See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295574832 The ventilation challenge Article · May 2004 CITATIONS READS 6 1,412 2 authors: Stephen G Hardcastle Charles Kocsis BBE Consulting Canada University of Nevada, Reno 68 PUBLICATIONS 829 CITATIONS 32 PUBLICATIONS 222 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Benefit of using mine process simulators to design a "life-cycle" mine ventilation system View project Fuel cell versus diesel loader operation: Cost-benefit analysis study View project All content following this page was uploaded by Charles Kocsis on 08 September 2017. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. TECHNICAL PAPER Mining at Depth CIM Bulletin May 2004 ▲ The ventilation challenge S.G. Hardcastle and C.K. Kocsis, Natural Resources Canada, CANMET—MMSL, Sudbury, Ontario KEYWORDS: Deep mining, Ventilation, Mechanization, Health, Environment. Paper reviewed and approved for publication by the Metal Mining Division of CIM. ABSTRACT Worldwide, metal mines are going deeper. For example, in Canada there are six such mechanized mines planning production at 3000 m (10 000 ft). Working at such depths challenges all aspects of mining including the provision of ventilation to supply an equitable working climate for personnel and machinery. This paper explores the overall challenges of supplying ventilation in Canada’s deepest mines and how the volumes required could be minimized. This is essential because it must be remembered that ventilation and refrigeration are not only costly items to supply, but the magnitude of their cost is also very sensitive to the volume supplied. For the primary ventilation system this is obvious because of the cubic relationship between volume and cost. In deep mines, the main function of ventilation is the removal of heat transferred from the strata and generated by the mining machinery, and the air volumes supplied are designed accordingly. The second consideration is the removal of other pollutants that could be harmful to humans such as diesel and explosive fumes. However, the need for ventilation at its present design levels could be reduced. This paper discusses the implications of such technologies as: tele-remote mining and alternatives to diesel equipment on the magnitude of the volume supplied; ventilationon-demand which recognizes ventilation as a costly and limited resource; plus other aspects, such as the benefits of controlled recirculation, local cooling, and possibly heat rejection back to the strata to gain further advantage from new developments. Furthermore, this paper advances the need to be able to design ventilation systems more cost effectively and how such new advances as process simulators can be used in conjunction with ventilation simulators to explore the diverse options that could affect the air volumes required and provide more realistic economic data upon which to base design decisions. Introduction Canada has six metal mines or projects that are planning production 3000 m below surface. Some of these are extensions of current mining operations and others are new mines. Consequently, as with the worldwide industry, the ability to mine at depth is becoming an increasing concern to maintain the viability of the Canadian industry. At depth, the provision of ventilation due to its associated capital and operating costs is always a concern and one of the potential limiting factors. Hence the considerable time and effort put into the design and commissioning is evident for the documented upgrades of both Inco’s Creighton mine (O’Connor et al., 2002) and Falconbridge’s Kidd Creek mine (Hortin and Sedlacek, 2002; Howes and Sedlacek, 2001). This paper, by way of discussion, will show how the impact of depth could be mitigated by means of technological change and by questioning current ventilation practices. Looking at the underground metal mining industry, three trends can be observed: mines are getting deeper; production is becoming increasingly mechanized and/or automated; and health standards for the miners plus environmental concerns are becoming more stringent. To varying degrees, these trends challenge the provision of ventilation in a mine, and to ensure the feasibility of the industry, it is essential to understand why ventilation is required. In metal mines, ventilation serves three primary functions: it is needed to supply oxygen for humans, and for the combustion process in diesel engine-powered vehicles; it is required to remove and/or dilute pollutants generated from the strata or the mining process; and lastly, it must supply a suitable thermal environment for man and machinery. Now let us look at the three industry trends and how they relate to the primary functions of ventilation. The Depth Challenge Depth can affect the economics of ventilation in three ways. Firstly, as the distance that ventilation must be supplied lengthens the associated cost can increase linearly. This can be demonstrated through a basic airflow relationship: Pressure Loss = Airway Resistance x Air Quantity2, or simply P = RQ2 Stephen Hardcastle joined CANMET, Mining and Mineral Science Laboratories (MMSL) in 1983, and has progressively been promoted to his current senior research scientist/mine ventilation specialist status. In 1983, he started working at the Elliot Lake Laboratory primarily focussing on dust/particulate research. In the late 1980s and continuing through to today, his research interests and engineering support to the mining industry have been orientated toward mine ventilation. In 1993, he was transferred to MMSL’s Sudbury Laboratory. Within mine ventilation, his primary emphasis is in optimization and facilitating this through improved surveys, modelling, design and controls, and then introducing demandbased systems through automation. Dr. Hardcastle holds a Bachelor’s degree in mining engineering, and a Doctor of Philosophy degree in mine environmental engineering; both were obtained from the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom. May 2004 Charles Kocsis joined CANMET, Mining and Mineral Sciences Laboratories (MMSL) in 1999 where he is now a senior research engineer involved in both engineering and research projects dealing with ventilation modelling, the design and optimization of underground ventilation systems and in mine ventilation automation. Prior to that, in Canada, he was with Golder Associates Inc. and H.A. Simons Ltd. providing engineering services in production planning, mine design, underground and surface blasting, and mine ventilation. Mr. Kocsis is a licensed Professional Engineer in the province of Ontario and has a mining engineering degree from the University of Petrosani, Romania and a Masters degree in mineral resources engineering from Laurentian University. He is currently a Doctor of Philosophy candidate, researching new ventilation design methods with the University of British Columbia. In this equation the pressure loss through the ventilation system is what the fans must overcome to generate the desired airflow. And generally, all other things being equal, it is the length of the system that will dictate the pressure loss because resistance is defined by: Friction Factor (k) x Circumference (C) x Length (L) Resistance = –––––––––––––––––––––––––– , Area (A)3 kCl or R = ––––––– A3 51 S.G. HARDCASTLE and C.K. KOCSIS CIM Bulletin Furthermore, the power required by the fans, which is generally proportional to the operating cost, is defined as: Air Power (AP) = Pressure Loss (P) x Air Quantity (Q), or AP = PQ Upon substitution this becomes: AP (which approximates to operating cost) = RQ3 So this equation not only shows cost is linearly proportional to resistance and hence distance, or depth for a vertical mine, but more importantly cost is a function of the cubic of the quantity. The importance of this cost/quantity cubic relationship cannot be overstated. Secondly, depth can affect the ventilation economics because it can result in increased leakage within the system, however this would also be the case for lateral deposits with distance from surface connections. In a large ventilation system, if a mine has to supply 10% additional airflow to combat leakage as compared to a smaller mine, the resultant power/cost will be 33% greater. This starts to show the need to optimize the amount of air sent underground. Thirdly, and most importantly for deep mines, is that with increasing depth air temperatures in a mine would tend to increase. This would be the result of, firstly, autocompression of the air, whereby the air becomes more dense, and secondly, due to the additional heat transfer from the strata as it gets closer to the earth’s molten core. This is unavoidable unless ameliorative measures are taken. To combat this heat gain, plus provide the same capacity for the removal of machine heat, the airflow in deep mines has to increase with depth. For example, in a Canadian mine already operating at over 2000 m below surface, an additional 300 m depth increases the air volume required by 20% and according to the cubic relationship, these deeper areas would be 73% more costly to ventilate. How much will it increase for the next 300 m, another 20% to 30%? So it can be easily seen that when heat management starts to become a concern, the ventilation costs start to increase dramatically. The Impact of Mechanization Mining like any other industry has gone from primarily hand-tool mining through the introduction of manned electrical- and dieselpowered equipment, namely mechanization, and is now heading toward remote-controlled and semi-autonomous machines, which is automation. This change has also challenged ventilation. When diesel equipment started to 52 May 2004 be introduced into mines in the 1960s, the equipment was comparatively small with engines of less than 75 kW (<150 hp) and their number few. Since that time, the number and/or total installed power of such units has dramatically increased. Initially it was in the primary production fleet such as LHDs (or Scooptrams), drills and trucks, but a more recent trend in Canada is that for mobility, the majority of underground personnel now have access to a vehicle. Within the production fleet, the size of vehicles and their diesel engines have increased. In Canada there are now 9.2 m3 (12 cu. yd) bucket capacity LHDs with 260 kW (350 hp) engines being used at depth. However, these are not the largest vehicles underground; one metal mine employs at depth a 490 kW (650 hp) diesel haulage truck, and in shallow non-metal mines, even larger equipment of >550 kW (735 hp) is not uncommon. However, there has been a trend in bulk mining, whereby the actual numbers of production vehicles decreases with increased capacity. For personnel carrier and service vehicles, in Canada, the situation is very different. There has not only been an increase in numbers to the extent that such vehicles can now represent 50% of a mine’s vehicle population, but also the size of the vehicles’ engines have dramatically increased. Initially small engine vehicles were the norm such as 55 kW (73 hp) Toyota Landcruisers; however mines have been gradually replacing them with larger units and today a 100 kW (134 hp) Landcruiser is more typical. Some mines have also started to use commercial highway vehicles; this has led to 160 kW (215 hp) personnel carriers and utility vehicles. In ventilation design, the air volume supplied in mechanized mines is often based upon the need to dilute diesel exhaust contaminants and such criteria as 0.063 m3/s air /kW diesel (100 cfm/bhp) is routinely employed (Gangal and Grenier, 2002). So, similar to greater depths, it can be seen that increased mechanization and workforce mobility has required mines to supply more and more air underground. Again, this increased air volume dramatically increases the required power and resultant cost due to the cubic relationship. Health and Environmental Considerations Ventilation is required for the dilution and removal of contaminants, which provides a safe atmosphere for personnel to breathe. The most common contaminants are: • strata gases — these include methane, which is flammable, and radioactive radon and thoron; • process gases — these routinely include the by-products of combustion from diesel engines and fumes from explosives; • mineral dust — created from blasting and attrition of the rock, liberated during the blast and throughout the mineral handling chain; and • non-mineral dusts such as soot — another by-product of combustion from diesel engines. For the majority of Canadian mines, flammable and radioactive gases are not a significant issue, and dust, for the most part, can be controlled at source through wetting practices or mechanical removal. The bulk of the blast fumes are generated when the mine, or area therein, is not occupied, and should have been easily flushed from the workplace by the ventilation system prior to re-entry. Consequently, blast fumes are not a major concern. So, the primary concern for Canadian metal mines is the control of by-products of diesel combustion, and due to the volumes of air currently supplied to dilute these by-products, for the most part, all other contaminants are also controlled. What are these ventilation requirements in dieselized mines? Firstly, there is a dilution requirement of the raw exhaust, and secondly, the regulations pertaining to personnel exposure stating threshold limit values (or TLVs). In Canada, the dilution requirements vary widely according to the provincial jurisdiction (Gangal and Grenier, 2002). Where specifically stated, at the least, it could be 0.045 m3/s/kW (71 cfm/bhp) where multiple diesel vehicles are in use, and then it ranges through various values to a maximum of 0.092 m3/s/kW (145 cfm/bhp) for vehicles with non-certified engines. In addition, the regulations could be either a common fixed value for all vehicles regardless of engine type and fuel used (e.g. 0.063 m3/s/kW,100 cfm/bhp), or a specific volume for a particular engine with a certain quality fuel (sulphur content) as a result of engine certification according to CAN/CSA (1990) or MSHA (1996) criteria. Where certain Canadian provinces have adopted the certified engine approach to determine ventilation rates, this has allowed mines to take advantage of clean engine technology, such as electronically controlled engines and low-sulphur fuels to alleviate the air volumes required underground. For such engines and fuels, CAN/CSA flow requirements of 0.032 to 0.044 m3/s/kW (50-70 cfm/bhp) are not uncommon (Natural Resources Canada, 2002). At Barrick Gold’s Bousquet II mine, this change meant that it would not have to increase its ventilation as it went deeper to combat increasing leakage and resistance, and hence reduced airflows. Similarly, the mine no longer CIM Bulletin ■ Vol. 97, N° 1080 May 2004 needed to proceed with ventilation automation and directing flow only to those areas requiring it, despite it offering attractive cost savings (Hardcastle et al., 1999) Therefore, with mechanization and increasing equipment size, the regulations dictating diesel exhaust dilution requirements can play a significant role in the economics of ventilation and mine viability. With respect to personnel exposure limits, some of these are met through the dilution requirements of such encompassing relationships as the EQI/AQI that is used in the CAN/CSA standard (CAN/CSA, 1990). However, over the last 10 to 15 years, the solid fraction of the exhaust, diesel particulate matter, due to the suspected carcinogenic nature of some of its components has become a concern. The Canadian ad hoc Diesel Committee suggested a DPM limit of 1.5 mg/m3 in 1990 that was subsequently adopted by several provincial jurisdictions. This was the first diesel soot regulation in North America. However, of possibly more concern is the pending legislation in the United States that is currently under review (MSHA, 2001), that other countries could follow. MSHA originally proposed an interim 0.40 mg/m3 limit for total carbon (TC), which constitutes about 80% of DPM, to be followed by a final limit of 0.16 mg/m3 TC. Although this could mean that a much cleaner environment has to be supplied, it cannot be addressed by ventilation alone and other control measures at source will be required. The next area of concern is the global environment. Here, like all industries, mining is responsible either directly or indirectly for the production of greenhouse gases (GHGs). In mines, direct sources include diesel engines, explosives, air heating fuels and strata gas; indirect sources are through the use of electricity that has been generated from carbon-based fuels. According to “Canada’s Energy Outlook 1996-2020” (Natural Resources Canada, 1998), the mining industry’s energy requirements have increased since 1996 and will continue to increase through to 2020 at a greater rate than the rest of the industrial sector. As an increasing energy user, the mining industry will also be an increasing producer of GHGs. In 1997, the Canadian government’s position at the Third Conference of Parties on Climate Change, Kyoto, Japan, was to reduce GHG emission to 3% below 1990 levels by 2010 and then by a further 5% by 2015. The Canadian government’s current position on GHGs is to reduce emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2010, consequently, energy usage and alternate energy forms will have to be addressed industry wide. With respect to energy usage within a mine, in Canada, ventilation accounts for approximately 40% primarily through the use May 2004 CIM Bulletin of electricity for fans and through fossil fuels for heating. Within fans, auxiliary ventilation systems can account for up to 50% of the electricity consumption. The other main electricity user is compressed air systems that typically account for another 40%. The proportion of energy usage would increase further where mines also had to refrigerate their air. Therefore, if mines cannot eliminate the use of compressed air, energy reductions would have to be achieved in their ventilation systems. So, summarizing the drivers of ventilation, increased need to remove heat, larger diesel equipment and more stringent exposure regulations, historically have meant more air and increased power, cost, and GHG emissions. In opposition to this, remaining cost effective and reducing GHG emissions through less power usage would tend to indicate less air should be supplied. The only way both these goals can be achieved is through innovation and better management and or utilization of the air sent underground. Ventilation Design—Current Practice In order to find potential savings in ventilation, one must look at how ventilation systems are designed and operated, and how they have developed through a mine’s life. Historically, mine ventilation systems are designed upon peak demand based upon diesel or heat criteria, and are operated at this maximum level regardless of the true demand. A common scenario is to continuously ventilate every potential working level/area with air from surface and distributed through auxiliary systems. For example, when Barrick Gold’s Bousquet II mine was considering increasing its ventilation (Hardcastle et al., 1999), it initially supplied air to 12 potential working levels despite only having the equipment to operate at 10 locations. Upon expansion and increasing the size of the engines of its LHDs, the potential number of working levels could increase to 18 and the volume required at each location increased by 30%. In combination, these changes would dictate a 58% increase in the total flow entering the mine if all the potential locations were ventilated according to the diesel requirements. Without new surface connections (ventilation raises), the higher ventilation demand combined with increased depth and leakage would result in a 375% increase in power and hence cost. This was unacceptable and the mine started to pursue ventilation automation whereby air would only be supplied to the active levels and the mine could operate with the same volume of air entering the mine. Despite the benefits of ventilation automation, changes in diesel regulations rec- S.G. HARDCASTLE and C.K. KOCSIS ognizing clean engine technology and production demands resulted in automation being uneconomical considering the remaining life of the mine. At another mine (Hardcastle et al., 1998), one crew was responsible for drilling, blasting, and mucking at each production location. Consequently, they only required the high volumes prescribed for LHD diesel activities for half of their eight-hour shift, twice a day, and ten times a week. For the rest of the shift they would be operating electric-hydraulic drills. Therefore, it could be shown that a ventilation system working constantly at peak demand would be overventilating the mine 77% of the time. Furthermore, on defining the flow needed for the drilling period of the production shift, plus the requirements of the maintenance night shift and the flow for weekends and holidays, it could be shown that the power required for a ventilation system modulated to meet demand would only be 8% of a fixed flow system. In addition, the average flow through the mine would also be reduced by 38%, which would be directly reflected in reduced heating demands. Even in mines that operate 24/7, there can still be times when less air is required and locations that do not need air that would otherwise be ventilated with a fixed flow peak demand system. Another trend is that as mines have gone beyond their original design, they have kept the same ventilation practice without checking its applicability under the new conditions. This was the case at Falconbridge’s Kidd Creek mine (Hortin and Sedlacek, 2002). Initially, it was designed as a shallow 850 m mine with a simple push-pull ventilation system. This mine is now mining down to 2100 m and planning to go to 3100 m. As the mine deepened, the same push-pull method of ventilation was maintained to the point that it had 200 “main” fans that were consuming 12 000 kW despite models showing it only needed 7000 kW. Further modelling showed that for the planned deepening, the operating cost of this inefficient primary ventilation system would increase from CDN$4.32 M per year to CDN$11.4 M per year. Consequently, the mine re-evaluated its ventilation design and decided to switch to an exhaust system with 70% reduction in annual operating costs, which more than justified the CDN$11.9 M conversion cost. When one really starts to look at where and when ventilation savings can be achieved, one must ask the following questions: • Do all areas need to be ventilated, i.e., are they truly active? • Do these areas require a constant volume; does drilling require the same volume as mucking? 53 S.G. HARDCASTLE and C.K. KOCSIS CIM Bulletin • In an active area with multiple headings, are all auxiliary systems required at the same time? • For how long should the ventilation be supplied at any location? • For what period of the shift is the mine active? • Have the original system design criteria been exceeded? When the answers to these questions are considered with the ventilation/power cubic relationship, even small airflow reductions can become significant power savings. Conversely it must be asked, is ventilation required during the non-active periods? In some instances it is required continuously, such as to control radiation or flammable gas levels, but is this as demanding as for diesel usage? It can also be needed for dust control and blast fume clearance, but again, is it required at the same magnitude and for how long? In deep mines, ventilation is required to remove heat, but considering the strata is an infinite source, what would be the result if the airflow were stopped for a few hours or a day? Obviously the area could heat up, but how long would it take for the area to return to suitable conditions once the airflow was resumed. In some mines, where large auxiliary ventilation fan systems are used, they can actually increase the temperature of the air downstream. Therefore, although ventilation systems have to be designed to meet a peak demand, they need not necessarily always operate at this level. For the most part, the industry has recognized this, and mines have made various efforts to control their ventilation. However, the full benefit has never been achieved. The primary cause for this has been a lack of the necessary control and information-gathering infrastructure. For optimal efficiency a mine requires a “ventilation-on-demand” based system (Hardcastle et al., 1998, 1999). Such systems are comprised of four main building blocks: 1. Decision Logic — In order to be able to direct the air accordingly, it is essential to know where the primary demand is at any time. In highly mechanized mines, this means knowing where vehicles are and their identity. This requires a reliable and cost-effective vehicle tracking and identification system, and it is the lack of such a technology that has been one of the hurdles to the implementation of the demand concept. Depending upon the degree of control to be achieved, i.e., mine-wide as opposed to local, the actions prompted by such a system may also have to be evaluated through ventilation simulators to ensure their validity and safety. 2. Control Devices — In a ventilation system, there are two types of control, active (fans) and 54 May 2004 passive (doors and regulators). Today, both can be controlled easily and cost effectively. Fans can be fitted with remote soft starters and their delivery controlled through either variable pitch or speed. Most commercial ventilation doors can be adapted for remote operation to turn the airflow on or off in specific areas. Some doors can also act as regulators when partially open; alternatively, specific regulators with a finer control of volume may be required. 3. Compliance Monitors — To ensure the system is working effectively, two types of monitoring may be required. First, the airflow designed to go to an area must be guaranteed. For this non-intrusive ultrasonic airflow, sensors are best suited to active mine airways however other technologies may also be considered in ducts. Second, the quality of the air must be ensured. For this, there are a variety of single and multiple gas monitors available to measure the by-products of diesel activity. However, the placement of gas sensors and flow monitors cannot always guarantee that an equipment operator is in “clean” air, so such systems may have to be supplemented with on-board gas monitors. 4. Communication/Management Infrastructure — This is the backbone and brains of the system by which information is gathered, commands sent, and the outcome determined. The availability of reliable and cost-effective communications and programmable control has historically been another hurdle to the implementation of the demand concept. However, with the advancements of the information age, this demand concept has become more achievable as it can often be piggy-backed on other control systems being implemented within mines. CANMET-MMSL has been a long-standing proponent of “ventilation-on-demand,” and consequently, considerable resources have been put toward developing the supporting technologies needed for its implementation. In 1998, the concept was proven in conjunction industry through a pilot trial at Barrick’s Bousquet mine (Hardcastle et al., 1999). More recently, a new in-house designed vehicle tracking system is being tested at the Val d’Or Experimental mine as part of a demonstration ventilation control system. Currently, CANMET is also performing a feasibility study for such a demand system in a deep Canadian mine. Maximum Airflow Requirements Through ventilation automation and the demand concept, the number of places to which air is supplied and its duration can both be reduced. Consequently, the average and even total flow through the system can be reduced and significant cost savings achieved due to the cubic relationship. However, the maximum flows supplied have yet to be addressed. Again, the starting point is the requirement to control heat or dilute diesel fumes but depending on how this is addressed, the peak demand can differ greatly. First, looking at diesel exhaust control, the differing provincial regulations (Gangal et Grenier, 2002) have already been discussed in respect to the volumes required. Across Canada, there can be as much as a 2:1 difference between the required flow for a piece of equipment at a given engine size. This can depend either on whether old potentially “dirty” or new “clean” engines are used, or on whether the CAN/CSA certification air quality approach as opposed to a fixed requirement are employed. Initially, it might be thought that heat issues would override the benefit of using clean engine technologies in deep mines. At depth this is true, but there is the possibility to minimize peak demand elsewhere in multidepth operations that is important as it can reduce the overall demand on the ventilation system. Another aspect that may be considered is the operational layout of the mine and an equipment operator’s relationship to any generated contaminant (Hardcastle et al., 1998). For example, in some mines, an LHD operator when loading may effectively always be in fresh air and any contaminants generated are rejected to a return air system; in other mines, an LHD operator could be in a captive area and exposure is unavoidable. Do both of these scenarios require the same volume of air? In “captive” areas, the prescribed ventilation may not be sufficient. In a study of an auxiliary ventilated room and pillar operation it was shown that a complete flush of the working room took 20 minutes, but the LHD cycle time was only 8 minutes, so the operator was always returning to a contaminated environment. Another consideration is what influence contamination may have if it comes into the general mine atmosphere as opposed to being rejected from the system. In the same room and pillar study, the LHD operator travelled to an ore dump downwind of the mucking site; this route accounted for >50% of his diesel/dust exposure. When it comes to heat management, should ventilation be designed upon the worstcase scenario for heat generation or some other situation? For heat, similar considerations to diesel exposure could apply. If LHDs are being operated remotely, if the operators are in air-conditioned cabs or if the heat from the machinery is being rejected elsewhere, what are the ventilation requirements? If the operator is no longer a concern at the muck pile, the CIM Bulletin ■ Vol. 97, N° 1080 May 2004 ventilation can be designed for the machine’s requirements which can be less demanding. Depending on operational layout, it may be possible within the general body of the mine to determine ventilation based upon the machine’s heat generation while in transit. These requirements would be significantly less than required at a fixed location where the LHD is working much harder. For heat control, the number and location of fans within the system can also be significant. At the Kidd Creek mine (Hortin and Sedlacek, 2002), it was estimated that continuing with the push-pull system of ventilation would ultimately require 25 250 kW of fan power increasing the heat load and raising wet-bulb temperatures by 2°C to 3°C and dry-bulb temperatures by 8°C to 12°C. On converting to an exhaust system, it was estimated that ultimately only 8700 kW of fan power would be required. In addition, this lower heat load would be downwind of mining operations. Consequently, depending on the proximity of the fan heat source, less air could be required to maintain the same working environment. So once again the assumed maximum demand might not be the true demand due to the variability of operations, ventilation layouts (including the placement of fans), and how these relate to personnel exposure. Each mine has to be evaluated independently and it is through an understanding of what is truly needed that there is potential to reduce the overall volumes of air sent underground. The Benefits of Future Technology To reduce the ventilation challenge with depth one must reduce the need for air supplied at its current volumes. So far, the need for ventilation has been discussed in terms of diesel requirements and heat control, but can technology change these requirements? Returning to diesel equipment, such units are popular because of their mobility, and most mining operations are reluctant to replace them with tethered electrical equipment despite the obvious removal of diesel contaminants and significantly lower heat generation (35% of an equivalent diesel). However, a diesel-electric vehicle as being currently evaluated by CANMET-MMSL could be beneficial. In this unit, a constant load diesel generator feeds batteries, which in turn power electrical motors that drive the equipment. To understand the benefit of what is still a diesel unit, one needs to understand the engine certification criteria. Typically, the required airflow to dilute an engine’s exhaust is either based upon the worst operating condition or an average of multiple May 2004 CIM Bulletin operating conditions. In a hybrid diesel/electric unit, the constant load diesel generator can be optimized for minimal emissions and hence lower dilution air requirements. This technology, similar to diesel regulations based upon air quality, will not have a direct impact upon ventilation needs in deep mines once heat becomes the controlling criteria. This is because it will still produce the same order of heat as a conventional diesel unit. However, similar to the air quality approach, it could significantly reduce the quantities at the higher elevations of multi-level mines, so making more air available at depth. Another area CANMET-MMSL is currently investigating is the viability of hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles for use in underground metal mines. Wide-scale application of this technology to the primary production fleet could dramatically reduce the volumes of air needed underground where the dilution of diesel fumes is the primary concern. So similar to the hybrid vehicle, the use of this technology in areas where heat is not the concern will free up ventilation capacity for heat critical areas. Fuel cell-powered vehicles, however, could have an additional advantage in deep mines. In terms of heat generation, they are comparable to electric units, which only use 35% of the power of an equivalent diesel, which ends up as a heat load in the environment. For fuel cellpowered vehicles, the reduced power and subsequent heat generation advantage could be even greater because a certain portion of the machine’s heat could be required to release the hydrogen fuel from the hydride bed where it is stored. Consequently, where the additional heat from the machinery, above that from other sources, would dictate higher volumes, the use of fuel cells as opposed to diesels would reduce that additional demand. The most advanced technology that could be applied to mining is Telemining™ (Baiden, 1999) with remotely controlled equipment operated from surface. This concept was investigated and shown to be achievable under the Mining Automation Program (MAP) between 1996 and 2001. This was an international collaboration between: Inco, a Canadian nickel mine operator; Sandvik-Tamrock, a mining equipment supplier; Dyno Nobel, an explosives manufacturer; and the Canadian government’s Natural Resources Canada’s mining research sector (CANMET-MMSL). With respect to ventilation (Hardcastle and Kocsis, 2001), such automation has the following benefits: • In the absence of humans in the production areas, the dilution of diesel pollutants is no longer a concern and the design criteria shifts to heat which can be much less demanding. S.G. HARDCASTLE and C.K. KOCSIS • In an automated mine when the design criteria shifts from diesel fume dilution to heat, it can also shift from the mobile diesel equipment to the stationary electric drilling equipment. • At depth, when heat typically starts to become a concern in conventional mines, designing ventilation requirements for machine heat limits at 40°C dry bulb for their hydraulic systems, as opposed to <30°C wet bulb for humans would be less demanding. • Due to greater machine utilization, less production machinery would be required for the same mineral output; hence the overall volumes required would decrease. • As there would be fewer personnel in the mine, significantly fewer diesel personnel carriers would be needed and the overall ventilation demand would again be less. In combination, these reduced ventilation demands and hence power and cost savings would be significant. Despite this, in deep mines the volumes required for a single piece of machinery would still be of the same order. For example, an LHD in an automated mine could still require two to three times more air at 3000 m than would be required for diesel exhaust dilution based upon 0.063 m3/s/kW. However, in an automated mine, the machines are only affected by the thermal environment, the actual quality of the atmosphere is secondary as long as there is sufficient oxygen for diesel vehicles to operate. As part of the MAP program, it was shown that diesel performance would start to drop off at 17% oxygen. To maintain this level, a fresh air supply rate of 0.00084 m3/s/kW would be required (Sarin et al., 1997). This is 1.3% of the dilution requirement. Consequently, the air supplied to keep equipment cool does not have to be fresh air delivered from surface, it could be recirculated. Using controlled recirculation of air would greatly benefit deep mines as it reduces the volume that has to be brought underground through shafts and raises which can be the most expensive aspect of ventilation. To some degree, this could increase the volumes required because the recirculated component would be hotter than that coming from surface. However, depending on the size of the recirculation circuit, the heat generated from the equipment above local strata conditions could be lost before it is recirculated. Furthermore, the use of local refrigeration as opposed to surface cooling, in combination with recirculation as proposed for ultra-deep manned mines in South Africa (Ramsden et al., 2001) could also be beneficial in limiting the volume of air required to be brought underground and also the cooling requirements. 55 S.G. HARDCASTLE and C.K. KOCSIS CIM Bulletin Ventilation Design — Future Practice The preceding sections have only discussed in general terms how the volumes that are supplied underground can be minimized and used effectively. Initially, this can be achieved through “ventilation-on-demand” and only supplying the appropriate amount of air. Secondly, considering design, equipment power sources, and level of automation could reduce the actual quantities that make up this demand. To find the optimum solution, considering all the variables, the industry needs better economic-based models. In addition, one area that has not been looked at is the physical elements of the distribution network and for ventilation systems to be their most cost effective, we must again return to current ventilation design practice to see how one comes up with a specific design. A typical design practice is to define what volume of air is required at some point in the future (say five or ten years from now), and then size the infrastructure accordingly. For example, primary airways are often designed upon their final requirements, which could be oversized for a significant portion of the mine’s life. These airways can also be designed in isolation without considering their interrelationship with the rest of the ventilation system. This could lead to potentially oversized airways, developed at unnecessary extra expense, or proposed costs that could negate the viability of the mine. So again, better economic-based models are required. Today, mining process simulators that can display the development of a mine from start to finish are being used to test varying mining scenarios and the economics thereof. For example, such simulators were used by Inco to show how Telemining™ would improve the economics of a low-grade deposit on considering the accelerated extraction and increased equipment utilization that the automated process could provide. The authors believe and are currently exploring how such process simulators, which show the whole mine life, could be adapted to forecast the need for materials or a specific resource, and one of these would be the ventilation. The results from these would then be used in standard ventilation simulators to determine the ventilation costs. Using such simulators, it should be possible to: • Compare the long-term life cycle requirements for the ventilation system under various mining methods, with different mobile equipment, and at various levels of automation. • Evaluate the short-term life cycle requirements as would be supplied in a “ventilation-on-demand” system. 56 May 2004 • Obtain the minimum through to maximum ventilation requirements, the duration of each, and what processes are contributing to the peak demand. • Explore options to reduce peak ventilation demand similar to electrical power management practice. • Integrate in parallel the development of the ventilation system with mining, so heading toward “pay-as-you-go” as opposed to developing for final requirements with high upfront costs. • Size the infrastructure according to life cycle demands as opposed to final or peak demands. For example, it may be more cost effective to have a slightly smaller fan or raise and pay the penalty for the duration the higher demand is required. Discussion Summary Ventilation will continue to be a requirement in underground mining. For the most part, it is either necessary to dilute and remove diesel contaminants or heat to provide an acceptable working environment for personnel and/or machinery. What will change is the volume of air required. Ventilation can be expensive, not only due to the power used by fans, but also the need to climatize the air with heating or refrigeration. Increasing depth and mechanization and more stringent health regulations would generally dictate that more air is supplied. However, any increase in ventilation can produce a disproportionate increase in power usage and hence cost due to a cubic relationship. Consequently, to avoid prohibitive ventilation costs, the industry must try and minimize the volumes being sent underground to what is needed for their current mining method, and explore the potential for further reductions through the application of new technology. This paper has shown that there are significant benefits to “ventilation-on-demand” whereby supply is modulated to match needs of production. Furthermore, the physical needs of a production process can be dependent on mining layout, the power source of the primary production equipment, and the degree of automation. In regard to the challenges imposed of the ventilation system with depth in Canada: 1. In multi-depth mines, where ventilation is dictated by either heat or diesel requirements depending upon depth, a wide array of strategies can be used to mitigate ventilation demand: • Cleaner diesel engine technology, hybrid engines and fuel cells can be used in shallower regions to reduce their ventilation demands and free-up capacity for the deeper areas. • “Ventilation-on-demand” should be used throughout. • At depth, automation should be considered, due to its higher heat tolerance, and insensitivity to other contaminants that would accommodate the controlled recirculation of air. Such strategies can be essential for Canadian mines if they are to avoid or limit the use of refrigeration. Currently, Inco’s Creighton and Falconbridge’s Kidd Creek, employ natural cooling of their air, however these systems have limited cooling power so it is essential they are used effectively. 2. In deep mines where heat is the overriding factor, “ventilation-on-demand” and isolating humans from the heat effects should be the strategies to pursue. Automation can obviously remove the human as far away as the surface, but mine layouts can also be modified to reject heat away from personnel and machinery operator cabs can also generate their own micro-climates. Conclusions Ventilation is an expensive prerequisite for underground mining. Current mining trends, including greater depth, would generally require that increasingly more air is required and consequently more power consumed. At depth, heat becomes the overriding ventilation issue and refrigeration is always an option but this can greatly increase power consumption. Power usage is not only a cost issue but is increasingly becoming an environmental issue when, worldwide, industry is trying to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For Canadian mines, it is believed that on reviewing the way we design our ventilation systems and exploring technologies that reduce the demands upon which we base our designs, considerable savings can be achieved. Quantifying these benefits is extremely difficult, yet it must be done to prove the viability of deep deposits and what might otherwise appear as marginal orebodies. Consequently, although designing and supplying ventilation in deep mines will remain challenging, the same basic methods and options we have been using for years will still apply. The major challenge is to keep ventilation from being cost prohibitive, and for that we need improved economic model capabilities. References BAIDEN, G. 1999. Telemining™ systems applied to hard rock metal mining at Inco Limited. Website: http://www.telemining.net/publicationsandresearch/. CIM Bulletin ■ Vol. 97, N° 1080 May 2004 CANADIAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION (CSA), 1990. Non-rail bounded diesel powered machines for use in non-gassy underground mines. CAN/CSAM424.2-M90. GANGAL, M. and GRENIER, M., 2002. An overview of regulations to control diesel emissions in Canadian mines. Proceedings, 1st North American/9th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium. Edited by E. De Souza. Balkema, Lisse, p. 427-432. HARDCASTLE, S.G. and KOCSIS, C.A., 2001. Ventilation design for an automated underground metal mine. Proceedings, 7th International Mine Ventilation Congress. Edited by S. Wasilewski, p. 779786. HARDCASTLE , S.G., GANGAL, E. and LEUNG, E., 1998. Green and economic mine ventilation with an integrated air management system. Proceedings, 7th International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection. Edited by R. Singhal. Balkema, Rotterdam, p. 785-794. HARDCASTLE , S.G., GANGAL, M.K., SCHREER, M. and GAUTHIER, P., 1999. Ventilation-ondemand: quality or quantity—A pilot trial at Bar- CIM Bulletin rick Gold’s Bousquet mine. Proceedings, 8th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium. Edited by J. Tien. Missouri-Rolla Press, Rolla, p. 31-38. HORTIN, K.M. and SEDLACEK, J., 2002. Change of the push-pull ventilation system at Kidd Creek mine of Falconbridge Ltd. (challenges and logistics). Proceedings, 1st North American/9th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium. Edited by E. De Souza. Balkema, Lisse, p. 69-75. HOWES, M.J. and SEDLACEK, J., 2001. Kidd Creek mine—Ventilation and cooling planning for an extension to 3100 m. Proceedings, 7th International Mine Ventilation Congress. Edited by S. Wasilewski, p. 991-1003. MINE SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION (MSHA), 1996. Diesel mine locomotives, mobile diesel powered equipment for non-coal mines. 30 CFR, parts 31 and 32. MINE SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION (MSHA), 2001. Diesel particulate matter exposure of metal and non-metal miners. 30 CFR, part 57. S.G. HARDCASTLE and C.K. KOCSIS NATURAL RESOURCES CANADA, 1998. Canada’s energy outlook 1996-2020. Website: http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/es/ceo/toc-96E.html. NATURAL RESOURCES CANADA, 2002. List of CANMET-MMSL List of approved diesel engines in accordance with CSA Standards M424.2-M90 and M424.1-88. O’CONNOR, D.F., GIBSON, D., MACKAY, B. and GRUPP, D.R., 2002. Creighton mine, #11 shaft exhaust fan up-grade. Proceedings, 1st North American/9th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium. Edited by E. De Souza. Balkema, Lisse, p. 137144. RAMSDEN, R., SHEER, T.J. and BUTTERWORTH, M.D., 2001. Design and simulation of ultra-deep mine cooling systems. Proceedings, 7th International Mine Ventilation Congress. Edited by S. Wasilewski, p. 755-760. SARIN, N., GANGAL, M. and FERES, V., 1997. Diesel engine performance for reduced ventilation in a simulated mine environment. Natural Resources Canada, Divisions Report, MMSL97-035 (CF), 39 p. CALL FOR PAPERS Lead & Zinc ‘05 Kyoto, Japan — October 2005 The Lead & Zinc ‘05 Symposium, co-organized by The Metallurgical Society of CIM, will provide an international forum for the world’s lead and zinc industries to exchange information on current processing technologies for primary and seconday lead and zinc, as well as emerging technologies for both metals. Authors are encouraged to submit 150-word abstracts by September 1, 2004, in electronic format, to the MMIJ Conference Management System at http://www.mmij.or.jp/lead-zinc2005/ or to J.E. Dutrizac, CANMET-MMSL, 555 Booth Street, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0G1; Tel.: (613) 995-4823; Email: [email protected]. May 2004 View publication stats 57