E ]

E
?C'!=31!O3a
?#W+)3=+==YM =!O35
]7?=?;3Q+E735
3 E?O3!9[=Y5 E?%+G
Distr.
GENERAL
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
22 June 1998
RUSSIAN
Original:
7?;3EE3a A? AC!%!; Q+9?%+7!
A@*8@<4FF4b B@ BD,*JBD,0*,>4`
*4F8D4<4>"P44 4 2"V4H,
<,>\T4>FH&
AbH4*,FbH"b F,FF4b
AJ>8H 6 BD,*&"D4H,:\>@6 B@&,FH84 *>b
E?%C+;+==Y+ K?C;Y C!#EG%!
E4FH,<"H4R,F84, 42>"F4:@&">4b, F,8FJ":\>@, D"$FH&@ 4 FN@*>"b
F D"$FH&@< BD"8H48" & B,D4@* &@@DJ0,>>ZN 8@>L:48H@&
1"8:`R4H,:\>Z6 *@8:"*, BD,*FH"&:,>>Z6 EB,P4":\>Z< *@8:"*R48@<
(-0@6 ',6 )0. ;"8*J("::
GE.98-12883
(R)
ENGLISH
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 2
E?)+C/!=3+
AJ>8HZ
EHD.
1 - 6
3
O+9[ 3 7?=G+7EG )?79!)! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 - 19
4
O,:\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E@*,D0">4, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 - 12
13 - 19
5
7
?AC+)+9+=3+ AC+EGIA9+=35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20 - 33
9
E,8FJ":\>@, >"F4:4,, &8:`R"b 42>"F4:@&">4, . . . . . . .
C"$FH&@, &8:`R"b F,8FJ":\>@, D"$FH&@ . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21 - 26
27 - 33
9
11
34 - 73
13
38
46
48
53
56
45
47
52
55
73
14
17
17
18
19
%&,*,>4, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.
A.
B.
II.
A.
B.
III.
AC!%?%!a ?E=?%! )9a ?EIU+EG%9+=3a I'?9?%=?'?
AC+E9+)?%!=3a 1! E+7EI!9[=?+ C!#EG%? 3
E+7EI!9[=?+ =!E393+, % G?; Q3E9+ 1!
31=!E39?%!=3+, % C!;7!M ;+/)I=!C?)=?'?
AC!%! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
AD,FHJB:,>4b BD@H4& R,:@&,R>@FH4
C"$FH&@ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
',>@P4* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AZH84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
%@,>>Z, BD,FHJB:,>4b . . . . . . . . . .
.
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.
.
-
IV.
?G%+GEG%+==?EG[ ?G)+9[=YM 93O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74 - 84
24
V.
?G%+GEG%+==?EG[ 1! A?3E7 3 I'?9?%=?+
AC+E9+)?%!=3+ %?+==YM AC+EGIA=37?% . . . . . . . . .
85 - 87
28
AC!%? =! ]KK+7G3%=?+ EC+)EG%? 1!U3GY 3
?#a1!==?EG[ %YA9!Q3%!G[ 7?;A+=E!O3_ . . . . . . .
88 - 90
29
I'?9?%=?+ AC+E9+)?%!=3+ =! ;+/)I=!C?)=?;
IC?%=+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91 - 100
30
91 - 94
30
95 - 100
31
VI.
VII.
A.
B.
1>"R,>4, &>JHD4(@FJ*"DFH&,>>@(@
J(@:@&>@(@ BD,F:,*@&">4b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
?$V4, >,*@FH"H84 &>JHD4(@FJ*"DFH&,>>@(@ BD"&"
4 BD@P,FFJ":\>ZN >@D< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VIII.
C+7?;+=)!O33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101 - 109
34
IX.
1!79_Q+=3a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
110 - 115
39
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 3
%&,*,>4,
1.
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BD"8H48, & &@,>>@, &D,<b, & H@< R4F:, & B,D4@* &>JHD,>>4N &@@DJ0,>>ZN 8@>L:48H@&, >"
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3.
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(E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/38). A@*8@<4FF4b & F&@,6 D,2@:`P44 1995/14 &ZD"24:"
BD42>"H,:\>@FH\ 2" B@*(@H@&8J *">>@(@ *@8J<,>H". EB,P4":\>Z6 *@8:"*R48 BD,*FH"&4:"
F&@6 BD,*&"D4H,:\>Z6 *@8:"* >" F@D@8 &@F\<@6 F,FF44 (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/26), &
8@H@D@< & 8D"H8@6 L@D<, 42:@04:" P,:\ 4 @N&"H 4FF:,*@&">46, 4FH@D4` &@BD@F" @
F4FH,<"H4R,F84N 42>"F4:@&">4bN 8"8 4>FHDJ<,>H, B@:4H484, *,6FH&J`V4, <,0*J>"D@*>Z,
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% <", 1997 (@*" (-0" Q"&,F 4>L@D<4D@&":" %,DN@&>@(@ 8@<4FF"D"/O,>HD B@ BD"&"<
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A@*8@<4FF4b & F&@,< D,T,>44 1997/114 >"2>"R4:" (-0J ',6 )0. ;"8*J(":: EB,P4":\>Z<
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 4
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 5
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 9
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 16
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page 17
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 18
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 19
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 21
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 25
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 26
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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page 40
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 42
AD4<,R">4b
1/
EB,P4":\>Z6 *@8:"*R48 N@H,: $Z &ZD"24H\ BD42>"H,:\>@FH\ F:,*J`V4< :4P"< 2"
@8"2">4, 4<4 B@<@V4 & B@*(@H@&8, >"FH@bV,(@ *@8:"*" - EH,L,>J #@J^>J, ;"D8J #D@<:4,
!:4F, ;. ;4::,D 4 !:4F@>J =. EH`"DHJ. 7D@<, H@(@, EB,P4":\>Z6 *@8:"*R48 N@H,: $Z
B@$:"(@*"D4H\ F:,*J`V4N :4P, @8"2"&T4N ^8FB,DH>Z, JF:J(4 & N@*, BD@&,*,>4b >"FH@bV,(@
4FF:,*@&">4b, - 7,::, !F84>J, ;. S,D4LJ #"FF4@J>4, )4">, ?D,>H:4N,D, A"HD4P44
%42,D E,::,DF 4 )^&4*J %"6FF$D@*HJ.
2/
):b P,:,6 D"FF<@HD,>4b F<. Hilary Charlesworth, Christine Chinkin and
Shelley Wright, "Feminist approaches to international law", American Journal
of International Law, vol. 85, 1991.
3/
Madeline Morris, "By force of arms:
culture", Duke Law Journal, vol. 45, 1996.
rape, war, and military
4/
G,D<4> "(,>*,D>Z6" @H>@F4HFb 8 F@P4":\>Z< D@:b< <J0R4> 4 0,>V4> &
@$V,FH&,>>@6 4 R"FH>@6 042>4. G,D<4> "(,>*,D>Z6" @H:4R",HFb @H H,D<4>" "B@:@&@6"
H,<, RH@ B@F:,*>46 B@*R,D84&",H $4@:@(4R,F84, N"D"8H,D4FH484. Donna Sullivan,
Integration of Women’s Human Rights into the Work of the Special Rapporteurs,
(New York: UNIFEM, 1996).
5/
E<. A,84>F8"b *,8:"D"P4b 4 A:"HL@D<" *,6FH&46 (A/CONF.177/20),
BJ>8HZ 131-149; C"*N484 7J<"D"F&"<4, *@8:"* EB,P4":\>@(@ *@8:"*R48" B@ &@BD@FJ @
>"F4:44 & @H>@T,>44 0,>V4>, ,(@ BD4R4>"N 4 B@F:,*FH&4bN (E/CN.4/1998/54),
BJ>8HZ 8-18.
M. Cherif Bassiouni, Sexual Violence: An Invisible Weapon of War in
6/
the Former Yugoslavia, Occasional Paper No. 1, International Human Rights Law
Institute, DePaul University College of Law, 1996, p. 3.
7/
Human Rights Watch, Shattered Lives: Sexual Violence during the
Rwandan Genocide and its Aftermath, New York, 1996, p. 62.
8/
E<. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
(ICTFY), Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case IT-94-1-T (Trial Chamber Judgement of
7 May 1997).
9/
ICTFY, Indictment of Miljkovic and Others, Case IT-95-9-I (21 July
1995), para. 31.
10/ Rape and Sexual Assault: A Legal Study. Final report of the United
Nations Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council
resolution 780 (1992) (S/1994/674/Add.2 (Vol. I), annex II), para. 2.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 43
11/ G"< 0,, BD4<,R">4, 4 (& 8@H@D@< (@&@D4HFb, RH@ ">"F4:\FH&,>>Z,
BD,FHJB:,>4b (@<@F,8FJ":\>@(@ N"D"8H,D" R,H8@ >, JB@<4>"`HFb & <,0*J>"D@*>@<
(J<">4H"D>@< BD"&,... =,H F@<>,>4b & H@<, RH@ <,0*J>"D@*>@, (J<">4H"D>@, BD"&@ &
F4:J H@(@, RH@ @>@ @$,FB,R4&",H 2"V4HJ BD@H4& 42>"F4:@&">4b 4 *DJ(4N L@D< F,8FJ":\>@(@
>"F4:4b, BD4<,>4<@ 8 <J0R4>"< 4 0,>V4>"<, B@F8@:\8J <,0*J>"D@*>Z, BD"&" R,:@&,8",
& 8@H@DZN 2"BD,V",HFb *4F8D4<4>"P4b (& *">>@< F:JR", B@ <@H4&"< B@:"), >, *@BJF8"`H
4N J<":,>4b".
12/ ICTFY, Rules of procedure and evidence (as amended on 25 July 1997),
rule 96 (Evidence in cases of sexual assault); International Tribunal for
Rwanda, Rules of procedure and evidence, entered into force 29 June 1995.
13/
G"< 0,.
14/ M. Cherif Bassioiuni, "Enslavement as an international crime", New
York University Journal of International Law and Politics, vol. 23, 1991,
p. 458.
15/ E<., >"BD4<,D, ICTFY, Indictment of Gagovic and Others,
Case IT-96-23-I (26 June 1996) [hereinafter Foca Indictment].
16/ E<., >"BD4<,D, Betsy Apple, School for Rape:
and Sexual Violence, 1998, p. 49.
The Burmese Military
17/ 7J<"D"F&"<4 (E/CN.4/1998/54, BJ>8H 42). E@&,DT,>>@ @R,&4*>@, RH@
<>@(4<4 0,DH&"<4 F,8FJ":\>@(@ D"$FH&" 4 F,8FJ":\>@(@ >"F4:4b & B,D4@* &@@DJ0,>>ZN
8@>L:48H@& b&:b`HFb *,H4. '-0" 'D"F" ;"T,:, ^8FB,DH, >"2>"R,>>Z6 ',>,D":\>Z<
F,8D,H"D,< *:b BD@&,*,>4b 4FF:,*@&">4b B@ &@BD@FJ @ B@F:,*FH&4bN &@@DJ0,>>ZN
8@>L:48H@& *:b *,H,6, & F&@,< 2"8:`R4H,:\>@< *@8:"*, (A/51/306 @H 26 "&(JFH"
1996 (@*", BJ>8H 45) B4T,H:
"% '&"H,<":, B@&FH">R,F84, L@D<4D@&">4b 4FB@:\2J`H *,&@R,8 *:b BD4(@H@&:,>4b
B4V4, JN@*" 2" D">,>Z<4 4 FH4D84 @*,0*Z. ),&@R,8 <@(JH BD4>J0*"H\ 4 8
@8"2">4` F,8FJ":\>ZN JF:J(. % I(">*, *,&@R,8, 8@H@DZN B@N4V",H !D<4b
F@BD@H4&:,>4b '@FB@*>b, &Z*"`H 2"<J0 2" ":4*,D@& B@&FH">P,&". +F:4 <J0R4>"
J<4D",H, *,&@R8J B@*&,D("`H D4HJ":\>@<J @<@&,>4`, " 2"H,< &Z*"`H 2"<J0 2"
*DJ(@(@ B@&FH">P"".
18/ ;"T,:, H"< 0,, BJ>8H 91. "% H@ &D,<b 8"8 H"84, >"*DJ("H,:\FH&", 8"8
BD,*>"<,D,>>@, J$46FH&@ 4 J0, *"&>@ @FJ0*,>Z & 8"R,FH&, &@,>>ZN BD,FHJB:,>46,
F,D\,2>@FH\ 42>"F4:@&">4b J<":b,HFb 4 @>@ D"FF<"HD4&",HFb & 8"R,FH&, &Z2Z&"`V,(@
F@0":,>4b, @*>"8@ >,42$,0>@(@ B@$@R>@(@ F:,*FH&4b &@6>Z".
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 44
19/ M. Cherif Bassiouni, International Crimes, Jus Cogens and
Obligations Erga Omnes, in Bassiouni and Madeline H. Morris (eds.),
Accountability for International Crimes and Serious Violations of Fundamental
Human Rights, 1996, p. 68.
20/
Ibid., pp. 65-66.
21/
Ibid.
22/ E<. ;IG#_, *,:@ G"*4R", D"2*,: VI.D.2.ii.a. EJ*,$>"b A":"H" ;IG#_
@H<,H4:", RH@ "& >"FH@bV,, &D,<b JFH">@&4&T,6Fb BD"8H48@6 b&:b,HFb HD,$@&">4, @ H@<,
RH@ "8HZ, >"BD"&:,>>Z, BD@H4& (D"0*">F8@(@ ">"F,:,>4b", <@(:4 D"FF<"HD4&"H\Fb 8"8
H"8@&Z,, ,F:4 ^H4 "8HZ >@FbH T4D@8@ D"FBD@FHD">,>>Z6 N"D"8H,D 4:4 b&:b`HFb
F4FH,<"H4R,F84<4. =":4R4, @*>@(@ 42 ^H4N JF:@&46 b&:b,HFb *@FH"H@R>Z<, RH@$Z >,
8&":4L4P4D@&"H\ 4N 8"8 ,*4>4R>Z, 4 F:JR"6>Z, "8HZ".
23/ EH"H\b 6 F) IFH"&" ;,0*J>"D@*>@(@ &@,>>@(@ HD4$J>":" & =`D>$,D(,
(1945 (@*) @BD,*,:b,H BD,FHJB:,>4, BD@H4& R,:@&,R>@FH4 8"8 "J$46FH&@, 4FHD,$:,>4,,
B@D"$@V,>4,, FFZ:8" 4 *DJ(4, 0,FH@8@FH4, F@&,DT,>>Z, & @H>@T,>44 (D"0*">F8@(@
>"F,:,>4b *@ 4:4 &@ &D,<b &@6>Z, 4:4 BD,F:,*@&">4b B@ B@:4H4R,F84<, D"F@&Z< 4:4
D,:4(4@2>Z< <@H4&"<, F P,:\` @FJV,FH&:,>4b 4:4 & F&b24 F :`$Z< BD,FHJB:,>4,<,
B@*:,0"V4< `D4F*48P44 GD4$J>":", >,2"&4F4<@ @H H@(@, b&:b:4F\ :4 ^H4 *,6FH&4b
>"DJT,>4,< &>JHD,>>,(@ BD"&" FHD">Z, (*, @>4 $Z:4 F@&,DT,>Z, 4:4 >,H". E<. H"80,
2"8:`R4H,:\>Z6 *@8:"* 7@<4FF44 ^8FB,DH@& ?D(">42"P44 ?$X,*4>,>>ZN ="P46, F@2*">>@6 &
F@@H&,HFH&44 F D,2@:`P4,6 780 (1992) E@&,H" #,2@B"F>@FH4 (S/1994/674), BJ>8H 83.
24/ ;IG#_, *,:@ G"*4R", D,T,>4, !B,::bP4@>>@6 B":"HZ @H 2 @8Hb$Db 1995 (@*"
& @H>@T,>44 `D4F*48P44, BJ>8H 141 (& 8@H@D@< (@&@D4HFb, RH@ @$V,BD4>bH@6 >@D<@6
@$ZR>@(@ <,0*J>"D@*>@(@ BD"&" BD,*JF<"HD4&",HFb, RH@ BD,FHJB:,>4b BD@H4& R,:@&,R>@FH4
>,@$b2"H,:\>@ *@:0>Z $ZH\ F&b2">Z F <,0*J>"D@*>Z< &@@DJ0,>>Z< 8@>L:48H@<).
25/ Theodor Meron, "Rape as a crime under international humanitarian
law", American Journal of International Law, vol. 87, 1993, p. 428.
26/ M. Cherif Bassiouni, Crimes against Humanity in International
Criminal Law, (Dordrecht, Boston: M. Nijhoff, 1992), p. 251. !&H@D J8"2Z&",H:
"94T,>4, 2"V4HZ @H BD,FHJB:,>46 BD@H4& R,:@&,R>@FH4 [:`$@6 &Z*,:,>>@6 (DJBBZ,
>,2"&4F4<@ @H F&b2Z&"`V4N ,, J2] >,*@BJFH4<@. ]:,<,>H *4F8D4<4>"P44
F&4*,H,:\FH&J,H @ 8@::,8H4&>@< N"D"8H,D, BD,FHJB:,>4b 4 ,(@ <"FTH"$Z >, *@:0>Z
4<,H\ @(D">4R,>46, " H"80, 8@:4R,FH&,>>ZN 4:4 R4F:,>>ZN FH">*"DH@& & @H>@T,>44
:4P, 8@H@DZ, <@(JH $ZH\ &8:`R,>Z & (DJBBJ, B@ @H>@T,>4` 8 8@H@D@6 *@BJF8",HFb
*4F8D4<4>"P4b".
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 45
27/
E<. H"80, *@8:"* 7@<4FF44 ^8FB,DH@& (S/1994/674), BJ>8H 107.
28/ IFH"& ;,0*J>"D@*>@(@ &@,>>@(@ HD4$J>":", =`D>$,D(, FH"H\b 6 F); IFH"&
;,0*J>"D@*>@(@ &@,>>@(@ HD4$J>":" B@ )":\>,<J %@FH@8J, FH"H\b 5 F); 1"8@>
10
E@&,H" B@ 8@>HD@:` F@`2>4R,F84N *,D0"&, ="8"2">4, :4P, &4>@&>ZN & F@&,DT,>44
&@,>>ZN BD,FHJB:,>46 BD@H4& <4D" 4 BD@H4& R,:@&,R>@FH4, FH"H\b 1 F).
29/
C,2@:`P4b 827 (1993) E@&,H" #,2@B"F>@FH4, BD4:@0,>4,.
30/
C,2@:`P4b 955 (1994) E@&,H" #,2@B"F>@FH4, BD4:@0,>4,.
31/ Foca Indictment, supra note 15, Counts 56, 57, 61 and 62,
paras. 12.2, 12.5.
32/ Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Co., Ltd. (Belgium v. Spain),
Judgement of 5 February 1970: I.C.J., Reports 1970, p. 32.
33/ John P. Humphrey, The International Law of Human Rights in the
Middle Twentieth Century, reprinted in Richard B. Lillich, International
Human Rights: Problems of Law Policy, and Practice (2nd ed.) (Boston,
Toronto: Little Brown & Co., 1991), p. 1.
"7 1885 (@*J <@0>@ $Z:@ JH&,D0*"H\ >" @F>@&">44 ?$V,(@ "8H" #,D:4>F8@6
8@>L,D,>P44 B@ O,>HD":\>@6 !LD48,, RH@ "H@D(@&:b D"$"<4 2"BD,V",HFb &
F@@H&,HFH&44 F BD4>P4B"<4 <,0*J>"D@*>@(@ BD"&"". % 1889 (@*J #D`FF,:\F8"b
8@>L,D,>P4b >, H@:\8@ @FJ*4:" D"$FH&@ 4 D"$@H@D(@&:`, >@ 4 *@FH4(:" F@(:"F4b &
@H>@T,>44 BD4>bH4b <,D *:b 4N BD,F,R,>4b, &8:`R"b BD,*@FH"&:,>4, >" &2"4<>@6
@F>@&, BD"& BD@&,*,>4b @$ZF8" 4 "D,FH@& FJ*@&, B,D,&@2bV4N D"$@&, 4 @FJV,FH&:,>4,
& F&b24 F ^H4< FJ*,$>@(@ BD,F:,*@&">4b. ]H" D"$@H" $Z:" BD@*@:0,>" 94(@6 ="P46
4 ?D(">42"P4,6 ?$X,*4>,>>ZN ="P46".
34/ Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide, I.C.J., Reports 1951, p. 15.
35/
)@8:"* 7@<4FF44 ^8FB,DH@& (S/1994/674), BJ>8H 313.
36/ Yoram Dinstein, "International criminal law", Israel Yearbook on
Human Rights, vol. 5, 1975, reprinted in Henry J. Steiner and Philip Alston,
International Human Rights in Context, Law, Politics, Morals (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1996), pp. 1025, 1028. (% D"$@H, @H<,R",HFb, RH@ "J$46FH&@
@H*,:\>@(@ :4P" <@0,H D"FF<"HD4&"H\Fb 8"8 (,>@P4*, ,F:4 @>@ b&:b,HFb R"FH\` F,D44
"8H@&, >"BD"&:,>>ZN >" J>4RH@0,>4, (DJBBZ, 8 8@H@D@6 BD4>"*:,0":" 0,DH&"".)
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 46
37/ )@8:"* EB,P4":\>@(@ *@8:"*R48" B@ &@BD@FJ @ BZH8"N 7@<4FF44 B@ BD"&"<
R,:@&,8" >" ,, F@D@8 &H@D@6 F,FF44 (E/CN.4/1986/15, BJ>8H 119); International
Human Rights Law Group, Token Gestures: Women’s Human Rights and UN
Reporting, 1993, pp. 6-11.
38/ 7@<4H,H B@ :48&4*"P44 *4F8D4<4>"P44 & @H>@T,>44 0,>V4>, @$V"b
D,8@<,>*"P4b
19 (@*4>>"*P"H"b F,FF4b, 1992 (@*), BJ>8H 6.
39/ Military and Paramilitary Activities in and agains Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States), Judgement of 27 June 1986, I.C.J., Reports
1986, p. 114. (% D,T,>44 *,:",HFb &Z&@* @ H@<, RH@ >@D<Z, 42:@0,>>Z, & FH"H\, 3,
b&:b`V4,Fb @$V4<4 *:b /,>,&F84N 8@>&,>P46 4 *,8:"D4DJ`V4<4 @$ZR>@, <,0*J>"D@*>@,
BD"&@, BD,*FH"&:b`H F@$@6 ^:,<,>H"D>@, B@>bH4, (J<">>@FH4.)
40/ )@8:"* ;,0*J>"D@*>@6 8@<4FF44 BD"&" @ D"$@H, ,, HD4*P"H\ &H@D@6 F,FF44,
?L4P4":\>Z, @HR,HZ ',>,D":\>@6 !FF"<$:,4, HD4*P"H\ BbH"b F,FF4b, *@B@:>,>4,
10
(A/32/10) (1980 (@*).
41/ EH"H\b 49 (A,D&@6) /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44 @$ J:JRT,>44 JR"FH4 D">,>ZN 4
$@:\>ZN & *,6FH&J`V4N "D<4bN; FH"H\b 146 (Q,H&,DH@6) /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44 @ 2"V4H,
(D"0*">F8@(@ >"F,:,>4b &@ &D,<b &@6>Z.
42/ % P,:@< B@:@0,>4b /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44 1949 (@*", 8"F"`V4,Fb F,D\,2>ZN
>"DJT,>46, BD42&">Z J:JRT4H\ B@:@0,>4, ">"N@*bV4NFb B@* 2"V4H@6 :4P", 8@H@DZ, &
FH"H\, 4 Q,H&,DH@6 /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44 @BD,*,:b`HFb 8"8 ":4P", 8@H@DZ, & 8"8@6-:4$@
<@<,>H 4:4 8"84<-:4$@ @$D"2@< >"N@*bHFb & F:JR", 8@>L:48H" 4:4 @88JB"P44 &@ &:"FH4
FH@D@>Z, >"N@*bV,6Fb & 8@>L:48H,, 4:4 @88JB4DJ`V,6 *,D0"&Z, (D"0*">"<4 8@H@D@6 @>4
>, b&:b`HFb". A@:@0,>4,, 8"F"`V,,Fb F,D\,2>ZN >"DJT,>46, BD42&">@ H"80,
BD4<,>bH\Fb &@ &D,<b <,0*J>"D@*>ZN &@@DJ0,>>ZN 8@>L:48H@&, & 8@H@DZN JR"FH&J,H @*>"
4:4 $@:,, *@(@&"D4&"`V4NFb FH@D@> 7@>&,>P44. % FH"H\, 3, b&:b`V,6Fb @$V,6 *:b
7@>&,>P44 4 )@B@:>4H,:\>@(@ BD@H@8@:" II 8 7@>&,>P4b<, BD,*JF<"HD4&",HFb $@:,,
@(D">4R,>>"b 2"V4H" & B,D4@* 8@>L:48H@&, >, 4<,`V4N <,0*J>"D@*>@(@ N"D"8H,D".
!B,::bP4@>>"b B":"H" ;IG#% B@FH">@&4:" (& *,:, G"*4R"), RH@, 8"8 4 @$ZR>@,
<,0*J>"D@*>@, BD"&@, B@:@0,>4b /,>,&F84N 8@>&,>P46, 8"F"`V4,Fb >"DJT,>46,
BD4<,>b`HFb H@:\8@ & 8@>H,8FH, <,0*J>"D@*>ZN &@@DJ0,>>ZN 8@>L:48H@&. ?*>"8@
8@<<,>H4DJ`V4, ^H@ D,T,>4, FB,P4":4FHZ 8D4H48@&":4 ,(@ 2" >,B@:>@HJ. Theodor
Meron, "The continuing role of custom in the formation of international
humanitarian law", American Journal of International Law, vol. 90, p. 243.
43/ +*4>FH&,>>Z6 "8H 42>"F4:@&">4b b&:b,HFb *@FH"H@R>Z<, RH@$Z BD,*FH"&:bH\
F@$@6 &@,>>@, BD,FHJB:,>4,. )@8:"* 7@<4FF44 ^8FB,DH@& (S/1994/674), BJ>8H 105, 4
32>"F4:@&">4, 4 F,8FJ":\>@, >"F4:4, (S/1994/674/Add.2(Vol.I)), BD4:@0,>4, II,
BJ>8H 16.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 47
44/ International Committee of the Red Cross, Aide-Mémoire, 3 December
1992. E<. H,80, Meron, supra note 25, p. 26.
45/ G"< 0,. E<. H"80, Amnesty International, Bosnia and Herzegovina:
Rape and Sexual Abuses by Armed Forces, 1993.
46/ '""(F84, >@D<Z, BD4:"(",<Z, 8 '""(F8@6 8@>&,>P44
IV @H 1907 (@*",
F:,*J,H D"FF<"HD4&"H\ 8"8 *@FH4(T4, B@ 8D"6>,6 <,D, 8 1939 (@*J FH"HJF" @$ZR>@(@
<,0*J>"D@*>@(@ BD"&". Judgement of the Nürnberg Tribunal, in American Journal
of International Law, vol. 41, 1947.
47/
Ibid.
48/ U. Dolgopol and S. Paranjape, Comfort Women: An Unfinished Ordeal,
International Commission of Jurists, 1993, pp. 135-136.
49/ AD4 D"FF<@HD,>>44 =`D>$,D(F84< HD4$J>":@< $@:\T4>FH&" *,:, F&b2">>ZN F
D"$F84< HDJ*@<, FFZ:8" *,:":"F\ >" >"DJT,>4b FH"H\4 46 >@D< '""(F8@6 8@>&,>P44,
8"F"`V4,Fb R,FH4 F,<\4, & F@&@8JB>@FH4 F@ FH"H\,6 52, 8"F"`V,6Fb L@D< BD4>J*4H,:\>ZN
D"$@H, 8 8@H@DZ< <@0,H $ZH\ BD4&:,R,>@ (D"0*">F8@, >"F,:,>4,. E<. H"80,
Bassiouni, supra note 14.
50/ AD4<,R"H,:\>@, RH@ & FH"H\bN 27 4 147 Q,H&,DH@6 /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44
>,B@FD,*FH&,>>@ 2"HD"(4&"`HFb 8@>8D,H>Z, "FB,8HZ D"$FH&" 4 FN@*>@6 F D"$FH&@< BD"8H484.
C"$FH&@ 4 F&b2">>Z, F >4< BD,FHJB:,>4b D"FF<"HD4&"`HFb & FH"H\bN 49-57 (GD,H\,6)
/,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44, 8"F"`V,6Fb @$D"V,>4b F &@,>>@B:,>>Z<4, & 8@H@DZN 8@>8D,H>@
D,(J:4DJ`HFb &4*Z D"$@H, 8@H@DZ, <@(JH &ZB@:>bH\Fb &@,>>@B:,>>Z<4, & R"FH>@FH4 D"$@H,
8@H@DZ, J(D@0"`H 4N 2*@D@&\`, b&:b`HFb @B"F>Z<4 4:4 >@FbH J>424H,:\>Z6 N"D"8H,D.
7D@<, H@(@, & FH"H\, 130 GD,H\,6 /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44 8 F,D\,2>Z< >"DJT,>4b<
@H>@FbHFb "BD,*>"<,D,>>@, J$46FH&@, BZH84 4:4 $,FR,:@&,R>@, @$D"V,>4,, &8:`R"b
$4@:@(4R,F84, ^8FB,D4<,>HZ, BD,*>"<,D,>>@, BD4R4>,>4, Hb0,:ZN FHD"*">46 4:4 F,D\,2>@(@
J&,R\b H,:J 4:4 2*@D@&\`". C"FF<"HD4&",<Z, & F@R,H">44 F@ FH"H\,6 130 2"BD,V,>4b,
B,D,R4F:,>>Z, & FH"H\bN 49-57 GD,H\,6 /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44, &8:`R"`H D"2:4R>Z, L@D<Z
D"$FH&" 8"8 F,D\,2>Z, >"DJT,>4b. Bassiouni, supra note 14. pp. 510-512.
51/ Jean S. Pictet et al. (eds.), Commentary on the Geneva Conventions
of 12 August 1949: Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian
Persons in Time of War (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross,
1958), p. 598 (commentary on art. 147); Meron, supra note 25; Anne Tierney
Goldstein, Recognizing Forced Impregnation as a War Crime Under International
Law, 1993, pp. 9-11.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 48
52/
Foca Indictment, supra note 31.
53/
Ibid., para. 10.2.
54/ % *">>@< *@8:"*, BD42>",HFb, RH@ & >"FH@bV,, &D,<b BD4:"("`HFb JF4:4b *:b
&Zb&:,>4b 4 JFHD">,>4b :`$ZN @(D">4R,>46, 8@H@DZ, FJV,FH&J`H & @H>@T,>44 BD4<,>,>4b
FJV,FH&J`V4N >@D< 8 F4HJ"P4b< >"F4:4b &>JHD4 FHD">Z. % ">":4H4R,F8@< *@8:"*,
',>,D":\>@(@ F,8D,H"Db, BD,*FH"&:,>>@(@ & F@@H&,HFH&44 F D,2@:`P4,6 1997/21 7@<4FF44
B@ BD"&"< R,:@&,8", BD,*BD4>4<",HFb B@BZH8" JFH">@&4H\ D"<84 *:b <4>4<":\>ZN
(J<">4H"D>ZN FH">*"DH@&, " @(D">4R,>4b 4 >,*@FH"H84 2"8@>@*"H,:\FH&" @ BD"&"N R,:@&,8" &
D"<8"N (DJBB4DJ`HFb & HD,N T4D@84N 8"H,(@D4bN: i) B@BZH84 @HFHJB4H\ @H F&@4N
@$b2"H,:\FH&; ii) &@BD@FZ, 8"F"`V4,Fb @H&,HFH&,>>@FH4 &@@DJ0,>>ZN (DJBB4D@&@8 F
JR,H@< FH">*"DH@& & @$:"FH4 BD"& R,:@&,8"; 4 iii) @HFJHFH&4, 8@>8D,H>@FH4 &
@H>@T,>44 ("D">H46 BD"& R,:@&,8", RH@ <,T",H ^LL,8H4&>@<J BD4<,>,>4` & F4HJ"P4bN
>"F4:4b, 4<,`V,(@ <,0*J>"D@*>Z6 N"D"8H,D (E/CN.4/1998/87, BJ>8H 40).
55/
ICTFY, Tadic case, Appeals Chamber decision, paras. 84, 89.
56/
Nicaragua v. United States, supra note 39, p.14.
57/ E<. H"80, FH"H\` 4 (2) e) )@B@:>4H,:\>@(@ AD@H@8@:" II (2"BD,V"`VJ`
">"*DJ("H,:\FH&@ >"* R,:@&,R,F84< *@FH@4>FH&@<, & R"FH>@FH4 J>424H,:\>@, 4
@F8@D$4H,:\>@, @$D"V,>4,, 42>"F4:@&">4,, BD4>J0*,>4, 8 BD@FH4HJP44 4:4 >,BD4FH@6>@,
B@Fb("H,:\FH&@ & :`$@6 L@D<,").
58/ Theodor Meron, Human Rights in Internal Strife:
Protection (Cambridge, Grotius Publ., 1987), pp. 44-50.
59/
Their International
Pictet, supra note 51, p. 36.
60/ G"< 0, (@H<,R",HFb, RH@ FL,D" BD4<,>,>4b FH"H\4 3 "*@:0>" $ZH\ B@
&@2<@0>@FH4 F"<@6 T4D@8@6", B@F8@:\8J & FH"H\, 3 ":4T\ F@*,D04HFb HD,$@&">4,
F@$:`*"H\ @BD,*,:,>>Z, >@D<Z, 8@H@DZ, J0, $Z:4 BD42>">Z & 8"R,FH&, 4<,`V4N &"0>@,
2>"R,>4, &@ &F,N P4&4:42@&">>ZN FHD">"N 4 &8:`R,>Z &@ &>JHD4(@FJ*"DFH&,>>@, BD"&@
J8"2">>ZN (@FJ*"DFH& 2"*@:(@ *@ B@*B4F">4b 7@>&,>P44").
61/
IFH"& ;IG#%, FH"H\b 7;
IFH"& ;IC, FH"H\b 6.
62/
)@8:"* 7@<4FF44 ^8FB,DH@& (S/1994/674), FH"H\b 55.
63/
G"< 0,, FH"H\b 313.
64/
ICTFY, Miljkovic Indictment, paras. 31, 33, 34.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 49
65/
Ibid.
66/ Human Rights Watch, supra note 7, pp. 15-19; Jamie Frederic Metzl,
"Rwandan genocide and the international law of radio jamming", American
Journal of International Law, vol. 91, pp. 628-634, 650.
67/ Ibid., p. 18; Human Rights Watch, War Crimes in Bosnia-Hercegovina,
vol. II, 1993, pp. 166-167.
68/ Metzl, supra note 66, p. 636 (citing Trial of the Major War
Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal, Nürnberg, 1947, p. 548.
69/ Edith Coron, "Papon verdict condemns a collaborator and an era", The
European, 6 April 1998.
70/ G"8, >"BD4<,D, & 1987 (@*J LD">PJ2F846 FJ* B@**,D0": BD,*Xb&:,>>@,
>"P4FHF8@<J BD,FHJB>48J 7:"JFJ #"D$4 @$&4>,>4, & F@&,DT,>44 BD,FHJB:,>4b BD@H4&
R,:@&,R>@FH4. International Law Review, vol.78, 1988.
71/ Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 4th ed.,
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990). p. 485.
_____
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 50
AD4:@0,>4,
!>":42 `D4*4R,F8@6 @H&,HFH&,>>@FH4 BD"&4H,:\FH&" aB@>44 2" F@2*">4,
"2"&,*,>46
2"&,*,>46 *:b JH,N"
JH,N &@ &D,<b &H@D@6 <4D@&@6 &@6>Z
%&,*,>4,
1.
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"0,>V4> *:b JH,N" 1/ $Z:4 *@FH"&:,>Z 42 7@D,4, >@ <>@(4, $Z:4 BD4&,2,>Z H"80, 42
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
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F,D\,2>@FH\ BD,FHJB:,>4b, <"FTH"$Z 4 R"FH@H" >"DJT,>46, BD,*>"<,D,>>Z6 N"D"8H,D
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 73
4.
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VII.
1!79_Q+=3+
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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 74
AD4<,R">4b*
1/
]H@H H,D<4>, $,2JF:@&>@, 4<,,H BD,>,$D,04H,:\>Z6 @HH,>@8 4 4FB@:\2J,HFb
4F8:`R4H,:\>@ & 4FH@D4R,F8@< 8@>H,8FH, & 8"R,FH&, H,D<4>", @H>@FbV,(@Fb 8 ^H@<J
8@>8D,H>@<J 0,FH@8@<J &4*J BD,FHJB:,>4b. %@ <>@(4N @H>@T,>4bN >,0,:"H,:\>Z6 &Z$@D
H"8@(@ ^L,<4FH4R,F8@(@ H,D<4>" *:b @B4F">4b *">>@(@ BD,FHJB:,>4b @2>"R",H FH,B,>\ H@(@,
8"8 <,0*J>"D@*>@, F@@$V,FH&@ & P,:@< 4 BD"&4H,:\FH&@ aB@>44 & R"FH>@FH4 FHD,<bHFb
J<":4H\ N"D"8H,D B@*@$>ZN >"DJT,>46.
2/
1"b&:,>4, BD,<\,D-<4>4FHD" aB@>44 G@<44R4 ;4D"b<Z & 4`:, 1995 (@*",
B,D,B,R"H">>@, !24"HF84< L@>*@< *:b 0,>V4> (@L4P4":\>@, @B4F">4, BD@(D"<<Z).
E<. H"80, *@8J<,>H, @2"(:"&:,>>Z6 "A@:4H48" aB@>44 B@ @H>@T,>4` 8 &@BD@F"<,
8"F"`V4<Fb >"F4:4b & @H>@T,>44 0,>V4> 4 "0,>V4> *:b JH,N" (E/CN.4/1996/137,
BD4:@0,>4,), BD,*FH"&:,>>Z6 7@<4FF4,6 B@ BD"&"< R,:@&,8" >" ,, BbH\*,FbH &H@D@6
F,FF44.
3/
!24"HF846 L@>* *:b 0,>V4>, H"< 0,.
4/
G"< 0,.
5/
Karen Parker and Jennifer F. Chew, "Compensation for Japan’s World
War II war-rape victims", Hastings International and Comparative Law Review,
vol. 17, 1994, pp. 497, 498-499.
6/
Ibid., p. 499 and note 6 (citing a 1975 statement by Seijuro
Arahune, Liberal Democratic Party member of the Japanese Diet, that 145,000
Korean sex slaves had died during the Second World War).
7/
Ibid.
8/
The First Report on the Issue of Japan’s Milirary "Comfort Women",
Center for Research and Documentation on Japan’s War Reponsibility, 31 March
1944, pp. 3-4.
9/
Ibid.
*
E>@F84, J0, F*,:">>Z, & (:"&>@< *@8:"*,, >, B@&H@Db`HFb & BD4:@0,>44;
F F@@H&,HFH&J`V,6 F>@F8@6 <@0>@ @2>"8@<4H\Fb & (:"&>@< *@8:"*,.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 75
10/ Ibid., pp. 5-16 and E/CN.4/1996/137, annex. E<. H"80, *@8:"*
7@<4H,H" ^8FB,DH@& B@ BD4<,>,>4` 8@>&,>P46 4 D,8@<,>*"P46, ;,0*J>"D@*>"b
8@>L,D,>P4b HDJ*", &@F,<\*,FbH HD,H\b F,FF4b, 1996 (@*, *@8:"* III (Q"FH\ 4A),
BJ>8HZ 103-107, 114.
11/ R.Jackson, The Nurember Case xiv-xv, 1971 (citing The Final Report
to the President on the Nuremberg Trials).
12/ E<. Parket and Chew, supra note 5, p.521 and note 135;
main report, note 14.
Bassiouni,
13/ E<. Renee Colette Redman "The League of Nations and the right to be
free from enslavement: the first human right to be recognized as customary
international law", Chicago-Kent Law Review, vol. 70, 1994, pp. 759, 760;
Slavery, report submitted by Benjamin Whittaker, Special Rapporteur of the
Sub-Commission (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.84.XIV.1), updating
the Report on Slavery by Mohamed Awad, submitted to the Sub-Commission in
1966 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.67.XIV.2).
14/
Humphrey, main report, note 33.
15/ The Lawrence, case cited in J.B. Moore, History and Digest of the
International Arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party,
vol. 3, 1989, pp. 2824, 2825.
16/ M. Cherif Bassiouni, International Crimes: Digest/Index of
International Instruments 1815-1985, vol. 1, 1986, p. 419 and main report,
note 14 (detailing the incremental history of the international abolition of
slavery).
17/ E<. International Fellowship of Reconciliation, Recommendations to
Japan on "sexual slavery", 7 February 1994 (communication to the Government
of Japan).
18/
Bassiouni, main report, note 14.
19/ Ibid., pp. 283-287 (& *@8J<,>H, @H<,R",HFb, RH@, N@Hb &@BD@F @
B@D"$@V,>44 8@>8D,H>@ >, D"FF<"HD4&":Fb & J(@:@&>@< BD"&, aB@>44 *@ 1944 (@*",
BD,FHJB:,>4,, F&b2">>@, F B@D"$@V,>4,<, 8@F&,>>@ BD,*B@:"(":@F\ BD4<,>4H,:\>@ 8
BD,FHJB:,>4b<, F&b2">>Z< F B@N4V,>4b<4 :`*,6 4 >"F4:\FH&,>>Z< 42@:4D@&">4,<).
20/ E<. The First Report on the Issue of Japan’s Military "Comfort
Women", supra note 8, p. 79; F<. H"80, Redman, supra note 13, p. 763
(& *@8J<,>H, (@&@D4HFb, RH@ 7@>&,>P4b @ D"$FH&, BD4@$D,:" F4:J @$ZR>@(@ <,0*J>"D@*>@(@
BD"&" & 1937 (@*J).
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 76
21/ E<. H"80, Finn Seyersted, United Nations Forces in the Law of Peace
and War, 1966, pp. 180-182.
22/ Trail of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military
Tribunal, vol. 1, p. 218.
23/ C,2@:`P4b 95(I) ',>,D":\>@6 !FF"<$:,4 @H 11 *,8"$Db 1946 (@*",
@2"(:"&:,>>"b "A@*H&,D0*,>4, BD4>P4B@& <,0*J>"D@*>@(@ BD"&", BD42>">>ZN EH"HJH@<
=`D>$,D(F8@(@ HD4$J>":""; *@8J<,>H ',>,D":\>@6 !FF"<$:,4 A/64/Add.1 @H 1946 (@*";
Yvonne P. Hsu, "’Comfort women’ from Korea: Japan’s sex slaves and the
legitimacy of their claims for reparations". Pacific Rim Law and Policy
Journal, vol. 2, 1993, pp. 87, 110/ The First Report on the Issue of Japan’s
Military "Comfort women", supra note 8, p. 76.
24/ E<. Meron, main report, note 25; Frits Kalshoven, Article 3 of the
Convention (IV) concerning the Law and Custom of War on Land, signed at The
Hague, 18 October 1907, in "Remembering what we have tried to forget",
ASCENT, 1977, pp. 16-30.
25/ E<. John A. Appleman, Military Tribunals and International Crimes,
1954, p. 299 (& *@8J<,>H, F@*,D04HFb FFZ:8" >" D"FF<@HD,>>@, & 1946 (@*J *,:@ %"T4@
!&"R4 & #"H"&4, 3>*@>,244, & 8@H@D@< BD4>J*4H,:\>"b BD@FH4HJP4b $Z:" BD42>">" 8"8
BD,FHJB:,>4,); Hsu, supra note 23, pp. 109-110, Meron, main report, note 25,
p. 426, note 13; Verdict 231 of the Temporary Court-Martial in Batavia
(BD42>">4, & 8"R,FH&, &@,>>ZN BD,FHJB:,>46 "B@N4V,>4, *,&@R,8 4 0,>V4> & P,:bN
BD4>J*4H,:\>@6 BD@FH4HJP44", "BD4>J0*,>4, 8 BD@FH4HJP44" 4 "42>"F4:@&">4," 4
&Z>,F,>4, >" ^H@< @F>@&">44 @$&4>4H,:\>ZN 2"8:`R,>46 >,F8@:\84< @$&4>b,<Z<).
26/ E<. Hsu, supra note 23, p. 107 (L@D<J:4D@&8", 8"F"`V"bFb "R,FH4
F,<\4", 4FB@:\2J,HFb *:b B@**,D084 "D(J<,>H" @ H@<, RH@ <,0*J>"D@*>@, BD"&@ 2"BD,V":@
2:@JB@HD,$:,>4b & @H>@T,>44 "0,>V4> *:b JH,N"; U. Dolgopol and S. Paranjape,
main report, note 48, p. 160 (8@>P,BP4b R,FH4 F,<\4 &8:`R",H BD"&@ 0,>V4> & F,<\,
>, B@*&,D("H\Fb J>424H,:\>@6 BD"8H48, 42>"F4:@&">4b).
27/ Pictet, main report, note 51, p. 291 note 1 (& *@8J<,>H, (@&@D4HFb, RH@
& @F>@&J B@:@0,>46 FH"H\4 27 /,>,&F8@6 8@>&,>P44 B@:@0,>" FH"H\b 46 AD"&4: '""(F8@6
8@>&,>P44); Theodor Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary
Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 47.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 77
28/ E<. Hsu, supra note 23, p. 111 and note 97 (& *@8J<,>H, J8"2Z&",HFb,
RH@ /,>,&F8"b 8@>&,>P4b BD,*FH"&:b,H F@$@6 :4T\ 8@*4L48"P4` 4 D"FT4D,>4, D">,,
FJV,FH&@&"&T,(@ @$ZR>@(@ <,0*J>"D@*>@(@ BD"&"); Pictet, main report, note 51,
p. 205 (& *@8J<,>H, (@&@D4HFb, RH@ & @F>@&J B@:@0,>4b, 8"F"`V,(@Fb 2"V4HZ 0,>V4>,
B@:@0,>@ B@:@0,>4,, &8:`R,>>@, & 7@>&,>P4` @$ @$D"V,>44 F &@,>>@B:,>>Z<4 @H
1929 (@*").
29/
E<. @$FJ0*,>4, *">>@(@ &@BD@F" & (:"&>@< *@8:"*,.
30/
Meron, main report, note 25.
31/
Rape and Sexual Assault, main report, note 10.
32/ The First Report on the Issue of Japan’s Military "Comfort Women"
supra note 8, p. 76.
33/ E<. Bassiouni, main report, note 26, pp. 114-139;
note 25, pp. 46-53; Hsu, supra note 23, p. 109, note 84.
Appleman, supra
34/ A@24P4b BD"&4H,:\FH&" aB@>44 & @H>@T,>44 *@$"&:,>4b I (E/CN.4/1996/
53/Add.7) 8 *@8:"*J, BD,*FH"&:,>>@<J EB,P4":\>Z< *@8:"*R48@< B@ &@BD@FJ @ >"F4:44 &
@H>@T,>44 0,>V4>. )@8J<,>H >,@L4P4":\>@ D"FBD@FHD">,> BD"&4H,:\FH&@< aB@>44 >"
BbH\*,FbH B,D&@6 F,FF44 7@<4FF44 B@ BD"&"< R,:@&,8", FHD. 15-19, 23.
35/
G"< 0,, FHD. 24.
36/ E<. Japan Federation of Bar Associations (JFBA), Recommendations on
the Issue of "Comfort Women", January 1995, p. 26; David Boling, "Mass rape,
enforced prosititution, and the Japanese Imperial Army; Japan eschews
international legal responsibility", Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,
vol. 32, 1995, pp. 533, 545.
37/
JFBA, ibid.
38/ L. Oppenheim, International Law: A. Treatise, H. Lauterpacht (ed).,
7th ed., (London, New York: Longmans Green, 1948-1952), sect. 153.
39/ E<. Christopher N. Crowe, "Command responsibility in the former
Yugoslavia: the chances for successful prosecution", University of Richmond
Law Review, vol. 29, 1994, pp. 191, 192; D,2@:`P4b 827(1993) E@&,H"
#,2@B"F>@FH4.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 78
40/ Crowe, ibid (citing Report presented to the preliminary peace
conference, in Leon Friedman (ed.), The Law of War: A Documentary History,
vol. 1 (New York: Random House, 1972), pp. 842-853-854).
41/ L.C. Green, "Command responsibility in international humanitarian
law", Transnational Law and Contermporary Problems, vol. 5, 1995, pp. 319,
320.
42/
Crowe, supra note 39, p. 194.
43/ E<. *":,, Anthony D’Amato, "Superior orders vs. command
responsibility", American Journal of International Law, vol. 80, 1986,
p. 604; The Llandovery Castle case. Judgement in the case of Lieutenants
Dithmar and Boldt, Supreme Court of Leipzig, 16 July 1921. Reprinted in
American Journal of International Law, vol. 16, 1922, p. 708.
44/ E<. "Complaint" <http://www.peacenet.or.kr/∼jdh/
e comfort/library/complaint/comp.htm.
45/ E<. *":,, Theodor Meron, "International criminalization of internal
atrocities", American Journal of Internatioinal Law, vol. 89, 1995, p. 554;
Filartiga v. Pena-Irala, 630F.2nd876 (United States 2nd Cir. 1980).
46/
Meron, ibid., p. 569.
47/
E<. Regina v. Finta, 88 C.C.C 3d.417(1994).
48/
Ibid.
49/ E<. H"80, Friedl Weiss, "Time limits for the prosecution of crimes
against international law, British Yearbook of International Law, vol. 53,
1982, pp. 163, 185.
50/ Fédération nationale des déportés et internés résistants et
patriotes v. Barbie in International Law Review, main report, note 70.
51/
Oppenheim, supra note 38, sect. 140.
52/
Ibid., sect. 151.
53/
Ibid., sect. 150.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 79
54/ %@2<@0>@, 4<,,HFb >,$@:\T@, R4F:@ F:JR",&, & N@*, 8@H@DZN bB@>F84,
&@,>>@F:J0"V4, >, >,FJH BDb<J` @H&,HFH&,>>@FH\ 2" @$D"V,>4, F 0,>V4>"<4 & "2"&,*,>4bN
*:b JH,N" HD,H\,6 8"H,(@D44. ?*>"8@ & ^H4N F:JR"bN &@,>>@F:J0"V4, &F, D"&>@ <@(JH
>,FH4 @H&,HFH&,>>@FH\ & F@@H&,HFH&44 F H,@D4,6 "@H&,HFH&,>>@FH4 2" *,6FH&4b *DJ(4N :4P",
8@H@D"b, 8"8 @BD,*,:b,HFb ?BB,>(,6<@< (ibid., sect. 149), BD4<,>b,HFb 8 ">,8@H@DZ<
>,F">8P4@>4D@&">>Z<, >">@FbV4< JV,D$ "8H"< BD,*FH"&4H,:,6 [(@FJ*"DFH&], 4N FJ$X,8H@&
4 *"0, H"84N 4>@FHD">>ZN :4P, 8@H@DZ, & *">>Z6 <@<,>H BD@04&"`H >" 4N H,DD4H@D44".
55/
Kalshoven, supra note 24, p. 9.
56/ E<. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/17; the JBFA (supra note 36, pp. 22-25)
BD42>":", RH@ ^H4 BD4>P4BZ &@2:"("`H >" aB@>4` @H&,HFH&,>>@FH\ &ZB:"H4H\ 8@<B,>F"P4`
"0,>V4>"< *:b JH,N".
57/ Janes case (United States v. Mexico), United Nations Reports of
International Arbitral Awards, vol. 4, 1926, p. 82.
58/
Ibid., p. 82.
59/
Ibid., p. 89.
60/
;>,>4, BD"&4H,:\FH&" aB@>44, *@8J<,>H supra note 34, FHD. 28-32.
61/
Oppenheim, supra note 38, sects, 1, 7.
62/
Kalshoven, supra note 24, p. 11.
63/
Ibid.
64/
Ibid.
65/
Ibid., pp. 12-13.
66/
Ibid., p. 12.
67/
Ibid.
68/ Chorzów Factory (Merits), Permanent Court of International Justice
(P.C.I.J.), Judgement No. 13, Series A, No. 8-17, 1927, p. 29. E<. H"80,
4FF:,*@&">4, &"> #@&,>".
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 80
69/
P.C.I.J. Advisory Opinion No. 15, Series B, No. 15, pp. 17-18.
70/ E@(:"T,>4b F 'D,P4,6, E@,*4>,>>Z< 7@D@:,&FH&@<, S&,6P"D4,6, S&,P4,6 4
)">4,6 &8:`R"`H B@:@0,>4b @ &ZB:"H, 8@<B,>F"P44 :4P"<, 8@H@DZ< $Z: BD4R4>,>
JV,D$, & H@ &D,<b 8"8 F@(:"T,>4b aB@>44 F $Z&T4<4 @88JB4D@&">>Z<4 ,` H,DD4H@D4b<4,
8"8 BD"&4:@, >, F@*,D0"H ">":@(4R>ZN B@:@0,>46. Hsu, supra note 23, pp. 103-104.
71/ Richard B. Lillich and Burns H. Weston, International Claims, Their
Settlement by Lump Sum Agreements, Part II: The Agreements (Charlottesville:
Univ. Press of Virginia, 1975), pp. 334, 231, 249.
72/ "Claim for Compensation of Pusan Comfort Women and Women’s Voluntary
Labor Corps and Demand for Official Apology to the Women’s Voluntary Labor
Corps and to the Comfort Women", Decision of 27 April 1998 (following oral
arguments of 29 September 1997), Shimonoseki Branch, Yamaguchi District Court
(unofficial translaiton).
73/
Ibid.
74/
Ibid.
75/ Ibid. E<. Dan Grunebaum, "WWII sex slaves win historic lawsuit",
United Press International, 28 April 1998.
76/
Boling, supra note 36, p. 545.
77/ E<. "Eight Dutch citizens sue Japan over war", New York Times,
26 January 1994, p. A9. The plaintiffs include at least one victim of the
comfort stations.
78/ E<. "Two Chines wartime sex slaves to testify in court", Japan
Economic Newswire, 3 July 1996.
79/ E<. "Japan-based Korean ’comfort women’ rape fund scheme", Asian
Political News, 15 July 1996.
80/
E<. Dolgopol and Paranjape, main report, note 48.
81/ E<. "Former ’comfort wormen’ testifies in court", The Daily
Yomiuri, 20 July 1996, p. 2.
82/
E<. Parker and Chew, supra note 5, p. 502.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
page 81
83/ E<. Tong Yu, "Reparations for former comfort women of World War II",
Harvard International Law Journal, vol. 36, 1995, pp. 528, 525-536.
84/
E<. Hsu, supra note 23, p. 118.
85/
E<. Dolgopol and Paranjape, main report, note 48.
86/
E<. Hsu, supra note 23, pp. 103-104.
87/ E<. Parker and Chew, supra note 5, p. 538;
main report, note 48, pp. 164-165.
Dolgopol and Paranjape,
88/
E<. Yu, supra note 83, p. 535.
89/
Asian Women’s Fund, supra note 2, p. 1.
90/
E<. Dolgopol and Paranjape, main report, note. 48.
91/
E<. Parker and Chew, supra note 5, pp. 544-545.
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