kxnmv iylnz x€méjtv
wjézqp Íénlwvsv qu ·zv k wnékvp wjézqq wjéj (! #) qméjsj wévzqk
wjé€ (" )) Òvmlj k zén} xsnlyíq} qméj} ! lvs nt qunz wjéztnéjuq
xvvzknzxzknttv " ) * j k w¹zvp tn wéqtqujz y·jxzq¹ Êmévr *
lvs nt wéqt¹z y·jxzqn kv kxn} qméj} révun wnékvp wéq·nu kv kzv
évp q zénznp vt iylnz wévzqktqrvu ! Ëj xkvivltvn unxzv kv kzvévp
wjézqq uv tv ko¹z qsq qmévrj # qsq qmévrj ) j k zénznp wjézqq
² qmévrj " qsq # Ëv nxsq k€iéjz kv kzvévp wjézqq qmévrj ) zv k
zénznp wéqlnzx¹ k€iéjz qmévrj # qtj·n qmévr # wévwyxzqz lkn wjé
zqq j zvmlj k ·nzknézvp wjézqq lvs nt vzxyzxzkvkjz qmévr ) j "
q # iylyz wjéztnéjuq Ëv zvmlj k w¹zvp wjézqq wjéztnéjuq iylyz "
q * x vltvp xzvévt€ q # q ) ² x léymvp cxsq n k€iéjz kv kzvévp
wjézqq qmévrj # zv q k zénznp wéqlnzx¹ k€iéjz qmévrj # qtj·n
* q # lkj l€ iylyz wjéztnéjuq k ·nzknézvp ² # q ) j k w¹zvp
qmévrq " q # iylyz qméjz wévzqk ) q * Òjrqu viéjovu rj l€p
k€ivé ls¹ qmévrvk wnékvp wjézqq vwénlns¹nz lkj kvouv t€} éjoiqn
tq¹ qmévrvk k ljstnp¡nu Òjr rjr wvé¹lvr xsnlyíq} wjézqp
uv tv unt¹z xwvxvijuq zv kxnmv wvsy·jnu kvouv tvxznp bs¹
wnékvp wjézqq uv tv k€iéjz qmévrvk xwvxvijuq ·qxsv xwvxvivk
éjoiqz ·nsvknr tj wjé€ q ojwjxtvmv qmévrj Çj l€p qo ëzq}
xwvxvivk vwénlns¹nz kvouv tvxznp }vlj ujz·j k ljstnp¡nu j
kxnmv kvouv tvxznp cxsq tn y·qz€kjz wvé¹lrj wjézqp vxzjnzx¹
kvouv tvxznp
­sjkj 9
ïqxsv éjosq·t€} rvuiqtj|qp uvtnz éjktv = Ívëzvuy
tnknét€} vzknzvk uv nz i€z bs¹ éjosq·t€} uvtnz = q
tnknét€} vzknzvk
j ·nsvknr uv tv wnénxj qkjz xwvxvijuq Ëjplnu kv
xrvsrq} wnénxzjtvkrj} jtmsq·jtqtj xql¹z é¹lvu Æxn zjrqn wnén
xzjtvkrq wvsy·jízx¹ qo vltvp wnénxj qkjtqnu un ly xvivp jtmsq·jt
xwvxvivk q wnénxj qkjtqnu {éjt|yovk q zyévr q rvuwjtqq
jtmsq·jt xwvxvivk Æxnmv wvsy·jnu ⋅ wnénxzjtvkvr Æv xzvs
rq} n wnénxzjtvkrj} é¹lvu xql¹z {éjt|yoj q kv xzvsrq} n ²
zyérj bjsnn k () ⋅ wnénxzjtvkrj} é¹lvu xql¹z xrj nu q jtm
sq·jtn q {éjt|yo€ j k () wnénxzjtvkrj} q jtmsq·jtn q {éjt|yo€
q zyérq Ív {véuysn krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp wvsy·jnu vzknz
− ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ () ⋅ − () = i Ìinn ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr éjktv Ëjplnu ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr
k rvzvé€} ljtt€n lkj jtmsq·jtqtj xql¹z é¹lvu cxsq u€ vi~nlqtqu
q} zv wvsy·qu wnénxzjtvkrq vi~nrzvk Ëv révun zvmv q} uv tv
wnénxj qkjz léym x léymvu Ívëzvuy kxnmv qunnu ⋅ wnénxzjtvkvr
Íéq ëzvu ljtt€} lky} jtmsq·jt uv tv k€iqéjz xwvxvijuq j
kxnmv u€ qunnu zéq éjosq·t€} tj|qvtjstvxzq Ívëzvuy xvvzknzxz
kyíqp ·snt k {véuysn krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp éjknt ⋅ ⋅ Ònwné tjplnu kv xrvsrq} wnénxzjtvkrj} é¹lvu xql¹z ljtt€n lkj
jtmsq·jtqtj q révun zvmv ljtt€n lkj {éjt|yoj cxsq vi~nlqtqz k
wjéy é¹lvu xql¹q} xvvzn·nxzknttqrvk zv wvsy·qu wnénxzjks¹nu€}
vi~nrzvk Çévun zvmv uv tv wnénxj qkjz léym x léymvu xql¹q}
é¹lvu xvvzn·nxzknttqrvk Æxnmv qunnu () ⋅ wnénxzjtvkvr Çévun
zvmv lkn wjé€ xvvzn·nxzknttqrvk uv tv k€iéjz (&) xwvxvijuq Ívë
zvuy xvvzknzxzkyínn xsjmjnuvn k {véuysn krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp
éjktv (&)() ⋅ bjsnn éjxxujzéqkjízx¹ xsnlyíqn xsy·jq é¹lvu
xql¹z j zéq xvvzn·nxzknttqrj i wv lkj wénlxzjkqzns¹ rj lvp tj|q
vtjstvxzq k zéq wénlxzjkqzns¹ vltvp tj|qvtjstvxzq q lkj ² léy
mvp m zéq wénlxzjkqzns¹ vltvp tj|qvtjstvxzq q zéq léymvp l zéq
wénlxzjkqzns¹ vltvp tj|qvtjstvxzq lkj léymvp q lkj zénznp n zéq
wénlxzjkqzns¹ vltvp tj|qvtjstvxzq zéq léymvp q lkj zénznp
wv
zéq wénlxzjkqzns¹ rj lvp tj|qvtjstvxzq
Íéqunt¹¹ {véuysy krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp wvsy·jnu vzknz
− ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ () ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ − () ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +
+ ⋅ () ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ () ⋅ − ⋅ () ⋅ ⋅ + ()
êzj ojlj·j én¡jnzx¹ jtjsvmq·tv wénl€lynp tv qt€u viéjovu
wvlx·qz€kjnzx¹ ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr k rvzvé€} ljtt€n xvvzn·nxzknt
tqrq xql¹z é¹lvu bky} jtmsq·jt uv tv wvxjlqz é¹lvu ⋅ xwvxv
ijuq wvxsn ·nmv kxn} vxzjst€} uv tv wnénxj qkjz xwvxvijuq
cxsq ko¹z lky} jtmsq·jt q lky} {éjt|yovk zv ·qxsv xwvxvivk wv
xjlrq wéq rvzvé€} ëzq xvvzn·nxzknttqrq xql¹z é¹lvu éjktv
() ⋅ ⋅ Êunttv u€ xwvxvijuq uv nu k€iéjz unxzj ls¹
jtmsq·jt wvxsn ·nmv vi~nlqtqz k wjéy lky} {éjt|yovk q ko¹z kxn
kvouv t€n wnénxzjtvkrq ëzvp wjé€ q vxzjk¡q}x¹ ·nsvknr Ï·qz€kj¹
kvouv tvxz wvunt¹z unxzjuq rjr xql¹q} é¹lvu jtmsq·jt zjr q
xql¹q} é¹lvu {éjt|yovk wvsy·jnu yrjojttvn ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr
¬tjsvmq·tv éjxxujzéqkjízx¹ vxzjst€n kvouv tvxzq Æxnmv wvsy·jnu
− ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ () ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ − () ⋅ ⋅ − ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +
+ () ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ () ⋅ ⋅ − ⋅ () ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + () ⋅ ⋅ xwvxvivk
Ìivotj·qu iyrkvp Ð utv nxzkv qo tnxrvsrq} xzv¹q} wvlé¹l
{éjt|yovk j iyrkvp Ò ² utv nxzkv qo tnxrvsrq} xzv¹q} wvlé¹l
zyévr Èyrkj ¬ votj·jnz jtmsq·jtqtj Êo yxsvkq¹ ojlj·q xsnlynz ·zv
kvouv nt vlqt qo xsnlyíq} zqwvk éjxwvsv ntq¹ ЬҬЬҬЬ
ҬРqsq Ò¬Ð¬Ò¬Ð¬Ò¬Ð¬Ò Íéq wnékvu zqwn u€ lvs t€ éjoiqz
{éjt|yovk tj tnwyxz€n méyww€ ëzv uv tv xlnsjz xwvxvijuq zyévr tj tnwyxz€n méyww€ xwvxvivk wvxsn ·nmv wvxzjkqz
ëzq méyww€ wv wvé¹lry tj xvvzknzxzkyíqn unxzj q wnénxzjkqz kxnuq
kvouv t€uq xwvxvijuq xvvzn·nxzknttqrvk léym x léymvu Ívsy·jnu
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ xwvxvivk éjxxzjtvkrq Æzvévp zqw éjxwvsv ntq¹ ljnz
zjrqu n wyznu ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ xwvxvivk éjxxzjtvkrq Æxnmv wvsy·jnu
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ( + ) = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ én¡ntqp
bs¹ jtmsq·jt zv·tv zjr n wvsy·jnu ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ én¡ntqp
()
j djljtt€n ësnuntz€ uv tv wnénxzjks¹z ( ) = Q
( − ) xwvxvijuq êsnuntz€ ljtt€} wjé xzv¹z é¹lvu k
wnénxzj
Q−N
tvkrj} Òjr rjr wjé uv tv k€iéjz NQ xwvxvijuq zv wv {véuysn
krsí·ntqp q qxrsí·ntqp wvsy·jnu ·zv k
( ) (Q − )
− Q
+
Q
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tj}vlqk¡j¹x¹ tj u unxzn wéq ≤ wvwjljnz tj unxzv S j wéq
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vxzjzvr vz lnsntq¹ S tj Q + Íyxz yzkné lntqn y n lvrjojtv ls¹ z n wyxz wvxsn ¡jmvk
rjézj x tvunévu ojt¹sj unxzv mln U = ( + ) + Ëj xsnly
ínu ¡jmy vtj ojpunz unxzv mln = %(Q + ) + % = qsq Ëv
zvmlj U+ = ( + ) + = ( + O)( + ) + mln < U+ êzv otj
·qz ·zv ² vxzjzvr vz lnsntq¹ U+ tj + Æ xqsy wéqt|qwj
ujznujzq·nxrvp qtlyr|qq tj¡n yzkné lntqn lvrjojtv
Ënwvxénlxzknttv k€znrjnz qo énoyszjzj wénl€lynp ojlj·q
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tvunéjuq rvzvé€n q s¹myz k€¡n rjéz€ i Ïzkné lntqn vztvxqznstv rjéz€ k€znrjnz qo énoyszjzj
w j Ìxzjst€n wévkné¹ízx¹ tnwvxénlxzknttv
k djwq¡nu wvl tvunévu rj lvp rjéz€ tvuné rvzvé€p vtj wv
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znp cxsq kknxzq xqxznuy rvvélqtjz ( ) ( ) zv ujé¡éyz qo
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zq|€ éjxwvsv ntt€n k zv·rj} x rvvélqtjzjuq Q q −Q
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zv jzx¹ q vxzjtyzx¹ lkn ·jxzq|€ Ïzkné lntqn lvrjojtv
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zqrjsq q tj rj lvp mvéqovtzjsq iylnz wv vltvuy vzénory svujtvp
ƀinénu tnrvzvéyí wnénxzjtvkry knézqrjsnp (, , ,Q) q mvéqovt
zjsnp (- - -Q) tjwéjksntqn wnékvmv okntj svujtvp ² wv knézq
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tj ujé¡éyz q wéqzvu zvsrv ·néno vlty qo tq} qtj·n x ëzvmv
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q tj zvp vxzjtvkrn ujé¡éyzj ·néno
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q tn wév}vlqz ·néno q
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u€ qunnu Q( − ) + ujé¡éyzvk
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tj wévqokvstvu ujé¡éyzn ′ vzsq·tvu vz qunnu évktv vxzj
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i€ vlqt ujé¡éyz xvnlqt¹íqp nn x vxzjtvkrvp Ívëzvuy ·qxsv
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vxzjtvkry z n éjktv Çjr u€ kqlnsq wéq én¡ntqq wénl€lynp
ojlj·q k ëzvu xsy·jn ·qxsv ujé¡éyzvk k€éj jnzx¹ {véuysvp
( − ) + Òjr rjr wv yxsvkqí ëzv ·qxsv éjktv zv tjlv én¡qz
yéjktntqn ( − ) + = èn¡j¹ nmv tj}vlqu ·zv = Ævouv tv éjxxuvzéqu tjwéquné wé¹u€} wsvxrvxzq zj
rq} ·zv tqrjrqn lkn qo tq} tn wjéjssnst€ q tqrjrqn zéq tn wnén
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rj lvp vxzjtvkrq uv tv wévn}jz tj síiyí léymyí ino wnénxjlrq
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sn jz tj éjosq·t€} wé¹u€} cxsq lj n vziévxqz k ëzvp x}nun vlty
wé¹uyí zv kxn n vxzjtnzx¹ kvouv tvxz wévn}jz x rj lvp vxzjtvk
rq tj síiyí léymyí xlnsjk k wyzq tn ivsnn vltvp wnénxjlrq Ëv
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ëzq} lky} wé¹u€} tn iylnz xvkxnu vixsy qkjzx¹ vxzjk¡quqx¹ ujé
¡éyzjuq q x ëzvp vxzjtvkrq iylnz tnkvouv tv wévn}jz tq tj rjryí
léymyí vxzjtvkry
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j bvrj nu éjkntxzkv x wvuví qtlyr|qq wv + Íyxz
ls¹ kxn} q ' zjrq} ·zv + ' < + éjkntxzkv lvrjojtv Òvmlj
qunnu
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= .Q−(.P− + .P−) + .Q(.P + .P−) = .Q−.P + .Q.P+
Ívxrvsry wéq + = ëzv éjkntxzkv tnwvxénlxzknttv wévkné¹
nzx¹ vtv xwéjknlsqkv ls¹ síi€} q i Íévknlnu lvrjojznsxzkv x wvuví qtlyr|qq wv Íéq
= yzkné lntqn zéqkqjstv Íyxz y n lvrjojtv ·zv .VP lnsqzx¹
tj .P Êo wytrzj j qunnu .(V+)P = .VP+P = .VP−.P + .VP.P+ q wvzvuy
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s¹zx¹ tj .P
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sqsvx i€ tj Íévlvs j¹ ëzv éjxxy lntqn u€ wvsy·qsq i€ ·zv
. = lnsqzx¹ tj j ëzv tnkvouv tv
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(! ") Êo éjkntxzkj .Q+P = .Q−XP + .Q.P+ xsnlynz ·zv (.P+Q .Q) ¹k
s¹nzx¹ lnsqznsnu .Q−.P q wvxrvsry .Q q .Q− kojqutv wévxz€ ln
sqznsnu .P Ìiéjztv (.P .Q) ¹ks¹nzx¹ lnsqznsnu .P+Q Ívëzvuy
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Íéqunt¹¹ jsmvéqzu ckrsqlj yin ljnux¹ ·zv (.P .Q) = .(PQ) Æ
·jxztvxzq (. .) = . = èjxxuvzéqu wvxsnlvkjznstvxz xvxzjksnttyí qo wvxsnltq} ·n
z€én} |q{é ·qxns Ðqivtj··q Òjr rjr rvsq·nxzkv ·nz€én}otj·t€}
·qxns kqlj éjktv zv rvsq·nxzkv wjé zjrq}
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wvxsnltqn ·nz€én |q{é€ .P q .Q j zjr n .P+ q .Q+ Ëv zvmlj ·qxsj
.Q − .P q .Q+ − .P+ vrjt·qkjízx¹ ·nz€éu¹ tys¹uq Òjr rjr
.Q− − .P− = (.Q+ − .P+) − (.Q − XP) zv q .Q− − .P− zjr n vrjt·qkj
nzx¹ ·nz€éu¹ tys¹uq Íévlvs j¹ yunt¡jz qtlnrx lv}vlqu lv
.Q−P − . tv . = wvëzvuy ·qxsv .Q−P vrjt·qkjnzx¹ ·nz€éu¹ ty
s¹uq
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.Q q .Q+ .Q+ = .Q + .Q+ .Q+ = .Q + .Q+ .Q+ = .Q + .Q+
.Q+ = .Q + .Q+ .Q+ = .Q + .Q+ .Q+ = .Q + .Q+ fsnlvkjzns
tv xyuuj ëzq} ·qxns éjktj .Q + .Q+ Ëv XQ+ = .Q + .Q+
XQ+ = .Q + .Q+ Êo tnéjkntxzkj XQ+ < .Q + .Q+ < .Q+ ¹xtv
·zv .Q + .Q+ tn ¹ks¹nzx¹ ·qxsvu Ðqivtj··q
j Ïzkné lntqn lvrjo€kjnzx¹ wv qtlyr|qq Íéq Q = vtv v·n
kqltv Íyxz vtv xwéjknlsqkv ls¹ Q = X + X + + .N = .N+ − Íéqijkqu
r
vinqu
·jxz¹u
éjkntxzkj
XN+ Òjr rjr
XN+ + .N+ = .N+ wvsy·jnu X + X + + .N+ = .N+ − Ònu
xju€u tj¡n yzkné lntqn lvrjojtv
Òv·tv zjr n wv qtlyr|qq lvrjo€kjízx¹ yzkné lntq¹ i q k m bs¹ lvrjojznsxzkj ojunzqu ·zv
X
Q+ − .Q.Q+ = .Q+ − .Q − .Q.Q+ = .Q+(.Q+ − .Q) − .Q = − (.Q − .Q−.Q+)
Ívëzvuy XQ+ − .Q.Q+ = (−)Q(. − ..) = (−)Q
l Ïzkné lntq¹ l q n iylnu lvrjo€kjz xvkunxztv Íéq Q = vtq v·nkqlt€ Íyxz vtq y n lvrjojt€ wéq Q = Ív yzkné lntqí
m qunnu zvmlj
X. + .. + + .N.N+ + .N+.N+ =
= XN+ − + .N+.N+ = .N+.N+ − = .N+
q
X. + .. + + .N+.N+ + .N+.N+ =
= XN+ + .N+.N+ = .N+.N+ = .N+ − fsnlvkjznstv ëzq yzkné lntq¹ knét€ q wéq Q = + j wvzvuy
q wéq kxn} Q
djunzqu ·zv k xqsy j q i X + . + . + + .N+ = XN+ − Ívëzvuy nxsq qunnz unxzv éjkntxzkv wéq Q = zv
( + ). +
. + ( − ). + + .N + .N+ =
= .N+ − (N + ) + .N+ − = .N+ − ( + )
Òjr rjr éjkntxzkv knétv wéq = zv vtv knétv wéq kxn} .Q+ − .Q+ − + XQ+ =
o êzv k€znrjnz qo éjkntxzkj
q bs¹ lvrjojznsxzkj k {véuysn .Q+P = .Q−.P + .Q.P+ wvsv qu
= ΀ wvsy·qu ·zv .Q = .Q−.Q + .Q.Q+ = XQ+ − .Q− Òv·tv zjr
n lvrjo€kjnzx¹ ·zv .Q+ = .Q + .Q+ Ívsjmj¹ k zvp n {véuysn
= wvsy·jnu ·zv
.Q = .Q−.Q + .Q.Q+ = .Q−(.Q+ − .Q−) + .Q(.Q + .Q+) = .Q+ + .Q − .Q−
Íyxz .Q ≤ ≤ .Q+ Òvmlj ≤ − .Q < .Q− q wvzvuy tjplnzx¹
zjrvn ' < − ·zv .V ≤ − .Q < .V+ Ëv zvmlj ≤ − .Q − .V < .V−
wéq·nu ' − < − ïnéno tnxrvsrv ¡jmvk u€ wvsy·qu ·zv
= .Q + .V + .S + + .U wéq·nu xvxnltqn qtlnrx€ ' vz
sq·jízx¹ léym vz léymj wv réjptnp unén tj ïzvi€ éjxrvlqévkjz xsvkv tjlv wénlxzjkqz ·qxsv k kqln
xyuu€ xsjmjnu€} rj lvn qo rvzvé€} éjktv qsq Ævotqrjnz
wvxsnlvkjznstvxz Ðqivtj··q Ívëzvuy qunnu xwvxvij wév·qzjz
ljttvn xsvkv qo otjrvk
−
+ = tj}v
j èn¡j¹ }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn
lqu rvétq = = Ívëzvuy vinn én¡ntqn qunnz kql
!Q = Q + Q i Òv·tv zjr n wvsy·jnu !Q = Q + (−)Q
k Êunnu !Q = ( + /)Q + ( − /)Q m !Q = (/)Q + (−/)Q
l = = − Ívëzvuy !Q = ( + )(−)Q
n ®jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn zjrvkv − + − = cmv rvétq = = = Ívëzvuy !Q = Q + Q + &Q
Ívëzvuy !Q = ( + +
o ®jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn qunnz kql
=
/
= − ± / Ívëzvuy
± = = = −
!Q = &( + /)Q + ( − /)Q +
q !Q = Q ⋅ Q + (−)Q + Q
Q
(− + /) +
)(−)
+ =
Q
cmv rvétq
Q
(− − /) j èn¡j¹ }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn − U + = wvsy·j
nu ·zv = = q wvzvuy !Q = Q + Q Ívsjmj¹ = q
= wvsy·jnu ls¹ vz€xrjtq¹ q xqxznuy yéjktntqp
+ & = + & = − Êo tnn tj}vlqu = = − q wvzvuy
!Q = ⋅ Q − Q+
i Êunnu !Q = (
+ )Q Ívsjmj¹ = q = wvsy·jnu xqx
znuy yéjktntqp + = + = qo rvzvévp k€kvlqu ·zv
Q
= = q wvzvuy !Q = k !Q = Q+ [(− + /√⎯⎯ )Q + (− − /√⎯⎯ )Q] m !Q = Q + Q − Q
®jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn − FRV ϕ + = x rvét¹uq
=
ϕ ± / VLQ ϕ !Q = (FRV ϕ + / VLQ ϕ )Q + (FRV ϕ − / VLQ ϕ )Q Ív
FRV
sjmj¹ = q = wvsy·jnu xqxznuy yéjktntqp
⎧ ( + ) FRV ϕ + ( − ) / VLQ ϕ = FRV ϕ
⎨
(& + ) FRV ϕ + ( − ) / VLQ ϕ = FRV ϕ
⎩ Ìzxílj & = = DQ = [(FRV ϕ + / VLQ ϕ )Q + (FRV ϕ −
xqsy {véuys€ Îyjkéj DQ = FRV Qϕ
/ VLQ ϕ )Q] Æ
ƀznrjnz qo zvmv ·zv }jéjrznéqxzq·nxrvn yéjktntqn
UN −
UN− +
N
N− − + (−)N N = N
N
uv tv ojwqxjz k kqln ( − )N = Ìtv qunnz rvént = réjztvxzq
Ívëzvuy !Q = W wéq 0 = − ² én¡ntq¹ énryééntztvmv
yéjktntq¹
Ìivotj·qu ·qxsv éjounntqp zjrvmv kqlj ·néno 1(QN) êzq éjo
unntq¹ éjovinu tj lkj rsjxxj Ç wnékvuy vztnxnu tj·qtjíqnx¹
tj j rv kzvévuy ² kxn vxzjst€n cxsq éjounntqn tj·qtjnzx¹ tj
zv k€·znu qo kxn} k}vl¹q} k tnmv ·qxns q vziévxqu xzv¹qp
kwnénlq tys tjwéquné wnénplnz wéq ëzvu xtj·jsj k j wvzvu k Ívsy·qzx¹ ( − )éjounntqn zvmv n zqwj tv xv
xzv¹nn qo ·qxns − Ívëzvuy ·qxsv éjounntqp wnékvmv
rsjxxj éjktv 1(QN−−) Çj lvn éjounntqn kzvévmv rsjxxj tj·qtjnzx¹ x
tn·nztvmv ·qxsj ivs¡nmv z n q ivsnn ƀ·znu qo kxn} ·qxns
k}vl¹q} k zjrvn éjounntqn ·qxsv ΀ wvsy·qu éjounntqn
zvmv n zqwj k rvzvévn k}vl¹z ·qxsj − Ívëzvuy ·qxsv
éjounntqp kzvévmv rsjxxj éjktv 1(QN−) Òjrqu viéjovu xwéjknlsqkj
énryééntztj¹ {véuysj 1(QN) = 1(QN−−) + ­(QN−) Ívsv qu (QN) = N1 mln
+
= ⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ >@ ² |nsj¹ ·jxz ΀ qunnu
(N)
N
N− + N
(QN−−) + (QN−) = 1
−
1− = 1 = )Q Òjrqu viéjovu ·qxsj (QN) ylvksnzkvé¹íz zvuy
vztv¡ntqí ·zv q ·qxsj 1(QN)
n énryééntztvuy xv
Ívrj nu znwné ·zv (QQ) = 1(QQ) q (QQ+) = 1(QQ+) bs¹ ëzvmv ojunzqu
·zv ·qxsj uv tv nlqtxzkntt€u viéjovu éjxwvsv qz k
wvé¹lrn kvoéjxzjtq¹ j wvzvuy 1(QQ) = = QQ = (QQ) Êo ·qxns + zv n nlqtxzkntt€u viéjovu uv tv k€iéjz ·qxns k xvvzknz
xzkqq x wvxzjksntt€uq yxsvkq¹uq Ívëzvuy q 1(QQ+) = = QQ = (QQ+) Êo
lvrjojttvmv k€znrjnz ·zv ls¹ kxn} otj·ntqp q qunnz unxzv éj
+ ⎤
kntxzkv 1(QN) = (QN) = N1 mln tjwvutqu = ⎡⎣
⎦
­sjkj 9,,,
dtj·ntqn utvmv·sntj wéq = \ = = éjktv rjr éjo xyuun rv
ë{{q|qntzvk Ívlxzjks¹¹ ëzq otj·ntq¹ wvsy·jnu ·zv xyuuj éjktj j èjounntq¹ uvmyz xvxzv¹z qo wénlunzvk Ívëzvuy
wvstvn ·qxsv éjounntqp éjktv
Q+
Q
Q− + +
Q
=
Q
+ Q
+
+ +
( − )
= Q ⎡ +
⎣
⎤
+ +
( − ) ⎦
f léymvp xzvévt€
+
* ⋅ Q − = ⎡⎣ + +
⎤+
( − ) ⎦
+
+⎡
+
+ ⎤
⎣ + ( + )( + ) ( + )( + )( + )
⎦
Ëv wéq síivu tjzyéjstvu ≥ +
+
(Q + )( + )
+
( + )( + )( + )
<
+
+
+ <
( + )
+
+ =
( + )
Q ≤ êzqu tj¡n yzkné lntqn lvrjojtv
i Ìinn ·qxsv wénlunzvk kv kxn} éjounntq¹} éjktv
Q + (Q − )$Q− + +
Q
Q
=
Q
−
⎡⎢ + + + ⎤⎥ =
( − ) ⎦
⎣
+
⎞+
= (Q − ) ⎡⎢⎛⎜ + +
+
( − ) ⎟⎠
⎣⎝
⎛ − − − − − ⎞⎤
( − ) ⎟⎠⎥⎦
− ⎜⎝
−
=
Énmrv wévknéqz ·zv − − − −
Òjr rjr kxn
( − ) ( − )
wénlunz€ k}vl¹z vltv q zv n ·qxsv éjo zv rj l€p qo tq} kvplnz
⎤+
+
= ( − )( − ) ⎡⎢ + + +
éjo f léymvp xzvévt€
) ⎥⎦
(
−
⎣
( − )( − )* =
= (Q − )( − ) ⎡⎢ +
⎣
+
+ +
( − )
+
+
( + ) ⎤
⎡
= ( − )( − ) ⎡⎢ + +
+ + (Q − ) ⎥⎦ + ( − ) ⎢⎣ +
⎣
+ ⎤⎥ =
⎦
q wvzvuy
∆=
− (Q − )( − )* = − (Q − ) ⎡⎢ ⎣
+
(Q + )
( + )
+ ⎤⎥ > −
⎦
+ ⎤⎥
⎦
−
= −
−
−
⎤ tv ∆ = ⎡⎢ −
⎣ + − ( + )( + ) − ⎥⎦ < wéq ≥ dtj·qz ² isq jp¡nn |nsvn ·qxsv r ( − )( − )*
( + )Q+ − ( + )N
xyuuj mn
΀ qunnu ( + )N + + ( + )Q =
vunzéq·nxrvp wévménxxqq xv otjuntjznsnu = + Ívëzvuy rvë{{q
+
P+ wéq < q P+ wéq ≥ ≥ |qntz wéq P éjknt P
Q+ − N
Q+ Ëju ljtv ·zv
( +
+ )Q = ! + ! + ![ + ! + + !QQ
Ívrj nu xtj·jsj ·zv !N = !Q−N bs¹ ëzvmv wvsv qu =
q
Q
yutv qu vin ·jxzq éjkntxzkj tj ΀ wvsy·qu ·zv
( +
+ )Q = !Q + !Q− + !Q− + !Q− + + !Q
féjktqkj¹ éjosv ntq¹ q wvsy·jnu ·zv !N = !Q−N
djuntqu znwné tj − ΀ wvsy·qu ·zv
( −
+ )Q = ! − ! + ![ − D + + DQQ
Ínénutv j¹ éjosv ntq¹ q k€kvlqu ·zv
( + + ) Q =
Q
∑ (−)N >!!N − !!N− + + (−)N!ND@ N
N=
j ‰xtv ·zv éjosv ntqn snkvp ·jxzq éjkntxzkj xvlné qz sq¡
·snt€ x ·nzt€uq xznwnt¹uq j wvzvuy rvë{{q|qntz wéq Q− éjknt
tysí Ëv k wéjkvp ·jxzq rvë{{q|qntzvu wéq Q− ¹ks¹nzx¹
−(!!Q− − !!Q− + − !Q−!) = −(!! − !! + − !Q−!Q)
i djunzqu znwné ·zv éjosv ntqn uv tv wénlxzjkqz wv {vé
uysn k kqln ( + + )Q = ! + ! + ![ + + DQQ Ìzxílj
xsnlynz ·zv rvë{{q|qntz wéq Q k ëzvu éjosv ntqq éjknt !Q f
léymvp xzvévt€ wv {véuysn vt éjknt
!!Q − !!Q− + !!Q− − + !Q! = ! − D + ! − + (−)Q!Q
k Ínénwq¡nu éjkntxzkv k kqln
( − )Q = ( − )Q(D + D + ! + + DQ[Q)
Ìzxílj k€znrjnz ·zv
− Q + Q − + (−)Q QQQ =
Q
+ (−)Q QQQ⎤ (! + D + D + + !QQ)
⎦
cxsq tn lnsqzx¹ tj zv k snkvp ·jxzq ëzvmv éjkntxzkj rvë{
{q|qntz wéq U éjknt tysí Æ wéjkvp n ·jxzq rvë{{q|qntz wéq
U éjknt !U − Q!U− + Q!U− − + (−)U UQD dtj·qz ëzv k€éj ntqn
= ⎡ − Q +
⎣
éjktv tysí nxsq
−
Q
tn lnsqzx¹ tj q éjktv (−)N NQ nxsq
U = m cxsq [ = k éjosv ntqq zv D + D + ! + + !Q = Q cxsq
[ = k éjosv ntqq zv D − D + ! − + !Q = frsjl€kj¹ q k€
·qzj¹ ëzq éjkntxzkj wéq}vlqu r lvrjo€kjnu€u xvvztv¡ntq¹u
j ΀ qunnu
( +
+ + + Q−) =
( Q − ) =
( − ) = ([Q − )( − )− = (Q −
Q + )( + + + + P[P− + )
Ívëzvuy rvë{{q|qntz wéq N éjknt + nxsq ≤ ≤ − q
− − nxsq ≤ ≤ − Ìzknz uv tv ojwqxjz xsnlyíqu vi
éjovu − _ − − _
j Ívrjojzns xznwntq uv nz i€z xsnlyíquq xwvxvijuq
xvxzjksnt qo wvrjojznsnp q = + + + = + + êzv votj
·jnz ·zv nxsq vivotj·qz ·néno j ·néno zv qxrvu€p rvë{
{q|qntz éjknt xyuun rvë{{q|qntzvk wéq q \(−) = k éjosv n
tqq ( + − ) Ív {véuysn kvoknlntq¹ utvmv·sntj k xznwnt ëzvz
rvë{{q|qntz éjknt 3( ) + ( ) = u€ sqiv qo xrvivr
inénu qo xrvivr inénu − q qo xrvivr inénu sqiv qo xrvirq
inénu qo xrvivr inénu − q qo xrvivr inénu i ¬tjsvmq·tv tj}vlqu = ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅ tv znwné
tjlv y·qz€kjz otjrq vzknz ( ) − ( ) + ( ) = −
k ( ) − ( ) + ( ) = − znwné tjlv y·q
z€kjz q rvë{{q|qntz€ ΀ qunnu = + + j tn éjoiqkjnzx¹ tj xyuuy wvsv
qznst€} xsjmjnu€} réjzt€} q Ívëzvuy k}vlqz x rvë{{q
|qntzvu = j ² x rvë{{q|qntzvu tys
΀ qunnu = ⋅ + ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅ = ⋅ + ⋅ Ívëzvuy ·snt
x qunnz rvë{{q|qntz − & − − k éjosv n
tqq ( + − ) q − + − k éjosv ntqq
( − + ) ‰xtv ·zv kzvévp rvë{{q|qntz ivs¡n
Êunnu Q ·sntvk kqlj N Q = Q ·sntvk kqlj M N ≠ q
Q ·sntvk kqlj LMN kxn / éjosq·t€ j kxnmv Q + Q + &Q
·sntvk
Ëjqivs¡qu rvë{{q|qntzvu k wnékvu éjosv ntqq ¹ks¹nzx¹
rvë{{q|qntz wéq !"# q jtjsvmq·t€} Ìt éjknt 3( ) = Æv kzvévu éjosv ntqq tjqivs¡qu ¹ks¹nzx¹ rvë{{q|qntz
3( ) wéq !"#)
êzv ·qxsv éjktv rvë{{q|qntzy wéq P k utvmv·sntn
(O + [O+ + + [Q)S = OS( − Q−O+)S( − )S
Íéqunt¹¹ {véuysy iqtvuj ˁízvtj wvsy·jnu ·zv ëzvz rvë{{q|qntz
P+O−Q−
P+(O−Q−)
éjknt P
P−(O−)S− − S P−(O−)(S−)−Q− + S P−(O−)(S−)−Q− − j ïqxsj k€éj jíqn lsqt€ wvsvx rj lvmv |knzj viéjoyíz
wénlxzjksntqn ·qxsj k kqln xyuu€ xsjmjnu€} wéqtqujíq}
tjzyéjst€n otj·ntq¹ vz lv wéq·nu qméjnz évs wvé¹lvr
xsjmjnu€} ïqxsv zjrq} éjoiqntqp tj xsjmjnu€} éjktv rvë{{q|q
ntzy wéq k éjosv ntqq k€éj ntq¹
([ + + + )N = N( − )N( − )−N =
= [N ⎛ − + − + (−)NN⎞ ×
⎝
N
N
× ⎛⎝ +
&N +
⎠
N+ +
N+ + +
N+
+
⎞⎠
Ìzxílj xéjoy tj}vlqu ·zv qxrvu€p rvë{{q|qntz éjknt wéq = wéq = wéq = wéq = q wéq = Òjr rjr rvsq·nxzkv wvsvx rj lvmv |knzj wéq ljttvu xwvxvin vr
éjxrq vlqtjrvkv j lsqty wvsvx éjosq·t€} |knzvk uv tv rvuiqtq
évkjz wévqokvstv wvsy·jnu + + + + = xwvxvivk
vréjxrq
i cxsq wvxsnltqu ¹ks¹nzx¹ xqtqp |knz zv xynxzkynz xwv
xvivk vréjxrq
cxsq vréjxrj ojrjt·qkjnzx¹ réjxt€u |knzvk zv vt kxzén·jnzx¹ tj
vlqt éjo ·jn ·nu ins€p q xqtqp Æ ëzvu xsy·jn ·qxsv xwvxvivk
éjktv + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ = Òv·tv zjr n nxsq wvxsnltqp |knz ins€p zv ·qxsv xwvxvivk vr
éjxrq éjktv + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ = Æxnmv qunnu xwvxvivk
k cxsq tq vltj wvsvxj tn unt¡n xu zv ojlj·j xkvlqzx¹ r
wvlx·nzy ·qxsj wénlxzjksntqp k kqln xyuu€ tjzyéjst€} xsjmj
nu€} wéqtqujíq} otj·ntq¹ vz lv Íéq = qunnu vltv wénlxzjksntqn wéq = ² w¹z wénlxzjk
sntqp wéq = ² zéq wénlxzjksntq¹ Ívëzvuy + + = éjoj
vréjxrj ojrjt·qkjnzx¹ xqtqu |knzvu + ⋅ + ⋅ = éjo réjxt€u
|knzvu q ins€u |knzvu + ⋅ + ⋅ = éjo
Ìivotj·qu ·néno rvsq·nxzkv rtqm wnékvmv kzvévmv q
zénznmv kqlj wvsy·ntt€} wnék€u y·jxztqrvu Ív yxsvkqí ojlj·q
qunnu + + = wéq·nu ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ïqxsv
|ns€} én¡ntqp yéjktntq¹ ylvksnzkvé¹íq} ljtt€u tnéjkntxzkju
éjktv rvë{{q|qntzy wéq 0 k éjosv ntqq wévqoknlntq¹
( + 0 + + W)( + 0 + + 0)( + 0 + + 0)
êzv wévqoknlntqn uv tv wnénwqxjz zjr
( − 0)( − W)( − W)
( − 0)
=
= ( − W − 0 − W + 0 +
)( + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + + 0 + )
Ívxsn éjxré€zq¹ xrvivr u€ wvsy·qu wéq 0 rvë{{q|qntz wvëzvuy éjolns uv nz i€z xvkné¡nt xwvxvijuq
ïqxsv xwvxvivk éjosv qz éjosq·t€} wénlunzvk wv ¹qrju éjktv ⋅ ÍNQ êzv ·qxsv éjktv rvë{{q|qntzy wéq Q k éjo
sv ntqq (*[ − )N yutv nttvuy tj Q
Ìzxílj xsnlynz ·zv Q( − ÍQ + ⋅ ÍQ − ⋅ ÍQ + ) ¹ks¹nzx¹ rvë{
{q|qntzvu wéq Q k éjosv ntqq xyuu€ é¹lj
( [
H − ) + (*[ − ) − (*[ − ) + Òjr rjr − + − + = OQ ( + ) zv xyuuj ëzvmv é¹lj
éjktj OQ ( + (*[ − )) = Ívëzvuy wéq > qx}vltvn k€éj ntqn éjktv
tysí
(*[ − ) −
êzv ·qxsv xwvxvivk éjktv rvë{{q|qntzy wéq V k éjosv ntqq
k€éj ntq¹
( +
+ + [S)( + + + T)( + + + U) =
= ( − S+)( − T+)( − U+)( − [)− =
= ( − S+ − T+ − U+ + [T+U+ + )( + + + + &N+[N + )
Òjr rjr <
qunnz kql
+ zv
≤
≤
< ' tv
&V−S+ − V−T+ − &V−U+ =
(' + )(V + ) (' − + )(' −
−
=
V+ −
)
−
(' −
> ' q ëzvz rvë{{q|qntz
+
+ )(' − )
èjxrévnu xrvirq q wéqunu kv ktqujtqn ·zv
wénviéjovkjtqp wvsy·qu ' + ' + −
+ T + −
+
(' −
+ )(' − )
+
= V Ívxsn
+ < zv
≤ < ' tv
≥ ' ojzv uv nz xzjz
cxsq
+ ≤ '
Òjr rjr = + = + = + = + = + + = + + zv x wvuví yrjojtt€} éjotvknxvr uv tv xvxzjkqz
síivp |ns€p knx vz lv um Òv·tv zjr n xvxzjks¹ízx¹ knxj
k€éj jnu€n lnx¹zrjuq xvzt¹uq uqssqméjuuvk q z l
ƀ¹xtqu xtj·jsj rjrvkj tjqivs¡j¹ lsqtj |nwq zjrvp ·zv
wvxsn éjxrvk€kjtq¹ okntnk uv tv wvsy·qz síivp knx vz lv èjxxuvzéqu ls¹ ëzvmv rjrvkv tjqivsnn k€mvltvn éjxwvsv ntqn éjx
rvkjtt€} okntnk Òjr rjr ·qxsv éjxrvkjtt€} okntnk éjktv q ujxxj
rj lvmv okntj m zv x q} wvuví uv tv wvsy·qz síivp knx vz
lv Ëv knx + u€ y n tn xuv nu wvsy·qz nxsq y tjx tn iylnz
nn vltvp ·jxzq qo ·qxsj vxzjk¡q}x¹ ‰xtv ·zv k€mvltnn kxnmv ·zvi€ ëzj ·jxz xvxzv¹sj qo + okn
tnk zvmlj u€ xuv nu wvsy·qz síivp knx vz lv + bjsnn tju
wvtjlvi¹zx¹ ·jxzq knxvu ( + ) ( + ) N( + ) f q} wvuví
uv tv iylnz wvsy·qz síivp knx vz lv
+
= + >( + ) + (N + ) + (N + ) + + N( + )@ =
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tq¹uq tv tnso¹ vivpzqx − éjxrvk€kjtq¹uq Æ ·jxztvxzq wv
xrvsry ⋅ ≤ < ⋅ − zv ls¹ |nwq qo okntnk tjlv éjxrvkjz
okntj wvsy·qk ryxrq m
cxsq uv tv wvsovkjzx¹ lky}·j¡n·t€uq knxjuq zv r éjxrv
kjtt€u oknt¹u tjlv wéqxvnlqtqz ryxvr knxvu + rsjl¹ nmv tj
vlty ·j¡ry knxvk j oknt¹ wv m ² tj léymyí u€ uv nu wvsy·qz
síivp knx vz + lv j rsjl¹ nmv kunxzn x ëzquq oknt¹uq ²
síivp knx vz + lv + fsnlyíqn ryxrq lvs t€ qunz knx
( + ) ( + ) N( + ) f q} wvuví uv tv wvsy·qz sí
ivp knx vz lv
N+( + ) − + >( + ) + ( + ) + ( + ) + + N( + )@ =
Æ ·jxztvxzq ls¹ |nwq k m tjlv éjxrvkjz lkj okntj q wvsy·qz
ryxrq knxvu m
( + )
Ænx rj lvp ry·rq iylnz
wvëzvuy lvs tv i€z
= qsq = − djun·jnu ·zv nxsq uv tv éjosv qz mqé
zv uv tv q + mqéq k ry·rq lvijks¹ízx¹ zjr ( + ) + ( + )
( + ) + ( + ) ( + ) + ( + ) q ·zv wéq = tnso¹ j wéq
= ² uv tv dtj·qz ≥ ΀ qunnu
Q
( − ) Q
∑ (Q − ) = Q ∑
[=
P [=
P−Q =
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P−Q+
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Q
P
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fyuuj xsnkj xkvlqzx¹ r
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n otj·n
tqí éjktj xyuuj xzv¹j¹ xwéjkj
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+
−
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oy¹ zv lnxzkv
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− ( +
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+ )( + )
΀ otjnu ·zv
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+
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Ívlxzjks¹¹ otj·ntq¹
zéniynuyí {véuysy
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Q+T−[+ +
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Q− q wénviéjoy¹ wvsy·jnu
Q+ T
N Òjr rjr
Q
+
Q
&Q + +
Q Q
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zv vzxílj xsnlynz ·zv
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+
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⎛− +
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Q
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π
π
π
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(−)Q
+
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Q
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= ε mln
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kntxzkv bkj léymqn éjkntxzkj wvsy·jízx¹ jtjsvmq·tv wéq éjxxuvzén
tqq xyuu Q + ε( + ε)Q + ε( + ε)Q q Q + ε( + ε)Q + ε( + ε)Q
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éntq¹ k€éj ntq¹ ( + /)Q
΀ qunnu
S S
P
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Ínénutv qu wnék€n lkj éjosv ntq¹ q tjplnu rvë{{q|qntz wéq
V
Q− V
V V
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bvrjo€kjnzx¹ x wvuví qtlyr|qq wv ­sjkj ,;
Ìztv¡ntqn xvxnlxzkj xv}éjt¹nzx¹ wéq |qrsq·nxrq} wnénxzjtvk
rj} q wéq xquunzéq·tvu vzéj ntqq Æ xsy·jn ·nsvknr u€ qunnu
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vinn ·qxsv wnénxzjtvkvr ·nsvknr éjktv = zv qunnu
2 = éjosq·t€} xwvxvij éjxxjlrq
cxsq oj xzvsvu xql¹z ·nsvknr zv qunnu 2 = xwvxvivk
kvvin k xsy·jn ·nsvknr ( − )2 xwvxvivk ïqxsv xwvxvivk wéq
rvzvé€} ljtt€} ·nsvknrj xql¹z é¹lvu klkvn ivs¡n ·qxsj xwvxvivk
wvxjlqz ·nsvknr k xqsy kvouv tvxzq wvunt¹z ëzq} sílnp unxzj
uq dtj·qz vtv éjktv = Òv·tv zjr n ·qxsv xwvxvivk wéq
rvzvé€} ljtt€p ·nsvknr qunnz ljtt€} lky} xvxnlnp éjktv = èjoiqkjnu kxn wnénxzjtvkrq iyrk xsvkj ©ìwqznéª tj rsjxx€
zjr ·zv wnénxzjtvkrq vltvmv q zvmv n rsjxxj vzsq·jízx¹ léym vz
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+ xwvxvivk
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tj viéjzt€p zv uv tv xvxzjkqz 2 = kqlvk v nénsqp
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qunnu zéq kqlj v nénsqp
èjovinu wvménuy¡rq tj rsjxx€ vztnx¹ r uy rsjxxy wvmén
uy¡rq ls¹ rvzvé€} tjqunt¡nn ·qxsv xqtq} ¡jéqrvk un ly lkyu¹
réjxt€uq éjktv Íéq = qunnu kqlj wvménuy¡nr zénzqp réjx
t€p ¡jéqr wéqu€rjnz r lkyu léymqu qsq vzlnsnt vz tq} vltqu
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x¹ vz isq jp¡nmv réjxtvmv vltqu lkyu¹ qsq zénu¹ xqtquq ¡jéqrj
uq Ívëzvuy wéq = nxz kqlj wvménuy¡nr Íéq = qunnu
zvsrv vlqt kql wvménuy¡nr Æxnmv ² kqlvk
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snz wéq wvkvévzj} rj l€p éjo ljnz tvkyí wnénxzjtvkry xjw{qé
wnénno jnz tj tvkvn unxzv Íéq xquunzéqq tnxquunzéq·t€n iéjxsnz€
zv n iylyz ljkjz tvkyí wnénxzjtvkry ² qzvmv wnénxzjtvkvr xk¹
ojtt€} x tnxquunzéq·t€u iéjxsnzvu Çj l€p xquunzéq·t€p iéjxsnz
q} zvsrv lkj qqqéxé q qéqxqé xk¹ojt x wnénxzjtvkrjuq
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Ëj rvs|n rjutq éjxwvsv nt€ é¹lvu rvs|v uv tv wnénknétyz
tv tn kéjjz cxsq k€iéjt€ rjutq vltvmv kqlj xwvxvijuq zv
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k€ivé |ntzéjstvmv rjut¹ Æxnmv xwvxvivk
bs¹ iév¡rq = xwvxvivk tj rj lvn unxzv vlqt qo zqwvk
rjutnp j ïqxsv xwvxvivk éjxréjxrq éjktv i Êunnu xwvxvivk éjxréjxrq
k bs¹ lvlnrjëléj j ls¹ qrvxjëléj xwvxvivk éjx
réjxrq
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fynxzkynz nlqtxzkntt€p xwvxvi éjxréjxrq tn xvlné jqp tq vltvp
insvp méjtq q vlqt xwvxvi xvlné jqp vlty insyí méjt Æ xsy·jn
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sqiv kxn ins€n méjtq wéqu€rjíz r vltvuy q zvuy n ymsy fsy·jq
q ins€} méjtnp xkvl¹zx¹ r éjxxuvzéntt€u k€¡n wyznu ojunt€
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insvp kné¡qtvp ² x lkyu¹ ins€uq kné¡qtjuq ins€n kné¡qt€
sn jz tj vltvu énién tj vltvp lqjmvtjsq méjtq qsq tj vltvp
lqjmvtjsq ryij xwvxvij x zénu¹ ins€uq kné¡qtjuq zéq kné¡qt€
sn jz tj vltvp méjtq lkn sn jz tj vltvu énién j zénz¹ ² tj vltvp
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wjétv sn jz tj vltvp lqjmvtjsq méjtq xu éqx f ·nz€éu¹ in
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ojuntvp |knzvk tj wévzqkvwvsv t€n
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zn éjoknézrq k rvzvé€} ·nz€én méjtq ryij éjxwvsv nt€ k vltvp
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nxz zéq méjtq k vltvp wvsvxn tv tnz ·nz€én} méjtnp Ê tjrvtn| k
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ëzvmv yzkné lntq¹ uv tv tjpzq k rtqmn ­ ‘znptmjyoj ©fzv ojlj·ª
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éjktv S − éjxwjljízx¹ tj rsjxx€ wv éjxréjxvr k rj lvu rsjxxn
wéq·nu éjxréjxrq vltvmv rsjxxj wnén}vl¹z léym k léymj wéq kéjntqq
vréy tvxzq Ívëzvuy vtq ljíz
S −
S − xwvxvivk éjxréjxrq Æxnmv qun
+ xwvxvivk Ív }vly én¡ntq¹ ojlj·q u€ lvrjojsq zjr
nu
tjo€kjnuyí 34 563 76 nxsq ² wévxzvn ·qxsv zv ls¹
síivmv |nsvmv ·qxsv S − lnsqzx¹ tj j Ìi}vl wv ·nét€u wvs¹u }vlvu sjlq ojljnz tj lvxrn |qrs€
qo tnrvzvévmv ·qxsj wjé tvunévk knézqrjsmvéqovtzjs gqrsvk
uv nz i€z tnxrvsrv rj l€p tn untnn ·nu qo lky} wjé dtj·qz
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sn qz tj lky} wé¹u€} tv tqrjrqn zéq tn sn jz tj vltvp wé¹uvp
zv tj rj lvp wé¹uvp sn jz évktv lkn zv·rq qo k€iéjttvp méyww€
fvnlqtqu ëzq zv·rq vzénorvu Çj lj¹ zv·rj qo k€iéjttvp méyww€
sn qz tj lky} wé¹u€} wvëzvuy vtj iylnz xvnlqtntj x lkyu¹ éjot€uq
zv·rjuq wvsy·qzx¹ tnxrvsrv utvmvymvstqrvk y rj lvmv tn untnn
kné¡qt djtyunéynu ljtt€n wé¹u€n q znu xju€u vzénorq Çj lvuy utvmvymvstqry xvvzknzxzkynz |qrs vi}vl nmv xzvévt k síivu
qo tjwéjksntqp xyuuj lsqt kxn} |qrsvk éjktj bs¹ = ( − ) |qrs zvsrv vlqt ·qxsv méyww Q =
ls¹ = |qrs vlqt qsq
lkj ( = + ) q z l
èjxxzjkzn |q{é€ k ·qxsn wv kvoéjxzjtqí wvsy·qzx¹ ojlj·j
v wvrywrn wqév t€} xvézvk
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­sjkj ;
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xzv¹z k ymsy wéq·nu wéq ≥ é¹lvu x tqu k vltvp knézqrjsq qsq
mvéqovtzjsq lvs tv xzv¹z Òvmlj ·qxsj wvwjlyz k vlty
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x tqu lvs tv xzv¹z − j ljsnn wvplyz − − + Ònu
xju€u yms€ kxn ojt¹z€ Ëjqunt¡qu qo vxzjk¡q}x¹ ·qxns ¹ks¹nzx¹
+ Ìtv lvs tv ojt¹z unxzv é¹lvu x Íévlvs j¹ ëzv éjxxy ln
tqn yin ljnux¹ ·zv ·qxsj éjxwvsjmjízx¹ vltvotj·tv vwénlnsntt€u
viéjovu Ëv u€ uv nu wvxzjkqz ktj·jsn k síivp qo ymsvk lvxrq
q k€iéjz sqiv knézqrjstvn sqiv mvéqovtzjstvn tjwéjksntqn ls¹
wvxsnlvkjznstvxzq Ívëzvuy qunnu éjxwvsv ntqp
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rvk€} éjktv ins€} ·nét€} nsz€} q wv réjxt€}
onsnt€} q xqtq} Ëjlv iéjz ¡jéqrvk
Æ wévzqktvu xsy·jn tjxnsntqn Îvxrk€ tn wénkvx}vlqsv i€
·qxsv ⋅ = > = bs¹ wévknévr uv tv wvxzévqz jsmvéqzu
> Èylnu vivotj·jz otjrvuxzkv ·nézv·rvp $²% Íyxz > Ëjplnzx¹ $²%²& cxsq $ q & tn otjrvu€ zv xénlq vxzjst€}
− ·nsvknr wv − otjrvu€} $ q & otj·qz }vz vlqt viqp
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% q & otj·qz }vz vlqt viqp rjrq}zv lkvq} fsy·jq = q
= éjoiqéjízx¹ vzlnstv
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!P léym x léymvu tn otjrvu€ wvxrvsry vtq otjrvu€ x 8 Ívë
zvuy ls¹ síi€} lky} ·nsvknr !L !M lvs nt tjpzqx nn vlqt viqp
otjrvu€p révun 8 êzvz ·nsvknr tn uv nz i€z otjrvu x 8 j éjot€u
wjéju xvvzknzxzkyíz éjot€n sílq nxsq i€ rzvtqiyl i€s viqu
otjrvu€u ls¹ lky} éjosq·t€} wjé (!L !M) q (!N !O) zv vt quns i€ x
8 wv réjptnp unén zén} viq} otjrvu€} Òjrqu viéjovu ·qxsv kxn}
sílnp tn otjrvu€} x 8 tn unt¡n ·nu ·qxsv kxn} wjé sílnp qo
·qxsj ! !P z n tn unt¡n ·nu P
f léymvp xzvévt€ rj l€p ·nsvknr tn otjrvu€p x 8 qunnz x
tqu évktv lky} viq} otjrvu€} éjoyunnzx¹ qo ·qxsj ! !P
Íéq ëzvu éjot€u síl¹u xvvzknzxzkyíz éjot€n wjé€ nxsq i€ vltj
wjéj (!L !M) xvvzknzxzkvkjsj lkyu éjot€u síl¹u zv !L q !M qunsq i€
ivs¡n lky} viq} otjrvu€} wvxrvsry vtq otjrvu€ q x 8 Ìzxílj
k€znrjnz ·zv ·qxsv sílnp tn otjrvu€} x 8 tn ivs¡n ·nu P j
wvzvuy éjktv P Ëv zvmlj vinn ·qxsv wéqxyzxzkyíq} éjktv
( − )
+ + P èjxxujzéqkj¹ éjkntxzkv = + +
rjr rkjléjz
tvn yéjktntqn vztvxqznstv u€ kqlqu ·zv vtv qunnz zvsrv vlqt
wvsv qznst€p rvént j ëzv q votj·jnz ·zv ls¹ kxn} sílnp ·qxsv
q} otjrvu€} vltv q zv n
bs¹ = $²% Ínén}vl vz r + cxsq k rvuwjtqq qo
·nsvknr tnz tq x rnu tn otjrvuvmv ² lvijks¹nu tq x rnu tn
otjrvuvmv cxsq nxz ² lvijks¹nu vltvmv otjrvu¹ nmv xv kxnuq
Ï wén tq} ·nsvknr lvijkqzx¹ wv tvkvuy otjrvuvuy tv iylnz
xjuvn ivs¡nn − otjrvu€} vtq tn i€sq otjrvu€ x tq x rnu tn
otjrvu€u y tvkvmv iylnz otjrvu€} Èvs¡nmv tn wvokvs¹nz lv
iqzx¹ wéqt|qw bqéq}sn
cxsq $²% q $²& zv %²& cxsq $²% tv $ & zv % & cxsq $ % q $ & zv %²& Ívëzvuy mvév jtn éjolnsnt€ tj lkn
kéj lyíqn méyww€ ktyzéq rvzvé€} kxn léy jz sqiv méywwj zvsrv
vltj Êxrvu€p mvév jtqt ² síivp qo unt¡np méyww€
fqzyj|q¹ jtjsvmq·tj wénl€lynp ojlj·n q vltvp méywwn |n
sqrvu tjlv qountqz vztv¡ntqn r vréy jíqu
Æ wévzqktvu xsy·jn ·qxsv xvnlqtntqp éjkt¹svx i€ lévitvuy
⋅
·qxsy
Çj l€p viunt éyrvwv jzq¹uq lvijks¹nz y·jxztqrju rvtménx
xj lkj éyrvwv jzq¹
Ï rj lvmv éniéj rvt|j rj l€p rvtn| k kné¡qtn k rj lvp qo kné¡qt ryij x}vl¹zx¹ rvt|juq éniéj tv ylkvnttj¹ xyuuj
·qxns vz lv tj tn lnsqzx¹
Íyxz ·qxsj ! q " viéjoyíz k ljttvp wnénxzjtvkrn qtknéxqí
cxsq q} wvunt¹z unxzjuq zv wvsy·qzx¹ tvkj¹ wnénxzjtvkrj k rvzv
évp vtq y n tn viéjoyíz qtknéxqq ΀ qunnu wnénxzjtvkvr k
xwvxvijuq k€iéjz ·qxsj ! q " Æ
rj lvp qo rvzvé€} uv tv
Q
wvsvkqtn xsy·jnk ëzq ·qxsj viéjoyíz qtknéxqí dtj·qz ·qxsv qtkné
xqp éjktv
Q
Èylnz xlnsjtv ·nztvn ·qxsv wnénunntqp ¡j¡nr j zéniynzx¹
tn·nztvn
cxsq ©wsíxª ² ëzv j ©uqtyxª ² ëzv zv tj lvxrn
tjwqxjtv wévqoknlntqn kxn} ·qxns
Ívsy·qz nlqtq| uv tv qo qsq Ëv
wnék€p tjivé tq·nmv tn unt¹nz j kzvévp tnkvouv nt q lvs t€
i€sq ·nénlvkjzx¹ tv q} éjotvn ·qxsv cxsq wjéy é¹lvu xzv¹q} ©wsíxvkª qsq wjéy é¹lvu xzv¹q}
©uqtyxvkª ojuntqz tj vlqt otjr zv tj yunt¡qzx¹ q 0 qsq q cxsq 0 = = zv = ïqxsv vltv·sntvk LM éjkt€} q éjkt€} vlqtjrvkv
ïqxsv vltv·sntvk éjkt€} ·nztv wvzvuy ·zv votj·jnz wnénunty
otjrj N tv wvl rvtn| tjlv knétyzx¹ r otjry Ëjwéquné cxsq xvnlqtqz xrj nu xqtquq vzénorjuq
réy rq tn xvnlqtntt€n ·nét€uq vzénorjuq zv wvsy·qzx¹ ojlj·j v
wvqxrn mjuqszvtvkj wyzq zvsrv tnojurtyzvmv lvs tv i€z ·nzt€u wvxrvsry 2 ² ·qxsv kxn} vzéno
rvk q ≤ Q − èjxwvsv qu kxn zv·nr k kné¡qtj} wéjkqstvmv
ymvstqrj Íéq ·nztvu xvnlqt¹nu rj lyí zv·ry x 2 isq jp
¡quq k vin xzvévt€ wéq tn·nztvu = + ( + ) ojtyunéynu kxn
zv·rq vz lv q xvnlqt¹nu rj lyí zv·ry x xsnlyíquq q wénl€lyquq q nn x wévzqkvwvsv tvp zv·rvp
Ëjlv wvxzévqz méj{ qo qo kné¡qt q éniné utvmvméjttqrj q
qxxsnlvkjz nmv wvlvitv vxzévkju q uvxzju Ívlévitvn én¡ntqn uv tv
tjpzq k ywvu¹tyzvp rtqmn ­ ‘znptmjyoj ©fzv ojlj·ª Ðqoujzsqz
ojlj·j ð j
èjxxzjkqu k kné¡qtj} ymvstqrj wvlé¹l ·qxsj fyuuj kxn} ·qxns wéq éjoén¡ntt€} wnén
untj} otjrvk vxzjnzx¹ éjktvp tysí wvëzvuy wvunt¹z otjrq sq¡ y
wnék€} lky} ·qxns tn yljxzx¹
Íévknérj wvrjo€kjnz ·zv wnénxzjtvkrj lky} é¹lvu xzv¹q}
iyrk ¬ q È tn qount¹nz wévqoknlntq¹ lvxzjzv·tv éjxxuvzénz rvu
iqtj|qq ¬¬È¬ ȬÈÈ q ¬¬ÈÈ Ívëzvuy uv tv x·qzjz ·zv xtj·jsj
qlyz kxn iyrk€ ¬ j wvzvu ² kxn iyrk€ È Ëv zvmlj yzkné lntqn
xzjtvkqzx¹ v·nkqlt€u
Êtj·n uv tv iylnz réyzqzx¹ wv vréy tvxzq q tjiqéjz vz
éq|jznstyí xyuuy Ívxsn tn ivsnn ·nu + vivévzvk u€ wéqlnu k
zv·ry k rvzvévp y n i€sq xvkné¡qk vz tnn |nsvn ·qxsv wvst€}
vivévzvk
cxsq ko¹z zévprq xvlné jqn vlqt q zvz n ësnuntz xrj
nu ! zv vtq ylvksnzkvé¹íz wvxzjksnttvuy yxsvkqí wéq·nu q} ·q
xsv éjktv = Ívrj nu ·zv tnso¹ k€iéjz ivs¡nmv
·qxsj zévnr wvwjétv quníq} viqp ësnuntz Íénlwvsv qu ·zv u€
k€iéjsq > zjrq} zévnr q (! " F) ² vltj qo tq} Òjr rjr
síij¹ qo − vxzjk¡q}x¹ zévnr qunnz }vz¹ i€ vlqt viqp ësnuntz
x k€iéjttvp zv wv réjptnp unén ls¹ vltvmv qo ësnuntzvk ! " #
−
xrj nu ! tjplnzx¹
xvlné jq} nmv zévnr wéq·nu
−
≥ Òévnr kqlj (! " [) qsq (! # [) kunxzn tn ivsnn ·nu wvëzvuy
tjplnzx¹ zévprj kqlj (! ) H) mln ) q * vzsq·t€ vz " q # Òv·tv zjr
n tjplyzx¹ zévprq kqlj (! $ J) q (! 9 M) wéq·nu $ q - vzsq·t€
vz " # ) * D 9 ² vz " # ) * $ -
Éíij¹ qo ojljtt€} zévnr qunnz }vz¹ i€ vlqt viqp ësnuntz
x rj lvp qo ·nz€én} zévnr (! " F) (! ) H) (! $ J) (! 9 M) ‰xtv
·zv vltqu qo ëzq} viq} ësnuntzvk lvs nt i€z ësnuntz ! zjr rjr
qtj·n zévprj xvlné jsj i€ ·nz€én éjosq·t€} ësnuntzj ·zv tnkvo
uv tv Êzjr kxn zévprq xvlné jz ësnuntz ! j wvzvuy q} ·qxsv tn
wénk€¡jnz kvwénrq wénlwvsv ntqí
bs¹ = − vltv én¡ntqn = ls¹ = − zéq én¡ntq¹
= ± ljsnn én¡ntqp q zjr ljsnn lv én¡ntq¹ wéq = wvxsn ëzvmv viéjztv lv vltvmv én¡ntq¹ wéq = ƀ·qxs¹¹ xyuuy
+ + + + + + + + + wvsy·jnu
vzknz
dj ·nztvn ·qxsv }vlvk rvt uv nz wvwjxz tj rsnzrq zvmv n
|knzj ·zv q zj mln vt xzvqz ktj·jsn Ëju iylnz ylvitnn wvknétyz
lvxry tj ° q qoviéj jz sq¡ rsnzrq ëzvmv |knzj ojwqx€kj¹ k
rj lyí rsnzry ·qxsv }vlvk oj rvzvé€n rvt uv nz k tnn wvwjxz
Òvmlj rsnzrq tj rvzvé€n rvt Ç uv nz wvwjxz oj }vlj qoviéj
o¹zx¹ x}nuvp tj éqx ïqxsv ëzq} rsnzvr éjktv Çj lj¹ qo
ëzq} rsnzvr ¹ks¹nzx¹ |ntzéjstvp zv·rvp Ç zjrvp n {qmyé€ wvrj
o€kjínp rylj uv nz wvwjxz rvt nn oj lkj }vlj j kxnmv oj Ìi~nlqt¹¹ ëzq {qmyé€ wvsy·qu {qmyéy qoviéj nttyí tj éqx Ìtj ¹ks¹nzx¹ kvxuqymvstqrvu xv xzvévtvp ksv ntt€u k rkjléjz
xv xzvévtvp wéq·nu wv ymsju vxzjízx¹ tnojwvstntt€uq zénmvs
⋅
= wvsnp
tqrq xv xzvévtvp Æxnmv wvsy·jnu − ⋅
Ívxsn }vlvk > wvsy·jnzx¹ kvxuqymvstqr xv xzvévtvp
+ ksv ntt€p k rkjléjz xv xzvévtvp + wéq·nu wv ymsju
vxzjízx¹ tnojwvstntt€uq zénymvstqrq xv xzvévtvp Æxnmv wvsy
·jnzx¹ ( + ) − ( + ) = + + wvsnp
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