FOR QUIC K-WI LEAR TTED N ER S HANDBOOK GRAMMAR IS ALL YOU NEED Complicated English Grammar Explained Simply COMPLICATED ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXPLAINED SIMPLY A GLIMPSE OF WHAT’S AHEAD: 1. Articles: they finally make sense ………………………………………………………………….. 3 2. Nouns: countable, uncountable, or…?................................................................. 6 3. Pluralia tantum and singularia tantum: which is which?……………………….…..…. 10 4. Bored or boring? Adjectives ending in -ED and -ING......................................... 13 5. Prepositions of time: a moment of clarity …..………………………………………………. 16 6. Prepositions of place: at, on or something more fun?…………………………………. 19 7. Adjective and preposition combinations……………………………………………..…….… 22 8. Adjectives and adverbs: what’s the difference? ……………………..……………….…. 25 9. English tenses and their uses ………………………………………..………………….……... 28 10. Reported speech ………………………………………………………………………………..…..….. 33 11. Verb lists: infinitives and gerunds ………………………………………………….…..…..…. 37 12. DO or MAKE? ………………………………………………………………………………….……….... 41 13. How to use zero and first conditional .............................................................. 45 14. Second and third conditional: the sky is the limit …………………..……….………... 49 15. Mixed conditionals ………………………………….…………….………………………..……….. 54 16. What is another word for IF? (Unless, provided that, supposing, etc.)……….. 57 2 1 ARTICLES: THEY FINALLY MAKE SENSE What is it? A word that is used with a noun or its equivalent. Articles work similarly to adjectives in English. What is the function of an article? An article defines a noun. Simply put, it points out or refers to nouns. LinguaHack: Articles describe a noun: whether it’s specific, or mentioned for the first time, or general, or one of many, etc. Articles define a noun as specific or unspecific. Types: definite (THE) / indefinite (A, AN) / zero article (–). THE DEFINITE ARTICLE “THE” USE before: • singular, plural, and uncountable nouns Also it can be used before: • something that’s already known: • • • • • • • • • The school I go to is located not far from my home. something specific: There are many schools in NY, but the school in my neighborhood is the best one. collective adjectives: the rich, the poor, the elderly etc. unique phenomena: the sun, the moon, the sky etc. geographical features: oceans, seas, deserts etc. time of day: the morning, the evening titles: The Queen, The King in the North etc. centuries, decades: the 1950s musical instruments: the cello, the piano last names: The Smiths, The Potters etc. LinguaHack: try replacing THE with THIS. If the meaning doesn’t change, you’ve chosen the right article. 3 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: “A” AND “AN” USE before: • singular nouns only DO NOT USE before: • uncountable or plural nouns Also it can be used before: • something mentioned for the first time: I stayed in an Italian villa last year. Did I tell you about this? • something general and not specific: A dog is a man's best friend. LinguaHack: A is used before nouns which begin with consonant sounds: a cat, a school. Important! Make sure to check the sounds, not letters. A noun may start with a vowel which is pronounced as a consonant: a [ju]niversity — university, a [ju]phoria — euphoria. AN is used before nouns which begin with vowel sounds. Important! A noun may start with a consonant which is pronounced as a vowel, in which case you should use AN: an [-]onest lady — honest. ZERO ARTICLE USE before: • singular, plural, and uncountable nouns Also it can be used before: • abstract, uncountable nouns: sugar, conscientiousness • countries, cities and states: Austria, Paris, Maryland exceptions: the UK, the USA, the People's Republic of China... • months, years: January, March • days of the week: Monday, Sunday • games, sports: cricket, swimming, hide-and-seek • lakes, certain mountains, islands: Lake Chad, Elbrus, Borneo exceptions: archipelagoes the Bahamas • agencies, public institutions: church, prison, hospital 4 What is mechanical memory? There is visual memory (which activates when you read) and mechanical memory (which activates when you draw or write). Mechanical memory helps us remember the most complicated things for a long time. So, we created a special section for notes under each chapter. Feel free to make notes any way you want. Use colored pens to activate your visual memory. Or, simply use this space to write down new words! 5 2 NOUNS: COUNTABLE, UNCOUNTABLE, OR…? Some English nouns can be both countable and uncountable. Is there any difference? You bet! It all comes down to the meaning of the word. For example, you know that “time” is what we measure in seconds, minutes, hours, days, etc. But “time” also has a second meaning of experience. For instance: I have been to the USA three times. When using “time” both as a concept and as duration, the noun itself is considered to be uncountable. However, “time” can be countable when we use the word to mean experience. How much time did it take to finish the project? You need to repeat this sentence several times before you memorize it. There are many similar examples in English where the meaning of the word changes depending on whether it’s countable or uncountable. Let’s take a look at the most common ones where it’s important to know the difference between the meanings to speak and write fluent English. Countable: help or assistance (as in “means”): Dictionaries are a great aid in learning English. AID Uncountable: something that provides help, support, or relief, such as money or medical supplies: He refused medical aid as he didn’t trust the doctors. Countable: a type of bird: My family has a chicken and some rabbits in our garden. CHICKEN Uncountable: meat of the bird that is cooked and eaten: I prefer chicken over pork. COFFEE TEA BEER WATER Countable: when talking about a specific number of beverages: Can I get 3 teas? Uncountable: beverage in general: He really likes drinking tea, but my choice is always a cup of coffee. 6 Countable: observation of facts or events: EXPERIENCE All these experiences in my life made me who I am now. Uncountable: knowledge or skills: I have a lot of experience in web development. Countable: confession: FAITH My dad was raised in the Christian faith. Uncountable: strong belief in something (not in religious sense): I have faith that we’ll reach all of our goals. Countable: a specific meal or dish: FOOD The food was great, thank you for the dinner! Uncountable: something that people and animals usually eat: We need food to survive. Countable: : a political right: Animals have freedoms too, they can’t be kept in cages. FREEDOM Uncountable: the quality or state of being free, having a free will: When I climbed the mountain, I experienced a feeling of complete freedom. Countable: a drinking container: GLASS Pour the water into the glass, please. Uncountable: glass as material: The vase is made of colored glass. Countable: fine threads: HAIR My dog’s hairs are all over the apartment! Uncountable: hairs collectively: Monica has the shiniest hair I’ve ever seen on a girl. Countable: a tool to smooth clothes: IRON An iron is an appliance that most households have. Uncountable: material (metal): That ancient sword was made of solid iron. Countable: any device serving as a source of illumination: LIGHT Christmas lights always fascinate me. Uncountable: energy, physical phenomenon: I woke up because of the light coming from the window. Countable: a person or thing that you love: LOVE He was my first love in the high school. Uncountable: the feeling of liking in general: I feel so much love inside of me! Countable: something remembered from the past; a recollection: She had a lot of memories of them together. MEMORY Uncountable: the ability to remember information, experiences, and people: It’s important to keep your memory sharp even when you get older. Countable: a specific sound: NOISE She made a funny noise that made us laugh. Uncountable: a loud or unpleasant sound: I don't really like loud noise. 7 Countable: a newspaper, essay, any kind of a written document: PAPER To obtain a new passport, one must prepare all the necessary papers first. Uncountable: a material that you write on or wrap things with: The envelope was made of beige paper. Countable: a distinctive attribute or characteristic: An employee must have such qualities as honesty and open-mindedness. QUALITY Uncountable: the standard of something as measured against other things of a similar kind: The quality of this Turkish fabric is exceptional. Countable: a certain, usually specified, amount or number of something: QUANTITY Energy production leads to large quantities of hazardous wastes. Uncountable: total amount or number in general: It’s usually better to choose quality over quantity in production. Countable: a part or division of a building enclosed by walls, floor, and ceiling: ROOM Can we find a free room to have a conversation? Uncountable: space that can be occupied: Let’s make some room in the center, where we could dance. Countable: silence as a specific period of time when nobody’s talking or making any sounds (for example, embarrassed silence): SILENCE The silence between us was almost touchable. Uncountable: as a state of silence in general: I love silence and being alone in my room. Countable: a period of time when a person is asleep (for example, napping): SLEEP A healthy 8-hour-sleep is what you need right now. Uncountable: a temporary state of inactivity: Sleep is what every human being needs for living. Countable: an act of smoking tobacco: SMOKE — Want to have a smoke outside now? — I already had one, thanks. Uncountable: a visible suspension of carbon in air, typically one emitted from a burning substance: This smoke was thick and black, like a veil. Countable: a specific rate: SPEED The shape of this car is made for higher speeds. Uncountable: distance traveled per unit of time: 150 km/h is the maximum speed on this highway. Countable: the achieving of the results wanted or hoped for: SUCCESS The play was a success! Uncountable: favorable or desired outcome: I want to be proud of my success, not apologize for it. Countable: a piece of fine art: WORK You are a work of art, honey. Uncountable: something done or made: My work includes checking emails and making coffee for my boss. 8 9 3 PLURALIA TANTUM AND SINGULARIA TANTUM: WHICH IS WHICH? Sounds a little intimidating, doesn’t it? But don’t let these Latin phrases scare you. They mean simple things. A pluralia tantum is a noun that appears only in the plural form, while singularia tantum is a noun that has no plural form and is only used with singular verbs. It’s that simple. Let’s dive deeper and see which nouns fall under these two categories. SINGULARIA TANTUM Singularia tantum can be found in the following classes of nouns: • abstract nouns: • materials, substances: • singular nouns that end in -S: • some other nouns: wealth, love, anger, kindness, fun water, wine, cheese, copper, bread, milk news advice, information, progress, knowledge, money, hair If you want to use these nouns in plural, you can add a word “piece” which indicates a portion of something or a part of the whole. For example: She gave me a nice piece of advice the other day. FUN FACT: there is an exception to every rule, and this rule… is no exception! Here are a few examples: • names: Clean Waters • when a noun can also be countable: • when an abstract noun becomes specific and changes its meaning: Can I get three coffees? Will you invite all your little loves to the birthday party? 10 PLURALIA TANTUM Pluralia tantum can be found in the following classes of nouns: • some academic disciplines/fields: • some diseases/conditions: • clothes that come in pairs: • games: • tools and devices: • some proper nouns: • nouns with the same singular and plural forms: • collective nouns: • other nouns: linguistics, physics, ethics, maths, politics etc. measles, rickets, rabies, mumps, diabetes, heebie-jeebies, jimjams, jitters, hysterics etc. suspenders, breeches, trousers, slacks, shorts, leggings, pants, jeans etc. bowls, billiards, draughts, darts, cards etc. scissors, shears, glasses, stairs, tweezers, scales, arms, pincers etc. the Middle Ages, Athens, the Netherlands, the Highlands, the Canaries, Maldives, Bahamas, Levis, the United Nations, the United States etc. means, headquarters, series, crossroads, species, works, barracks people, police, gentry, cattle, staff goods, customs, quarters, belongings, outskirts, suburbs, the tropics, pros and cons, manners, guts, congratulations, troops, clothes, arms, credentials, odds, surroundings LinguaHack: Some of these words can be used in singular form HOWEVER the meaning will be different. Clothes becomes cloth (woven fabric), glasses (pair of lenses) becomes glass (material or container), and quarters (a place where someone lives) becomes quarter (one fourth of something). As you can see, a noun changes its meaning, that’s why we only consider one meaning when talking about pluralia tantum nouns. 11 12 4 BORED OR BORING? ADJECTIVES ENDING IN -ED AND -ING You know -ED and -ING as endings of English Simple and Progressive tenses. However, these also serve as endings for verbal adjectives (i. e. an adjective which is similar to a verb in form and meaning). It’s not always easy to understand the difference, especially if you have just started learning English. But we are here to help! First step is to understand when either ending is used. An adjective ending in -ED describes a CONDITION, EXPERIENCE of an object or a person (usually temporary): entertained (pleasantly occupied); tired (in need of rest or sleep) An adjective ending in -ING describes a QUALITY (usually permanent): entertaining (funny and enjoyable); tiring (causing one to need to rest) These adjectives are used to describe people or situations. HOWEVER, they have different meanings: My teacher is boring. vs. My teacher is bored. My teacher is not interesting. vs. My teacher lacks interest. Here is another example with the word “shocking.” I was shocked by this accident. vs. I found this accident rather shocking. Both sentences have different structures, but the meaning stays the same. Each adjective has its own function: As a person, I felt surprised (-ED), and the situation caused the feeling of surprise (-ING). Grammatically there are different ways to express the same meaning: My husband is so depressed. vs. My husband is feeling down. 13 Commonly confused adjectives ending in -ED and -ING: confusing — confused exciting — excited frightening — frightened worrying — worried interesting — interested thrilling — thrilled exhausting — exhausted surprising — surprised amazing — amazed annoying — annoyed troubling — troubled insulting — insulted inspiring — inspired fascinating — fascinated This is just a short list of pairs of commonly confused adjectives in English. It’s possible to form them from transitive verbs, however they may sound strange, so it’s always a good idea to look them up in a dictionary. IMPORTANT! Adjectives ending in -ED/-ING form comparatives and superlatives with more/less and most/least unlike other adjectives for which -er/-est is added. He seemed like the most interested one in the crowd. She is less annoyed than I am. LinguaHack: Since adjectives ending in -ED and -ING are derived from verbs, they keep some of the verbs’ properties. One of them is that adjectives ending in -ED use the same prepositions as the verbs from which they are derived. For example, I’m interested IN something, she is worried ABOUT something... In contrast, adjectives ending in -ING do not share this feature. Always make sure to check with a dictionary. 14 15 5 PREPOSITIONS OF TIME: A MOMENT OF CLARITY What is a preposition of time in English? A preposition of time allows us to discuss a specific time period when something happened, is happening or will happen in the future. This refers to a date, time of the day, month, etc. Prepositions of time might also indicate the duration of an action. There are three main ones: multifaceted IN, AT and ON. And a few others: since, during, to, for, etc. Each of them has a specific function. All together they help describe numerous situations. It’s recommended to learn them all to understand and be able to properly apply them in context. AT/IN/ON are often used to indicate a particular time of an action. For example: I went fishing on Monday. I cross stitch in the evenings. LinguaHack: In this case, prepositions of time emphasize the fact of an action happening at a specific time NOT the duration of an action. • clock time: at 8 PM, at 6 o’clock AT • with words: night, midnight, sunrise, sunset, dawn • with the word: weekend (UK English) • with words: moment, minute at that moment, at the minute • with words: beginning and end, followed by of: at the end of the week • meals: at breakfast, at dinner • holidays that don’t have “day” in their name: at Christmas, at Easter • time of the day (exception: at night): in the morning, in the afternoon • months and time of year: in August, in winter IN • years, decades, centuries: in 1995, in the 90s, in the 15th century • semesters, terms, quarters: in the first semester • academic years/grades: in my 1st university year, in the 7th grade • meaning “during”: I’ll easily do this in an hour. • meaning “an interval of time before something”: I’ll start doing this in 30 minutes. 16 • days of the week: on Sunday, on Sunday evening • dates: on the 4th of July; on September, 5 ON • holidays that have “day” in their name: on my birthday BUT: at birthday party • with the word day: on this day in history • with the word weekend (US English) • with the word vacation • on holidays (UK English) IMPORTANT! Do NOT use prepositions of time with the following marker words: • • • • • next day, week, year, month, etc. last Monday, night, year, etc. this afternoon, month, etc. every day, night, years, etc. also with: today, tomorrow, yesterday Below you will find a list of prepositions of time which are used to indicate that an action is happening for some time (with no indication of the beginning or end), it ended or it has started at some point in the past and is still happening. DURING FOR SINCE UNTIL TO • throughout the course or duration of a period of time: during our conversation, during my exam, during this semester • to show an amount of time up until now: I’ve been a teacher for 5 years. • from a definite past time until now, focus is on the starting point in the past: He’s been learning English since the school years. • up to the point in time, focus on the end point: The party won’t start until I walk in. • when paired with “from” to indicate the beginning and end of something: from Monday to Friday • to indicate time: It’s ten to six. PAST (US) • to indicate time: It’s 20 past/after six. AFTER (UK) BY • indicating the end of a particular time period: I’ll be there by 6 PM. 17 18 6 PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: AT, ON OR SOMETHING MORE FUN? Now it’s time to move on to the next category of prepositions: prepositions of place. Prepositions of time indicate WHEN an action happens, while prepositions of place indicate WHERE it happens. The most common prepositions of place are... the same AT, IN and ON. • to be inside a particular institution for a particular reason: AT at the hospital, at school • to be at an event: at a conference, at the party • to be near something: she waited for me at the door. What’s the difference between AT and IN? The preposition AT is used to describe the fact of a person or thing being at a geographical location, while IN indicates that the person or thing is actually inside the structure or place. For example: I was in the university but then I went out for a smoke. I was at university today and had 3 classes. • to be inside a closed space, whether abstract or specific: IN in the box, in the car, in the film • compass directions: in the North, in the South • cities and countries: in New York, in Russia LinguaHack: try adding “building” to the situation you are describing, if it sounds right and doesn’t make the sentence redundant, it means you should use IN. • to be located on a surface: lying on the table, sitting on the sofa • to be located directly next to a river: on the coast, on the shore, on the beach • to be located on a road: on my way, on this path, on the road ON • to be located inside a vehicle, public transport: on the train, on the bus • floors: on the 5th floor • directions: on the left/right • TV, radio: on the TV, on the radio 19 There are many other prepositions of place. IMPORTANT! All prepositions could be used with either specific or abstract spaces. Very often prepositions of place and time are used in metaphorical transfers and idiomatic expressions. For example: to be under pressure = to experience stress to run away from one’s problems = to avoid problems to be under control = to be controlled to be on edge = about to lose control, acting crazy at a higher level or layer: ABOVE 11 km above sea level the clouds above us BELOW 10 degrees below zero He’s so much below average UNDER ACROSS TO at a lower level or layer: a position below or beneath something: To be under pressure» The kitten is hiding under the car from one side to the other of something: The supermarket is just across the street expressing motion in the direction of a particular location: I go to school every day expressing motion closer to someone/something: TOWARDS I was going towards him slowly in relation to; often used with feelings, emotions: I have no feelings towards him FROM INTO ONTO THROUGH BY NEXT TO BESIDE OVER to show the place where someone or something starts: I came from Russia to move INSIDE of something (into), to a position ON something (onto): The dog ran into the house and jumped onto the sofa from one end or side of something to the other: I’ve been going through a lot of stress recently He was crawling through the jungle to be nearest in space or position: The teacher is standing by/next to/at his desk to be above or higher than something else: She wore a jacket over a light blouse We drove over the empty bridge 20 21 7 ADJECTIVE AND PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS You already know that adjectives are words that are used to describe the properties and qualities of people, things, places, i. e. nouns or pronouns. Sometimes adjectives occur in a sentence by themselves. He is a handsome man. My dad is strict. There are many cases in which adjectives are combined with prepositions. Failure to use the right preposition might result in a loss of meaning. You might find something similar in your native language. Unfortunately, there is no rule to tell you which preposition goes with which adjective. So, when you learn a new adjective, it's a good idea to learn the preposition that goes with it, and memorize it. Here are some examples of such combinations: I’m amazed at it. I’m disappointed in it. I’m capable of doing it. If you have something similar in your native language, make sure to double check the prepositions in English—they might be completely different. As you study English, you will become more and more familiar with how these combinations are used, but at first, it’s important to write them down and memorize them. Here is a list of most common adjective and preposition combinations. Make sure to learn them by heart to be able to use them correctly the next time you practice English with someone. 22 AT to be good/bad at replace good/bad with any synonym: terrible, amazing, perfect, awful… to be surprised at to be angry at to be lucky at IN to be interested in to be involved in to be disappointed in to be experienced/skilled in ON to be keen on to be hooked on to be based on OF to be afraid/scared/terrified of to be fond of to be proud of to be capable of to be tired of to be aware of to be certain/sure of to be ashamed of to be envious of to be accused of to be jealous of to be guilty/innocent of FOR to be known/famous for to be grateful/thankful for to be prepared/ready for to be responsible for to be good/bad for to be sorry for WITH to be angry with to be (dis)satisfied with to be pleased with to be bored with to be associated with to be blessed with to be friendly with TO to be married to to be friendly to to be similar to to be rude to to be allergic to to be related to to be used to BY to be amazed/shocked/impressed/fascinated/inspired... by here you can use pretty much any other adjective that describes feelings or emotions and is used in passive voice. 23 24 8 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE? In English, an adjective describes a noun or pronoun, while an adverb describes a verb or anything apart from a noun and pronoun and is used to answer how questions. It’s easy to form adverbs from adjectives. In most cases, an adverb is formed by adding -LY to an adjective: glad — gladly nice — nicely loud — loudly light — lightly FACT #1: If an adjective ends in -L, the letter duplicates in an adverb: beautiful — beautifully If an adjective ends in -Y, replace it with -I and add -LY: crazy — crazily If an adjective ends in -ABLE, -IBLE, or -LE, replace the -E with -Y: simple — simply FACT #2: To every rule there is an exception! The following adverbs and adjectives have the same form: close — close free — free live — live daily — daily hard — hard long — long early — early high — high low — low fair — fair late — late right — right far — far like — like wide — wide fast — fast likely — likely wrong — wrong 25 Let’s go into detail about when to use adverbs and when to use adjectives. An ADJECTIVE is normally used: 1 Before a noun which it describes: Rex is a very good and well trained dog. I had wonderful teachers at school. 2 After linking verbs such as be, seem, look, feel, sound, taste, smell, appear, which describe senses, and some other verbs such as remain, stay, lie, get, grow, fall, prove, turn, run. These verbs are not action verbs, but verbs that link an adjective to a subject providing more information about it. You seem tired, get some sleep. I need to prove him wrong! Stay calm and enjoy English lessons! An ADVERB is normally used: 1 To modify a verb, adjective or another adverb. She danced very gracefully. He got there incredibly quickly. This assumption is perfectly accurate. 26 27 9 ENGLISH TENSES AND THEIR USES There are 12 basic English tenses, each of which belongs to one of three categories: Past, Present and Future, like in many other languages. Tenses can be Simple, Progressive, Perfect, and Perfect Progressive. Grammatical tense is a category that expresses action with reference to time, the duration of an action, whether it has ended by the moment of speaking or will only start in future. We can emphasize various details about an action by applying the grammatically correct tense. There are two tenses in English which can be formed only with the use of a verb: Present Simple (he writes) and Past Simple (he wrote). For the rest of the tenses, you need to use auxiliary verbs such as be, have, will. It’s always difficult for language learners to study the tenses of a foreign language, because oftentimes they are totally different from their native language ones. This is due to cultural differences in thinking. For example, Present Perfect is sometimes confusing to learners. You might think it’s a past tense and translate the sentence accordingly. However, for English native speakers it refers to an action that occurred or began in the past and continued to the present time. Which means it’s a present tense. That’s why you should never attempt to translate from your native language to English literally or word-for-word. It’s important to learn to think as a native speaker and consider all aspects of tense usage. 28 Ready to learn the difference between all English tenses? Let’s dive in! SIMPLE TENSES This is usually the first type of tenses that every English language learner encounters. It’s multifaceted and the most commonly used. Genius lies in simplicity... Simple tenses are no exception! Simple tenses are used to describe facts, habitual activities, promises (will), guesses or assumptions about the future (will), finished or one-time actions in the past. Past Simple: I visited my aunt in the hospital yesterday. Present Simple: I visit my aunt in the hospital today. Future Simple: I will visit my aunt in the hospital tomorrow. Promise! Past Simple is used for actions that happened at a specific time, for example, a certain number of days/months/years ago, yesterday, last summer, 3 months ago, at 8 o’clock, etc. PROGRESSIVE TENSES Progressive tenses, also called Continuous tenses, are used to describe periods of time in the past, present, or future. Grammatically progressive tense shows an “ongoingness” of the action denoted by the verb rather than the result of an action. Present Progressive is easy to recognize by common signal words such as now, at the moment, this week, today. Present Progressive is also used for definite future arrangements or plans, when you know for sure that you will be doing something in future (for example, attend an exhibition or go to someone’s birthday party). This is no longer an assumption, it’s a plan that you have decided or organized. Past Progressive: I was studying in the morning yesterday. Present Progressive: I am studying at the moment. Future Progressive: I will be studying all day long tomorrow. 29 PERFECT TENSES Perfect verb tenses are the most difficult for English learners. The term “perfect” can be confusing. Indeed, just take a look at the examples below: these forms are way more complicated that anything you’ve studied before. Past Perfect: I had bought a new car before I realized I had gone broke. Something that happened before another action in the past. Past Perfect is often used with Past Simple to make it clear which action happened first. Present Perfect: I have bought a new car and now I drive it every day. An action that started in the past and continues to the present. LinguaHack: Any one-time action in the past with a result in the present is considered to be continued and incomplete. The focus is always on the result: I’ve bought a car, so now I can drive it. Future Perfect: I will have bought a new car by 2021. Action will have been completed at some point in the future. The focus is again on the result, not on the duration of an action, no matter how long it takes to complete it. PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES Past Perfect Progressive: I had been learning English before I went to college. Present Perfect Progressive: I have been learning English for 10 years. Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been learning English for a decade by 2021. Sounds familiar, doesn’t it? We’ve seen it somewhere before... Oh, we know! LinguaHack: Check out the Perfect tenses and the rules of their usage. Now switch the focus from the result to the duration of an action. Bingo! You now know when to use Perfect Progressive tenses! 30 It’s no secret that all these tenses are very confusing. The rule of thumb is to keep it simple. If you can say something using the simple tenses, there is no need to form complicated and sophisticated structures rich in Past Perfect Progressive and Future Perfect tenses. You should be able to form them and use properly, but they don’t have to become a part of your everyday life. VERB TENSES PAST PRESENT FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE SIMPLE It is going to rain tonight. It rained yesterday. It rains every spring. PAST SIMPLE verb PRESENT SIMPLE verb WILL + V-inf or BE GOING TO + V-inf It was raining when I went to school. It is raining at the moment. It will be raining by the time I get to school. WAS/WERE + V-ing AM/IS/ARE + V-ing WILL BE + V-ing It had already rained before I left. I have driven a motorcycle in rain many times. It will have rained 15 mm by the end of the day. HAD + past participle of a verb HAS/HAVE + past participle of a verb WILL HAVE + past participle of a verb It had been raining for two days before we saw the sun. It has been raining for the whole week. It will have been raining for three days by the time it stops. HAD BEEN + V-ing + for/since HAS/HAVE BEEN + V-ing + for/since WILL HAVE BEEN + V-ing + for/since It will rain this September a lot. 31 32 10 REPORTED SPEECH In English, there are two ways to narrate the spoken words of a person: direct speech and reported speech. Direct speech describes something that we usually see in a form of dialogues: — Hey, Jack, how are you doing, buddy? — Thanks, Nate, pretty well actually. I can’t complain.. This is a good example of direct speech since both speakers express their OWN thoughts on the spot. This isn’t someone’s opinion they are discussing. This is exactly what they are thinking, or what they want to know by asking questions. We see and hear it firsthand, in their own words. Reported speech is a means of expressing the content of a dialogue or someone’s statements. When we report what someone says, we simply change the subject. He asked me, how I was doing. I said that I was doing pretty well and couldn’t complain. You’ve probably noticed that not only the structure of the sentence has changed but also the tenses. Reported speech requires the correct sequence of tenses. Sequence of tenses is a set of rules that governs the agreement between the tenses of verbs in related clauses or sentences. When does a shift of tenses occur in the reported speech? If a verb of the main sentence is in the present or future tense, then a verb of the clause is in the same tense as in the direct speech. — I will always love you. ⟶ He says he will always love me. This is pretty simple. It only becomes somewhat complicated when you use a verb of the main sentence in the past tense (e. g. “He said...”). Then the tense of the clause changes as well. 33 Let’s see the sequence of tenses in action and try to clear up all doubts! Here is a very handy table for you. Enjoy! J DIRECT SPEECH PRESENT SIMPLE — I go to work every day. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE — I’m working out at the moment. PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT — We’ve been to the USA twice. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE — I’ve been studying for 6 hours. PAST SIMPLE — I bought a car yesterday. PAST PROGRESSIVE PAST REPORTED SPEECH PAST SIMPLE She said that she went to work every day. PAST PROGRESSIVE He said that he was working out at that moment. PAST PERFECT They said that they had been to the USA twice. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE She said that she had been studying for 6 hours. PAST PERFECT He said that he had bought a car the day before. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE — I was watching the game. She said that he had been watching the game. PAST PERFECT (DOESN'T CHANGE) PAST PERFECT PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (DOESN'T CHANGE) PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE She said that she had known this — I had known this before you told before he told her. me. — We had been going out for 6 months before we moved in together. FUTURE SIMPLE (WILL) FUTURE — I will always be by your side. He said that they had been going out for 6 months before they moved in together. FUTURE IN THE PAST (WOULD) She said that she would always be by my side. 34 Hold on! It would be too easy, if there weren’t any exceptions! The tense of the clause doesn’t change if the original statement is general truth or a scientific fact: — The 4th of July is America’s national holiday. She said that the 4th of July is America’s national holiday. But tenses are not the only thing you should be changing. The same goes for demonstrative pronouns and adverbs. Here are a few examples: DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH THIS THAT THESE THOSE NOW THEN HERE THERE TODAY THAT DAY TOMORROW THE NEXT DAY AGO BEFORE YESTERDAY THE DAY BEFORE THE DAY AFTER TOMORROW TWO DAYS LATER THE DAY BEFORE YESTERDAY TWO DAYS BEFORE NEXT YEAR/MONTH... THE FOLLOWING YEAR/MONTH... LAST... PREVIOUS... 35 And a few more: — I was studying for an exam yesterday. He said that he had been studying for an exam the day before. — I’m feeling a little too anxious these days. I said that I was feeling a little too anxious those days. We also change personal and possessive pronouns, because they too need to be in agreement: — I will lend you my book for the weekend. She said she would lend me her book for the weekend. Got it? Now, let’s see how to report questions. Use IF or WHETHER to report Yes/No questions: — Will you eat? I asked her, whether/if she would eat. In what, where, why, who, when or how questions, we use the same question word to report the question: — Where do you want to go next summer? They asked me where I wanted to go the following summer. — What are you doing? She asked me what I was doing. LinguaHack: You might think that only “say” and “ask” verbs are used to introduce reported speech in the sentence. But that would be too boring! In fact, you can use a whole bunch of verbs instead: COMPLAIN, CLAIM, ADMIT, DENY, EXPLAIN, INSIST, STATE, PROMISE… Or any other synonym of “say, “state,” or “ask.” 36 11 VERB LISTS: INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS Do you know the difference between “I like doing something” and “I like to do something”? What about “stop doing something” and “stop to do something”? Or “try doing something” and “try to do something”? If not, read on and unlock new knowledge! There is nothing complicated here. If you want to follow a verb with another verb, you have two options: First: verb + to + infinitive Second: verb + gerund There are certain verbs that can only be followed by one or the other—these verbs must be memorized. There are also verbs that can be followed by both gerund and infinitive with a change in meaning. It might sound a bit complicated, but let’s take a closer look. HERE IS A LIST OF COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY AN INFINITIVE: agree He agreed to finish the task for me. choose decide I expect you to cook the dinner tonight. expect forget help My boss manages to send hundreds of emails per day. hope manage promise refuse want would like would love would prefer 37 HERE IS A LIST OF COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY A GERUND (-ING ENDING): admit (to) deny finish mind avoid I admit eating all the cake, okay! I need to keep on practising. He felt like running after her and begging to stay. dislike give up miss (can’t) help enjoy practise (can’t) stand fancy involve put off consider feel like keep (on) risk imagine There are also verbs that can be followed by a gerund or infinitive with little to no change in meaning. For example: hate, like, love, prefer. You typically should use a gerund when talking about an activity. An infinitive is used to emphasize the fact that you like/dislike this particular action and not some other action or its result. I love eating pizza so much! I love to eat pizza, but I hate to order it. I prefer not telling anyone my plans. I prefer not to tell you my plans this time. 38 LET’S MOVE ON TO THE TRICKY VERBS WHICH CHANGE THEIR MEANING DEPENDING ON THE STRUCTURE YOU USE. HERE IS A DETAILED TABLE. 39 40 12 DO or MAKE? There are tons of idiomatic expressions with the verbs DO and MAKE. No wonder these two are so frequently confused even by those who have been studying English for a while! You might even be confused yourself! Luckily, we are here to break it down for you. Use DO for actions, obligations, and repetitive tasks—everything that has nothing to do with the process of creating something. DO helps execute tasks: You did a nice job, Harry. My mom is doing the shopping now. By contrast, MAKE is used for creating or producing something with your own hands, e. g. to set the table or to make a mistake: This bag was made in China. She made a funny sound. I made $3 million dollars this year. DO usually refers to the action itself, while MAKE refers to the result. There are many common English collocations with DO and MAKE. Even though there is a common meaning for both types, many expressions don’t strictly follow the instructions we outlined above. You should simply memorize them one by one. One step at a time :) 41 COMMON ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH DO: do the shopping do the work do the dishes do business do a great/poor/awesome job do a report do something/anything do good/bad do your best do an exam do your hair do damage do harm do your duty do a course do research do a favour COMMON ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH MAKE: make breakfast/dinner/lunch make a sandwich make some tea make money make friends make up something make a call make a joke make an excuse make a promise make a fuss make sure make a list make progress make a mistake make a choice/decision make an exception make a difference make up your mind make a sound make an appointment make an attempt make a discovery make fun of something make friends make the bed 42 These verbs can also be used in the following way: I’ve got a job to do. I’ve got a call to make. DO can also replace a verb, if its meaning is obvious in the context, for example: I’ll do the lawn, and you’ll do the dishes. = I’ll mow the lawn and you’ll wash the dishes. LinguaHack: You can answer with DO + it to a question with MAKE. For example: — Can you make a sandwich for me? — I’ll do it a little bit later. A few more examples of sentences with DO and MAKE: You need to do your best in order to achieve a lot in life. Luckily, nowadays people can make a doctor’s appointment online. I usually do research before buying anything expensive. I read reviews and other people’s opinions. He got into social activism because he wanted to make a difference. 43 44 13 HOW TO USE ZERO AND FIRST CONDITIONAL Zero Conditional (generally known facts) IF/WHEN When If clause (condition) Main clause (result) Present Simple Present Simple Michael is on the beach, he always gets a sunburn. Are you 100% sure that eating chocolate will make you gain some extra weight? Do you know how to say it to your friend, so he doesn’t offer you candies again? That’s right! Use zero conditional. When you are 100% confident in the result in the present/future, opt for zero conditional. When to use: 1 Laws of nature: If the temperature is below zero, water freezes. When it gets cold, migratory birds fly away to warmer places. 2 Something that’s always true: I have a food allergy. If I eat shrimps, I feel sick. The lights turn on if you press this button. LinguaHack: You can replace IF with WHEN, because unlike other conditionals, they mean the same thing in zero conditionals: when there is a specific situation, you get a specific result. 45 First Conditional (real possibilities in the present or future) If clause (condition) Main clause (result) Present tenses Future tenses, modal verbs, imperative you give her flowers, she will be happy. In case we are expecting someone, I will tidy the apartment. If you don’t pass your finals, you can't go on vacation with your friends. you are done with your project, go help your sister with hers. IF If When If you sleep through your alarm and miss the class, your professor might either get angry at you or let it pass, because they might be in a good mood today. But who knows what will happen exactly? If you are not so sure about the result, use the first conditional. 46 When to use: 1 Real possibilities: If Carl drinks coffee in the evening, he will not fall asleep (but in some cases he might fall asleep because drinking coffee doesn't always ruin his sleeping pattern). You will enter Stanford if you pass your SATs with flying colors (but it is not 100% guaranteed as there might also be other requirements from the university). 2 To offer help or services, provide suggestions: If you don’t want to go out tonight, we can stay in and watch a movie. If you need any help, just call me and I'll be right by your side. 3 Warnings and threats: I will never forgive him if he doesn’t take his words back. You will injure yourself if you don't follow the safety rules. 47 48 14 SECOND AND THIRD CONDITIONAL: THE SKY IS THE LIMIT Second Conditional (impossible and imaginary situations in the present or future) If clause (condition) Main clause (result) Past (Simple or Progressive) would/could/might + verb infinitive If I worked as a bed and mattress tester, I would have a dream job. If Kendal was more athletic, she could be on the school basketball team. IF We all use imagination in our daily lives. What if we all could speak English fluently? Then, most probably, we would all be constantly traveling and meeting new people. Second conditional is used to describe impossible or imaginary situations in the present or future. The important thing about the second conditional is that it’s very unlikely that the condition will happen. It’s an imaginary situation with an imaginary result, which is possible to happen in the present or future but not very real. 49 When to use: 1 To describe things in the present or future that will probably not happen: Sarah would buy fresh croissants for breakfast every morning if she lived in Paris (but she lives in London). If I didn’t have a car, it would be difficult to get around LA (but I do have a car). If he was sleeping, it wouldn’t be so noisy upstairs. 2 To give advice: The use of WERE in second conditionals is recommended with all subjects such as I, he, she, it, Rachel, that place, etc. Using WAS is also acceptable. “If I were you” is an idiom. If I were you, I’d confess her my feelings. 3 To offer help or services, provide suggestions: If Kathie wanted to see that band, I could get you two tickets. We are not sure if Kathie really wants to go to that concert, that’s why we use the second conditional instead of the first. 50 Third Conditional (impossible conditions in the past) If clause (condition) Main clause (result) Past Perfect or Past Perfect Progressive would/could/might + have + V3 If my parents hadn’t moved to Berkeley, I wouldn’t have met my future husband. If the police had been more careful, they might have caught the suspect faster. IF Third conditional is used to describe imaginary situations in the past; how things could have been different in the past. These are impossible conditions and their results contradict what really happened in the past. This is the conditional to use when you want to give someone a lesson, express resentment about mistakes made in the past or to complain about something you wish you had never done: If only I hadn’t acted as an idiot; If only I had done that differently; If only she had agreed... Everything would be different now, right? 51 When to use: 1 To describe imaginary situations in the past: If we hadn't rented a car, it would have been difficult to get around LA last month (but we rented a car and we drove everywhere). You could have travelled to Italy last year if you hadn't splurged all your money on a new iPhone (but you wasted all the money and you couldn't afford going to Italy). 2 To criticize someone for something that already happened: If you had been more thoughtful, you wouldn't have offended her with your words. 3 To express a regret about the past: If I had had more time with my granddad, I would have thanked him for everything he had done for me. LinguaHack: English native speakers mostly use the second conditional because people like to imagine things and give advice. Mixed conditional is a rare type though—this one you might not hear very often. Let’s take a closer look at what it means. 52 53 15 MIXED CONDITIONALS Mixed Conditionals All four types of conditionals belong strongly to either past, present or future. So, what do you do when your condition is about something that happened in the past, but the result refers to the present? Or vice-versa? This is where you would use mixed conditionals! Mixed conditionals are a combination of the past, present and future which allows us to fully describe even more situations, where regular conditionals wouldn’t be as effective. If clause (condition) Main clause (result) Second (condition refers to the present/future) Third (result refers to the past) 1. If I had someone to help me with all the chores (I live alone and no one helps me with house work). 1. I would have gone out with my friends yesterday (I had to stay at home and do the chores instead of hanging out with my friends). 1. If you were more proactive (but you are passive). 1. you would have asked that girl out ages ago (you still haven’t done it yet). 1. If I wasn’t leaving tomorrow (I have a plane ticket and I am going on vacation). 1. I would have come over yesterday and have helped you fix your car (but I didn’t come over and didn’t help fix the car). Third (condition refers to the past) Second (result refers to the present/future) 1. If Nick had thought through the whole journey (but he didn’t do it in advance). 1. we wouldn't be searching for a place to stay now (we are searching for a place to stay right now). 1. If Venya hadn’t taken up learning English (but he started learning English a long time ago). 1. he wouldn’t be where he is today (but he is successful now). 1. If you had gotten that job (but you didn’t get it). Second (condition refers to the past) 1. If she came back late last night, 2. If you did all the homework, 1. If he drank all the juice, 1. we would be packing our house for a move next week (we are not doing it next week). First (result refers to the present/future) 1. she won’t come to classes today. 2. you won’t have problems at the test tomorrow. 3. I’ll be so mad at him. 54 Mixed conditionals are advanced, and it’s not always clear what tense they refer to. The easiest one to remember is a combination of first and second conditionals: if something had happened in the past, it would result in something else in the future. It might not seem obvious at first, but with practice you will get there! If she came back late last night, she won’t come to classes today. The most complicated conditional is where you use the second and third types, because those can even swap! When you approach such sentences, the first thing to do is to figure out which part of the sentence is in the past, and which is in the present. Let’s look at some examples. If you were more proactive you would have asked that girl out ages ago Here we see that the condition is in the present. It’s a trait of that person, his permanent quality. He is just a passive individual. Even though we use Past Simple (If you were...). This is the second conditional. The main clause is however in the past. Because you are so passive (now), you still haven’t asked that girl out (haven’t done it before and up until now). Everything changes when we use the third conditional for the if clause, and the second for the main clause. If Nick had thought through the whole journey, we wouldn't be searching for a place to stay now If he had thought through everything in the past (third conditional), then today we would have a different result (second conditional). LinguaHack: Draw a timeline with tenses. Now take the above examples and place them on this timeline. Check where each of the if and main clauses belongs. PAST NOW FUTURE 55 56 16 WHAT IS ANOTHER WORD FOR IF? (UNLESS, PROVIDED THAT, SUPPOSING, ETC.) WORD CONDITIONAL WHEN 0 UNLESS (=IF NOT) 0, 1 Unless he loved her, he wouldn’t sacrifice his career for her. PROVIDING/ PROVIDED (THAT) 1 Providing I have enough money, I will chip in for a present for Natalie. SO/AS LONG AS 0, 1 So/as long as you promise to quit binge-watching Netflix, I will pay for your subscription. SUPPOSE/ SUPPOSING 1, 2 AND 3 When we drink coffee, our blood pressure rises. Suppose he popped you a question, would you say yes? Suppose you won a lottery? OTHERWISE 1 BUT FOR 2 AND 3 AND/OR EXAMPLE 1 Start working on your CV. Otherwise you will have a hard time finding a good job (If you don’t start working on your CV, you will have hard time finding a good job). But for his help, I would have failed that test (if he hadn’t helped me). Leave that room again and you will be grounded for a week. Don’t leave that room or you will be grounded for a week. IN CASE OF/ IN THE EVENT OF 1 In case you get hungry, take some soup from the fridge. In the event of fire, call 911. 57 58
