united states political relations

TOMSK POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
M.V. Netesova, T.B. Lysunets
JAPAN’S
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS:
POLITICS, ECONOMICS AND SECURITY
Recommended for publishing as а study aid
by the Editorial Board of the Tomsk Polytechnic University
Tomsk Polytechnic University Publishing House
2012
2
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ
ТОМСКИЙ ПОЛИТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»
М.В. Нетесова, Т.Б. Лысунец
ЯПОНИЯ.
МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ:
ПОЛИТИКА, ЭКОНОМИКА, БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ
Рекомендовано в качестве учебного пособия
Редакционно-издательским советом
Томского политехнического университета
Издательство
Томского политехнического университета
2012
3
УДК 811.111:327(5)(075.8)
ББК Ш143.21-923
Н57
Нетесова М.В.
Н57
Япония. Международные отношения: политика, экономика,
безопасность: учебное пособие / М.В. Нетесова, Т.Б. Лысунец;
Томский политехнический университет. – Томск: Изд-во Томского
политехнического университета, 2012. – 174 с.
Пособие состоит из профессионально ориентированных текстов по
теме «Международные отношения Японии» и разработанных к ним
упражнений, предполагающих индивидуальную, парную и групповую
работу, что позволит студентам получить актуальную информацию в
области международных отношений на английском языке и пополнить
словарь профессиональных терминов по своей специальности. Тексты
являются аутентичными и отобраны из современных англоязычных
источников (в том числе интернет-сайтов).
Предназначено для студентов старших курсов гуманитарных специальностей Томского политехнического университета.
УДК 811.111:327(5)(075.8)
ББК Ш143.21-923
Рецензенты
Кандидат исторических наук, доцент ТГУ
О.С. Ульянова
Кандидат педагогических наук, доцент ТГПУ
О.Н. Игна
© ФГБОУ ВПО НИ ТПУ, 2012
© Нетесова М.В., Лысунец Т.Б., 2012
© Обложка. Издательство Томского
политехнического университета, 2012
4
TO THE STUDENTS
This book is for you if you are studying foreign relationships and if you
are interested in Japan history. What is in «JAPAN’S INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS. POLITICS, ECONOMICS AND SECURITY»
The Book contains 10 units. All based on themes about Japanese economy, policy and relationships with other countries. It includes such topics as:
JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY
JAPAN’S SECURITY
JAPAN – UNITED STAES ECONOMIC RELATIONS
JAPAN – UNITED STAES POLITICAL RELATIONS
JAPAN – EAST ASIA POLITICAL RELATIONS
JAPAN – CHINA RELATIONS
JAPAN – EUROPE POLITICAL RELATIONS
JAPAN – EUROPE ECONOMIC RELATIONS
JAPAN – RUSSIA ECONOMIC AND SECURITY RELATIONS
JAPAN’S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. WHAT’S NEXT?
Each unit opens with a few questions or some pictures which help you
to start thinking about the theme you will be studying.
Reading will improve your reading skills.
Speaking activities present realistic and motivating situations where you
can practice the language you have studied.
The Vocabulary sections will help you to develop a richer vocabulary.
These sections introduce and practice many words and expressions. A word
list of more than 100 professional terms is printed on the final pages, along
with translations into Russian language.
We very hope you will enjoy using JAPAN’S INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS. POLITICS, ECONOMICS AND SECURITY?
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UNIT 1
JAPAN’S
FOREIGN POLICY
WARM UP
1. What are the nearest neighbors of Japan?
2. What do you know about Japanese relationships with the other
countries? What countries does Japan have friendly relationships with?
3. Can you define the flags below with the names of countries? Number 9 is an example. This is the Russian Federation flag!
1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain
2. Japan
3. New Zealand
4. China
5. Germany
6. The United States of America
7. South Korea
8. Denmark
9. The Russian Federation
A……………………
B………………
C……………………
D The Russian Federation
E…………………
F……………………
G……………………
H…………………
I……………………
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READING
4. You are going to read the text about Japanese international relationships. Read the statements and try to guess whether the statements
are True or False, then read the text carefully and check your answers.
1. Since the Cold War Japanese diplomatic policy has been based on close
partnership with Russia.
2. Japanese relations with China and South Korea are highly positive.
3. Japanese government took part in the Peacekeeping operations by the UN
4. The Ground Self-Defense Force also dispatched their troops to Southern
Iraq in support of current US operations.
5. Cambodia and Mozambique are Japan's closest allies.
6. Prime Minister Fukuda claimed that Japan would promote cooperation in
the field of peace-building
7. Article 9 of the Japanese constitution precludes an offensive military role
for Japan in international affairs.
8. The United States and Japan have close economic ties.
9. The United States and Japan have no ongoing trade frictions.
10. A rapidly modernizing China was a financier of the Gulf War.
Foreign relations of Japan
Foreign relations of Japan are handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.
Since the surrender after World War II and the Treaty of San Francisco,
Japanese diplomatic policy has been based on close partnership with the
United States and the emphasis on the international cooperation such as the
United Nations. In the Cold War, Japan took a part in the Western world's
confrontation of the Soviet Union in East Asia. In the rapid economic developments in the 1960s and 1970s, Japan recovered its influences and became
regarded as one of the major powers in the world. Japanese influences are
viewed as highly positive except by two countries: China and South Korea.
During the Cold War, Japanese foreign policy was not self-assertive,
relatively focused on their economic growth. However, the end of the Cold
War and bitter lessons from the Gulf War changed the policy slowly. Japanese government decided to participate in the Peacekeeping operations by the
UN, and sent their troops to Cambodia, Mozambique, Golan Heights and the
East Timor in the 1990s and 2000s. After the September 11 attacks, Japanese
naval vessels have been assigned to resupply duties in the Indian Ocean to
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the present date. The Ground Self-Defense Force also dispatched their troops
to Southern Iraq for the restoration of basic infrastructures.
Beyond its immediate neighbors, Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility which accompanies
its economic strength. Prime Minister Fukuda stressed a changing direction
in his recent policy speech to the Diet: «Japan aspires to become a hub of
human resource development as well as for research and intellectual contribution to further promote cooperation in the field of peace-building.» This
follows the modest success of a Japanese-conceived peace plan which became the foundation for nationwide elections in Cambodia in 1998.
The United States is Japan's closest ally, and Japan relies on the U.S. for
its national security to a high degree. As two of the world's top three economic powers, both countries also rely on close economic ties for their wealth,
despite ongoing and occasionally acrimonious trade frictions.
Although its constitution and government policy preclude an offensive
military role for Japan in international affairs, Japanese cooperation with the
United States through the 1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic
discussions about possible reinterpretation of Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship
with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the mutual security treaty for strategic protection.
The relationship probably hit a post-war nadir around the early 1990s,
when Japan's «economic rise» was seen as a threat to American power. Japan
was the primary financier of the Gulf War, yet received major criticism in
some US circles for its refusal to commit actual military support. Following
the collapse of the so-called Bubble economy and the 1990s boom in the US,
the Japanese economy was perceived as less of a threat to US interests. Some
observers still feel that Japan's willingness to deploy troops in support of current US operations in Iraq, as spear-headed by Koizumi and the conservative
LDP, reflects a vow not to be excluded from the group of countries the US
considers friends. This decision may reflect a real politiсal understanding of
the threat Japan faces from a rapidly modernizing China, which from its continued and indeed growing pattern of anti-Japanese demonstrations reveals
the belief that old historical scores remain unsettled.
5. Answer the questions.
1. What is Japanese diplomatic policy based on?
2. What were the relationships between the USSR and Japan during the Cold
War?
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3. When did Japan become one of the most powerful states in the world?
4. How does Japan participate in peace-building?
5. What country is Japan’s nearest ally?
6. What are disagreements between Japan and US based on?
7. What role did Japan play in the Gulf War?
8. Why is Japan sometimes criticized by the US?
9. Japanese Constitution makes Japan the stronghold of peace and stability of
East Asia, doesn’t it?
10. What makes China a threat to Japan?
6. Complete the sentences.
1. Japanese diplomatic policy has been based on partnership with the United
States since…
2. In the Cold War Japan supported …and opposed …
3. Japan’s relations with China and South Korea are…
4. In 1960’s Japan became…
5. Japanese government decided to participate in the Peacekeeping operations
by the UN, and sent their troops to…
6. Japanese naval vessels have been assigned to resupply duties in the Indian
Ocean after …
7. Japan aims at developing … with the US.
8. China is regarded as a …
9. The closest ally of Japan is…
10. In the early 1990’s Japan’s economic development was…
VOCABULARY
7. Match the words 1-10 with the Russian equivalents A-G. The example
is given.
1 close partnership
2 rapid economic developments
3 naval vessels
4 bitter lessons
5 closest ally
6 to deploy troops
7 a post-war nadir
8 bubble economy
9 to further promote cooperation
10 recovered its influences
A послевоенный упадок
B горькие уроки
C развернуть войска
D стремительное экономическое развитие
E продолжать развивать сотрудничество
F восстановила влияние
G ближайший союзник
H экономика пузыря
I морские суда
J тесное партнерство
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8. Match the words from the text with their synonyms. The first one
is given as example.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1to surrender
2 rapid
3 to recover
4 self assertive
5 Naval vessel
6 mutual
7 to reveal
8 to preclude
9 to nadir
10 vow
11to depend on
12 to aspire
a. A solemn promise
b.B to count on something or somebody
c. C decline
d.D military ship
e. E give up
f. F speedy
g.F forceful, energetic
h.G interchangeable
i. H to show something that is hidden or secret
j. I to make impossible, to keep from doing something
k.J to make impossible
l. K to find or get back something which was lost, to get
better after the illness.
m.
L to press forward
9. Do you know what does the word «DIET» mean in Japan? Find
this word in the text above and try to guess the meaning. Read the text
about Japanese «diet» and decide which words (A – D) best fit each
space (1 – 5).
The National Diet of Japan is Japan's 1.bicameral legislature. It is composed
of a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called
the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under a
parallel 2.voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally
3.responsible for selecting the Prime Minister. The Diet was first convened as the
Imperial Diet in 1889 as a result of adopting the Meiji constitution. The Diet took
its 4.current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the postwar constitution and is
considered by the Constitution to be the highest organ of state 5. power. The National Diet Building is located in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo.
1
2
3
4
5
A unicameral
A election
A solvent
A coeval
A force
B two chamber
B ballot
B liable
B synchronous
B energy
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C bed chamber
C franchise
C laxative
C running
C authority
D bilateral
D casting
D explainable
D wide-spread
D property
WRITING
10. How to Write an Abstract: study what is abstract.
An abstract is a summary in your own words, of an article, chapter, or
book. It is not evaluative and must not include your personal opinions. The
purpose of an abstract is to give a reader sufficient information for him or her
to decide whether it would be worthwhile reading the entire article or book.
An abstract should aim at giving as much information as possible in as few
words as possible.
The abstract should include:

Complete bibliographic information

A clear statement of the scope and purpose of a work

A summary of the contents

A statement of the conclusion or results
SAMPLE ABSTRACT
Timsit, M., and N. Bruyere-DeGeyter. «The Function of Anxiety the
Structure of Personality in Sports Participation: Use of the Rorschach Test in
Comparing Samples of Basketball and Football Players.» International Journal of Sport Psychology. 8.2 (1977): 128-139.
Examines the relationship between athletes and the structure of the athletic personality, and more precisely, the importance of the choice of a sport
and athletics in general in the development of the personality. Forty 17-21
year olds (20 football players and 20 basketball players) were studied, and
the data were compared with those from 17 technical school students of the
same age. Data from the sports group were significantly different from the
control group: the sports group showed freer expression, more aggression, a
more evident state of anxiety, and relatively more effective control mechanisms (kinetic responses). Data for the basket ballers were significantly different from those of the footballers: the basket ballers had a higher tendency
toward static kinetics, and the footballers had a higher anxiety index. Results
are discussed in relation to the athletic capacity specifically called for in particular types of sports: location on the court in basketball, and active and direct struggle in football.
11. Read about Foreign relations of Japan again and write an abstract.
11
SPEAKING
12. Comment on the following.
1. «Japan aspires to become a hub of human resource development as well as
for research and intellectual contribution to further promote cooperation in
the field of peace-building.»
2. What are the ways of gaining the aims Prime Minister Fukuda stressed on
in his Speech to the Diet?
12
UNIT 2
JAPAN’S SECURITY
WARM UP
1. What does the term «security» mean?
2. Could you say that Japan is secure country to live in?
READING
3. Have you ever heard about «Hawk»? Work in two groups: think
about what is «Hawk».
4. Before you read the text «Global Hawk statistics», study the words (16): match them with the definitions (a-f).
1. a reconnaissance plane
2. to be a watchful eye
3. an impact
4. a drone
5. an adversary
6. a survivor
a. unmanned plane
b. to keep vigilant watch on
c. aerial survey aircraft
d. an opponent
e. to influence
f. a person who is alive after the disaster
Global Hawk statistics
While the U.S. military’s Global Hawk reconnaissance plane can be
used to keep a watchful eye on North Korea and other adversaries, it will
likely be used heavily in the Pacific region to respond to natural disasters,
transnational crime and drug trafficking, according to retired U.S. Army Col.
David Johnson, executive director of the Center for Advanced Defense Studies in Washington, D.C. The three Guam-based Global Hawks have already
proven themselves as a disaster response tool when they were pressed into
service ahead of schedule in March after a massive earthquake and tsunami
struck Japan, said Lt. Col. Terran Reneau, of the 13th Air Force in Hawaii.
«Given that we hadn’t received full delivery of the airframes in Guam,
it did remarkably well,» he said. «They had just been doing some local mis13
sions around the airfield (on Guam), but we pressed them into service much
earlier than expected.»
The Air Force launched the Global Hawk from Guam within 48 hours
of the disaster, and it flew continuously for 21 days, spending 300 hours onstation and 500 hours in the air including transit time to Japan, he said.
During Operation Tomodachi, the Global Hawk was able to identify
passable roads so that aid could get to survivors. Using long-range and infrared cameras, the drone provided commanders with more than 3,000 images
of the disaster zone – including images of survivors in need of help, Reneau
said.
It also was an invaluable tool when the nuclear reactors exploded at the
Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant, he said.
«Instantly we were the eyes in the sky,» he said. «There were a lot of
issues with ground cameras that were not functioning or transmitting to a
wide enough audience to see what was going on.»
A launch and recovery team on Guam flew the aircraft to 50,000 feet
before crews based at Beale Air Force Base in California took over, he said.
The high altitude meant the crews didn’t have to worry about crashing into
commercial airline traffic, which flies at around 40,000 feet. The combination of satellite and radio signals sent and received by the Global Hawk
meant that the crews were able to communicate with ground controllers in
Japan in the same way as manned aircraft.
«It is pretty much transparent like any other aircraft communicating
with ground control,» Reneau said. «If you didn’t know better you would
think there was a pilot inside.» Another advantage of flying so high was that
the Global Hawk was not affected by bad weather during Operation Tomodachi. There was an impact of cloud cover on images taken by the aircraft
but, since it was on station around the clock, it was able to circle until the
clouds moved.
The high altitude meant the crews didn’t have to worry about crashing
into commercial airline traffic Gerhardt said.
«We are looking for opportunities to bring Global Hawk to certain situations,» he said. «Without asking anyone’s permission we can fly over international waters throughout the (Pacific) theater»
5. Decide if the statements are TRUE or FALSE.
1. Global Hawks in the US army are used to conduct aerial reconnaissance
over Japan.
2. The Global Hawk was used as an effective disaster response tool
3. Global Hawks are able to identify transnational crime and drug trafficking
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4. Commercial airline traffic is around 50,000 feet.
5. One of the disadvantages of the Global Hawk is its dependence on the
weather conditions.
6. The crews didn’t have to worry about crashing into commercial airline
traffic because airline traffic was not functioning at the time of disaster in Japan.
7. Global Hawks can fly over international waters throughout the Pacific theater without asking anyone’s permission.
6. Complete the sentences:
1.The U.S. military’s Global Hawk reconnaissance plane in the Pacific region
can be used as …
2.First they were used as a disaster response tool …
3.It’s main task was …
4.It’s main advantages are …
5. Thanks to the high altitude
6. The Global Hawk can fly over the Pacific …
7. Answer the questions:
1. What are the ways of using the Global Hawk?
2. What is the place of their location?
3. What photos can the Global Hawk provide commanders with?
4. Why is the Global Hawk not influenced by the weather?
5. What kind of signals can be sent and received by the Global Hawk?
6. Where was the Global Hawk used as a disaster response tool first?
7. What are the other advantages of the Global Hawk?
8. Read the text «Should Japan have aircraft carriers?» and decide if the
statements are TRUE or FALSE.
1. Aircraft carriers have been for the last few decades the exclusive domain
of Japan.
2. Thailand and India have no carriers.
3. Japanese carriers rule the waves.
4. Japan’s Imperial Navy lost its navy at the end of the WWII.
5. Article 9 of Japanese new Constitution proclaims pacifist Japan.
6. Japan «Self-Defense Forces» consist of the army, navy and air force.…
7. Japan depends on maritime trade for almost all her energy.
8. There are no reasons for Japan to consider having carriers nowadays.
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9. Washington and Tokyo protect the long lines of communication linking
Japan with key areas like the Persian Gulf together.
10. When faced with a determined enemy preempting an attack can be construed as defense.
Should Japan have aircraft carriers? (Part 1)
Aircraft carriers have been for the last few decades almost the exclusive
domain of the United States, which has a total of 11, one of them based in Japan.
Although France, Britain, Thailand and India, have some of the smaller variety,
Japan’s Maritime Self Defense Force doesn’t have any such ship, and their construction or purchase abroad is not included in current naval plans.
Things have not always been like this. Japanese carriers ruled the
waves until the battle of Midway, where Japan’s Imperial Navy lost four.
The remaining ones, plus some hastily converted merchantmen and
warships, were gradually sunk in the ensuing battles, until what had once
been a proud force became a shadow of its former self, and Japan was left
almost with no navy to speak of in the closing days of the war.
The surrender and occupation were supposed to give way to a «pacifist
Japan,» a country which renounced war as a «sovereign right of the nation»
and a «means of settling international disputes,» as stated in Article 9 of her
new Constitution. However, the realities of the Cold War soon meant such
noble aims had to be gradually discarded in order to add local units to American forces protecting the islands. Starting with a police reserve, Japan then
added an army, navy and airforce under the name of the «Self-Defense Forces.» It was decided that Japan’s navy would however be without «powerprojection tools» such as carriers.
Despite the threat posed by modern missile systems, carriers are the
best way to project force far from one’s shores. They are small cities, complete with their own hospital, cinema or barbershop, and of course a wide
array of aircraft plus all the support facilities (repair shops, ammunition
magazines …) necessary for them to operate for extended periods of time.
American carriers are all nuclear-powered, meaning that the length of their
patrols is only limited by the need to provide crews with a rest plus the
maintenance requirements of onboard systems. Food and other supplies can
be provided by support ships.
An aircraft means there is no need to reach agreements with foreign
countries or build expensive facilities in order to support aircraft in faraway
lands. Because of their primary use, carriers are often described as «offensive» weapons, that is, arms designed not to protect a country against invasion or foreign aggression, but rather to allow it to engage in «gunboat diplomacy» or intervene in any corner of the world.
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Because of this, it has been traditionally considered that they had no
place in Japan’s MSDF, which is supposed to be used only to defend Japan
and not as part of the nation’s foreign policy. However, things have not been
quite so simple.
First of all, the difference between defense and offense is not as clear
cut as some would like it to be. When faced with a determined enemy, waiting to be struck might not be the best option, whereas preempting an attack
can be construed as defense, even in accordance with international law.
Second, being an island nation, dependent on maritime trade for almost
all her energy needs and her sizeable exports, means Japan can simply not
afford to be vulnerable to a blockade at sea or encroachment of Japanese waters.
During the Cold War, and then leading up to the present day, there has
been a division of labor between Washington and Tokyo, with the former
protecting the long lines of communication linking Japan with key areas like
the Persian Gulf (oil imports) or Europe and America (manufactured exports), while the latter concentrated on coastal defense. Due to this arrangement, and taking into account the mentioned constitutional restrictions on
the Japanese Navy, there was no reason for Japan to consider buying carriers. However recent years have seen important developments which might
change Japanese views on the matter.
9. Complete the sentences according to the information in the text above.
1. Japan’s Maritime Self Defense Force doesn’t have…
2. Until the battle of Midway…
3. According to Article 9 of Japan new Constitution war is …
4. Carriers contain all the support facilities, such as…
5. The length of the carriers patrols is only limited by …
6. Carriers are often described arms designed …
7. Being an island nation Japan cannot…
8. Japan’s MSDF is supposed to be used …
9. A division of labor between Washington and Tokyo means … or Europe
and America (manufactured exports), while Japan concentrated on coastal defense)
10. An aircraft is the best way to …
10. Answer the questions
1. What makes Japan dependent on the US protection?
2. How did surrender and occupation influence Japan’s foreign policy?
3. Why are aircraft carriers considered to be «power-projection tools»?
17
4. What makes aircraft careers possible to project force far from one’s
shores?
5. When is a preventive attack considered to be a defence?
6. What does a «division of labour» between the US and Japan mean?
7. What is the length of the US aircraft carriers patrols limited by?
11. Read the second part of the text about Japanese Aircrafts and decide
which word (A – D) best fits each space (1 – 10). Give the name to the article.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
A quick
A endless
A scamp
A purpose
A blow
A street
A timber
A rise
A slice
A besides
B fast
B tiresome
B aberrant
B intention
B impress
B ways
B drug
B beginning
B finish
B aforementioned
C swift
C troublesome
C confused
C thought
C touch
C throat
C cash
C hill
C reduction
C over
D fleet
D enduring
D scoundrel
D expectation
D sound
D alley
D matter
D origin
D shock
D heaven
There are at least six important developments which might change Japanese
views on the matter:
The MSDF has grown to become one of the strongest 1navies of the
world, second only to the U.S. Navy in the Pacific. Adding carriers to Japan’s
list of military units seems a logical development.
Japan’s 2 eternal debates on the precise meaning of Article 9 has continued unabated, with increasingly stronger pressure to reform it or simply
get rid of it. Many politicians have come to view the use of force or at least
the possibility to have recourse to it as acceptable and unavoidable in international relations. Last year, the then chief of staff of the MSDF’s air force,
General Tamogami, argued in a contest-winning essay that Japan should be
able to enter into mutual defense treaties (the current agreement with the
United States imposes a duty on America to assist Japan if attacked but not a
reciprocal obligation on Japan).On April 19, shortly after North Korea tested
a missile under the guise of launching a satellite, former finance minister
Shoichi Nakagawa stated Japan should develop nuclear weapons to deter the
3 rogue state.
North Korea remains a threat to countries in the region, above all Japan.
Its nuclear and missile programs and aggressive rhetoric towards Tokyo have
prompted 4 speculation.
18
Japan might eventually decide to carry out a preemptive 5 strike. In that
case, aircraft carriers would give Japanese planners an extra degree of flexibility in suppressing North Korean air defense systems and getting at the selected targets.
Increased pirate activity off the coast of Somalia has not only effectively
threatened the transit of merchant ships in some of the world’s most crowded
sea 6 lanes, but also reminded all sea-faring nations that such danger is not the 7
stuff of movies but a very real and serious threat. Japan’s contribution to international efforts against Somali piracy has consisted of two destroyers, plus two
P-3C surveillance aircraft based in Djibouti. Although Japan has been able to
secure the rights to have them based in the Middle-Eastern country, carriers
would enable Japan to operate aircraft anywhere even without such agreements.
The quiet but relentless 8 ascent of China is being felt, among others, in
the naval sphere. Beijing has dispatched warships to the Gulf of Aden and is
developing anti-ship missiles, which some critics suggest could be deployed
to prevent the United States from coming to the help of her allies in a crisis.
Some observers expect China to soon begin work on four carriers, with the
first being launched in six years.
Although the United States is expected to remain the dominant maritime
power in the Pacific for the foreseeable future, and nobody is seriously questioning the alliance with Tokyo, Japan cannot take for granted the willingness
or even the ability of America to intervene in a crisis with China. Recent 9
cuts in America’s defense budget have cast doubts on the number of future
nuclear carrier groups, which currently amount to eleven. Any reduction in
this force coupled with the development of Chinese carriers could significantly alter the strategic equation in the Pacific.
All the 10 above reasons are pushing Japan into the direction of developing her own nuclear carriers.
As long as China has no carriers, Japan can continue to slowly develop
its maritime capacities, but the sight of Chinese carriers roaming the seas
without them being followed by their Japanese counterparts, would be unpalatable to politicians in Tokyo. It was precisely Beijing’s decision to dispatch
warships to Somalia which put an end to Tokyo’s painful debate on the matter. Furthermore, the presence of nuclear-powered Chinese carrier groups,
specifically, if accompanied by a cut in the number of American ones, could
leave Japan at the mercy of her bigger neighbor.
Some observers however are not convinced and see carriers as an expensive distraction in times of economic crisis. Even if the country can afford
them, come Japanese are afraid the vessels might be perceived by other Asian
countries as a sign of Japanese expansionism reminiscent of the pre-war period, sparking an arms race and sowing mistrust among neighbors.
19
While the debate continues, not always in full view of the public, for all
intents and purposes, Japan is already building carriers … helicopter carriers
to be precise, although officially designated as destroyers. On March 18 this
year, the biggest MSDF ship to date, called Hyuga, was launched. With a
195-meter-long flight deck, it can transport eleven helicopters, of which up to
four can simultaneously land and take off. Although not designed to operate
vertical takeoff airplanes, the Hyuga could be converted to accommodate
them. In 2011, a sister ship of similar specifications will be built.
It therefore seems that although the return of Japanese carriers is by no
means a foregone conclusion, the race has already started and is expected to
heat up. As the saying goes «he who commands the sea, commands the
land,» and there is no better way to do this than with these magnificent ships.
Alex Calvo is Professor of International Relations and International
Law, European University in Barcelona (Spain); and Research and Teaching
Fellow, OSCE Academy in Bishkek (Kyrgyz Republic).
12. Read the article and say if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. Japanese military fleet has become one of the strongest in the world.
2. Article 9 had been reformed.
3. North Korea remains a threat to Japan.
4. Pirate activity off the coast of Somalia is a stuff of the movies.
5. China is developing anti-ship missiles.
6. The United States is the dominant maritime power in the Pacific.
7. Two P-3C surveillance aircraft based in Djibouti belong to the USA.
8. China has four carriers.
9. America’s defense budget has been cut recently.
10. The US is Japan’s ally.
13. Complete the sentences
1. The MSDF has grown to become …
2. Many politicians have come to the conclusion …
3. On April 19 North Korea…
4. In the case of preemptive strike aircraft carriers …
5. The ascent of China is …
6. Japan should develop nuclear weapons to…
7. Beijing has dispatched warships …
8. Japan cannot take for granted …
9. Recent cuts in America’s defense budget …
10. Pirate activity threatened …
20
14. Answer the questions.
1. What is the main issue of Japan’s eternal debate on the precise meaning of
Article 9?
2. What duties does the current agreement with the United States impose on
America?
3. What is Japan’s contribution to international efforts against Somali piracy?
4. Why do you think North Korea remains a threat to countries in the region?
5. Why has Beijing dispatched warships to the Gulf of Aden?
6. What factors could significantly alter the strategic equation in the Pacific?
7. What makes Japan develop her own nuclear carriers?
8. When will the first Chinese carrier be launched?
9. How many carriers does the USA have?
10. Why is the ability of America to intervene in a crisis with China doubted
by Japan?.
15. Read the last part of the text about Japanese carries. Explain why
such name was given to this part.
The race has already started
As long as China has no carriers, Japan can continue to slowly develop
its maritime capacities, but the sight of Chinese carriers roaming the seas
without them being followed by their Japanese counterparts, would be unpalatable to politicians in Tokyo. It was precisely Beijing’s decision to dispatch warships to Somalia which put an end to Tokyo’s painful debate on
the matter. Furthermore, the presence of nuclear-powered Chinese carrier
groups, specifically, if accompanied by a cut in the number of American
ones, could leave Japan at the mercy of her bigger neighbor.
Some observers however are not convinced and see carriers as an expensive distraction in times of economic crisis. Even if the country can afford them, some Japanese are afraid the vessels might be perceived by other
Asian countries as a sign of Japanese expansionism reminiscent of the prewar period, sparking an arms race and sowing mistrust among neighbors.
While the debate continues, not always in full view of the public, for all
intents and purposes, Japan is already building carriers … helicopter carriers
to be precise, although officially designated as destroyers. On March 18 this
year, the biggest MSDF ship to date, called Hyuga, was launched. With a
195-meter-long flight deck, it can transport eleven helicopters, of which up
to four can simultaneously land and take off. Although not designed to operate vertical takeoff airplanes, the Hyuga could be converted to accommodate
them. In 2011, a sister ship of similar specifications will be built.
21
It therefore seems that although the return of Japanese carriers is by no
means a foregone conclusion, the race has already started and is expected to heat
up. As the saying goes «he who commands the sea, commands the land,» and
there is no better way to do this than with these magnificent ships.
16. Decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. As long as China has no carriers, Japan can afford not having them also.
2. Beijing’s decision to dispatch warships to Somalia started Tokyo’s painful
debate on the matter
3. Some observers see carriers as an expensive distraction in times of economic crisis.
4. Hyuga is an American carrier.
5. The biggest MSDF ship can transport eleven helicopters.
6. In 2011, a new helicopter carrier will be built.
7. Aircraft carriers are the best way to command the sea and land.
17. Complete the sentences
1. The sight of … is unacceptable to Japan.
2. The presence of … could leave Japan at the mercy of her bigger neighbor.
3. Some Japanese are afraid the vessels …
4. The biggest MSDF ship is called.
5. The Hyuga could be converted to accommodate…
6. «He who commands the sea, …
7. The return of Japanese carriers is …
VOCABULARY
18. Find Russian equivalents for the words 1-10 in the bold. Use the dictionary.
1. exclusive domain
2. vulnerable
3. offense
4. purchase
5. surrender
6. power-projection tools
7. facilities
8. maintenance requirements
9. defense
10. gunboat diplomacy
22
19. Use the words above to complete the crossword.
Across
a sphere or activity not divided or
shared with others
6. capitulation
7. the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous
displays of military power
9. the action of attacking an enemy
10. the capacity of a state to intimidate
other nations and implement policy
by means of force
5.
Down
1. capability to accomplish objectives to
keeping something in proper condition
2. acquisition through the payment of
money or its equivalent
3. something created to serve a particular function
4. susceptible to attack
8. military action or resources protecting a
country against potential enemies
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
23
20. Find the English equivalents of the words 1-10 in the second part of
the text «Aircrafts».
1. избавиться 2.упреждающий удар 3.под видом запуска спутника
4.торговые суда 5.морской путь 6.подвергать сомнению 7.взаимные
обязательства8. вмешиваться в кризис 9. серьезная угроза10. в обозримом будущем
21.Give English equivalents (see the third part of the text).
1. вид китайских авианосцев,бороздящих моря
2. положить конец
3. в милости большого соседа
4. во всех отношениях
5. разжигание гонки вооружений
6. взлетать и садиться одновременно
7. тот, кто правит на море, царит и на суше
22. Match the words (1-7) with the meanings (a-g).
a. a decision that is so obvious that it can be seen before it happens
2. unpalatable (adj)
b. not pleasant or agreeable
3. dispatch (v)
c. seafaring
4. painful (adj)
d. doubts or suspicions about someone or something
5. mistrust (v)
e. send on specific business
6. distraction (noun) f. causing misery or distress
7. foregone conclu- g. the act of drawing someone's attention away from
sion
something
1. maritime (adj)
23. Write 10 sentences using the word collocations from the exercise
above.
WRITING: summary
24. Study the notes how to write a good summary.
How to Write a Summary in 8 Easy Steps
Writing a good summary demonstrates that you clearly understand a text
…and that you can communicate that understanding to your readers. A summary can be tricky to write at first because it’s tempting to include too much
24
or too little information. But by following our easy 8-step method, you will
be able to summarize texts quickly and successfully for any class or subject.
1) Divide…and conquer. First off, skim the text you are going to summarize and divide it into sections. Focus on any headings and subheadings.
Also look at any bold-faced terms and make sure you understand them before
you read.
2) Read. Now that you’ve prepared, go ahead and read the selection.
Read straight through. At this point, you don’t need to stop to look up anything that gives you trouble – just get a feel for the author’s tone, style, and
main idea.
3) Reread. Rereading should be active reading. Underline topic sentences and key facts. Label areas that you want to refer to as you write your
summary. Also label areas that should be avoided because the details –
though they may be interesting – are too specific. Identify areas that you do
not understand and try to clarify those points.
4) One sentence at a time. You should now have a firm grasp on the
text you will be summarizing. In steps 1 – 3, you divided the piece into sections and located the author’s main ideas and points. Now write down the
main idea of each section in one well-developed sentence. Make sure that
what you include in your sentences are key points, not minor details.
5) Write a thesis statement. This is the key to any well-written summary. Review the sentences you wrote in step 4. From them, you should be
able to create a thesis statement that clearly communicates what the entire
text was trying to achieve. If you find that you are not able to do this step,
then you should go back and make sure your sentences actually addressed
key points.
6) Ready to write. At this point, your first draft is virtually done. You
can use the thesis statement as the introductory sentence of your summary,
and your other sentences can make up the body. Make sure that they are in
order. Add some transition words (then, however, also, moreover) that help
with the overall structure and flow of the summary. And once you are actually putting pen to paper (or fingers to keys!), remember these tips:
 Write in the present tense.
 Make sure to include the author and title of the work.
 Be concise: a summary should not be equal in length to the original
text.
 If you must use the words of the author, cite them.
 Don't put your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary. The purpose of writing a summary is to accurately represent what the
author wanted to say, not to provide a critique.
25
7) Check for accuracy. Reread your summary and make certain that
you have accurately represented the author’s ideas and key points. Make sure
that you have correctly cited anything directly quoted from the text. Also
check to make sure that your text does not contain your own commentary on
the piece.
8) Revise. Once you are certain that your summary is accurate, you
should (as with any piece of writing) revise it for style, grammar, and punctuation. If you have time, give your summary to someone else to read. This
person should be able to understand the main text based on your summary
alone. If he or she does not, you may have focused too much on one area of
the piece and not enough on the author’s main idea.
25. What is summary? What are the most important moments in summary writing?
26. Read two students’ summaries below to the text «Global Hawk».
What is better and why? Find useful phrases you can use in your writing.
This text is about the new model
of reconnaissance planes.
The global Hawk can be used in
different spheres as a respond to natural disasters, transnational crimes and
drug trafficking. These planes have
already proven themselves as disaster
response tool during a massive earthquake and tsunami struck Japan.
The second part of the text is
about advantage of global Hawks.
Thanks to using long-range and infrared cameras, the drone provides
commanders with more than 3000 images of the disaster zone.
It also can be used when nuclear
power problems happen. Thanks to high
altitude meant, the crews don’t worry
about crashing into commercial airline
traffic, and more than that: it is able to
communicate with ground controllers.
These planes have a lot of honorable mentions. It’s a very useful mod26
The text gives an account of
Global Hawk reconnaissance planes,
its construction and earmarking.
The first part dedicates to Global Hawk plane possibilities. The paragraph informs us that the planes
have already proved themselves as s
disaster response tool when they
were pressed into service ahead of
schedule after a massive earthquake
and tsunami in Japan; and during
some local missions.
The second part views construction and technical advantages of the
plane.
Also like any other plane it can
have a contact with earth services.
The Global Hawk has other advantages, for instance it is influenced
by the bed weather conditions and
the crew can be calm about their security: planes construction lets its not
to crash.
el and it can be used in any dangerous
In my opinion, Global Hawk
situations. Owing to its advantages, plane useful and necessary invention
Global Hawk is a very important for for air forces.
military power development.
27. Choose any text from this unit and write a summary.
SPEAKING
28. Prove the following statements:
1. «An aircraft means there is no need to reach agreements with foreign countries.»
2. «Preempting an attack can be construed as defense»
29. Comment on the following:
«Instantly we were the eyes in the sky».
What were the reasons and opportunities of the Global Hawk to be the «eyes
in the sky»?
Give at least three arguments for and against the following:
Carriers for Japan are «an expensive distraction in times of economic crisis».
27
UNIT 3
JAPAN – UNITED
ECONOMIC RELATIONS
WARM UP
1. Consult the economic dictionary for GDP, PPP. How do these indexes
reflect economic situation in a country?
PRE-READING
2. Basing on the previously studied materials, tell what the basis of Japan
– United States economic relations is.
3. Decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE.
1. The U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship itself can hardly influence
economic conditions in other countries.
2. The shape and tone of the U.S.-Japan bilateral relationship have always
been unstable.
3. having significant shares of each other’s foreign trade and investment, the
two countries has been economic partners for a long time
4. The U.S. and Japanese economies remain are interdependent through
trade and capital flows.
5. The U.S. and Japanese economies are entirely different.
6. The Japanese standard of living is the same as in the U.S. measured on a
nominal per capita/GDP basis or on a PPP per capita/GDP basis.
7. U.S.-Japanese bilateral trade in goods and services has grown over time,
and continue growing.
8. In 1996, Japan accounted for 10.8 % of U.S. exports and was the second
largest (next to Canada) U.S. export market
WHILE-READING
4.
Underline important parts of the text.
5.
Circle words or phrases in the text that you don’t know.
6.
Put a question mark (?) next to statements you have a question about.
7.
Put a check mark (✓) next to statements that you agree with.
U.S.-Japan Economic Relations:
28
Significance, Prospects, and Policy Options
Japan and the United States are the two largest economic powers. Together
they account for over 40 % of world domestic product. This economic clout
makes the United States and Japan powerful forces by which they affect each
other’s economic conditions and the conditions of other countries. Economic
conditions in the United States and Japan have a significant impact on the
rest of the world. Furthermore, the U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship
itself can influence economic conditions in other countries.
The shape and tone of the U.S.-Japan bilateral relationship have
changed recently, with relations very tense during some periods and calm
during others. The means and manner by which the United States and Japan
have managed their economic relationship has also changed over time. Yet,
the two countries remain very important economic partners, accounting for
significant shares of each other’s foreign trade and investment, even though
their relative significance has declined.
Issues regarding U.S.-Japan economic relations may emerge on the
agenda of the 110th Congress. Thus, the U.S.-Japan economic relationship is
important to U.S. national interests and to the U.S. Congress. It has been the
subject of oversight hearings and trade legislation, and the Congress plays a
critical role in shaping U.S. economic policy toward Japan. To assist the
Congress in fulfilling its responsibilities, this report explores: (1) the significance and state of U.S.-Japan economic ties; (2) how the ties have changed
over time, (3) the possible options for managing the relationship might be.
An Overview of U.S.-Japan Economic Trends
The U.S. and Japanese economies remain closely intertwined through
trade and capital flows. U.S. and Japanese political leaders have not always
given U.S.-Japan relationship the priority commensurate with its economic
importance; nevertheless, the data and other indicators suggest that the relationship bears attention.
The Japanese and U.S. Economies
The U.S. and Japanese economies are in some respects very similar.
They are large industrialized economies that have provided their residents
with a high standard of living. However, as Table 1 points out, they are very
different in some critical ways. The U.S. economy is roughly 2. times larger
than Japan’s both on a nominal CRS-2 and purchasing power parity (PPP)
basis.1 The Japanese standard of living is slightly lower than the U.S. standard of living measured on a nominal per capita/GDP basis and even lower
when measured on a PPP per capita/GDP basis. (The latter measurement reflects the high cost in Japan for food, fuel and other basic necessities compared to the United States.) Japan has also endured slow economic growth or
even recessions during the past decade while U.S. economic growth has been
29
generally robust. The U.S. average annual GDP growth rate during the last
ten years has been almost 3 times that of Japan’s. Exports are more important
to the Japanese economy than are imports as measured as ratios to GDP,
while the opposite is the case for the U.S. economy. The United States continually incurs current account deficits, while Japan earns current account
surpluses. Furthermore, Japan has continually exceeded the United States in
terms of savings. The gross national savings rate in Japan is more than 2 .
times that of the United States (28.0 % vs. 10.2 %). Many economists consider the strong propensity to save in Japan relative to the United States as the
primary reason why the United States has incurred current account trade deficits with Japan for many years and why Japan continues to be a major net
creditor while the United States is a net debtor. At the same time, Japan has
built up a huge volume of public debt, and its debt burden as a ratio of GDP
is more than twice that of the United States. Japan’s public debt has soared in
the last decade as it has attempted to stimulate growth with extra government
spending.
Table 1. Key Comparative Economic Indicators for the United States
and Japan
Japan United States
GDP (2010)
-Nominal (billions of $U.S.)
5,462 14,723
-PPP (billions of $U.S.)
4,282 14,723
Per Capita GDP (2010)
-Nominal
-PPP (U.S. Dollars
43,070 47,560
33,770 47,560
Real GDP Growth Rates (2010)
Average Annual Real GDP Growth Rate (20012010)
Exports as % GDP (2010)
Imports as % GDP (2010)
Current Account Balance as % of GDP (2010)
Gross National Savings Rate (2010)
Recorded Unemployment Rates (2010)
4.0 %
0.7 %
15.2 %
14.1 %
2.8 %
23.8 %
5.1 %
2.9 %
1.7 %
12.5 %
16.2 %
3.4 %
9.5 %
9.6 %
U.S.-Japanese Trade in Goods and Services
U.S.-Japanese bilateral trade in goods and services has grown over time,
although recently the level of bilateral trade turnover has plateaued. As Table
2 shows, U.S.-Japan total trade in goods attained a record level in 2000. U.S.
exports to Japan dropped about 21 % from $64.9 billion in 2000 to $51.4 bil30
lion in 2002, but have been increasing since then. U.S. imports have increased recently from $118.0 billion in 2003 to $148.2 billion in 2005. U.S.
imports from Japan are concentrated within three main categories. About
75 % of those imports in 2006 consisted of passenger cars and parts; computers and components; office machinery parts; and electrical machinery (primarily video cameras). U.S. exports to Japan are much more diverse, but a
major portion of those exports are in computers and components; gas turbines
(turbojets, turbo-propellers, etc); office machinery parts; electrical machinery
(integrated circuits and electrical apparatus for line telephone systems); optical and medical equipment; and agricultural products such as wheat and
meat.
Table 2. U.S. Merchandise Trade with Japan, 1998-2010 (billions of
$ U.S.)
U.S.
U.S.
Trade
Year
U.S.balances
Exports
Imports
Turnover
12.5
48.5
18.0
30.5
2001
11.5
49.3
18.9
30.4
2002
10.2
50.1
20.0
30.1
2003
14.8
57.3
21.3
36.0
2004
18.7
66.3
23.8
42.5
2005
16.5
67.5
25.5
42.0
2006
15.0
67.4
26.2
41.2
2007
16.6
68.0
25.7
42.3
2008
18.5
64.3
22.9
41.4
2009
20.0
73.2
26.6
46.6
2010
Although U.S.-Japan bilateral trade remains large, the importance of the
United States and Japan as their respective trade partners has been diminishing. In 1996, Japan accounted for 10.8 % of U.S. exports and was the second
largest (next to Canada) U.S. export market. By 2006, Japan accounted for
5.8 % of U.S. exports and had declined to the third largest U.S. export market
(behind Canada and Mexico). In 1996, Japan accounted for 14.5 % U.S. imports and was the second largest (next to Canada) source of U.S. imports.
However, by 2006, it accounted for 8.0 % and declined to the fourth largest
source behind Canada, China, and Mexico.
As late of as 2001, the United States was the largest source of Japanese
imports, accounting for 18.1 %, but slipped to second place behind China
since 2003. In 2006, the United States accounted for 11.8 % of Japanese imports. The United States has been and remains Japan’s most important export
market having accounted for 22.5 % of Japanese exports in 2006 The relative
31
shares and rankings of countries in export and import markets of trading
partners have little significance in economic terms but often influence the
shape and management of trade policies.
The emergence of China and other East Asian countries has played a
role in the declining significance of the United States in Japan’s trade. In the
last decade, Japanese trade flows have shifted decidedly towards East Asia
from the United States. In 1994, 38.6 % of Japanese exports went to and
33.0 % of Japanese imports came from 9 of the largest economies in East
Asia.2 By 2006, 45.6 % of Japanese exports and 41.4 % of Japanese imports
were with the 9 countries of East Asia. China is the fastest growing Japanese
trade partner. Similarly, the geographic pattern of U.S. trade has shifted.
Mexico and, to a lesser degree, China have surpassed Japan in U.S. trade as
noted above. U.S.-Japan trade in services has increased, at least on the U.S.
import side, although it remains relatively modest.3 (See Table 3.) The United States exports a variety of services to Japan in the form of travel services,
passenger fares, and «other transportation;» royalties and licensing fees; and
other private services. U.S. imports of services from Japan consisted mostly
of transportation other than passenger fees, royalties and licensing fees, and
other private services. The United States has realized surpluses in its bilateral
trade in services with Japan.
8. Answer the questions:
1. Judge the value of the US-Japan bilateral relationships.
2. What is the difference between the US and Japan economies?
3. Why is the PPP in Japan lower than in the US?
4. What (export or import) is more important for Japan?
5. Analyse Table 1
6. Draw a graph for Table 2
7. Characterise import and export of both countries.
8. What is the forecast of the US-Japan respective trade relationships?
9. Who are other trade partners of Japan?
10. Who played an important role in the declining of the US in Japan's trade?
9. Complete the sentences, without looking back into the text:
1.
Japan and the United States are the two …
2.
This economic clout makes the United States and Japan powerful forces by which they …
3.
The shape and tone of the U.S. – Japan bilateral relationship have …
4.
The U.S. and Japanese economies remain …
32
AFTER-READING
10. Identify 3 important supporting details that contribute to the main idea of
the passage. Identify 2 details that are not very important to the main idea of
the passage.
11. Write 1 brief paragraph summarizing the main idea of the passage. Use
the important details to support your discussion of the main idea
VOCABULARY
13. Match the word to the meaning
account A Extra; more than is needed
1
annual
2
B To cause a reaction or liven and wake up
exceed- C A record or statement of business transactions
3
similar
4
D To show something
stimulate E Try to do something
5
incur
6
F Something that is owed
surplus
7
G Once a year
endure
8
H To go beyond the limit
Spending more money than you have; for a governattempt I
9
ment
To do something that deserves a response; to create a
10 provide J
debt
11 debt
K Having a resemblance to another
12 reflect
L To continue even though it is difficult or painful
13 deficit
M Give or supply something
14. Fill in the gaps with the words from ex. 13
1. An umbrella ____________________ protection from the rain.
2. They _______________________ to climb the mountain.
3. Most people were able to _________ the cold, but a few gave up and
moved to Florida.
4. The country has a _______________________ because of the war.
5. His tears _______________________ his deep sadness.
6. His _______________________ for the car is $5,000.
7. I have $20, the movie costs $10, so I have a $10
_______________________
8. The police gave him a ticket for driving to fast; he __________ the speed
limit by twenty miles an hour!
9. Christmas is an ___________________holiday.
10. All the company's _______________________ s were lost in the fire.
33
11. He had the misfortune to _____________________ the displeasure of his
colonel, who for many years continued in the command of this regiment. – H.
Fielding – Tom Jones
12. He drinks coffee in the morning to _______________________ his brain.
13. Her nose is _______________________ to her mother's
15. Work in pairs. Translate the sentences into Russian. Give your translation to your partner and let him\her translate it back into English.
Compare the results.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
At the same time, Japan has built up a huge volume of
public debt, and its debt burden as a ratio of GDP is
more than twice that of the United States
Japan's public debt has soared in the last decade as it has
attempted to stimulate growth with extra government
spending
Many economists consider the strong propensity to save
in Japan relative to the United States as the primary reason why the United States has incurred current account
trade deficits with Japan for many years and why Japan
continues to be a major net creditor while the United
States is a net debtor.
Japan has also endured slow economic growth or even
recessions during the past decade while U.S. economic
growth has been generally robust
The U.S. average annual GDP growth rate during the
last ten years has been almost 3 times that of Japan's
The U.S. and Japanese economies are in some respects
very similar.
They are large industrialized economies that have provided their residents with a high standard of living
However, as Table 1 points out, they are very different
in some critical ways
The U.S. economy is roughly 2. times larger than Japan's
both on a nominal CRS-2 and purchasing power parity(PPP) basis.1 The Japanese standard of living is slightly lower than the U.S. standard of living measured on a
nominal per capita/GDP basis and even lower when
measured on a PPP per capita/GDP basis.
34
10
11
12
13
The latter measurement reflects the high cost in Japan
for food, fuel and other basic necessities compared to the
United States
Exports are more important to the Japanese economy
than are imports as measured as ratios to GDP, while the
opposite is the case for the U.S. economy
The United States continually incurs current account
deficits, while Japan earns current account surpluses
The gross national savings rate in Japan is more than 2
16. Find the Russian equivalents for the words. Use the dictionary
Economic power
World domestic product
Economic clout
Have a significant effect on
Bilateral economic relationship
Shares of foreign trade
Oversight hearings
Trade legislation
A critical role in +Ving
One’s economic policy toward smb
Economic ties
To be intertwined through smth
Trade and capital flows
Commensurate with
Bear attention
In some respects
Purchasing power parity
Endure
Recession
Average annual growth rate
Incur
Earn current account surplus
The gross national savings rate
Net creditor
Net debtor
Huge volume of public debt
17. Find the English equivalents for the words. Use the dictionary
Экономическая мощь
Мировой внутренний продукт
Экономический удар
Иметь существенное влияние на
Двусторонние экономические отношения
Акции внешней торговли
Слушания контроля
Торговое законодательство
Критическая роль в +Ving
Экономическая политика по отношению к smb
Экономические связи
Быть вовлеченным в … посредством …
движения капитала и товаров
Соразмерный с …
35
обращать внимание на …
В некотором отношении
Паритет покупательной способности
Терпеть
Спад
Среднегодовой темп роста
Подвергнуться
Заработь профицит счета текущих операций
валовые национальные сбережения
кредитор
должник
Огромный объем государственного долга
18. Write 20 sentences using the word collocations from the exercise
above.
19. In the first paragraph change the words given in the right column so
that their meaning best fit the blank.
Insert paragraphs A-D in the correct places 1-4.
The Earthquake, Tsunami, and Nuclear Accident in
North – Eastern Japan
The effects of the March 11 earthquake and related events
in Japan are likely to dominate the U.S.-Japan economic________1, at least for the _________2 future. These events
are still _________3; therefore, any economic impact assessments are at best preliminary. The effects could be profound in
the near term and on specific sectors and firms for which trade
and investment with Japan is _________4 important. The earthquake crisis is expected to diminish economic growth in Japan
in the near term; therefore, U.S. exports could decline, depending on the extent of the impact. One forecast estimates that the
Japanese economy will experience a recession in 2011 with a
decline in GDP of 1…3 % as a result of the crisis. Others estimate the crisis will diminish the rate of GDP growth by 0.3 %
to 0.5 % GDP. 10 Most forecasts indicate that Japan’s GDP will
increase as the country begins ________6.
1. relate
2. see
3. fold
4.particula
r
6.
construct
Some sectors of U.S.-Japan trade are likely to be directly affected.
_____________________ 1 Other manufacturers who may not be directly
36
located in the earthquake area have been affected by power outages and other
effects of the disaster and have had to curtail operations, reducing output.
Japanese auto manufacturers have also been adversely affected by disruption
of operations of parts suppliers.
___________________ 2. For example, some models assembled in the
United States by Toyota, Mitsubishi, Nissan, and Mazda import engines
and/or transmissions from Japan Also, some U.S.-name plate manufacturers
have been affected. Ford Motor Co. depends on imports of Japanese-made
memory chips and batteries. In addition, a significant portion of U.S. imports
from Japan are in machinery (20.6 %), including printers and computers, and
electrical machinery (15.2 %), including semiconductors, shipments of which
could be interrupted because of the crisis. The full extent of the effects of the
problems in Japan is yet to be determined.
Trade in services could also be affected.________________3.
Another factor that affects trade flows is exchange rates.
_________________4. It has depreciated slightly since then. On March 28, it
was $1=.81.7. Recent yen appreciation may be caused in part by speculatio
that Japan will need to repatriate funds from abroad to finance the reconstruction. The higher yen in terms of the dollar makes Japanese exports more expensive and U.S. exports less expensive.
A In addition, U.S.-based auto manufacturers may also be affected by
the problems in Japan. Some Japanese-owned companies in the United States
have had to curtail operations because they cannot obtain parts from Japan.
B Over the past year, the Japanese yen has attained historically high
values in terms of the dollar and other currencies as investors sought a safe
haven during the financial crisis. Less than four years ago the yen was valued
at $1=.122. On March 17, 2011, the value was $1=.78.8, which was the highest value since the end of World War II.
C For example, close to 35 % of U.S. imports from Japan in 2010 consisted of passenger cars and auto parts. Some Japanese auto manufacturers,
such as Toyota Motor Corp., have assembly operations in the immediate vicinity of the earthquake.
D Hawaii already has experienced cancellations of tours from Japan.
Japanese tourists accounted for $1.9 billion in revenue in Hawaii, 18 % of
tourist arrivals there, and numbered second only to arrivals from other parts
of the United States. For the United States as a whole, about 3.5 million tourists from Japan arrived in 2010, placing Japan in fourth place after Canada,
Mexico, and the United Kingdom
37
20. Answer the questions:
What economic, political and cultural effect will the Earthquake have on
Japan?
Work in pairs. Draw the graph of the GDP forecast in 2011 according to
the data given in the text. Compare your results.
WRITING
21. Match the words to the pictures
Pie-chart bar graph table line-graph flow chart picture plan
Dotted line curve fluctuating line vertical axis broken line horizontal axis
solid line undulating line
38
22. Look at the graphs. Which graph does the text describe?
Now I'd like to show you this graph. It shows the rate of increase in
CO2 emissions between 1950 and 1990. On the left-hand vertical axis you
see the CO2 emissions in millions of tonnes, while the horizontal axis shows
time over forty years. The three lines show … the global total at the top, the
broken line here is OECD countries, or developed countries. The dotted line
shows nonOECD, or developing countries. What we can see here is, quite
clearly, a sharp increase in CO2 emissions. This Image, impact and making
an impression increase is global, look at the top line here, but the graph
shows that it's strongest in developing countries. In OECD countries, the rate
of increase is slower. Up to 2000, the situation continued just the same …
23. Study the scheme of describing a graph.
Introduction
What the graph is about
Explanation
What the two axes represent
Message
Highlight key information
24. Essential vocabulary
Describing trends
To go up
An increase
To increase
A rise
To rise
A climb
To climb
An improvement
To improve
To go down
To decrease
To fall
To decline
To deteriorate
39
A decrease
A fall
A decline
A deterioration
To recover
To get better
To level off
To stabilize
To stay the same
To reach a pick
To reach a maximum
To peak
To undulate
To fluctuate
A recovery
An upturn
To get worse
A downturn
A leveling off
A peak
To reach a low point
To hit bottom
An undulation
A fluctuation
How to describe the speed of change
A dramatic
A marked increase\fall
A significant
A slight
to increase\fall
dramatically
markedly
slightly
significantly
25. Look at the diagrams and describe what each one shows.
40
26. Read the text.
U.S.-Japan Bilateral Investment
Along with trade in goods and services, foreign direct (investments in
manufacturing facilities, businesses, and real estate) and portfolio investments (investments in government securities, corporate stocks and bonds, and
bank deposits) between residents of the United States and Japan also define
the economic relationship. The value of portfolio and direct investments between the United States and Japan exceeds the value of trade in goods and
services. In addition, investments, particularly foreign direct investments
(Table 1) signify a long-term financial commitment on the part of the investor.
Table1. U.S.-Japanese Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Positions,
1997-2006
Historical-Cost Basis ($ in billions)
Japanese FDI in
Year
U.S. FDI in Japan
U.S.
1997
125.0
33.9
1998
134.3
41.4
1999
153.8
55.1
2000
159.7
57.1
2001
149.9
55.7
2002
147.4
66.5
2003
157.2
57.8
2004
175.7
68.1
2005
190.3
75.5
2006
211.0
91.8
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.
Note: Figures are cumulative FDI. CRS-6
Foreign direct investment (FDI) consists of investments in real estate,
manufacturing plants, and retail facilities, in which the foreign investor owns
10 % or more of the entity. FDI can be new establishments or mergers with
or acquisitions of already established locally based enterprises. Investors seek
to take advantage of skilled labor or other resources of the local economy, to
produce goods or services tailored to the local market, to avoid foreign trade
barriers, and for other reasons. The United States has consistently been the
largest source of FDI in Japan. From 1997 to 2005, U.S. FDI in Japan more
41
than doubled, albeit from a low base of $33.9 billion to $91.8 billion. The
sharp increase in investments was largely the result of acquisitions by U.S.
firms of Japanese entities that were facing bankruptcy, rather than investments. However, $91.8 billion in U.S. FDI in Japan in 2006, pales in comparison to U.S. FDI in some other, smaller, fully industrialized countries. For
example, U.S. FDI in 2006 totaled $215.7 billion in the Netherlands and
$364.1 billion in the United Kingdom.4 The Japanese economy has been
relatively «closed» to foreign investment, and the level of foreign direct investment in Japan consistently ranks among the lowest of industrialized
countries. Over the years, Japanese investors have established a strong presence in the United States. Japanese FDI in the United States surged in the
1980s and continued to increase in the 1990s. In the 1980s, Japanese investors acquired such high-profile U.S. assets as Columbia Pictures, Rockefeller
Center, and Pebble Beach Golf Course. These investments followed surges in
Japanese investments in the United States by Japanese consumer electronics
firms and auto producers. (Many of these acquisitions were not profitable for
Japanese investors.) The rapid increase of the investments and their high visibility generated concerns in the United States of Japan «buying up the United States.» By 2000, the level of Japanese FDI in the United States rose to
$159.7 billion but declined to $147.4.0 billion by 2002. The level of Japan’s
FDI in the United States has increased since, reaching $211.0 billion in 2006.
In 2004 (latest data available), Japanese majority-owned affiliates in the
United States employed 614.2 thousand U.S. workers.5 Japan’s relative importance to the United States as a source of FDI has declined markedly in recent years. In the 1980s, Japan became the largest source of FDI in the United States surpassing the United Kingdom, the traditional leader. By 2002,
Japan had dropped to the fourth largest source of FDI far behind the United
Kingdom and France, and slightly behind the Netherlands. However, in 2004,
its ranking reached number 2 behind the United Kingdom and remained there
in 2006.6 In addition to foreign direct investment, substantial amounts of
capital flow between the United States and Japan in the form of portfolio investments. At the end of 2005, U.S. investors held $411.2 billion in Japanese
corporate stocks and $27.8 .billion in Japanese bonds. Japanese investors
held $186.0 billion in U.S. corporate stocks and $264.4 billion in U.S. corporate bonds.7 Japanese investors are by far the leading foreign holders of U.S.
Treasury securities that finance the U.S. national debt, and their importance
has soared over the last few years. By the end of 2005, Japanese residents
held $659.0 billion in U.S. securities, or and more than the amount held by
residents of Mainland China ($335.8 billion) and the United Kingdom ($98.5
billion).8 Japanese holdings of U.S. Treasury securities are especially important, and underscore the debtor/creditor link between the United States
42
and Japan. As the U.S. government continues to incur budget deficits and
maintains a low national savings rate, the United States has had to rely increasingly on foreign creditors to finance the rising national debt. This has
some potentially problematic implications for U.S. interest rates. For example, if Japanese investors decided to switch their foreign investment from
U.S. Treasury securities to euro-denominated securities, or if Japan’s savings
rate should decline as older Japanese citizens spend down their savings, and
capital begins to flow back to Japan, U.S. interest rates would likely rise, all
other factors remaining unchanged.
SPEAKING
Work in pairs. Draw the graphs of the U.S.-Japanese Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) Positions, 1997-2006. Compare your results, comment
upon the graphs.
43
UNIT 4
JAPAN – UNITED STATES
POLITICAL RELATIONS
WARM UP
1. Identify unique and shared attributes of the US-Japan strategic
alliance.
PRE-READING
2.Decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE
1. Japan has always been a key ally of the United States in the Pacific.
2. The main basis for bilateral political relations are Article 9 of the Japanese
Constitution, the San Francisco Peace Treaty and the Security Treaty between the United States and Japan.
3. Japan was not given the right to build up armed forces of its own as long as
they remained defensive in character.
4. The Security Treaty had been replaced by another treaty on co-operation
and security in 1960 that has to be renewed every eight years.
5. In April 1996, the guidelines containing details of co-operation under the
Security Treaty from 1978 have been rewritten.
6. Rules for this last field of co-operation have been summarised l than they
used to be in the 1978 guidelines
7. Today, after the end of the Cold War, the importance of the Treaty for Japan remains high
8. U.S. presence in the region will deter Japan from rebuilding large armed
forces of Its own which would be considered as a serious threat by its neighbours.
WHILE-READING
3. Underline important parts of the text.
4. Circle words or phrases in the text that you don’t know.
44
5. Put a question mark (?) next to statements you have a question about.
6. Put a check mark (✓) next to statements that you agree with.
U.S.-Japan Political Relations: A Strategic Alliance
After the capitulation of fascist Japan at the end of World War II, Japan
rapidly became a key ally of the United States in the Pacific – much like
West-Germany in Europe. As the single non-communist developed power in
the region, it was a cornerstone in U.S. foreign policy – despite some resentment that had stayed from the confrontation in World War II.
The main basis for bilateral political relations are Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution on the one hand as well as the San Francisco Peace Treaty
and the Security Treaty between the United States and Japan on the other.
In Article 9 of the Constitution, Japan has waived forever the right of
any sovereign state to declare war upon any other country or to use or threaten to use military force as a means to regulate international disputes. Consequently, it has not built up military forces beyond what is deemed as absolutely indispensable for self defence (Jietai).
The correlates of Article 9 have been the San Francisco Peace Treaty of
1951 which gave sovereignty back to Japan and which ended American occupation, as well as the Security Treaty between the United States and Japan
that was concluded on the same day. It granted Japan protection from outside
aggression, based on the stationing of U.S. troops in Japan.
Japan was given the right to build up armed forces of its own as long as
they remained defensive in character and as long as they would not pose a
threat to other countries. The Security Treaty had been replaced by another
treaty on co-operation and security in 1960 that has to be renewed every ten
years. It provides for regular bilateral consultations on security issues and
gives each party the right to demand immediate consultations if international
peace or security are endangered in the Far East. Further on, the treaty includes a clause saying that it can be replaced by measures of the United Nations that maintain security and peace in the region.
In April 1996, the guidelines containing details of co-operation under
the Security Treaty from 1978 have been revised. The new defence guidelines include rules for co-operation a.) under normal circumstances (i.e. in
peace times), b.) in case of a military attack against Japan, c.) when significant danger for Japanese peace and security arises on account of situations in
areas near Japan.
Rules for this last field of co-operation have been defined in more detail
than they used to be in the 1978 guidelines. This does not come as a surprise
when considered in the light of the reduction of the Soviet threat on the one
hand and China’s aggressive foreign policy and the Korea dispute on the oth45
er. However, the new guidelines have somewhat undermined the strictly pacifist orientation of Japanese foreign policy and they have been badly received
by Japan’s neighbours in the region.
Today, after the end of the Cold War, the importance of the Treaty for
Japan remains high, due to the deterrence of potential adversaries. The presence of U.S. armed forces in the region is still widely recognised as a factor
of stability in the Asia-Pacific Area. In addition to this, U.S. presence in the
region will keep Japan from rebuilding large armed forces of Its own which
would be considered as a serious threat by its neighbours. Japan can thus reap
a peace dividend, and is therefore often accused to ride on a free ticket on security matters.
However, resistance against the presence of U.S. forces is mounting.
After U.S. forces had to leave the Philippines, the Japanese population has
become less willing to tolerate the presence of U.S. forces as could be witnessed in the Okinawa referendum on the stationing of U.S. troops. Although
troops were withdrawn from Okinawa, overall U.S. military presence in Japan will remain at basically the same levels as before.
7. Answer the questions.
1. What is the role of Article 9 in the US-Japan political relations?
2. What are two key political agreements between the US and Japan?
3. What are the stages of the Security Treaty development?
4. What changes in the guidelines under the security treaty were made in
1996?
5. What circumstances were defined?
6. Which reasons for defining the rules of cooperation in more detail can be
named?
7. Judge the value of Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.
8. How effective has become the revision of the Security Treaty in 1996?
8. Complete the sentences.
1.
After the capitulation of fascist Japan at the end of World War II, Japan rapidly became a …
2.
The main basis for bilateral political relations are …
3.
In Article 9 of the Constitution, Japan has waived forever the right of
…
4.
The correlates of Article 9 have been the San Francisco Peace Treaty
of 1951 which …
5.
Japan was given the right to …
46
6.
The Security Treaty had been replaced by …
7.
The Security Treaty provides for …
8.
The new defence guidelines include …
9.
Today, after the end of the Cold War, the importance of the Treaty for
Japan remains …
AFTER-READING
9. Identify 3 important supporting details that contribute to the main idea of
the passage.
10. Identify 2 details that are not very important to the main idea of the
passage.
11. Write 1 brief paragraph summarizing the main idea of the passage. Use
the important details to support your discussion of the main idea.
VOCABULARY
12. Match the words to the definitions.
1
account
A
2
3
4
5
aggression
bilateral
defensive
endanger
B
C
D
E
6
indispensable F
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
maintain
protection
significant
waive
conclude
regulate
deem
arise
threat
threaten
means
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
18
pose-
R
To relinquish, especially temporarily, as a right or
claim
To control or adjust with rules or systems
Wake up
Judge
A method or way of doing something
An activity or task for which one is regularly paid
and earns one's living
Give or supply something
Message or signal of plan to hurt or punish
To put something in a dangerous position
A description of rules or policies
The act of facing a challenge; an argument
A record or statement of business transactions
To say or announce a plan, choice, or opinion
To give someone something they asked for
An unprovoked attack
To keep in good condition
A meeting or conversation for exchanging information
47
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
provide
guidelines
occupation
confrontation
declare
consultation
sovereignty
gran
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
AA
Supreme authority over a country
Involves two sides
To reach as a logical answer
Defence from damage, danger or annoyance
Absolutely needed
To create a possibility; often of danger
Done for protection
Warning of plan to hurt or punish
Important.
13. Fill in the blanks with the words from Ex.
1. The built the bridge by the quickest _______________________ possible.
2. The electrical wires ____________________a danger to the baby crawling
on the floor.
3. An umbrella _______________________ protection from the rain.
4. I _______________________ at 6:00 a.m.
5. The dog growled as a _______________________ to the stranger.
6. The government _______________________ to put him i jail if he didn't
pay his taxes.
7. All new students were given the school's _______________________.
8. He had a _______________________ with his lawyer.
9. In some countries, _______________________ comes from a king, but in
a democracy _______________________ comes from the people.
10. His boss _______________________ him the raise he asked for.
11. His _______________________ is teaching, but motorcycle racing is his
passion.
12. She had a _______________________ with her boss.
13. He _______________________ his love for her.
14. After we planned the location for the party, the question of food
____________________.
15. The country has an army for _______________________ reasons.
16. Driving too fast _______________________ other people on the road.
17. If the ___________ worker quits we don't know how we will get anything
done.
18. All the company's _______________________s were lost in the fire.
19. She fought back against his _______________________ in the meeting.
20. The two countries had a _______________________ discussion about
trade.
21. Older sports cars are difficult _______________________ but fun to
drive.
48
22. After looking at the prices, she _________________ that she needed
$500 more.
23. The thermostat _______________________ the temperature.
24. The pig was _______________________ too thin to eat.
25. You need sun block for extra _______________________ from the sun.
26. The Brooklyn bridge was ________________to the growth of New York
City.
27. When the police arrested him, he _______________________ his right to
speak to an attorney.
14. Find the Russian equivalents.
A key ally
A cornerstone
To waive forever
To be deemed as absolutely indispensable
To grant smb protection from
To be defensive in character
To pose a threat
Deterrence of potential adversaries
Reap a peace dividend
15. Find the English equivalents
Ключевой союзник
Краеугольный камень
Отказываться навсегда
Считаться абсолютно обязательным
Предоставить кому-либо защиту от
Быть защитным по своей природе
Представлять угрозу
Сдерживание потенциальных противников
Пожинать плоды мирных отношений
16. Work in pairs. Translate the sentences into Russian. Give your translation to your partner and let him\her translate it back into English.
Compare the results.
1
The United States urged Bahrain on Thursday to show restraint as concern deepened over unrest in a cornerstone for
U.S. military power in the region and a strategic ally on oil
supply lines from the Gulf.
49
2
3
Cornerstone of nuclear non-proliferation.
Over four decades later, their principles remain the cornerstone of every home we build.
Cornerstone mission within esa's cosmic vision program.
Cornerstone of strategic stability become eroded, we will
have a big problem of putting things in check in this area.
The first chapter lays a solid cornerstone to the framework
of the book.
Acknowledging the presence of some rare fragile populations
of native trout could act as a fundamental cornerstone in this
reform.
A policy cornerstone we move on to a cornerstone policy of
the lib dems election manifesto: free personal care for older
people.
Cornerstone of any democracy – therein lies the rub.
They have become a cornerstone of the chamber's activity.
You don't have to be einstein, newton or socrates to know
that education is a vital cornerstone in our modern lives.
Their world-famous carpets form a rich cornerstone to any
home interior.
A wealth of new information and updated coverage makes the
8th edition an essential cornerstone for every psychiatric
practice.
Cornerstone of the international nuclear non-proliferation
regime, supported by almost every country in the world.
It represents a cornerstone of our commitment to improving
working lives.
At the cultural cornerstone of this new, dynamic town-centre
hub will be our very own, purpose-built dancehouse.
Cornerstone of a fair society.
Waive disqualification in relation to any later event.
You hereby waive any claim you might have against us with
respect to such other sites.
Waived by agreement but students are responsible for travel
and living costs.
Waived at the discretion of the student fees controller without
prejudice.
You also warrant that any «moral rights» in posted materials
have been irrevocably waived by the appropriate authors.
Waived where files or email have or may have been lost
through equipment or software failure.
50
4
5
Waived of the fee for the duration of your appointment.
Waived by agreement but students are responsible for travel
and living costs.
Waive privilege.
Discount brokers usually waive or discount the initial charge,
as no advice has been provided.
The benefit of any such condition, warranty or representation
by careers in logistics is hereby irrevocably and unconditionally waived by the client.
Waived in respect of small items such that have a value not
exceeding £ 10.
Waive exemption see part 4 – election to tax.
He might even waive off some part of your unpaid loan balance.
Waived inexceptional cases.
Waive a breach of contract on your part, these terms will
continue to apply in full.
Waive the test fee?
Waive any objection that the English courts in the united
kingdom are an inconvenient forum.
I am a courtier grave and serious Who is about to kiss your
hand: Try to combine a pose imperious With a demeanour
nobly bland.
Pose a danger to the user.
Pose for a team photo along with most of the rest of the agcas
team.
At the same time there is a threat posed to human freedom by
the enormous power of the modern state.
Posed by the proliferation of ballistic missiles.
Take it easy, do not become defensive and reply in a considered way.
Labor originally decided to dilute the charter because it
«made staff more defensive».
Jack pearce has warned bognor's new central defensive pairing they will need to be on top of their game against fisher
athletic tomorrow.
Defensive midfielder who has done really well in the french
league in the last two years.
Was our involvement in the development of the quality mark
purely defensive?
This resulted in downward pressure of fee levels with people
51
6
becoming even more defensive about their charge out levels.
Defensive in nature.
Defensive frailties, his services are required with some urgency.
Overly defensive play will merely land you front-row seats to
the fiery destruction of your own base.
When we want to resist anything; when we feel defensive;
then the most common response is to tighten up.
Defensive lapses cost us.
The french military high command had developed an essentially defensive strategy from an essentially defensive national mind-set.
Without sounding too defensive, isn't it a tad hypocritical to
label atheists as arrogant while not extending that to the religious folks?
Defensive mix-up saw their striker steal in and prod the ball
home.
It stood in a naturally defensive location on the shoulder of a
steep slope overlooking a crossing point of the river lune.
But people never do that, they always get defensive, and start
attacking, when we were trying to debate something else.
Defensive ditch situated just north of hadrian's wall.
In sites like avebury the ditch is on the inside indicating the
purpose was not primarily defensive.
Defensive linear earthwork.
I would not want to say that this was merely defensive or
self-protective.
Deterrence of fraud.
It had also made warfare far more destructive, potentially
strengthening deterrence.
Nuclear deterrence is no longer the defining logic of the existing order.
Deterrence posture of launch on warning.
Deterrence by denial.
A second way is to enhance deterrence through punishment.
For ' minimum credible deterrence ' India does not need 150
to 400 nuclear warheads.
Deterrence doctrine.
Our interest is to maintain the nuclear deterrence which has
been established at the lowest possible level.
More importantly, neither side has experience of mutual de52
terrence.
Deterrence paradigm.
But the alliance's conventional forces alone cannot ensure
credible deterrence.
For ' minimum credible deterrence ' India does not need 150
to 400 nuclear warheads.
Deterrence theory is its lack of supporting experimental evidence.
Therefore, we provide a potent deterrence against action toward coalition ground forces.
They do not have to bear the whole weight of strategic nuclear deterrence – that ultimate sanction wielded by nuclear
weapons states.
Deterrence capability.
Yet it is safer and easier to replace deterrence with elimination of all wmd.
The ssns contribute to peace and security by providing conventional deterrence.
Deterrence strategy.
17. Write 20 sentences using the word collocations from the exercise
above.
WRITING
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are a type of graph that visually displays information using a
series of bars, rectangles, or objects.
For example, the bar graph to the left shows the relative number of students according to their age.
How to draw a bar graph
For the following example, we will make a bar graph of the data set to
the right, giving information about a group of children's favourite colour.
Favorite Color Number of Students
Red
22
Blue
15
Green
11
Black
5
Pink
2
53
18. Read the tips for bar graph building
1. Look at your data to determine how big your bar graph should be and
whether horizontal or vertical bars will fit better on your paper. Decide the
scale your bar graph will have. This is determined by the biggest and the
smallest numbers in your data set. In the data from our example, the biggest
number is 22; the smallest is 2. In this case, a scale showing multiples of 5
makes creating and reading the graph easier. Label the scale on your graph.
2. Decide how wide the other axis should be to show all of the type of
data (5 colours in this case). Label this axis of your graph.
3. Draw the rectangles the right length to represent the data. Pick a good
width for the data bars. Colour coding can make a graph easier to read.
4. Give your graph a title.
SPEAKING
19. Study the information, present it in a bar graph, then describe the
bar graph.
A Immigration Control Statistics
Japan to US
1980
To t a l
14,279
To the U.S
9,242
(U.S. Sha re)
64.7 %
1990
121,645
68,944
56.7 %
2000
193,779
87,157
45 %
B Academic study Increased until 1992, stayed around that level until
2001 and increased again thereafter.
54
US to Japan
Intl student
From
the
U.S
(U.S. Share)
1981
8,275
2004
151,463
2008
163,854
701
3,473
4,940
8.5 %
2.3 %
3.0 %
55
UNIT 5
JAPAN’S PARTICIPATION
IN THE EAST ASIAN
REGIONAL COOPERATION
WARM UP
1. Identify unique and shared attributes of Japan and East Asia countries.
PRE-READING
2. Decide if the sentences are TRUE or FALSE
1. Recently, Japan has been proposing a stable and solid policy about East
Asian cooperation.
2. Also Japan is not satisfied with Japan-U.S. alliance concerning security
and worries about the security environment of East Asia.
3. The Diplomatic Blue Book, accepted in 1967, proposed three basic principles of Japan’s foreign policy:
4. In the 1970s, Japan made an attempt to improve Japanese image in the East
Asian countries and raise its position in the region.
5. In 1967, PM Fukuda Takeo dictated the «Fukuda Doctrine» which became
the general principle of Japan in dealing relations with East Asian countries.
6. Just as Japan-U.S. relations entered into the state of drift after the end of
the Cold War, the future of Japanese foreign policy had been defined by the
«Fukuda Doctrine».
7. On the base of the first Nye report, U.S.-Japan alliance began the process
of redefinition. In 1996, «Japan-U.S. Joint Declaration on Security» was
signed by the leaders of the three countries.
8. The «China plus one» model became a reasonable choice for Japan to
catch the East Asian economic development opportunity.
WHILE-READING
3.
Underline important parts of the text.
56
4.
5.
6.
Circle words or phrases in the text that you don’t know.
Put a question mark (?) next to statements you have a question about.
Put a check mark (✓) next to statements that you agree with.
Recently, Japan has been proposing various policies about East Asian
cooperation, which shows the growing importance of the region to Japan. After Prime Minister Koizumi proposed to establish a community of East Asia
in 2002 during his visit to Southeast Asia, the following cabinets have been
paying more and more attention in elaborating their regional policy. Also, as
Japan feels uneasy about the security environment of East Asia, and JapanU.S. alliance doesn’t fully satisfy Japanese security concerns, Japan also attempts to reevaluate its security policy by strengthening the alliance and initiating defense cooperation with countries sharing «common values».
A Brief Review of Japan’s Policy towards East Asia
Asian policy has always occupied an importance place in post-war Japanese foreign policy. In the 1957 Diplomatic Blue Book, Japan proposed
three basic principles of its foreign policy: UN-centered diplomacy, cooperation with the free world, and preservation of Japan’s identity as an Asian nation. But in the most time, especially before 1970s, the principle «cooperation
with the free world» was emphasized, while the other two principles didn't
receive sufficient attention, because of the bipolarity of the world system and
restrictions of Japanese domestic conditions. In the 1970s, with growing economic power and rising position in international arena, Japan tried to make
up the vacuum after the retreat of U.S. from Vietnam, and improve Japanese
image in the East Asian countries, which became a problem after Japanese
products and investments flourished into Southeast Asia, and anti-Japanese
sentiments culminated when Prime Minister Tanaka Kakuei visited Southeast
Asian countries in 1974. In 1977, PM Fukuda Takeo dictated the «Fukuda
Doctrine» which became the general principle of Japan in dealing relations
with East Asian countries.
During his visit to the Southeast Asian Countries, Prime Minister Fukuda proposed that (1) Japan would never become a military power and would
work to promote peace and prosperity in Southeast Asia; (2) Japan would
build relationships with governments in the region based on mutual trust; and
(3) Japan would work cooperatively with ASEAN through an equal partnership to strengthen regional solidarity.
Just as Japan-U.S. relations entered into the state of drift after the end of
the Cold War, there were lots of debates about the future of Japanese foreign
policy. On the base of the first Nye report, U.S.-Japan alliance began the process of redefinition. In 1996, «Japan-U.S. Joint Declaration on Security» was
signed by the leaders of the two countries. Then in 1997, «The Guidelines for
57
Japan-U.S. Defense Cooperation» were released. By strengthening the alliance, Japan wanted to increase its influence in regional political and security
affairs and got a political status corresponding to its economic status in the
region. This policy trend was best illustrated by Prime Minister Koizumi's
remark that «the better the Japan-U.S. relationship was, a stronger relationship could be established with the world, including Asia». Japan tried to embrace U.S. more to increase its capacity of influencing the East Asian affairs
and counterbalance the development of China. Generally speaking, at this
time, Southeast Asian countries also welcome Japan playing an active role to
balance the influence of China, and get interests in the competition of big
powers. But the relations between Japan and the rest East Asian countries became tense due to PM Koizumi's repetitive visit to the Yasukuni Shrine. At
the same time, the economic relations between Japan and Asia became closer
than ever. Japanese economy began to get out of the long time stagnation
since February 2002, and realized the longest economic boom (69 months),
thanks to the increase of exports to rapidly growing East Asian economies,
such as China. Japan’s economic fortune depends on East Asia far more than
on any other region.
The relations between Japan and East Asia entered a relatively new
phase since the step-down of PM Koizumi. The failure of Japan to attain East
Asian states' support of Japan's becoming a permanent member of the UN
Security Council in 2005 exemplified that it's inappropriate for Japan to
maintain a one-sided foreign policy that emphasizes relations with U.S. while
ignoring communication with East Asian countries. The Japanese cabinets
after Koizumi increased their attention to the East Asia, tried to make Japan a
bridge between the world and Asia, which really means more dependence
from U.S., and more emphasis on Asia. Also Japan decided to promote a
wider framework for East Asia cooperation. The inclusion of Australia, New
Zealand and India into the cooperation process to form the East Asia Summit
was intended to decrease the U.S. suspicion of East Asian cooperation and
dilute the influence of China. Professor Soeya put it more sophisticatedly,
«The inclusion of Australia and New Zealand holds a double function. First,
they provide a venting channel leading to the United States as a security anchor in East Asia, an important foundation of an East Asia Community from
the Japanese perspective. Secondly, the membership of Australia and New
Zealand is also important from the point view of universal values that will
sustain, as well as keep open, the basis of an East Asian Community to the
rest of the world.»12
Economically, Japan wants to catch the East Asian economic development opportunity, and avoids being too dependent on the Chinese economy.
So the «China plus one» model became a reasonable choice for this purpose.
58
Politically, as U.S. took a different approach to North Korea, and SinoAmerican relations became closer, «Japan passing» became a serious concern
for Japanese diplomacy. Especially after the 2008 financial crisis, Japan
greatly increased its emphasis on East Asia policy. PM Aso talked about creating a new world order, and proposed «Growth Initiative», which planned to
double the current scale of Asia's economy by 2020.13 PM Hatoyama took a
step further to advocate an East Asia Community while demanding equal relations with America. But after the Cheonan incident, regional atmosphere
changed a bit. Japan emphasizes the alliance again while showing worries
about Chinese military expenditure, nuclear weapons, etc, and refused to reopen the six party talks.
7. Answer the questions.
1. What are the signs of the Japanese attempt to cooperate with East-Asian
Region?
2. What does the Diplomatic Blue 1957 state?
3. Why did Japan try to improve its image in Asian countries in 1970?
4. How had three principles been developed?
5. How did Japan try to increase its influence in regional policy?
6. What are the years 1996 and 1997 prominent for?
7. What was the reason of a new phase in international relations?
8. Judge the value of Fucudo's doctrine
9. Comment upon the Prime Minister Koizumi's remark line … Describe the
difficulties in Japan-Asian economic relations in 2000?
8. Continue the sentences.
1. Recently, Japan has been proposing various policies about East Asian cooperation, which …
2. As Japan feels uneasy about the security environment of East Asia, and Japan-U.S. alliance doesn’t fully satisfy Japanese security concerns, Japan also
…
3. In the 1957 Diplomatic Blue Book, Japan proposed three basic principles
of its foreign policy: …
4. In the 1970s, with growing economic power and rising position in international arena, Japan tried to …
5. During his visit to the Southeast Asian Countries, Prime Minister Fukuda
proposed that …
6. By strengthening the alliance, Japan wanted to …
7. Generally speaking, at this time, Southeast Asian countries also …
8. But the relations between Japan and the rest East Asian countries became …
59
9. The relations between Japan and East Asia entered a relatively new phase
since …
10. The Japanese cabinets after Koizumi increased their attention to the East
Asia, tried to …
11. The inclusion of Australia, New Zealand and India into the cooperation
process to form the East Asia Summit was intended to …
12. Economically, Japan wants to …
AFTER-READING
9. Identify 3 important supporting details that contribute to the main idea of
the passage.
10. Identify 2 details that are not very important to the main idea of the passage.
11. Write 1 brief paragraph summarizing the main idea of the passage. Use
the important details to support your discussion of the main idea.
VOCABULARY
12. Match the words to the definitions:
1
2
3
alliance
diplomacy
emphasize
A
B
C
4
foreign
D
5
6
7
8
9
position
preservation
principle
vacuum
dictate
E
F
G
H
I
1
promote
J
11
flourish
K
12
process
L
13
14
15
16
trendstatusimprove
attention
M
N
O
P
A general truth or proposition
Command
Something that completely empty, with no air in it
To try to help something or someone grow or become more popular
The general direction something goes
Legal condition
To determine if something is true or not
Mental focus; concentration
From another country
A temporary donation of money in hope of making
a profit
A group working together for a shared purpose
A general rule; usually of a government, business or
organization
Place, status or rank
The act of working together
A rule or law that limits something
Grow well
60
17
18
19
20
21
establish
investment. policy
cooperation
restriction
Q
Aa
R
S
T
Skill in negotiations
The steps or actions needed to do something
Maintain and protect something
To highlight the importance of something specific
Make better
14. Fill in the gaps with the words from Ex. 13.
1. The police _______________________ that he was at home at the time of
the crime.
2. He made an _______________________ in a new business.
3. It is the school's _______________________ that all children must wear
uniforms.
4. He is not married; his marital _______________________ is single.
5. He studied harder to _______________________ his grades.
6. Pay _______________________ to cars when you cross the street.
7. The glass fell when the man _______________________ it from his hand.
8. In _______________________, dogs have brown eyes, but a few dogs
have blue eyes.
9. Blood transfusions must be the same blood type because the body will attack foreign antibodies.
10. Cooperation is very important for a team to win.
11. There are _______________________ on how old a person must be to
drive a car.
12. The judge _______________________ the murder case.
13. Today, the _______________________ is to buy smaller cars.
14. In New York it found 62.58 % of the population of the slum to be
_______________________-born, whereas for the whole city the percentage
of _______________________ers was only 43.23. – J. Riis – The Battle with
the Slum
15. The store has a good _______________________ on the corner of two
busy streets.
16. I shall be very glad to have my share in the _______________________
of a young lady of so much merit. – H Fielding – Tom Jones
17. An __________________ of families and businesses worked together to
save the park.
18. It took a lot of _______________________ to calm his boss down and
keep his job.
19. His parents always _______________________ the importance of hard
work.
20. There are a lot of advertisements _______________________ the new
store.
61
21. Those plants _______________________ in sunlight.
22. The _______________________ of making a pot of coffee only takes a
few minutes.
23. The __________________ that all people are equal by law is important to
democracy.
24. There is no air on the moon, it is a _______________________.
25. He _______________________ the soldiers actions from an airplane.
10. Find the Russian equivalents
To feel uneasy
To satisfy one’s security concerns
To re-evaluate
To share «common values»
To make up the vacuum
To culminate
To flourish into
To promote peace and prosperity
To be based on mutual trust
To work cooperatively
An equal partnership
To strengthen regional solidarity
To enter into the state of drifr
To get out of the long time stagnation
A reasonable choice
11. Find the English equivalents
Чувствовать себя неловко
Удовлетворить проблемы безопасности
Оценить заново
Разделять «общие ценности»
Заполнить вакуум
Достигать высшей точки
Процветать в
Содействовать миру и процветанию
Быть основанным на взаимном доверии
Работать согласованно
Равное партнерство
Усиливать региональную солидарность
Впасть в состояние дрейфа
Выйти из состояния длительного застоя
Разумный выбор
62
16. Work in pairs. Translate the sentences into Russian. Give your
translation to your partner and let him\her translate it back into English.
Compare the results.
Society is indeed a contract it becomes a partnership not
only between those who are living, but between those who
are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born.
– Burke, Edmund
There is emphasis on spatial targeting and policy delivery
within a multi-agency partnership framework.
A limited partnership must have its principal place of
business in Gibraltar.
Partnership agreement.
Sounds like a strategic partnership in the making, no?
Partnership arrangements are reviewed periodically to
ensure effectiveness in delivering the councils objectives.
With runs no longer an issue, we kept attacking and rotating the bowlers but struggled to break their 7th wicket partnership.
Projects have often had to develop many innovative funding
partnerships, which have enabled lgb youth work to thrive.
It will build partnerships with the book trade to put libraries at the heart of reading promotion.
.This seems odd given the emphasis on strengthening
partnership working with district councils and others in the
county and unitaries corporate assessment.
Strengthened when it's tested, tempered, when it goes
through the fire.
Strengthen ties with the province.
Strengthened by the arrival in London, in 1936, of George
Padmore.
The board of trustees, therefore, is now considerably
strengthened.
Strengthened against the euro by 10 %, you would pay only £ 123,000 for the villa.
Strengthen existing arrangements for the handling of food
safety matters.
Strengthened in faith, giving glory to god.
Strengthened with all might according to his glorious power unto all patience and long-suffering with joyfulness» (colossians 1:11).
63
Strengthened by the arrival in London, in 1936, of George
Padmore.
Strengthens the muscle that keeps the bladder shut.
The breadth of stakeholder interests engaged in the process
will greatly strengthen them.
Strengthened with the appointment of john Robson as a director.
Strengthens international cooperation.
During the year, cat significantly strengthened its patent
portfolio relating to tgf-beta antagonists.
Strengthen squads by allowing more training and more
matches.
Firstly, it would force rationalization of the farming industry, thereby strengthening demands to reform the unwieldy
european union common agricultural policy.
Strengthen the bond between students even further, houses
become teams for school-wide competitions.
Strengthened substantially.
Strengthening the capacity of its partner agencies to deliver
services.
Waq makes money available for signing players, thus
strengthening the qpr squad – profit.
Ideally, this will eventually culminate in the running of a
parliaments and legislatures conference and/or thematic
workshops.
Culminates in a dissertation on a topic of the student's choice.
Culminate the editioning of this piece as an ongoing process, culminating when the entire edition is sold.
Culminatere many race categories culminating in the
grand finale of the men's elite race.
That internal change of concepts and ideas, permeating
ever-larger social strata, finally culminates in the violent upheaval known as revolution.
Culminates in a grand procession with many amusing
floats on topical themes.
The project culminated in a workshop on ' future visions
for resource use ' in march 2001.
Culminate with a presentation to members of parliament.
The week culminated in a polished performance by participants at manchester's creative hide out, the circle club.
64
The democratic campaign culminated at its convention in
Сhicago.
Reasonable adjustments should be made to enable a disabled worker to resume or continue working.
This is perfectly reasonable; in principle then we can find
primes quickly.
It seems reasonable to include any quality schemes they use.
Reasonable in the circumstances.
Reasonable endeavours to deliver courses in accordance
with the descriptions set out in the prospectus.
We will use commercially reasonable efforts to promptly
determine and remedy the problem.
Reasonable excuse, not to comply with the terms of the restoration order.
Reasonable to conclude that there is significant risk from
eating beef.
There were many variations in the way this problem was
tackled and in the amount of profit considered reasonable.
Reasonable precautions have been taken to prevent the
spread of infectious or contagious diseases.
Reasonable to expect one or two people to be representative of all people who use similar services.
Understood on your last comment – sounds reasonable to me.
The reasonable man adapts himself to the world: the unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the world to him.
Therefore all progress depends on the unreasonable man. –
Shaw, George Bernard
WRITING
15. Study the example of a pie chart description. Lable the pie chart according to the data.
… Now my next picture here represents. a pie chart .that shows the current
sources for energy production. The main thing to notice is that oil, coal and gas
are the main sources. Look here, mostly oil, then coal at 23 % and natural gas
almost as much. So 25 % comes from other sources and a tiny 0.1 % from renewable sources, geothermal, wind or solar energy … Now let's look at the table
here. This shows some comparisons between selected EU states on electricity
generation. The striking thing here is the French dependency on nuclear power,
76 %. Then look at Sweden, also with quite a high proportion of electricity coming from nuclear power, but 50 % coming from renewable sources, in this col65
umn here. The EU average shows quite a spread, but the UK, for example, has
only 4 % of its electricity coming from renewable sources. That's much lower
than the EU average. The UK of course has a lot of oil and gas reserves, while
France and Sweden, for example, do not
Nuclear 5 %
Renewables 17 %
Coa 27 %l
Natural gas 18 %
Oil 33 %
Millions tones CO2
United Kingdom
Belgium
France
Germany
Italy
Spain
European Community
1980
528,7
120,0
459,2
767,5
355,6
196,2
2 747,1
1986
525,9
95,4
353,2
675,3
343,2
176,1
2 492,0
1989
530,1
99,1
360,6
647,9
386,1
194,9
2 562,9
SPEAKING
16. Here are two pie-charts. Invent the topic, prepare the figures
and describe the graph.
66
UNIT 6
JAPAN – CHINA
RELATIONSHIPS
WARM UP
1. Do Chine and Japan have common boundaries?
2. Can you say these two countries are rivals?
READING
3. You are going to read an article about Japan-China relationships. Read
the text and define if the statements 1-10 TRUE or FALSE.
1. The dispute over Japan’s temporary detention of a Chinese fishing boat
captain showed friendly relations between Japan and China.
2. The Chinese fishing boat captain was not released.
3. The bone of contention was based on territorial issues.
4. There were some other factors which made this dispute very difficult.
5. China and Taiwan both claim territorial sovereignty over the Senkaku islands.
6. The Senkaky Islands are a part of the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs).
7. A show of Chinese military force could cause confrontation between China
and Japan.
8. China is much weaker now than in 1990’s.
9. China now faces stronger Japanese assertions of seabed exploration and
mining rights.
10. Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia
and Malaysia do not have any territorial disputes with Japan and China.
A sea of trouble in Sino-Japanese relations
The dispute over Japan’s temporary detention of a Chinese fishing boat
captain accused of colliding with two Japanese coastguard vessels in the territorial waters of the Senkaku Islands reveals the very shallow level of
goodwill between China and Japan.
China’s official response to Japan’s actions was initially confined to action in diplomatic, cultural and economic realms, but the Chinese also
67
threatened additional retaliatory measures if the Chinese fishing boat captain
was not released immediately and unconditionally. Now that the release has
occurred, China’s next move is unclear.
Aside from the issue of national territory and the emotions that territorial issues naturally evoke on all sides, several other factors have made this
dispute a very difficult and potentially dangerous one.
First, the issue is overlaid by a broader conflict in relation to military
strategy. The strategic importance of the Senkaku Islands is increasing for
both China and Japan. The islands lie approximately 140km northeast of
Taiwan and due north of the southwestern tip of the Ryukyu island chain
that includes Okinawa. Not only has an invasion of the Senkakus by the
Chinese military become one of the Japanese Ground Self-Defence Forces’
threat scenarios, but China is also developing an island strategy for maritime
breakout into the Western Pacific. This strategy centers on the Ryukyu islands, which US and Japanese forces are now exercising to defend.
Second, none of the countries involved recognize that there is a territorial dispute over the islands. Japanese Foreign Minister Maehara Seiji recently stated unequivocally: ‘There is no territorial dispute in the East China
Sea…The Senkaku Islands are an integral part of Japan’s sovereign territory’. A little over a week earlier, Minister of State for Government Revitalisation, Renho, had hastily withdrawn her comment that the dispute was a ‘territorial issue’. More generally, Japan’s approach to territorial disputes is to
recognise that they exist only in cases where it is a claimant (as in the case
of Dokdo/Takeshima with South Korea and the so-called ‘Northern Territories’ with Russia).
For their part, both China and Taiwan are also absolutist about what are
called the Diaoyu islands in China, and the Taiyoutai in Taiwan. In the most
recent dispute, the Chinese government referred to the Diaoyu Islands as China’s ‘sacred territory’. And in 1992, China made a unilateral declaration under
the Territorial Waters Act, which stipulated that the Daioyu Islands were Chinese territories. These mutually exclusive or zero-sum positions make discussions about the real issues at stake – access to seabed resources and fishing
rights – harder. It is the fishermen of China and Taiwan who are in the frontline of the assertion of their countries’ territorial claims through their repeated
incursions in large numbers into the waters around the Senkakus.
Third, the nations’ conflicting sovereignty claims are intertwined with
issues relating to EEZs. In June 1996, Japan ratified the UN Convention on
the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and promptly declared an EEZ of 200 nm
around its territory including the Senkakus. China and Taiwan both claim
territorial sovereignty over the islands, but no EEZ. Mark Valencia argues
that settling the territorial dispute would be much easier if it could be sepa68
rated from EEZ claims. Japan could obtain compensation in the details of
any joint seabed development arrangement if it were to relinquish sovereignty over the Senkakus.
Fourth, the risk of military confrontation will increase if China underestimates Japan’s willingness to respond to a show of Chinese military force.
As Leszek Busynski argues in his essay in the April 2009 issue of Contemporary Southeast Asia, rivalry between states can co-exist with high levels of
economic interdependence. He reasons that this is particularly the case when
one side (China) harbours national ambitions and is under the influence of a
strong military with an expansionist agenda. The biggest risk of a military
confrontation between China and Japan would arise if naval vessels were
deployed to guard either side’s drilling activities in the East China Sea.
Equally risky would be the deployment of armed fisheries patrol boats to accompany Chinese fishing fleets, a tactic that China is currently employing in
the South China Sea. This could lead to a direct confrontation with the Japan
Coast Guard.
Finally, some of the constraints that might have curbed Chinese retaliation against Japan in the past have weakened or disappeared. The Chinese
economy and military are a lot stronger than they were in the 1990s (and
even earlier) when Chinese leaders were willing to shelve the Senkaku Islands issue in order to build constructive economic relations with Japan. In
2010, Japanese aid has also become a more peripheral consideration for
China. The question now is whether the Chinese government will be willing
to limit its responses to the ‘managed confrontation’ that has characterised
its approach in the past.
China’s influence in the Asia Pacific has been rising at the same time as
it has offered reassurance to its Asian neighbours through the use of ‘soft’
power. A harsh response on the Senkaku issue, particularly a military response, would undermine China’s soft power strategy in the region, which
up to now has been very successful. It would also alarm Southeast Asian
countries such as Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia who
have their own maritime territorial disputes with China.
China’s overt diplomatic hostility towards Japan and the seabed exploration have helped to cement the US-Japan alliance at the very time when it
has been showing signs of weakness. US government spokespersons as well
as former US Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage have reiterated
statements that the 1960 US-Japan Security Treaty applies to all territories
‘under the administration of Japan’, which includes the Senkakus.
For Japan, the fall-out has been felt in its delicately evolving resource
relationship with China. China has notified Japan that it has suspended further talks on concluding a bilateral treaty on the joint development of the
69
Shirakaba/Chunxiao gas field in the East China Sea. Japan now faces
stronger Chinese assertions of seabed exploration and mining rights just
when it was hoping to make progress in the dispute over the boundaries of
their respective EEZs. Further consequences may also be felt by Japan in the
fields of trade (higher tariffs on Japanese goods), and tourism.
The territorial dispute over the Senkakus casts a long shadow over Sino-Japanese relations and the bilateral relationship has been effectively
placed on hold until some sort of resolution could be found. Progress may
also be slowed in other key areas such as the development of an East Asian
Community, given that China-Japan relations are absolutely central to the
evolution of this economic and trade framework.
Aurelia George Mulgan,
a Professor of Politics from the University of New South Wales,
Australian Defence Force Academy
4. Complete the sentences.
1. A Chinese fishing boat captain was arrested …
2. The Chinese threatened additional retaliatory measures …
3. The bone of contention between China and Japan is…
4. Japan considers the Senkaku Islands to be …
5. The real reason of the argument is access to…
6. The fishermen of China and Taiwan…
7. The deployment of armed fisheries patrol boats to accompany Chinese
fishing fleets could …
8. China’s influence in the Asia Pacific…
9. Southeast Asian countries could be alarmed in the case of …
10. The territorial dispute over the Senkakus causes …
5. Answer the questions.
1. What was a Chinese fishing boat captain accused of?
2. What was China’s official response to Japan’s actions?
3. What made the conflict dangerous in relation to military strategy?
4. What is Japan’s approach to territorial disputes?
5. In what way do the issues relating to EEZs overload the conflict?
6. What is the biggest risk of a military confrontation between China and Japan?
7. What are the reasons of ‘managed confrontation’ that has characterized
China’s approach to the Senkaku Islands issue in the past?
8. What other Southeast Asian countries have maritime territorial disputes
with China?
70
9. What factors cemented the US-Japan alliance?
10. The territorial dispute over the Senkakus slows the progress in the development of an East Asian Community, doesn’t it?
6. Read the text about Trade and Economic Relations. Match the beginnings (A-G) to the paragraphs (0-5). There is one extra letter. The first is
given as an example. (0) A
A Japan’s economic relationship with China has been steadily growing over
the past 10 years.
B A major concern expressed to the Commission delegation in its meetings in
Japan is China’s adherence to obligations and commitments it accepted when
it acceded to membership in the World Trade Organization.
C Japanese officials and companies also are very concerned about the rampant theft of Japanese intellectual property.
D Another major economic issue affecting both China and Japan is their dependence on foreign sources of energy, potentially placing them in direct
competition for natural resources.
E China currently is Japan’s largest import partner, accounting for 20.5 percent of Japanese imports, and second largest export partner, accounting for
15.3 percent of Japanese exports.
G Over the last few years, Japan and China have clashed over maritime territorial disputes.
F The third issue raised with the Commission delegation is the growing impact of Chinese air pollution on environmental quality in Japan.
Trade and Economic Relations
0 Japan’s economic relationship with China has been steadily growing
over the past 10 years. From 1995 to 2006, Japanese investments comprised
an annual average of over 8 percent of the total value of foreign direct investment in China. After a steady rise in Japanese investments in China between 2001 and 2006, manufacturing investments dropped in the first two
quarters of 2007. This decrease is attributed to increasing labor costs in China, appreciation of the RMB, and Japan’s shift to a broader foreign investment strategy, encompassing other nations like Vietnam and Thailand, in order to reduce risk. In addition, according to the Japan External Trade
Organization (JETRO), the boom of Japanese- funded projects in China
around the time of China’s entry into the WTO in 2001 now is nearing completion, and the flow of funds from Japan has substantially slowed. Nonetheless, Japan ranked as China’s third largest investor in 2006.
71
1_______________________. In 2007, China replaced the United
States as Japan’s largest trading partner, with imports and exports totaling
over $236 billion. Although trade between China and Japan has been increasing, the Japanese Ministry of Economics, Trade, and Industry (METI) noted
four concerns regarding Japan’s relationship with China when Commissioners visited in Tokyo in August 2008. First, like the United States, Japan has
experienced an increasing number of food and product safety incidents involving Chinese imports, the largest of which, at the time of the visit, involved frozen dumplings tainted with high levels of pesticides. The case resulted in a temporary decrease in Japan-China trade of food products.
2 ______________________. METI officials described pirated Japanese
television shows being posted on Chinese video-sharing Web sites and said
Japan has been disappointed that in response to Japan’s requests to China to
remedy intellectual property rights (IPR) problems, China has evinced little
concern.
3 ______________________. China is now the world’s largest consumer of coal, the second largest consumer of oil, and the world’s largest emitter
of carbon dioxide. In meetings with the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(MOFA), Commissioners learned that Japan has offered to work with China
to help it reduce pollution while ensuring that environmental reforms do not
impair China’s economic growth. MOFA officials said that China’s willingness to engage on environmental issues is growing but that China remains
guarded concerning energy issues. In May 2008, the two countries agreed to
continue research on carbon dioxide capture and storage techniques and to
strengthen their cooperation on nuclear energy technology.
4 ______________________. METI officials agree that Japan and the
United States should cooperate in urging China to accept and fulfill its WTO
responsibilities. In the context of discussing China’s failure to meet its WTO
obligations, METI officials told Commissioners that China’s currency manipulation poses a significant problem and has distorted trade between China
and Japan.
5 ______________________. Japan imports 86 percent of its energy. It
is the world’s largest importer of liquefied natural gas and the second-largest
importer of crude oil. The Japanese government supports measures for energy exploration within efficiency measures. This two-pronged approach to energy policy is both an attempt to reduce carbon emissions and to bolster the
country’s energy security.
7.
Complete the gaps in the text (1-7) with the missing sentences (A-G).
A. tensions in other aspects of the relationship
72
B. to further invest in their mutual international cooperation outside the security sphere
C. that we have seen in disasters such as Hurricane Katrina in the US
D. has demonstrated again that China and Japan can work together effectively and for their mutual benefit
E. the image of a your ‘competitor’ helping ordinary Japanese people in such
a dire situation
F. might do much to dampen nationalistic tensions and increase the collective
sense
G. what lessons can be applied in China
Opportunity in crisis: Sino-Japanese relations after the earthquake April
15th, 2011
The current disaster in Japan has provided an opportunity for Japan and
China 1.to further invest in their mutual international cooperation outside the
security sphere (A) such as the Six-Party Talks. It has done this in at least
three ways.
First, China’s quick response in the wake of Japan’s largest recorded
earthquake, tsunami and nuclear reactor crisis 2_____. This is in-line with
their post 1970 normalization relationship in which they have, for the most
part, effectively separated politics and economics, known as Seikei Bunri in
Japanese, allowing for continued economic development between the two
states.
Following the onset of the recent crisis, China immediately offered
20,000 tons of fuel and supplies as well as expert advice. Importantly, this
generosity has not been limited to the state, but also local and provincial municipalities, individual citizens and China’s Red Cross. This reciprocation of
generosity is illustrative of the will, capacity and crucial ability to cooperate
despite 3.______.
Second, and perhaps equally important, are the Chinese rescuers on the
ground, saving or involved in saving the lives of Japanese victims. From a
public diplomacy point of view,4. _____.
Third, there is no doubt China’s aid is much appreciated by the Japanese
government and people but there is another very important side of this story.
For China, watching how the ordinary Japanese citizen and local governments have responded to this unprecedented disaster has been not only an exceptional demonstration of Japan’s disaster preparation, but also a salient
demonstration of Japan’s exceptional ability to remain an orderly society
even in the most desperate of situations. There has been no reported crime or
looting, no mass panic and none of the chaos 5. _______.
73
Once the immediate crisis has passed and the rescuers have returned
home, I suspect there will be more cooperation in the area of disaster preparedness. This will no doubt include a focus on the behaviour of ordinary Japanese citizens and 6.________.
All in all, the horrible earthquake and tsunami that took place on 11
March 2011 have provided opportunities and new lines of communication between Japan and China. These lines contribute to building trust between the
two neighbours at the level of the state, local government and ordinary citizen 7.________ that these two Asian giants are neighbours that not only can
benefit from each other but are two giants that need each other.
Stephen Robert Nagy is an Assistant Professor of Japanese Studies at
The Chinese University of Hong Kong and Senior Fellow at Waseda University’s Global Institute for Asian Regional Integration (GIARI).
8. For questions 1-7 chose the appropriate answer (a-d).
1. The earthquake in Japan has given an opportunity…
a. for Chinese invasion to Japan
b. to develop relationships between China and Japan in the security sphere
c. for Japan to ignore the results of the Six-Party Talks
d. to develop cooperation between the two countries despite their disagreements in the security sphere
2. China’s respond to the earthquake and tsunami showed that
a. China was not able to help Japan
b. China took advantage of the earthquake to gain control over Japan
c. China and Japan can cooperate for their mutual benefit
d. China and Japan cannot have friendly relations
3. China immediately offered
a. military help
b. fuel and supplies
c. diplomatic negotiations
d. a long term loans to Japan
4.China’s aid was
a. rejected by Japan
b. of no use to Japan
c. was accepted gratefully
d. not acceptable
74
5. The earthquake in Japan caused
a. crimes and lootings
b. mass panic
c. unability to remain an orderly society
d. no chaos
6. Hurricane Katrina
a. destroyed nuclear reactors in Japan
b. caused chaos in the USA
c. caused chaos in China and Japan
d. destroyed nuclear reactors in the USA
7. The horrible earthquake and tsunami that took place on 11 March 2011
showed
a. an exceptional demonstration of Japan’s disaster preparation
b. impossibility of cooperation between Japan and China
c. nationalistic tensions between Japan and China
d. no lessons that can be applied in China
VOCABULARY
9. Find Russian equivalents of these words in the text «A sea of trouble
in Sino-Japanese relations».
1.кратковременный арест; 2. низкий уровень добрососедских отношений 3. Угрожали дополнительными ответными мерами 4. немедленно и
без всяких условий 5. следующий шаг неясен 6. вторжение на острова 7.
неотъемлемая часть 8. вопрос осложняется 9. резкий ответ 10. прямое
противостояние 11. взаимно исключающий 12. двусторонний договор
13. совместная разработка 14. исследование морского дна 15. очевидная
враждебность в дипломатических отношениях
10. Make up 10 sentences using the words above.
11. Read the first part of «Trade and Economic Relations» and decide
which word (A – D) best fits each space (1 – 10).
Japan’s economic 1__________with China has been 2__________ growing
over the past 10 years. From 1995 to 2006, Japanese 3_________ comprised
an annual average of over 8 percent of the total value of foreign direct investment in China. After a steady rise in Japanese investments in China between 2001 and 2006, manufacturing investments 4 ___________ in the first
75
two quarters of 2007. This 5 ________ is attributed to increasing 6 ________
costs in China, appreciation of the RMB, and Japan’s shift to a 7 __________
foreign investment strategy, 8________ other nations like Vietnam and Thailand, in order to reduce risk. In addition, according to the Japan External
Trade Organization (JETRO), the 9 __________ of Japanese- funded projects
in China around the time of China’s entry into the WTO in 2001 now is nearing completion, and the flow of funds from Japan has substantially slowed.
Nonetheless, Japan ranked as China’s third largest investor in 2006.
0
A alliance
A rarely
A influences
A cut
A decrease
A job
A wide
A encompassing
A pick
B relationship
B gradually
B investments
B left
B influence
B labor
B far
B surrounding
B boom
C kinship
C steadily
C profits
C dropped
C increase
C vocation
C longer
C circling
C gibbet
D blood
D oftenly
D benefits
D changed
D rise
D work
D broader
D passing by
D jib
A finishing
B closing
C completion
D end
WRITING
How to Write an Annotation
An annotation is a brief description of a book, article, or other publication, including audio-visual materials. Its purpose is to characterize the publication in such a way that the reader can decide whether or not to read the
complete work. Annotations vary according to their intended use and their
content.
Descriptive Annotations describe the content of a book or article and
indicate distinctive features.
Critical Annotations, in addition to describing the contents, evaluate
the usefulness of a book or article for particular situations.
Elements of an annotation:
1. Begin with the complete bibliographic entry.
2. Include some or all of the following:
a. Authority and qualifications of the author, unless extremely well known.
e.g. «Based on twenty years of study, William A. Smith, professor of history
at XYZ University …»
76
b. Scope and main purpose of text. Do not try to summarize the whole work.
e.g. «Discusses the positive impact of Medicare on the psychiatric profession.»
c. Any bias that you note.
d. Audience and level of reading difficulty. Such a comment warns readers
of writings that are too elementary or scholarly for their purposes. e.g.
«Swift addressed himself to the scholar, but the concluding chapters will be
clear to any informed lay person.»
e. The relation, if any, of other works in the field. «This corroborates the
findings of George Brown's Revolution.»
f. Summary comment. e.g. «A popular account directed at educated adults.»
3. Do not repeat the words of the title, give the same information in different
phrasing, or offer information that an intelligent person could readily infer
from the title.
4. Be concise.
Useful language expressions:
to analyze
to set out the problem
to state, set forth
to give an account
to expound
to pay attention to smth
to present
to offer
to generalize
to summarize
to synthesize
to cover the field broadly
to point to
to note
to underline
to stress
to emphasize
to devote
to mention briefly
to overview
to dedicate
to view
to consider
to take up
to draw a conclusion
to be of great importance
to play a large role
to reveal
to intend (for)
to supplement
to complete
to investigate
to explore
to give an example
to make a brief mention
to outline
to illustrate
to conclude
to establish: core, essence, main point, gist
77
to come to the point,
complicated problem,
challenge
to bring up issues
to raise an issue
to face an issue
drawing on smb’s experience
essence, substance
main point
relevant issues/issues of
current
importance
pressing/topical/urgent
question
This problem is important today because
topicality/urgency
References
Opportunity in crisis: Sino-Japanese relations after the earthquake April
15th, 2011
http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2011/04/15/opportunity-in-crisis-sinojapanese-relations-after-the-earthquake/(25.10.11)
12.The annotations below were written by students of the fourth year
study. Read these annotations to the text «Japan- Russia relationship»
and decide which one is the best and which one is the weakest. Prove
your opinion.
The name of the article is «JapanRussia relationship». This text is dedicated to relationship between Japan
and Russia from 1904 to our days.
The text consists of three parts.
The first part reveals the conflict between Imperial Japan and the Russian Empire, which resulted due to
the Russian-Japanese war over Manchuria and Korea.
The second paragraph is considered to unresolved problem between
two countries. In 1993 the president of
Russia Boris Yeltsin made a concession
on the Kuril Islands dispute over the
four Kuril Islands, a considerable obstacle to Japanese-Russian relations.
The third part outlines that after
the elections of the new Japanese Prime
Minister, Naoto Kan, a statement was
done by him that he would energetically address Japan’s ties with Russia and
push «the wheels of the cart forward».
On November 1, Medvedev visited
Kunashir Islands as «a very important
region in our country».
The author noted out that «following the heating up of the dispute
in early 2011, President Dmitry
Medvedev ordered significant rein78
The name of the text is «Japan- Russia relationship!» It is devoted to Russo-Japanese relations
and the pressing question concerning Kuril Islands. Therefore the text
can be divided into two parts.
The first part presents the history of Russo-Japanese conflict. It
is pointed out that the relations between Moscow and Tokyo were
complicated and by the ХХI century were closed to a signing a peace
treaty.
But the second part illustrates
the current relations which are not
so successful in terms of solving
the dispute over Kuril Islands that
even urged the Mr. Medvedev to
reinforce Russian Kuril.
The author puts stress on an
issue of current importance. Because nowadays the Kuril Islands
are the hot spot of Northern territories.
Therefore the text is directed
to group of people interested in current political issues of Russia and
Japan. And can be considered ad
predication of the Russian foreign
policy.
forcement to the Russian defenses on
the Kuril Islands in February 2011».
This text is aimed to the wide
audience.
By Chesnokova Julia.
The name of the article is «JapanRussia relationship». It’s dedicated to
history of these countries from 1904 till
our days. Text consists of 2 parts.
The first part reveals the beginning
of Russian-Japanese relationships. It
has begun in 1904, during the RussianJapanese war. Dispute over the Kuril
Islands is the main key issue in our relationships with Japan.
The second part is focused on
modern stage of relationships. The fist
Russian president – Boris Yeltsin, postponed a visit to Japan with the aim of
solution the Kuril Islands problem. Later, after killed Japanese fisherman, Japan published a new book for children
with the goal to show Japanese sovereignty over Kuril Islands.
And author points out that negotiations are continued till our days and
both describes the Kuril Islands like
their own territory.
The article is directed to region
study students and suitable for their
sphere of specialization.
By Nikitina
By Kramarenko K.
The article is «Japan- Russia
relationships!» is dedicated to the
relations between the two nations
and the situation about the Kuril
Islands. The main massage of the
text is to show some history dispute (territorial, economic, reforms), the period of the dialogue
which contributes to the development. The last part gives information about the nowadays status
in Russia-Japanese relationships,
and between Russian President
and Japanese Prime Minister. So
it seems that the question is still
opened.
The article is directed to to
the people who are interested in
political world and couldn’t be
outside of this important point of
international relationship.
By Tsiro S.
11. Read the text below and write an annotation. Follow the rules above.
Japanese Foreign Policy under Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda
In the immediate aftermath of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe’s sudden resignation on September 1 2007, it appeared as though Abe’s former foreign
minister, Taro Aso, was certain to become Japan’s new prime minister. Nevertheless, on September 23, Yasuo Fukuda, a widely respected party elder
and son of former Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda, was elected president of the
79
Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and subsequently as prime minister of Japan.
Fukuda was chosen largely because of his reputation as a moderate, his
collaborative style, and the personal and political distance between him and
Abe. While an Aso administration would have signaled continuity in foreign
policy, Fukuda is likely to shift gears and adopt a more subtle approach to
foreign affairs.
Prime Minister Fukuda inherits a number of very serious foreign policy
challenges that demand the government’s immediate attention, ranging from
the North Korea issue to the extension of the Anti-terrorism Special
Measures Law. The following pages will address several questions about Fukuda’s election and its implications for Japan’s foreign policy (Hitoshi
Tanaka, Senior Fellow, JCIE).
SPEAKING
13. Find some information about Japan-China relationships. Fill the
grid with your information and try to do a report. You can work in
groups and use the information of each other to do a report.
Japan
China
investments
economy
policy
trade
historic roots
business
80
UNIT 7
JAPAN – EUROPE
POLITICAL RELATIONS
WARM UP
1. Identify unique and shared attributes of Japan and Europe political
relations.
PRE-READING
2. Select the correct answer for following multiple choice questions.
1. Japan currently accounts for 18 %
(A) of the world's PPP
(B) of the world's FDI
(C) of the world's GDP
(D) of the world's FBI
2 The most important forum for political dialogue between Japan and the EU
is
(A) the summit of Asia Pacific
(B) the Group of Eight summit
(C) the «Japan-EU Troika Political Directors' Meeting»
(D) the annual «Japan-EU Summit»
3. the «Japan-EU Troika Political Directors' Meeting» is held
(A) twice a year
(B) once a year
(C) once in two years
(D) annually
81
4. Since the July, 1991, there has been a steady widening of political dialogue
between
(A) Japan and the Hague
(B) Japan and the UK
(C) Japan and the EU
(D) Japan and the USA
5. the annual «Japan-EU Summit» is held between all the mentioned leaders
except
(A) The prime Minister of Japan
(B) The Emperor of Japan
(C) the head of the presidency of the EU
(D) the president of the European Commission
82
WHILE-READING
3. Underline important parts of the text.
4. Circle words or phrases in the text that you don’t know.
5. Put a question mark (?) next to statements you have a question about.
6. Put a check mark (✓) next to statements that you agree with.
Japan/EU the Political Dialogue
Japan currently accounts for 18 % of the world's GDP (or Gross Domestic Product), and it has a global responsibility to contribute to the peace and
stability of the international community3. Japan intends to play an increasingly creative role in the building of a new post-Cold-War international order. Japan intends to promote an order in which democratic principles and a
free marketbased economy are based. It is from that perspective that Japan
has been working actively to foster a closer relationship with the European
Union, which has had an increasing amount of weight in the international
politics scene.
There is an ever-widening range of issues on which dialogue and cooperation between Japan and the EU is required. Be it a global issue such as UN
reform, disarmament and nuclear nonproliferation or a regional problem like
the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina, development of nuclear capability in
North Korea, and the Middle East peace process, the world's major challenges all merit from the cooperation of prosperous democracies. It is now Japans’ chance to show the world that it can be a leader in many troubling
world issues.
In July 1991 Japan and the EU announced the «Joint Declaration on Relations Between the European Community and its Members States and Japan
in The Hague» The declaration attempts to expand Japan-EU (or EC as it was
then known) relations from their traditional economic focus to a more comprehensive relationship which will be based on the spirit of «sound competition and constructive cooperation.» This shift of emphasis away from trade
disputes settlement is visible in the expanded framework for Political Dialogue. The most important forum for political dialogue between Japan and
the EU is the annual «Japan-EU Summit», created by the Declaration. This
summit meeting is held between the Prime Minister of Japan, the head of the
presidency of the EU, and the president of the European Commission, and
takes place alternately in Europe and Japan. Japanese and EU Troika Foreign
Ministers have been meeting, usually, twice a year since 1983 and are continuing this practice. Another longstanding framework is the «Japan-EU
Troika Political Directors' Meeting» which is also in principle held twice a
year.
83
Since the declaration, there has been a steady widening of political dialogue between Japan and the EU, which has had significant results for coordination. Japan and the EU opened a new ground in 1996, when they iniated
meetings of government experts in areas, which merit close policy coordination. Currently, these areas are Asia, Former Yugoslavia, NIS (Newly Independent States) and Central Asia, the Middle East peace process and the Persian Gulf. As the EU increasingly speaks in one voice, the importance of
policy coordination and joint action between Japan and the EU will continue
to grow. The issuance of the new Euro or single currency in the EU is helping
to make this a reality
7. Answer the questions.
1. What are the intentions of Japan in Japan-Europe political relations?
2. How does the author characterise the role of Europe in International political scene?
3. What are the issues of Japan-European dialogue? What declaration was
announced in 1991? How does the Hague declaration shift the Japan-Europe
relations?
4. Where are the main questions between Japan-Europe discussed?
Judge the value of the «Joint Declaration on Relations Between the European
Community and its Members States and Japan in The Hague»
5. Is Japan – the EU new ground opened in 1996 a better solution to developing political dialogue?
6. What changes to Japan-Europe political relations would you recommend?
7. How effective are steps towards close policy coordination?
8. What do you think about the future of Japan-Europe political relations?
8. Continue sentences.
1. Japan currently accounts for 18 % of the world's GDP (or Gross Domestic
Product), and it has a global responsibility to
2. Japan intends to play an increasingly creative role in
3. .Japan intends to promote an order in which
4. The Hague" The declaration attempts to
5. The most important forum for political dialogue between Japan and the
EU is
6. This summit meeting is held between the
7. Another longstanding framework is
AFTER-READING
84
9. Identify 3 important supporting details that contribute to the main idea of
the passage.
10. Identify 2 details that are not very important to the main idea of the passage.
11. Write 1 brief paragraph summarizing the main idea of the passage. Use
the important details to support your discussion of the main idea.
VOCABULARY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
12. Match the words to the definitions
take place
A From another country
annual
B Opinions and way of seeing things
comprehenC Support the growth of
sive
emphasis
D To give someone something difficult to do
expandE Money paid to end a disagreement
foreignF A general truth or proposition
perspective G Successful, especially with money
principle
H Complete or large in content
intendI Something that has continued for many years
foster
J To provide care for; nurture
challenge
K A meeting of leaders
promote
L The giving up or getting rid of weapons
settlement
M Once a year
practice
N Helpful.
require
O The act of working together
process
P A statement of fact or belief
prosperous Q The state of being steady and unmoving
range
R To increase in range or scope
longstanding S Usual ways of doing things
cooperation T
disarmament U Happen.
stability
V The steps or actions needed to do something
constructive W Plan to.
foster
X A series of things between limits
Any special attention put on a particular action,
summit
Y
thought or part of speech
To try to help something or someone grow or become
Z
more popular
a Need
85
13. Fill in the gaps with the words from Ex. 12
1. The price ____________________ is from ten to one hundred dollars.
2. There is a _________________ agreement between the two countries to
share the river.
3. Cooperation is very important for a team to win.
4. The cake _____________________ 2 eggs.
5. The _____________________ of making a pot of coffee only takes a few
minutes.
6. They have a _______________________ business.
7. His _______________________ of love pleased her.
8. His parents _______________________ his love of reading.
9. There was a governmental _______________________ at the United Nations.
10. Blood transfusions must be the same blood type because the body will attack foreign antibodies.
11. The countries agreed that ______________________ was good.
12. Some people like adventure and travel, others like the ____________ of
staying home.
13. She gave me _______________________ advice that helped a lot.
14. It is the company's _______________________ to hire local workers.
15. There is a lot of _______________________ on saving money in my
house.
16. As the business grew their product line _____________ and now they sell
everything.
17. In New York it found 62.58 % of the population of the slum to be
_______________________-born, whereas for the whole city the percentage
of _______________________ers was only 43.23. – J. Riis – The Battle with
the Slum
18. The accident _______________________ at 11:00.
19. Christmas is an _______________________ holiday.
20. It's a very big and _______________________ dictionary.
21. He has a good _______________________ on what we should do.
22. The teacher _______________________ the students with homework.
23. There are a lot of advertisements _______________________ the new
store.
24. He paid a _______________________ for damaging their car.
25. The ___________________that all people are equal by law is important
to democracy.
26. He _______________________ to sleep late tomorrow.
27. He _______________________ the kitten until his neighbours adopted
her.
86
14. Work in pairs. Translate the sentences into Russian. Give your translation to your partner and let him\her translate it back into English.
Compare the results.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
English
This summit meeting is held between the Prime
Minister of Japan, the head of the presidency of the EU,
and the president of the European Commission, and
takes place alternately in Europe and Japan.
The most important forum for political dialogue
between Japan and the EU is the annual Japan-EU
Summit, created by the Declaration.
Japanese and EU Troika Foreign Ministers have
been meeting, usually, twice a year since 1983 and are
continuing this practice.
Another longstanding framework is the Japan-EU
Troika Political Directors' Meeting which is also in
principle held twice a year.
Japan currently accounts for 18 % of the world's
GDP (or Gross Domestic Product), and it has a global
responsibility to contribute to the peace and stability of
the international community
It is from that perspective that Japan has been
working actively to foster a closer relationship with the
European Union, which has had an increasing amount
of weight in the international politics scene.
Japan intends to play an increasingly creative role
in the building of a new post-Cold- War international
order
In July 1991 Japan and the EU announced the
Joint Declaration on Relations Between the European
Community and its Members States and Japan in The
Hague The declaration attempts to expand Japan-EU
(or EC as it was then known) relations from their traditional economic focus to a more comprehensive relationship which will be based on the spirit of sound
competition and constructive cooperation.
This shift of emphasis away from trade disputes
settlement is visible in the expanded framework for Political Dialogue.
87
Russian
Be it a global issue such as UN reform, disarmament and nuclear nonproliferation or a regional problem like the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina, develop10 ment of nuclear capability in North Korea, and the
Middle East peace process, the world's major challenges all merit from the cooperation of prosperous democracies.
Japan intends to promote an order in which demo11 cratic principles and a free marketbased economy are
based.
There is an ever-widening range of issues on
12 which dialogue and cooperation between Japan and the
EU is required.
WRITING
15. You are going to read tips for preparing a speech. Read the text carefully and be ready to create a speech.
Parts of a Speech
Before you can write a speech, you have to know a little about speech
construction. There are certain types of speeches, and each type contains certain characteristics.
Just like essays, all speeches have three main sections: the introduction,
the body, and the conclusion. Unlike essays, speeches must be written to be
heard, as opposed to read. You need to write a speech in a way that keeps the
attention of an audience.
This simply means that your speech should contain a little colour, drama, or humour. It should have «flair.» The trick to giving speech flair is using attention-grabbing anecdotes and examples.
Since there are different types of speeches, your attention-grabbing
techniques should fit the speech type.
Types of Speeches
Informative speeches inform your audience about a topic, event, or area
of knowledge.
 Podcasting for Teens
 Drinking Is for Dummies
 The Underground Railroad
Instructional speeches provide information about how to do something.
 How to Shape Perfect Eyebrows
 Make a Great Bag Out of Old Clothing
 How to Stand on Your Head
88
Persuasive speeches attempt to convince or persuade the audience.
 Study Abroad is Life-Enhancing
 Abstinence Can Save Your Life
 Benefits of Volunteering
Entertaining speeches entertain your audience.
 Life Is Like a Dirty Dorm
 Can Potato Peels Predict the Future?
 Marshmallows Should Be a Food Group
Special Occasion speeches entertain or inform your audience.
 graduation speech
 wedding toast
 campaign speech
You can explore the different types of speeches and decide what speech
type fits your assignment. The introduction of the informative speech should
contain an attention-grabber, followed by a statement about your topic. It
should end with a strong transition into your body section.
As an example, we’ll look at a template for an informative speech called
«African-American Heroines.» The length of your speech will depend on the
amount of time you have been allotted to speak.
The red section of the speech above provides the attention-grabber. It
makes the audience member think about what life would be like without civil
rights.
The last sentence states directly the purpose of the speech and leads into
the speech body.
The body of your speech can be organized in a number of ways, depending on your topic. Suggested organization patterns are:
 Chronological: provides the order of events in time.
 Spatial: gives an overview of physical arrangement or design.
 Topical: presents information one subject at a time.
 Causal: shows cause and effect pattern.
The speech pattern above is topical. The body is divided into sections
that address different people (different topics).
Speeches typically include three sections (topics) in the body. This
speech would continue to contain a third section about Susie King Taylor.
The conclusion of your speech should restate the main points you covered in your speech. Then it should end with a bang!
In the sample above, the red section restates the overall message you
wanted to convey – that the three women you've mentioned had strength and
courage, despite the odds they faced.
89
The quote is an attention-grabber, since it is written in colourful language. The blue section ties the entire speech together with a small twist.
Whatever type of speech you decide to write, you should include certain
elements:
 clever quotes
 amusing stories with a purpose
 meaningful transitions
a good ending
SPEAKING
Follow the instructions given above and prepare the speech
Japan-European dialogue
Cooperation between Japan and the EU
90
UNIT 8
JAPAN – EUROPE
ECONOMIC RELATIONS
WARM UP
1. Identify unique and shared attributes of Japan and Europe political
relations.
PRE-READING
2. Select the correct answer for following multiple choice questions.
WHILE-READING
3. Underline important parts of the text.
4. Circle words or phrases in the text that you don’t know.
5. Put a question mark (?) next to statements you have a question about.
6. Put a check mark (✓) next to statements that you agree with.
How strong is the relationship?
Throughout the eighties the emphasis in Japan/EU relations was primarily on economic relations, but a new level of cooperation was inaugurated
in 1991 by the Japan/EC Joint Declaration (it was then the European Community). This declaration reconfirmed their commitment to freedom and democracy, free trade, human rights and other common values, and charted a
course for joint contributions to the solution of global issues and to just overall strengthening of the Japan-Europe partnership. Since the joint declaration,
Japan and the EU have honoured its spirit by holding annual summits as well
as engaging in dialogue and cooperation in a wide variety of fields, on a
broad range of levels and topics. In the field of economic relations, in particular in 1992 when the trade imbalance hit record high levels and became a
major subject of concern, great efforts on both sides have helped to steadily
91
reduce it. There has also been more of an effort to promote dialogue in political fields since the Maastricht Treaty took effect in 1993 and the political
unity of the EU itself was strengthened1. In addition to problems of a specifically Japan/EU nature, there is active cooperation on more global issues, including environment and development assistance. Thanks to efforts on both
sides, relations between Japan and the EU are basically friendly. Ties between Japan and Europe have been considered relatively weak compared to
those between Japan and the US or the US and Europe, but the policy initiatives arising from the joint declaration are helping to improve the balance of
relations between these three partners. So with these continued efforts I am
convinced that the relationship between Japan and the EU are strong.
Development of the Relationship
The EU is comprised of fifteen member states. The member countries of
the EU include: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden
and the United Kingdom. The EU states its aims as the following: First, to lay
the foundations of an ever-closer union between the peoples of Europe. Second, to promote balanced and sustainable economic and social progress by
creating an area without internal frontiers, by strengthening economic and social cohesion and by establishing economic and monetary union, ultimately including a single currency. Third, to project the Union to the rest of the world,
through the common foreign and security policy, and, eventually, a common
defense policy. Fourth, to strengthen the protection of the rights and interests
of the nationals of its Member States through the introduction of a citizenship
of the Union And finally, to develop close cooperation on justice and home affairs. Japan is important to the European Union for several reasons. Japan matters to Europe today as it did in the days of the spice trade and the silk road. It
matters for the obvious economic reasons. Japan is the second largest economy
in the world. It is an economic miracle that is only surpassed by the United
States in terms of importance. The European Union, with its worldwide economic interests, cannot afford to neglect Japan and still maintain a leading role
in the World economy. Japan also matters politically. The growing economic
weight of Japan is reinforcing its weight on the international political scene. It
is in the EU's best interest to help Japan play a more prominent role on the
world stage. In terms of the EU’s relationship with Japan, the main objective
of the European Union is to strengthen the third side of the EU-US-Japan triangle. Thus, moving away from a policy dominated by trade issues and more
towards a relationship profitable to both sides and to extend cooperation covering a vast variety of fields. The European Union is continuing its efforts to obtain better access to the Japanese market (much like the U.S. efforts). Some
sectoral actions launched by the European Commission in recent years have
92
proven largely successful. For example, the exports of wine and spirits, motor
vehicles, medical equipment, cosmetics or pharmaceuticals have substantially
increased since 1987. Partly as a result of these actions, trade between the European Union and Japan has been increasing in the last few years. Nevertheless, the volume of EU exports towards Japan remains low: only 5 % of total
EU exports in 1994, while imports of Japanese products represented 9 % of
total EU imports; ECU 26.6 billion for the exports and ECU 48.8 billion for
the imports5. So currently the EU has a trading surplus with the
Japanese. This is the result of cooperation between Japan and the EU to
achieve more balanced trade that was initiated in 1992 when Japan's trade
surplus with the EU hit a record of 3,959 billion yen. From 1992 to 1996 the
surplus declined more than 20 % on average.
Not too long ago Japan had a huge advantage in trade over both the
United States and EU. This was due to an unfair advantage in which the Japanese closed its markets to the U.S. and the EU. However, now close economic relations between Japan and the EU are founded on dialogue and cooperation. Of particular importance have been coordinated efforts on both
sides -campaigns to promote exports to Japan, for example, the «Gateway to
Japan» (1994-1996) and «Gateway to Japan 2 (1997-2000)» and efforts on
Japan's part to promote imports. In addition, Japan-EU Experts Meeting on
Trade Statistics has since 1993 endeavoured to make an objective analysis of
the Japan-EU trade structure in order to deepen mutual understanding, which
is a prerequisite to any promotion of trade. Nineteen Hundred and Ninetyfour saw a significant decrease in Japan's bilateral trade surplus with the European Union. The decrease was 16.2 % in dollar terms (and
9.1 % in ECU terms) 6. This was caused by an increase in EU exports to
Japan because of the revaluation of the yen, the recovery of the Japanese
economy and the improvement in the competitiveness of European industry.
Of EU exports, particularly strong performance was recorded in road motor
vehicles (high-end luxury automobiles), furniture, office machinery, chemicals and textiles. Of EU imports from Japan, only electronic parts and car
parts showed significant increases. Japanese road motor vehicles decreased,
as did audio apparatus and motor cycles. This trend seems to be strengthened
by current trade figures as well.
The moderation of the trade imbalance may now be possible because of
a strong yen hampering Japanese exports and increased competitiveness of
EU industry. However, some of the factors underlying the Japanese surplus,
such as market access problems, could, in the absence of adequate actions by
the Japanese government, postpone further improvements in the imbalance.
The Union is concerned at the lack of a significant increase of EU exports to Japan in certain sectors where, nevertheless, the EU seems to be
93
competitive internationally. A striking illustration of this is EU exports of office machinery and telecommunications equipment. Due to Japan’s small size
versus the EU, food products are another category where Union exports to
Japan should be larger. Most of these trade issues are being tackled, not only
in the framework of
GATT/WTO but also bilaterally. Europe is determined to pursue certain
unresolved matters bilaterally. In 1991 the European Community and Japan
reached an agreement on access to the Japanese market for leather and leather
shoes. This should be the start to break into the Japanese markets. The European Union is closely following the US-Japan talks, with a view to making sure
that any favourable outcome would be applicable for them. For the present, Japan has shown some positive signs in the sense of an increase in public investments and of a modification of the restrictive provisions relating to largescale retail stores. The Japanese Fair Trade Commission has also produced
guidelines on distribution and business practices, which may contribute to improving access to the Japanese market. The EU Commission attaches great importance to the expansion of its export promotion program in close cooperation
with the European industry and is often supported by JETRO (Japan External
Trade Organization). Its action consists more and more of joint European participation in Japanese fairs and exhibitions. Simultaneously, the Union's Executive Training Program is developing favourably with overall participation of
more than 500 young European executives7. So the mutual respect and sharing
that is taking place between the two are further encouraging signs.
7. Answer the questions.
1. How many EU members are there?
2. What are the EU aims?
3. Why year 1991 can be called remarkable in Japan/EU relations?
4. What did the Japan/EC Joint Declaration declare?
5. How can the ties between Japan and EU be characterised? Why?
6. Judge the value of Japan-EU economic relations for the global economics.
7. How effective are Japan – EU economic relations?.
8. How does EU react on the growing economic weight of Japan?
9. What are the European Union efforts towards the warming economical relations with Japan?
AFTER-READING
8. Identify 3 important supporting details that contribute to the main idea of
the passage.
9. Identify 2 details that are not very important to the main idea of the passage.
94
10. Write 1 brief paragraph summarizing the main idea of the passage. Use
the important details to support your discussion of the main idea.
VOCABULARY
11. Match the words to their definitions.
1 cohesion-(n) – A Noticeable or important
2 comprise
B Reach, make longer
3 dominate
C Get.
4 frontier
D Very large
5 maintain
E To be important
6 monetary
F To stay in position without falling
7 prominent
G Specifically or especially
Begin to function; often used for laws, rules, or
8 ultimatelyH
medicine
A promise or oath to do something
9 vast
I
10 promote
J Show respect to
11 extend
K Able to continue a long time without causing harm
12 eventually
L Line of motion or direction
13 obtain
M To strike, reach or touch a particular place
14 surpass
N The state of sticking together; unity
International trade free from government interfer15 reinforce
O
ence or taxes
16 launch
P To officially put into office
The edge of a nation's territory where it borders an17 matter
Q
other country or unsettled area
18 balance
R Go beyond
19 neglect
S Finally
20 sustainable
T A new project
21 take effect
U To keep in good condition
22 commitment V A statement of fact or belief
23 contribution W To make something from many parts
24 emphasis
X To make someone believe
25 free trade
Y Related to money
26 in particular Z The act to solving a problem
27 chart
a A series of things between limits
28 honorb Finally; at last
Something given or offered; money given to some29 inaugurate
c
thing
30 course
d Make stronger
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31 range32
33
34
35
hi
initiative
solution
declaration
36 convince
e
f
g
h
i
j
To try to help something or someone grow or become more popular
To begin something new
To make a map or graph to show something
To not take care of something
To have a powerful over something or someone
Any special attention put on a particular action,
thought or part of speech
12. Fill in the gaps with the words from Ex. 11
The price _______________________ is from ten to one hundred dollars.
The arrow _______________________ the target.
There is a large parade in Washington on the day the president is
_________________.
The ship is on a _______________________ to Spain.
The company has an _______________________ to encourage safer working.
The was a governmental _______________________ at the United Nations.
He _______________________ the police that he was home at the time of
the murder.
We need a _______________________ to the broken pipe.
His _______________________ of love pleased her.
The wealthy man made a _______________________ to the charity.
There is a lot of _______________________ on saving money in my house.
The new laws _______________________ early last month.
Marriage is a big _______________________ and you should probably wait
until you're older. Maybe 40.
Most Americans believe in ____________________ because they do not like
to pay taxes.
There are a lot of advertisements _______________________ the new store.
We
stand
when
the
judge
enters
the
courtroom
to
_______________________ the law.
He likes movies, action movies _______________________.
Columbus _______________________ the islands of the western hemisphere.
Her work _______________________es all the other students
The builders _______________________ the walls with bricks.
He _______________________ a degree in engineering.
He _______________________ his arm across the table to get the salt.
It was a long trip but _______________________ we arrived.
96
I _______________________ the plants in my house and they died.
Drinking heavily is not _______________________ for long.
It is hard to _______________________ the first time you ride a bicycle.
He _______________________ a new business.
It _______________________ to me if you are happy.
There are a lot of advertisements _______________________ the new store.
In New York it found 62.58 % of the population of the slum to be
_______________________-born, whereas for the whole city the percentage
of _______________________ers was only
Spains western _______________________ borders Portugal.
For many years, Coca-Cola _______________________ the soft drink market.
A really great paper will have ______________, and will therefore flow better when read.
The cake is _______________________ of flour, sugar, eggs, and butter.
He worked very hard all his life and _______________________ succeeded.
The ocean is _______________________.
The _______________________ house on the hill can be seen from everywhere in town.
Older sports cars are difficult _______________________ but fun to drive.
He made a _______________________ investment but she did all the work.
14. Work in pairs. Translate the sentences into Russian. Give your translation to your partner and let him\her translate it back into English.
Compare the results.
1
2
3
4
English
Thanks to efforts on both sides, relations between Japan
and the EU are basically friendly
In addition to problems of a specifically Japan/EU nature, there is active cooperation on more global issues,
including environment and development assistance
Ties between Japan and Europe have been considered
relatively weak compared to those between Japan and
the US or the US and Europe, but the policy initiatives
arising from the joint declaration are helping to improve the balance of relations between these three partners
So with these continued efforts I am convinced that the
relationship between Japan and the EU are strong
97
Russian
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Throughout the eighties the emphasis in Japan/EU relations was primarily on economic relations, but a new
level of cooperation was inaugurated in 1991 by the Japan/EC Joint Declaration (it was then the European
Community
In the field of economic relations, in particular in 1992
when the trade imbalance hit record high levels and became a major subject of concern, great efforts on both
sides have helped to steadily reduce it.
There has also been more of an effort to promote dialogue in political fields since the Maastricht Treaty took
effect in 1993 and the political unity of the EU itself
was strengthened1
This declaration reconfirmed their commitment to freedom and democracy, free trade, human rights and other
common values, and charted a course for joint contributions to the solution of global issues and to just overall
strengthening of the Japan-Europe partnership
Since the joint declaration, Japan and the EU have honored its spirit by holding annual summits as well as engaging in dialogue and cooperation in a wide variety of
fields, on a broad range of levels and topics
Fourth, to strengthen the protection of the rights and interests of the nationals of its Member States through the
introduction of a citizenship of the Union And finally, to
develop close cooperation on justice and home affairs
Some sectoral actions launched by the European Commission in recent years have proven largely successful
Third, to project the Union to the rest of the world,
through the common foreign and security policy, and,
eventually, a common defense policy
Second, to promote balanced and sustainable economic
and social progress by creating an area without internal
frontiers, by strengthening economic and social cohesion and by establishing economic and monetary union,
ultimately including a single currency
SPEAKING
Does the thought of an oral report make you queasy? If so, you're not
alone. No kidding-people of all ages and occupations feel the same way.
98
From stage actors to college professors, many professionals feel the sudden
urge to flee just before they speak. So what can you do? Just follow these
steps to calm down and gear up for a super performance.
Difficulty: Average
Time Required: No specific
Here's How:
Write your report to be heard, not read. There is a difference. You'll see
this once you begin to practice what you've written, as some sentences will
sound choppy or too formal.
Practice your report out loud.
On the morning of your report, eat something but don't drink soda. Carbonated beverages will give you dry mouth.
Dress appropriately, and in layers. You never know whether the room will
be hot or cold. Either could give you the shakes, so prepare for both.
Once you stand, take a moment to gather your thoughts or relax. Don't
be afraid to give yourself a pause. Look through your paper for a moment. If
your heart is beating hard, this will give it an opportunity to calm. If you do
this right, it looks very professional.
If you start to speak and your voice is shaky, take a pause. Clear your
throat. Take a drink of water if it's available.
Focus on someone in the back of the room. This has a calming effect on
some speakers. It feels weird, but it doesn't look weird.
If there is a microphone, talk to it. Many speakers concentrate on the microphone and pretend it's the only person in the room. This works well.
Take the stage. Pretend you're a professional on TV. This gives confidence.
Prepare an «I don't know» answer if people will be asking questions.
Don't be afraid to say you don't know. You can say something like, «That is a
great question. I'll look into that.»
Prepare a good ending line. Avoid an awkward moment at the end. Don't
back away, mumbling «Well, I guess that's all.»
Tips:
Know your topic well.
If possible, make a practice video and watch yourself to see how you sound.
Don't pick the day of your report to experiment with a new style! It may give
you an extra reason to feel nervous in front of a crowd.
Walk up to your speaking location early, to give your nerves time to calm down.
Keep a zinger line for the end.
What You Need
 Three days to practice
 A recording device
 Layered clothing
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UNIT 9
JAPAN–RUSSIA
RELATIONSHIPS
WARM UP
1. Work in groups of three or four people. Think about the question: Are
Russia – Japan relationships friendly?
2. Make a list of facts, proving your opinion. Discuss it with the class.
READING
3. Read the following text. Choose one word (A-D) that best keeps the
meaning of the original sentence if substituted for the word (1-7) in bold
type.
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
talks
disintegration
betroth
course
deed
hinder
reprehensible
B
agreement
C.
discussion
D.
negotiation
decomposition C.
sensation
D.
liquefaction
B.
B.
B.
peacock
wisdom
feat
contest
C.
C.
C.
C.
bail
trick
achievement
oppose
D.
D.
D.
D.
promise
fraud
realization
compete
B.
infamous
C.
depraved
D.
vile
B
Russia – Japan: friends?
Relations between Russia and Japan are a continuation of JapaneseSoviet relations. Relations between the two nations are hindered primarily
by a dispute over the Kuril Islands, a dispute that is long-running, but rarely
gets serious enough to concern other nations. On February 10, 1904, a conflict between Imperial Japan and the Russian Empire resulted in the RussoJapanese war over Manchuria and Korea. This, and several smaller conflicts,
prevented both countries from signing a peace 1. treaty after World War II.
As of 2011 matters remain unresolved.
The government of Boris Yeltsin took power in Russia in late 1991 upon the 2. dissolution of the Soviet Union. Once again, Moscow took a stand
100
in opposition to returning the disputed territories to Japan. Although Japan
joined with the Group of Seven industrialized nations in contributing some
technical and financial assistance to Russia, relations between Tokyo and
Moscow remained poor. In September 1992, Russian president Boris Yeltsin
postponed a scheduled visit to Japan. The visit took place on October 11,
1993. He made no further concessions on the Kuril Islands dispute over the
four Kuril Islands (northeast of Hokkaido), a considerable obstacle to Japanese-Russian relations, but did agree to abide by the 1956 Soviet 3. pledge to
return two areas (Shikotan and the Habomai Islands) to Japan. Yeltsin also
apologized repeatedly for Soviet mistreatment of Japanese prisoners of war
after World War II. In March 1994, then Japanese minister of foreign affairs
Hata Tsutomu visited Moscow and met with Russian minister of foreign affairs Andrei Kozyrev and other senior officials. The two sides agreed to seek
a resolution over the persistent Kuril Islands dispute, but the decision of the
dispute is not expected in the near future. Despite the territorial dispute, Hata
offered some financial support to Russian market-oriented economic reforms. On July 30, 1998, the newly elected Japanese prime minister Keizō
Obuchi had focused on major issues: signing a peace treaty with Russia, and
renewing the Japanese economy. Unfortunately before his death, his 4. policy with the Russian Federation has avoided 5. implementation and the relations between the two nations remained under a state of war.
On August 16, 2006, Russian maritime authorities killed a Japanese
fisherman and captured a crab fishing boat in the waters around the disputed
Kuril Islands. The Russian foreign ministry has claimed that the death was
caused by a «stray bullet».
On 28 September 2006, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said
Russia would «continue the dialogue with the new Japanese government.
We will build our relations, how the peoples of the two countries want them
to be. Foreign Minister Taro Aso remained on his post in the government.
We have good, long-standing relations, we will act under the elaborated program.»
The dispute over the Southern Kuril Islands deteriorated Russo-Japan
relations when the Japanese government published a new guideline for
school textbooks on July 16, 2008 to teach Japanese children that their country has sovereignty over the Kuril Islands. The Russian public was generally
outraged by the action and demanded the government to 6. counteract. The
Foreign Minister of Russia announced on July 18, 2008 «[these actions] contribute neither to the development of positive cooperation between the two
countries, nor to the settlement of the dispute.» and reaffirmed its sovereignty over the islands.
On January 30, 2010, Russian border guards engaged in a dispute with
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two Japanese fishing boats.
After the election of the new Japanese Prime Minister, Naoto Kan, a
statement was done by him that he would energetically address Japan’s ties
with Russia and would «push the wheels of the cart forward», both in the
field of politics and economics, which would eventually lead to a peace treaty after the many years of the Kuril Islands Dispute.[6] Medvedev visited
Kunashir Island on November 1 where he described the Kuril islands as «a
very important region in our country,» and angered Japan, whose Prime
Minister Naoto Kan called his visit «7. regrettable».
Following the heating up of the dispute in early 2011, President Dmitry
Medvedev ordered significant reinforcements to the Russian defences on the
Kuril Islands in February 2011.
4. Decide if the statements are True or false?
1. Russia and Japan have been under the state of war since the RussoJapanese war.
2. The government of Boris Yeltsin signed a peace treaty in 1991.
3. Japan offered some technical and financial assistance to Russia.
4. The decision of the dispute over the Kuril Islands is expected in the nearest
future
5. On August 16, 2006, a Japanese fisherman was killed by a straw bullet.
6. School textbooks teach Japanese children that their country has sovereignty over the Kuril Islands.
7. The Russian public agreed with the Japanese textbooks.
8. President Dmitry Medvedev ordered to strengthen military forces on the
Kuril islands
5. Answer the questions.
1. What is the bone of contention between Russia and Japan?
2. What is the state of Japanese-Russian relations after the World War II?
3. What were the major issues of Boris Yeltsin’s visit to Japan in October
1993?
4. What was Japanese Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi’s policy focused on?
5. What was the reason of the conflict between Russia and Japan on August
16, 2006?
6. What other recent events deteriorated Russian-Japanese relations?
7. What do you think Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan’s promise to «push
the wheels of the cart forward» means?
8. What is President Dmitry Medvedev’s attitude towards the Kuril Islands?
102
9. Why did Naoto Kan considered Medvedev’s visit to Japan regrettable?
10. Why do you think President Dmitry Medvedev ordered reinforcements to
the Russian defaces on the Kuril Islands in February 2011?
6. Read the text below about Kuril Islands and decide if the statements
(1-8) are TRUE or False.
1. Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Osamu Fujimura visited Russia with a
working visit.
2. The Kuril Islands are considered by the Japanese government their Northern Territories.
3. The territory dispute over the island prevented Russia and Japan from signing a peace treaty after the WWII.
4. Nikolay Patrushev chaired a meeting with the local government on the deployment of weaponry on the Kuril Islands.
5. Russia’s Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov underlined that Russia and Japan
should have broad bilateral co-operation in all areas.
6. Koichiro Gemba had a talk with Sergey Lavrov in Yuzhno-Kurilsk.
7. Japanese officials claim that Russia has no legal grounds to possess the
Southern Kuril Islands.
8. President Dmitry Medvedev stressed the importance of good relations with
Japan.
Kuril islands dispute
Japan’s government has expressed its regret over Russian security chief
Nikolay Patrushev’s working visit to the Kuril Islands, which have long
been a subject of a bitter dispute between the two states.
Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary Osamu Fujimura told a press conference
in Tokyo on Monday that «This runs counter to our country's position and
causes sincere regret,» cites Itar-Tass. Japan considers a visit by a key Russian government official to the Northern Territories – as the Kuril Islands are
known by the Japanese – «unacceptable».
Fujimura also noted that the two countries «intend – based on all the previously-reached agreements – to resolve the territorial dispute and conclude
a peace treaty.»
The status of the four Kuril Islands – Kunashir, Shikotan, the Khabomai
Rocks and Iturup – has been the major stumbling block in the signing of the
Moscow-Tokyo peace agreement following WWII, after which the Soviet
Union – and subsequently Russia – took control over the archipelago.
The statement was made a day after Russia’s Security Council Secretary Nikolay Patrushev visited the Kurils on Sunday. In the town of Yuzhno-Kurilsk
103
on Kunashir he chaired a meeting with the local government on security in the
region and on the construction of several civil and border infrastructure facilities.
The official also met with the leadership of the Russian Federal Security
border guard service and inspected a frontier post on the island of the Tanfilieva, which is only 4 kilometers away from Japan.
According to the Security Council’s press service, Patrushev also held a
meeting with the antiterrorist commission of the Sakhalin Region, which focused on such topics as ensuring the protection of citizens during public events,
as well as the security of socially important and potentially dangerous objects.
On Friday, Russia’s Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov had a phone conversation with his newly-appointed Japanese counterpart Koichiro Gemba.
Lavrov underlined that the negotiations on a peace treaty should be held in a
calm atmosphere, without preconditions and unilateral historic linkages, the
Foreign Ministry’s press service reported.
Such talks should be accompanied «not by Japanese officials' statements
that Russia has no legal grounds to possess the Southern Kuril Islands,
which are unacceptable to our country, but by broad bilateral co-operation in
all areas,» cited Interfax. The Russian side is ready to develop such cooperation, including by continuing to help Japan to overcome the aftermath
of the devastating earthquake in March this year.
Gemba thanked Moscow for the aid it had already provided and, also,
stressed the importance of relations with Russia for Japan.
Moscow has repeatedly voiced its position over the South Kurils, saying
that its sovereignty over the territories is irrefutable. Tokyo, however, insists
that the islands belong to them.
Earlier in February, President Dmitry Medvedev ordered the deployment of
weaponry on the Kuril Islands that could be sufficient to guarantee security of
the region. The Russian leader noted that Moscow wants to maintain good relations with its neighbors, as long as they understand the islands’ priority position
in the region. He stressed that the Kurils are an integral part of Russia.
The dispute over the South Kurils has been going on for decades, but has
especially intensified after President Medvedev’s visit to Kunashir, on November 1, 2010.
7. Complete the sentences, using the information from the text
above.
1. The Kuril Islands have long been a subject of …
2. Japan considers the Kuril Islands …
3. Russia took control over the Kuril Islands …
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4. Nikolay Patrushev is …
5. The island of the Tanfilieva is …
6. Lavrov underlined that the negotiations on a peace treaty …
7. Koichiro Gemba thanked Moscow for…
8. The meeting with the antiterrorist commission of the Sakhalin Region focused on such topics…
9. The deployment of weaponry on the Kuril Islands was ordered by…
10. President Medvedev’s visit to Kunashir…
8. Answer the questions.
1. What was Japan government’s attitude towards the Russian security chief
Nikolay Patrushev’s working visit to the Kuril Islands?
2. When did Russia take control over the islands?
3. What were the main points of Nikolay Patrushev’s visit to YuzhnoKurilsk?
4. What did Russia’s Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov and Koichiro Gemba
discuss during their phone call?
5. What Japanese officials' statements are unacceptable to Russia?
6. Why did Russian Official visit the island of the Tanfilieva?
7. What aid did Moscow provide for Japan?
8. What is D.Medvedev’s attitude towards the disputed islands?
9. Why did President Dmitry Medvedev order the deployment of weaponry
on the Kuril Islands?
10. When did the dispute over the South Kurils intensify?
9. Read the text quickly and say what about the text is, find an appropriate title to the text.
10. Define the type of the text:
a. tourist leaflet
b. a newspaper article
c. an essay
11. Read the text and complete the gaps (1-6) with the missing sentences
(A-F).
A. with protests since December 2006,
B. condemning the proposes agreement
C. intends to increase that share to 25 percent
D. leading to large releases of radioactivity
E. increase the environmental load on an already vulnerable territory
F. its technology might be leaked to the Russian defense industry
105
___________________________________
Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin will Tuesday hold talks with
Japan aimed at signing a long delayed agreement to supply more nuclear
fuel to the country as well as foster more cooperation between the countries
in manufacturing nuclear sector equipment and building nuclear reactors,
Kremlin officials said Monday.
Charles Digges, 11/05-2009
The talks have been met by thunderous protest from Japanese and Russian environmental groups, like Russia’s Ecodefence and Japan’s Green Action and the Citizens’ Nuclear Information Center, who Monday issued a
joint statement 1.______________________
The main bone of contention, said the environmentalists, is that a potential agreement between Russia and Japan will allow copious amounts of
nuclear material to be sent to Russia.
The pact will pave the way for Tokyo to entrust Moscow with uranium
enrichment and allow Japan to export nuclear power plant technology to
Russia, the Kyodo News said and a Russian cabinet spokesman confirmed.
According to Kremlin officials and Japanese media reports, the two
countries are in the final stages of the talks over a pact that would promote
non-military use of nuclear power for electricity generation.
The talks are part of a wide-reaching effort by Russia’s state nuclear
corporation Rosatom to spread its sphere of influence internationally, putting
it in competition with its European counterparts like France’s Areva and
Germany’s Siemens – with whom Russia two months ago signed a memorandum of understanding.
Yet, the talks between Russia and Japan have taken longer than expected to complete, missing deadlines at the end of 2007 and in mid-2008
over Japanese concerns that 2 _____________________.
The current share of Russian-made fuel on the Japanese market is 15
percent, but Putin told Japanese media he 3______________________.
According to the Russian and Japanese environmentalists, the site for
extracting the necessary uranium to make this fuel would be the beleaguered
Angarsk Electrolysis-Chemical Combine in South Eastern Siberia near Lake
Baikal. Kremlin officials reached Monday by Bellona Web would not confirm or deny whether Angarsk would be the site used for uranium extraction
under the prospective deal with Japan.
Angarsk is also under consideration as a spot for an IAEA sponsored
international uranium fuel bank, and processing and storage of such large
amounts of fresh and spent nuclear fuel would severely
4________________.
«Japan and Russia have for several years been considering the possibil106
ity of extracting uranium from spent nuclear fuel reprocessed in the United
Kingdom and France and re-enriching it in Russia,» the Russian and Japanese environmental groups said in their joint statement.
«If a deal opening the way for reprocessed uranium to be re-enriched is
signed between Japan and Russia, uranium extracted from Japanese spent
fuel could be transported nearly 10,000 kilometers to the Angarsk uranium
enrichment plant near lake Baikal, a UNESCO World Heritage site,» said
the statement.
«Transportation over such a long distance may become a target for terrorist attack, or cause transport accidents 5 _______________.
But Putin was upbeat about the possible deal, and expects to return to
Moscow with a deal in his pocket.
«We see how successful Japan is in developing high technology,» Putin
said in the interview posted on the Cabinet's website Sunday.
«And, of course, coupling the possibilities of Russia and Japan in these
areas, I think, would be very important.»
He added that he thought the countries would sign the nuclear agreement during his visit to Tokyo.
Japan’s Ambassador to Russia, Masaharu Kono, was less enthusiastic
than Putin that the two countries would walk away with a deal, however,
telling Interfax newswire on Friday that the countries had yet to reach a final
agreement on the matter.
Residents of Angarsk, too, have yet to reach any agreement on the proposed deal, and have been greeting the of a uranium enrichment centre in
their region 6 _______________ Ecodefence, Green Action and the Citizens’ Nuclear Information Center said.
«Protests have been happening since December 2006. People are demanding that authorities withdraw from new enrichment contracts in order
to stop the growth of radioactive waste stockpiles near the highly sensitive
Baikal ecosystem,» said the groups in their statement.
«Both Japan and Russia must uphold democratic values and respect the
wishes of the local residents. We call on both governments not to sign any
agreement that permits the re-enrichment of Japanese reprocessed uranium
in Russia.»
12. Answer the questions.
1. What was the aim of V. Putin talks with Japan?
2. What kind of document did the environmentalist groups of Russia and Japan issue?
3. What was the main bone of contention?
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4. Where will the place for extracting uranium be situated?
5. What is Putin’s attitude towards the deal? Why?
6. What do residents of Angarsk demand?
7. What are the main reasons against signing the agreement?
13. Decide if the statements are True or false.
1. The talks between Russia and Japan aimed at signing an agreement to supply more nuclear fuel to Japanese nuclear power stations.
2. Angarsk is the place where the agreement will be signed.
3. Environmentalists from Japan stand for the deal.
4. Transportation of reprocessed uranium to Russia may cause terrorist attacks.
5. Putin is very enthusiastic about the possible deal.
6. Putin considers Japan and Russia should develop cooperation in the field
of high technologies.
7. Residents of Angarsk are demanding to withdraw reprocessed uranium to
Japan.
8. The deal had been postponed for a long time.
9. The talks can promote non-military use of nuclear power.
10. The deal was postponed several times because Japan was s afraid Russia
would use Japanese technologies for defense industry.
VOCABULARY
14. Complete the sentences (insert the prepositions).
1. Relations between two nations were deteriorated …… a new conflict.
2. The countries are … the state of war.
3. Both countries agreed to abide … a peaceful policy.
4. Russian Foreign Minister focused … the development of positive cooperation between the countries.
5. Russia and Japan have been trying to seek a resolution … the territorial
conflict for a long time.
6. Japanese government claim sovereignty … the Kuril Islands.
7. In the course of the talks it was decided that Russia and Japan would act…
the positive cooperation program.
8. A new heating up of the relations was caused … the President Medvedev’s
visit to the disputed islands.
15. Give English equivalents to the following.
1.
ранее достигнутые соглашения
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
заключить мирный договор
камень преткновения
обеспечение защиты граждан
вновь назначенный
переговоры по поводу подписания мирного договора
широкое двустороннее сотрудничество
не имеет законных основанийпоследствия разрушительного землетрясения
суверенные права на эти территории неоспоримы
16. Match the words (1 – 12) with the meanings (a – l). The example is
given.
a. to move, act, or respond so as to be in opposition
b. to feel sorry about something
c. impossible to deny or disprove
d. tasting sharp and sour, not sweet or sugary
e. a person who holds a position in an organization,
5. conclude (v)
government department, etc., esp. a subordinate position
6. security (n)
f. something that gives or assures safety
7. counterpart (v) g. to come to a decision or agreement
h. a discussion set up or intended to produce a settle8. frontier (n)
ment or agreement
i. the consequences of an event (especially a cata9. negotiation (n)
strophic event)
j. a person or thing identical to or closely resembling
10. aftermath (n)
another
11. sovereignty (n) k. an international border
12.irrefutable (adj) l. complete independence and self-government.
1. regret (v)
2. bitter (adj)
3. counter (n)
4. official (adj)
17. Find Russian equivalents for the words in bold. Use dictionary.
1.upbeat
2. contention
3.foster
4.condemn
5.postponed
6.copious
7. kick off
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18. Use the words above to complete the crossword.
Across
5. controvers
y
6. censure
7. encourage
Down
1. enthusiastic
2. start
3. delayed
4. abundant
WRITING
How to Write a Summary in 8 Easy Steps
Writing a good summary demonstrates that you clearly understand a text
…and that you can communicate that understanding to your readers. A summary can be tricky to write at first because it’s tempting to include too much
or too little information. But by following our easy 8-step method, you will
be able to summarize texts quickly and successfully for any class or subject.
19. Study the strategy How to write a good summary!
1) Divide…and conquer. First off, skim the text you are going to summarize and divide it into sections. Focus on any headings and subheadings.
Also look at any bold-faced terms and make sure you understand them before
you read.
2) Read. Now that you’ve prepared, go ahead and read the selection.
Read straight through. At this point, you don’t need to stop to look up any110
thing that gives you trouble – just get a feel for the author’s tone, style, and
main idea.
3) Reread. Rereading should be active reading. Underline topic sentences and key facts. Label areas that you want to refer to as you write your
summary. Also label areas that should be avoided because the details –
though they may be interesting – are too specific. Identify areas that you do
not understand and try to clarify those points.
4) One sentence at a time. You should now have a firm grasp on the text
you will be summarizing. In steps 1 – 3, you divided the piece into sections
and located the author’s main ideas and points. Now write down the main
idea of each section in one well-developed sentence. Make sure that what you
include in your sentences are key points, not minor details.
5) Write a thesis statement. This is the key to any well-written summary.
Review the sentences you wrote in step 4. From them, you should be able to
create a thesis statement that clearly communicates what the entire text was
trying to achieve. If you find that you are not able to do this step, then you
should go back and make sure your sentences actually addressed key points.
6) Ready to write. At this point, your first draft is virtually done. You
can use the thesis statement as the introductory sentence of your summary,
and your other sentences can make up the body. Make sure that they are in
order. Add some transition words (then, however, also, moreover) that help
with the overall structure and flow of the summary. And once you are actually putting pen to paper (or fingers to keys!), remember these tips:
Write in the present tense.
Make sure to include the author and title of the work.
Be concise: a summary should not be equal in length to the original text.
If you must use the words of the author, cite them.
Don't put your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary.
The purpose of writing a summary is to accurately represent what the author
wanted to say, not to provide a critique.
7) Check for accuracy. Reread your summary and make certain that you
have accurately represented the author’s ideas and key points. Make sure that
you have correctly cited anything directly quoted from the text. Also check to
make sure that your text does not contain your own commentary on the piece.
8) Revise. Once you are certain that your summary is accurate, you
should (as with any piece of writing) revise it for style, grammar, and punc111
tuation. If you have time, give your summary to someone else to read. This
person should be able to understand the main text based on your summary
alone. If he or she does not, you may have focused too much on one area of
the piece and not enough on the author’s main idea.
20. Read again the text «Kuril islands dispute» and write a good summary. Use the pieces of advice above.
SPEAKING
21. Speak on the following (concerning Japan-Russian relationships):
If I were President Medvedev, I would…
If I were Japanese Prime Minister, I would…
22. Comment on the following:
«Moscow has repeatedly voiced its position over the South Kurils, saying
that its sovereignty over the territories is irrefutable. Tokyo, however, insists
that the islands belong to them.»
a) Give at least six arguments to support Moscow
b) Give at least six arguments to support Tokyo
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UNIT 10
JAPAN’S INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS. WHAT NEXT?
WARM UP
1. What is your forecast of developing Japan’s political, economic and
security relations?
2. Who would become her allies and enemies?
PRE-READING
3. Select the correct answer for following multiple choice questions.
1. According to the text, the role of the present bilateral relations between the
US and Japan might be lost if
(A) Russia and China continue on the path to normalisation
(B) China continues to gather political importance
(C) the ASEAN Regional Forum fails
(D) Russia continues to gather political importance
2. What can shift importance away from the US-Japan relations?
(A) the revised U.S.-Japan Security Treaty of 1960
(B) the comprehensive multilateral security system
(C) the foundation of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1993
(D) tense relations between the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan
3. The role of Japan as an ally of the US in the region remains
(A) high
(B) low
(C) stable
(D) unclear
4. European security policy is mainly based on
(A) WEU
(B) ASEAN
(C) NATO and ASEAN
(D) the transatlantic NATO partnership and WEU
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5. A «Transatlantic agenda» had been signed between
(A) the EU and Japan
(B) the EU and NATO
(C) the EU and the US
(D) Japan and the USA
WHILE-READING
4.
Underline important parts of the text.
5.
Circle words or phrases in the text that you don’t know.
6.
Put a question mark (?) next to statements you have a question
about.
7.
Put a check mark (✓) next to statements that you agree with.
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Perspectives for future development: Modified Roles
The bilateral relationship between the U.S. and Japan remains one main
pillar of security in the North Pacific. However, a (regional) multilateralisation might become seizable in the future: If China continues to gather political importance and if relations with between Russia and Japan continue on
the path to normalisation, the role of the present bilateral relationship might
be lost in a real politic with Japan, China, Russia and the U.S. as main actors.
The foundation of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1993 is another element that could point into a similar direction, shifting importance away from
the U.S.- Japan relationship to a more multilateral and comprehensive approach for peace in the region, including also the South East Asian Nations,
represented by ASEAN. However, it cannot yet be said whether this trend
towards «multilateralisation» might lead to the comprehensive multilateral
security system that had already been envisaged in the revised U.S.-Japan
Security Treaty of 1960 and which could, one day, make the U.S.-Japan alliance obsolete.
Although its significance seems to have declined due to the end of the
Soviet threat, there is still considerable danger of regional instability. The
continuous trouble between North and South Korea, the tense relations between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and Taiwan or territorial disputes regarding the resource-rich Spratly Islands in the South China Sea
which involve several regional powers are examples of such disputes. Since
the South China Sea is an economically important transport route, the U.S.
has interest in keeping this transit route open. Finally, China’s future role in
the region is yet unclear.
From the above, we can conclude that the role of Japan as an ally of the
United States in the region remains high for the U.S. – although the nature
and origins of potential threats or conflicts have changed over time since the
collapse of the Soviet Union.
Implications for Europe: No Need to Worry
Europe is only peripherally concerned by the relations between Japan
and the U.S. in areas related to general policy or defence policy. The reason
for this is plain and simple: The zones of interest and influence that are covered by the U.S.-Japan political relationship are nowadays without geographic intersection with European interest spheres. While the U.S.- Japan relationship covers mainly the Pacific Rim, the European zones of interest
remain – after the end of colonisation in Asia – mainly focused on the European continent itself, the Mediterranean area, some areas in Northern and
Central Africa and the Eastern Atlantic Rim. Symmetrically, there are no
zones of Japanese political or military influence within the area covered by
European dominance.
115
European security policy is – as far as Western Europe is concerned –
mainly based on the transatlantic NATO partnership with the United States
and (increasingly) on the still rather weak European co-operation within the
Western European Union (WEU), a military alliance in Western Europe. Europeans will likely continue to rely on U.S. support in security matters for the
foreseeable future, as the European Union is still unable to act concertedly on
its own as the crises in former Yugoslavia have repeatedly shown.
From the above, it becomes clear that the focal role for security policy
in the world – be it in the Atlantic or Pacific – rests on the U.S. In this respect, the only danger for Europe to be adversely affected by the U.S-Japan
relationship would be if the U.S. shifted parts of its foreign and defence policy efforts away from the transatlantic to the transpacific sphere.
Although there may have been fears of such an evolution at the beginning
of the Clinton administration, where the foreign policy focus of the U.S. lay
heavily on its relationship with Asia, such fears are rather ungrounded. Moreover, Europe remains a strategic logistical base for U.S. operations in the Near
and Middle East and in the Mediterranean Rim. The continuing presence of
U.S. troops in Western Europe remains, despite some downsizing after the end
of the Cold War, a key factor in European security and U.S. foreign policy.
And it continues to yield its peace dividend to the Europeans as long as the situation in Russia remains unstable and as long as there is a potential terrorist
threat from Northern Africa or from the Near and Middle East.
Two main options are available for Europeans to avoid marginalisation
through the U.S.-Japan relationship in the areas of general and security policy. Europeans can seek to improve bilateral political relations with each of
the two other triad members. While such co-operation used to be limited on
economic issues with regard to Asia, Europeans have recently discovered Japan as a political dialogue partner: In 1991, a common declaration of EU
member states provided for meetings on an annual basis. In addition, several
European countries have recently agreed with Japan on «common agendas»
or «visions» for partnership. However, it remains open in how far these programmes will yield concrete results. Similarly, a «Transatlantic Agenda» had
been signed between the EU and the U.S. in late 1995 that should give new
impetus to the transatlantic partnership between Europe and the U.S.
The second option, which seems to be preferable to such a surge of bilateralism, consists of fostering co-operation within multilateral organisations
in order to minimise the danger of exclusion. Given the relatively low interdependence in most non-economic areas, cooperation would probably be limited on the resolution of global environmental problems, internationally organised crime, peace-keeping actions or development assistance. Such fields
of world politics might be better tackled on the multilateral level, where all
116
countries work closer together. This would also encourage worldwide acceptance of such policies, thereby making their implementation more effective. On the other hand, negotiation processes in such multilateral organisations are often lengthy, results tend to be watered down and problems arise
when countries refuse to implement or execute internationally defined rules.
The role of the leading triad powers for such multilateral co-operation
must, however, not be underestimated. Leading regional powers should work
together to give such multilateral for the impetus necessary to reach objectives. This has become obvious in the area of multilateral economic cooperation (which will be the subject of the next chapter): The G7 meetings
have often paved the way for actions that were later taken in for such as the
World Bank or the International Monetary Fund. Similarly, European integration has been a model for the GATT Uruguay Round on some issues.
This brings us finally to the field of economic relations, where interdependence between the three powers is much higher and where, therefore,
U.S.-Japan relations have a higher impact on Europe.
8. Answer the questions.
1) What and Who is the basis of security in the North Pacific?
2) What is the forecast of developing relations between Russia, China, Japan
and the USA?
3) What is the probable trend in developing Japan- the North pacific relations?
4) How has the political situation changed after the end of the soviet threat?
5) Is there any existing tension in the region? What is its reason?
6) What is the role of Japan in the region?
7) Why is Europe only slightly concerned the general and defense policies in
the region?
8) What is the basis for European security policy?
9) According to the text, why do the Europeans continue to rely on the US?
10) Who has the focal role for security policy in the world?
11) What is the role of Europe there?
12) What effect on European security has he instability of Russia and potential terrorist threat from Northern Africa and the Near and Middle East?
13) What two options are available for the Europeans to avoid marginalisation? Do you agree?
9. Continue the sentences.
1. If China continues to gather political importance and if relations with between Russia and Japan continue on the path to normalisation …
2. The foundation of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1993 is another
element that could …
117
3. Since the South China Sea is an economically important transport route,
the U.S. has …
4. While the U.S.- Japan relationship covers mainly the Pacific Rim, the European zones of interest remain – after the end of colonisation in Asia –
mainly focused on …
5. Europeans will likely continue to rely on …
6. the only danger for Europe to be adversely affected by the U.S-Japan relationship would be if …
7. Two main options are available for Europeans to avoid marginalisation
through the U.S.-Japan relationship in the areas of general and security policy. Europeans can … The second option …
8. The role of the leading triad powers for such multilateral co-operation
must, however, not be …
9. Leading regional powers should …
10. This brings us finally to the field of economic relations, where …
AFTER-READING
10. Identify 3 important supporting details that contribute to the main idea of
the passage.
11. Identify 2 details that are not very important to the main idea of the passage.
12. Write 1 brief paragraph summarizing the main idea of the passage. Use
the important details to support your discussion of the main idea.
VOCABULARY
13. Match the words to the definitions.
Related to planning the supply and placement of peo1 affect
A
ple and things for some activity
A general rule; usually of a government, business or
2 alliance
B
organization
3 dominance C To change or influence
4 evolution D Of different origin
transatlan5
E Power over others
tic
6 logistical
F A group working together for a shared purpose
7 policy
G The place where two lines (paths, streets, etc.) cross
8 intersection H Across the Atlantic Ocean
Change in a species brought about by mutation
9 Foreign
I
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14. Fill in the words from the Ex.
1. It is the school's ______________________ that all children must wear
uniforms.
2. As a ____________________ officer in the army, he was responsible for
the transportation and feeding of the soldiers.
3. Blood transfusions must be the same blood type because the body will attack foreign antibodies.
4. They met at the _______________________ of Broadway and 59th Street.
5. From New York to London is a _______________________ flight.
6. An _____________ of families and businesses worked together to save the
park.
7. The whiskey _______________________ his driving and he crashed the car.
8. Darwin's theory of _______________________ explains all the species on
earth.
15. Fill in the prepositions where necessary.
The changing situation of East Asia in Japan’s regional policy
Although regional economic relations have been closer than before, East
Asia still faces challenges like traditional and non-traditional security threats,
economic competition, lack ____1 political mutual confidence, and so on.
Objectively, _____2 long time of economic, social and cultural communications, and facing _____3 common challenge,
East Asia countries are more apt _____4 cooperate ______ 5 each other,
and are considering seriously _______ 6 the way of cooperation. Japan has
been actively engaging ______7 East Asia economically while seeking ways
to counterbalance the factors ____8 regional instability _____ 9 recent years.
Especially ____10 the non-traditional security sphere, Japan has been willing
_____11 play an increasing important role. The development of China and
the change of U.S. policy _____12 East Asia also have great impact _____13
Japan’s regional policy.
16. Work in pairs. Translate the sentences into Russian. Give your translation to your partner and let him\her translate it back into English.
Compare the results.
1
English
The zones of interest and influence that are covered by
the U.S.- Japan political relationship are nowadays
without geographic intersection with European interest
spheres
119
Russian
Europe is only peripherally concerned by the relations
2 between Japan and the U.S. in areas related to general
policy or defence policy.
Although there may have been fears of such an evolution
at the beginning of the Clinton administration, where the
3
foreign policy focus of the U.S. lay heavily on its relationship with Asia, such fears are rather ungrounded.
Although there may have been fears of such an evolution
at the beginning of the Clinton administration, where the
4
foreign policy focus of the U.S. lay heavily on its relationship with Asia, such fears are rather ungrounded.
Moreover, Europe remains a strategic logistical base
5 for U.S. operations in the Near and Middle East and in
the Mediterranean Rim.
Symmetrically, there are no zones of Japanese political
6 or military influence within the area covered by European dominance.
European security policy is – as far as Western Europe
is concerned – mainly based on the transatlantic NATO
partnership with the United States and increasingly on
7
the still rather weak European co-operation within the
Western European Union (WEU), a military alliance in
Western Europe.
Europeans will likely continue to rely on U.S. support in
8 security matters for the foreseeable future, as the European
Union is still unable to act concertedly on its own.
From the above, it becomes clear that the focal role for
9 security policy in the world – be it in the Atlantic or
Pacific – rests on the U.S
In this respect, the only danger for Europe to be adversely affected by the U.S – Japan relationship would
10
be if the U.S. shifted parts of its foreign and defence
policy efforts.
WRITING
HOW TO WRITE A REPORT
REPORT STYLE
To be completely successful, a report which makes recommendations
must ensure that the persons for whom the report is intended:
120
 Read it without unnecessary delay.
 Understand everything in it without undue effort.
 Accept the facts, findings, conclusions and recommendations.
 Decide to take the action recommended.
A good style in business communication – unlike a good literary style –
should combine:
 clarity
 conciseness
 and directness.
In a report the style of writing should be unobtrusive; if the reader becomes aware of the style of writing it probably means that the writing is
pompous, or ostentatious, or ambiguous, or difficult to follow. Above all else,
the writing should be easy to read. Good style is good manners. Research into
what makes a piece of writing readable started in America over sixty years
ago. Experts nowadays agree that the factors that most affect readability are:
• an attractive appearance
• non-technical subject matter
• a clear and direct style
• short sentences
• short and familiar words.
There are numerous ways in which you can bring individuality to whatever you write, which will not only enable you to communicate more effectively, but also give your writing extra colour and impact.
Selectivity
Careful choice of words can enable you to convey many subtleties of
meaning. You cannot find a word you have forgotten or do not know in a dictionary. Look up a word of similar meaning in a thesaurus and you will find
a variety of words and expressions which should include the one in the back
of your mind, or perhaps an even more appropriate one which you had not
even considered.
Accuracy
Check that everything you write is factually accurate. The facts should
be capable of being verified. Moreover, arguments should be soundly based
and your reasoning should be logical. You should not write anything that will
misinform, mislead or unfairly persuade your readers. If you do, you will be
doing a disservice not only to yourself but also to your department and organisation. Accurate information is essential for effective communication and
decision making.
121
Objectivity
A report should not be an essay reflecting personal emotions and opinions. You must look at all sides of a problem with an open mind before stating your conclusions. The role is similar to that of a sports referee or a High
Court judge. In these situations, decisions are based on the results, the evidence, or an interpretation of the evidence – not on personal opinions and
feelings.
Conciseness
Veni, Vidi, Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). That is how Julius Caesar
reported his visit to our shores. While none of your reports will be as short as
this, you should aim to keep them concise. In doing this, do not mistake brevity for conciseness. A report may be brief because it omits important information. A concise report, on the other hand, is short but still contains all the
essential details.
Clarity and consistency
The best way to achieve clarity in your writing is to allow some time to
elapse between the first draft and its revision. Try to leave it over the weekend, or at least overnight. If you are really under pressure and this is simply
not possible, at least leave it over a lunch or coffee break
Simplicity
Usually, if your writing is selective, accurate, objective, concise, clear
and consistent, it will also be as simple as it can be. You should guard against
over-simplifying, for example to the point of missing out information which
the reader needs to fully understand what you are trying to say. You should
again keep your readers firmly in mind and keep asking yourself whether or
not they will be able to follow the logic of your presentation.
Many problems in communicating are caused by making things more
difficult than they need to be. Many writers also over-estimate the reading
capacity of the report's recipients. They forget, or do not know, that the average manager has a reading speed of about 225 words per minute and comprehends only about seventy-five per cent of what is read. That is why the summary is so important.
Keeping technical writing simple
The problem of how to keep things simple is particularly acute for technical writers. The information they have to convey is difficult for nontechnical readers to understand. If they simplify their expression too much they
may distort the meaning of whatever they are trying to say. It is all too easy
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for them to shrug their shoulders and tell themselves that it is not their fault
and their readers will just have to follow them the best they can.
This simply will not do. The readers, after all, are the really important
people. If they do not understand, they will reject what the writer has to say.
If the writer depends on their approval for a course of action, he or she is
helping no one by refusing to take their limitations into account. No writer
can afford to be so self-indulgent.
CHOOSING YOUR WORDS CAREFULLY
Prefer plain words
Avoid pointless words
Some words and phrases – like
basically, actually, undoubtedly, each and every one and during the course of
our investigation
keep cropping up in reports. Yet they add nothing to the message and often
can be removed without changing the meaning or the tone. Try leaving them
out of your writing.
Avoid overwriting and padding
Weed out any meaningless, excess words
Avoid redundant words
Avoid the careless positioning of words
Prefer the positive
Try to avoid qualifying introductions
Place emphasis at the end of the sentence
Prefer English to foreign words and phrases
Avoid sexist language
Use warm words
PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE REPORT WRITING
There are several well-known and well-tested pieces of advice to people
who wish to communicate effectively on paper. Here are some that should
prove particularly valuable to report writers.
The importance of reports
The report is the major product of your project or investigation. Indeed,
for most people it is the only tangible evidence that any work has been undertaken. It should not be silent on all your hard work. There is as much importance in presenting facts as in finding them; what is not reported will soon
be forgotten, and might as well never have been discovered.
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Drafting the report
 Try to write your draft report over consecutive days. You will find that in
two days you will achieve three times what you can in one; in four days you
will do four times what you might in two.
 Write in bursts of about forty minutes to an hour, each followed by a short
break.
 Never start a writing session without being clear what you intend to
achieve.
 Be flexible. You may have to postpone a writing session to do some other
work. However, flexibility works both ways, so make the most of any unexpected writing opportunities.
 A ten-minute solo walk can often be more useful than an hour sitting at
your desk.
 Once you have started, keep the momentum going. Do not be over-concerned
with writing conventions at this stage. There will be time for this later.
 Read a passage aloud to yourself. If it sounds like the latest news from
Kosovo, or staccato or complicated, you are failing.
The need for explanation
 Always begin by saying what you have been asked to do, who asked you
and when. Say how, where and when you did it, and with whose help. Always explain what you are talking about. Never be afraid of explaining too
much.
 Try to consolidate highly factual reference into self-contained sections
which will be seen as help for those who require it, but not as required reading for those who do not.
 Always make it clear what you have accepted, and what you have verified.
When you have verified something, say how.
 You cannot explain the present without first explaining the past. Begin at
the beginning. How do things come to be where they are now?
 Be specific. Words like 'mostly', 'largely' and 'substantially' merely raise the
question 'how much?'. Say instead 'three-quarters', 'two-thirds', 'about half;
there is no need to be finicky, but you must say what you mean.
17. Read the text. Consult other sources if necessary and write a report
on the topic «Japan’s international relations. What next?»
Recent issues in East Asia regional cooperation
After many years of cooperation, East Asian countries have come to a
crossing point. What kinds of institutions do we want? What’s the purpose of
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cooperation and what’s the force behind it? What kinds of formation can best
serve the needs of regional countries? Recent changes in domestic politics of
regional countries and regional situation pose serious problems for the future
development of regional cooperation.
The Change of Regional Situation
(1) Regional tension was followed by domestic policy change and recent
economic crisis. Since 2008, a series of East Asian regional actors, for example, South Korea, United States and Japan, have experienced changes of
leaders. It’s widely reported by foreign media that North Korea may experience shift of power in the near future. And domestic turmoil continues in
Thailand as red shirts protest activities escalate from time to time since 2006.
Also the ramification of 2008 financial crisis began to gradually unfold in regional politics. As a result, regional security hot spots became more troublesome.
After South Korea President Lee Myung-bak came into power, he
changed the sunshine policy and insisted that South Korea won’t provide
large scales of assistance unless North Korea gives up nuclear weapons. The
relations between North and South Korea became tense again. The power
shift in Japan didn't come up with the change of its policy towards North Korea. DPJ cabinets maintain sanction to North Korea. Also issues between Japan and China have been used by Japanese politicians to appeal to domestic
nationalistic sentiments in order to win the support of voters. For example, in
February 2009, PM Aso said in a Diet questioning session that «Senkaku Islands are under the coverage of Japan-U.S. security treaty». And after DPJ
came into power, Foreign Minister Okada has been expressing suspicion
about Chinese military build-up, calling for Chinese reduction of nuclear
weapon in various international occasions, and reassured that there’s no need
of negotiation on Senkaku Islands (Diaoyu Islands) after PM Hatoyama said
it's necessary to discuss the Senkaku Islands problem with China. Also after
Obama came into power, U.S. abandoned its former «benevolent neglect»
position to East Asian regionalism, and vowed to participate in the institution
building process. After the Cheonan sinking incident, U.S., together with Japan and South Korea, increased their pressure on North Korea. U.S. and
South Korea took joint military exercise in this July to deter North Korea,
which only increased the regional tension and didn’t have positive effects on
the solution of North Korea issues. (2) East Asian identity becomes less
stressed than before. The U.S. media successfully demonized former PM Hatoyama partly for his insistence on the East Asian Community and reformation of the U.S.-Japan alliance. Now PM Kan revised his tone on JapanU.S. relations, although there may be no sufficient time for him to propose a
detailed foreign policy vision because of changes in domestic politics. The
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Kan cabinet promised to fulfill the 2006 U.S.-Japan agreement on the
Futenma base relocation. Also the Kan cabinet dictated in the growth strategy
that Japan will promote Free Trade Agreement of Asia Pacific, which was
first proposed by U.S. being worried about the FTA among Asians would
hurt the interests of U.S. enterprises. South Korea also showed willingness to
speed up the KORUS FTA and delay war time command transfer during the
recent G20 summit. Southeast Asians recently proposed an ASEAN+8
framework which includes U.S. and Russia. All these showed that U.S has
successfully used the Cheonan incident to check the independence movement
of its allies and strengthened its position in East Asia, which may change the
route of East Asia integration
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ACRONYMS
MSGR
UNCLOS
USDSS
EAC
EEZs
LDP
IPR
JETRO
METI
WTO
MOFA
GDP
PPP
FDI
IMF
ASEAN
ASEAN+8
Minister of State for Government Revitalization
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
US Deputy Secretary of State
East Asian Community
Exclusive Economic Zones
Liberal Democratic Party
Intellectual property rights
Japan External Trade Organization
Japanese Ministry of Economics, Trade, and Industry
World Trade Organization
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Gross domestic product
Purchasing power parity
Foreign direct investment
International monetary fond
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASEAN+Australia, China, India, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, and Russia.
ASEAN regional forum
The People's Republic of China
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
ARF
PRC
DPRK
NBC weapNuclear Biological and Chemical weapons
ons
the meeting of the finance ministers from a group of seven
industrialized nations: France, West Germany, Italy, Japan,
G7
United Kingdom, and United States, Canada
The Group of Twenty (G-20) Finance Ministers and Central
Bank Governors 19; countries and the European Union: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, European Union,
G20
France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico,
Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Republic of Korea, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States of America
Free Trade Agreement
FTA
the United States-Korea
KORUS
Maritime Self-Defense Force
MSDF
the Western European Union
WEU
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TEXTS FOR SUMMARIES AND TRANSLATION
The U.S.-Japan Economic Relations under the Obama Administration
Junichi Ihara
Consul General of Japan in LA 2009/05/30
In the summer of 1989, I was assigned to the North American division
of MOFA, when the GOJ and USG had just started a series of trade/economic
negotiations called the «Structural Impediments Initiative» (SII). From 1989
to 1992, tremendous time and energy were consumed for these bilateral talks,
which covered a wide range of issues including saving and investment patterns, distribution, business practices, land use, etc. Compared with those
hectic days, our bilateral trade/economic relations today are lulled. There are
several reasons for this: 1) Since the 1990’s Japan has undertaken significant
structural reforms; 2) Japan has invested heavily in the U.S., replacing its exports by local productions in the U.S. – the automobile is a typical example –
(slide 1); 3) Japan’s share in U.S. foreign trade has diminished, with China on
the rise (slide 2). But more importantly, in a broader perspective, the economy has been so globalized and countries have become so interdependent that
bilateral aspects of trade/economic relations have lost their one-time significance.
The important economic issues for Japan and the U.S., therefore, are no
longer in regards to bilateral trade conflicts but global challenges such as the
financial crisis, economic recession, the global imbalance, climate change
and environmental sustainability. The Lehman shock and subsequent U.S. recession hit Japan harder than the U.S. itself. Japan’s 2009 first quarter GDP
growth was negative 15 % on annual basis (2008 last quarter, negative 14 %).
This reminds us how heavily our economy depends on the U.S. market. But
Japan is not the only country making money in the U.S. market, as you can
see (slide 3). This means, on the U.S. side, that Americans consume more
than they produce. Sometimes they spend more than they earn. The American
household’s saving rate has been almost zero in the last several years (slide
4). The Federal Government, too, has doubled its public debt since 2000,
having half of its bonds purchased by foreigners (slide 5). This so-called
global imbalance has created the background against which the current recession is now unfolding, and it must be corrected. Now that easy money is no
longer available in the market and the equity gains from both housing and
stock markets have evaporated, the typical U.S. household is spending less.
Some economists predict that the share of U.S. consumption as percentage of
GDP will go down below 70 % to around 65 % (slide 6). To prevent the
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economy from going into depression, the Federal Government is making up
for the shrinking consumption by printing greenbacks. But this emergency
fiscal expenditure will not last forever. All these will contribute to correcting
the global imbalance on the U.S. side. On the part of Japan and other exporters, increasing domestic demand is necessary to make the global economy
more balanced. In the case of Japan, analysts give several explanations why
its domestic demand lacks vigor: 1) The labor share has declined since 2000
(slide 7), because the productivity has not improved enough. Our salary has
not increased for years; 2) The average household cannot benefit the gain of
capital share, for only 6 % of a household’s asset goes to the stock market,
while the U.S. household invests 32 % of its asset in the stock market (slide
8). 3) Concerns about the future, in particular about the sustainability of the
pension and health care systems, discourage consumers to spend money.
This last question is closely related to Japan’s aging (slide 9) and population decline. To tackle these challenges, we need to think about how to better mobilize women (slide 10) and the elderly into the workforce, as well as
to what extent we accept immigrant workers, which is always a very controversial theme in Japan. I think Japanese people now feel a general anxiety,
because they cannot figure out a clear and sustainable image of their society.
In my view, we need more structural, social, and fiscal reforms. (I may discuss this later, if you are interested.)
When we talk about global challenges, China is an essential element to
be examined. China is more promising than any other country as a growth
center to create demand for the world economy. And yet, there are two big
questions about China; one is social and the other is environmental.
The GINI index (which measures a nation’s income inequality) (slide
11) correlates China’s development with substantial income disparities. A
growing gap between wealthy and poor Chinese would increase the risk of
social unrest, unless an appropriate policy is put in place. As this question is
highly political and purely domestic, we foreigners just hope to see the Chinese leadership handle it wisely.
The question over environment concerns us directly and requires actions. Despite the fact that its GDP is less than Japan’s and only a quarter of
the U.S.’s, China is already the No. 1 emitter of CO2 (slide 12). If China continues to develop in the same way as it has up until now, it will create serious
environmental and energy problems for the world and for its own people.
According to the World Bank, 16 of the 20 most polluted cities in the
world are in China. Japan suffers more and more from acid rain and yellow
dust, which are believed to result from the air pollution and desertification in
China. So, we must cooperate with China to ensure that China develops in a
more sustainable way. Here is where Japan can come in (slide 13). Japan has
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a proven record of growth while maintaining consistent rates of energy consumption. We are ready to share our experiences with China to help improve
its environment policy and energy efficiency. For example (slide 14), China
is now the No. 1 steel producer, but its production could become much more
efficient if the latest technology were adopted. China would save 42 gallons
of gasoline equivalent per ton of steel.
This shows how important technology is in our efforts against global
warming. As we approach a critical moment to determine the post-Kyoto regime this December at COP15, the GOJ has recently submitted a Draft Proposal of the post-Kyoto framework (slide 15). Our idea is based upon the importance of technology.
In order to get developing countries on board, instead of imposing quantified national emissions reduction targets, we urge them to commit themselves to energy efficiency goals. And developed countries like Japan and the
U.S. will assist them by providing their advanced technology and expertise to
achieve the targets.
Survey of the Security Environment in Asia
The second biggest change is the victory of Barack Obama in last fall’s
U.S. presidential sweepstakes. The effects of this change have been more benign. It has given the U.S. a political «bounce» in Asia, as elsewhere, because
the president’s name is no longer «Bush.» Beyond this, President Obama’s
multicultural pedigree is appealing in Asia, as is the fact that he lived for
some time in Indonesia during his youth. So this gives U.S. «soft power» a
boost. It is a bit early to offer an assessment of how he will change U.S. policy toward Asia, but herewith a few general observations:
Like most Democratic presidents, he comes to office eager to focus on a
domestic agenda, an inclination that has been strengthened by the economic
mess he inherited. But the «mess» has a powerful international dimension
which he cannot escape. And the G-20 meeting in April, which president
Obama inherited, represents a venue and a deadline for action that is helpful.
Like every president who reflects a change in party control when the
White House changes hands, Mr. Obama is under pressure to act swiftly and
boldly on foreign as well as domestic policy. This inclination is encouraged
by a number of factors – the belief that for a president, first impressions are
the most durable; the conviction that power is evanescent, and that if you
don’t use it, you lose it; the desire to move aggressively to acquit promises
made during the campaign; the pressure from advisers who believe their influence can better be maximized by offering dramatic initiatives than by urging sober second thoughts; and the steady pressure from the press and media
who will compare Obama with Roosevelt in terms of what he managed to get
done in the first 100 days. Unfortunately, a new administration in Washing130
ton is not too well equipped to act boldly at the outset. The change in political
control is accompanied by the removal of virtually the entire echelon of top
policy-makers in Washington. And it takes the new folks months to be appointed and confirmed, to establish firm policy priorities, to develop effective
working relationships with the Congress and the press, and to get their duck
in a row. Poor Mr. Geithner is having to cope with unprecedented policy
challenges at the Treasury with virtually no other political appointees in
place. The same is true at State and Defense, though both Hillary Clinton and
Bob Gates at least have Deputies who have been confirmed, and Mssrs.
Mitchell, Holbrooke and Ross are in place and taking the lead on three of the
most pressing foreign policy challenges the U.S. faces. Beholden as the
Democratic candidates were to the unions for funds and foot-soldiers during
the campaign, President Obama’s came to office committed to slow down efforts to liberalize international trade. He was late in choosing his trade representative. His pick, Mr. Kirk, has neither the status of a major political figure
nor the expertise of a trade lawyer (the usual credentials). Public commitments focus on monitoring existing trade agreements rather than negotiating
new ones. Completed FTAs with Panama, Colombia, and South Korea remain in limbo. Plenty of senior people in the White House and Cabinet, to be
sure, recognize the merits of free trade. But in the face of rising unemployment and its political twin – the protection of U.S. jobs – the priority the administration will accord free trade remains uncertain. At the same time, he
inherits the Democratic Party’s commitment to «liberal internationalism,»
and in that connection has asserted a resolve to play an activist role in promoting multilateral solutions to global warming, arresting the spread of
weapons of mass destruction, encouraging the development of clean forms of
energy, and other transnational concerns. Another legacy of the campaign –
borne of the need to look «tough» on national security during the run-up to
the general election – is the president’s commitment to take on a more assertive role in Afghanistan, and, hence, Pakistan. He shall be doing so at a time
when security conditions on the ground are deteriorating, and the additional
troops need a new strategy. Among the results, U.S. policy toward Asia will
continue to tilt south, and the U.S. will be hounding its allies for expanded
contributions of troops or aid in Afghanistan. These considerations notwithstanding, Secretary of State Clinton got Asia policy off to a sensible start
with her trip to the region in February. She hit the right notes in stopovers in
Korea, Indonesia, Japan, and China, and, generally speaking, provided reassurance that the U.S. will remain heavily engaged in Asia, and that Asians
need not fear radical discontinuities in U.S. policy toward the region.
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Japan: The Weakest Element of the Triad
The political role of Japan in the post-war period has mainly been defined by its qualification as a cornerstone of the capitalist, democratic West
in the Pacific Area. Its political stability – the Liberal Democratic Party
(LDP) governed the country throughout the post-war period until 1993 –
combined with a pacifist and U.S.-friendly foreign policy and an enormous
economic strength made it the most important strategic ally of the U.S. in the
Asia-Pacific.
Its role has, however, changed after the end of the Cold War. First, the
threat that emanated from the Soviet Union during the Cold War has gradually been reduced. This has, to some extent, reduced the role of Japan as an
outpost against communism for the U.S., modifying also its political weight.
Second, China – Japan’s main challenger in East Asia – is opening up its
markets to foreign trade and investment, making it an interesting trade partner for all major trading countries, including the U.S. Given the difficult relations between Japan and China and given the fact that China has – in the
long run – more potential to become a leader in the region than Japan, the position of the latter in the region could be weakened.
In addition to its comparative loss of importance in foreign policy terms,
the country has also been weakened by developments in internal politics.
With the end of the Cold War, the importance of political stability in Japan
had been reduced, along with political discipline and LDP dominance that
had lasted four decades and that had found its end in 1993. Since this time,
Japan has seen several changes in government. From the above, it can be
summarised that Japan’s political position within the triad is rather weak.
The economic position of Japan after World War II has been one of economic strength and rapid development, comparable to the evolution in WestGermany. The peace dividend it could reap under U.S. military protection
and the gradual liberalisation of world trade within the GATT after World
War II allowed Japan to rapidly become an economic leader with a strong
position not only in Asia but on markets worldwide. Japan was able to direct
most of its investment into technology areas that were close to consumer
markets building up a competitive position in these sectors and contributing
to the trade balance surpluses with Europe and America.
However, the deconstruction of the «Japanese Myth» began at the end
of the 1980s. The bubble economy that had emerged after the Plaza Accord
of 1985 ended with a crisis of the financial system. Unlike in the case of other crises such as the oil price shock in the early 1970s, the Japanese economy
did not prove resistant enough to cope with such development.
Economic woes have since been continuing: The growth rates of former
decades have vanished, unemployment is on the rise, and the «Asian crisis»
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has further weakened the economic and financial position of Japan. 16 Other
factors added to this evolution. First, many features of the Japanese industrial success such as the just in time principle (kanban) or continuous improvement mechanisms (kaizen) have been successfully copied and implemented
by industries in other areas of the world. Second, young Japanese have become less and less willing to sacrifice their lives to their company and their
nation as did their parents. They want to participate in the wealth created, aspiring for better housing and more consumption – briefly for a better lifestyle.
Third, life-long employment which had been normal in the key companies of
a keiretsu is vanishing and undermining partly the stability that had been one
of the foundations of Japanese success after the war. Combined with the lack
of adequate social security and pension systems and the unstable economic
developments, saving rates have remained very high, thereby reducing consumption and the impact of several public expenditure programmes during
the last few years.
Maybe, the role of culture can explain in more detail, why the Japanese
economy has lost so much ground: In today’s dynamic globalising economy
that follows largely the lines of American capitalism, values such as flexiblity
to adapt to constant change, and the efficient allocation of production factors
worldwide through open and highly efficient markets have become key factors of economic success, as displayed by the U.S. economy. The Japanese
socio-economic system, however, is largely characterised by a static concept
of stability, seniority principles, allocation through networks rather than
markets and a highly corporative character of the economic system.17 These
principles, that may have worked well in the static industrial age, may no
longer be a valid recipe for future economic success.
In order to regain competitiveness, the Japanese will likely have to
break up present economic and political structures and so-called iron triangles between politicians, bureaucrats and business leaders.18 Therefore, the
country would, however, require a strong government, which it does not have
right now. In the present situation, the political and economic weaknesses
make Japan therefore the weakest element in the triad.
Turning to developments in Asia, there we also see some big time
changes over the past year. The most consequential, I suppose, is the continuing rise of China. While it has not eluded the damaging consequences of the
global economic downturn, it has fared better than virtually any other state.
Its growth is way below its usual average, but high by any relative standard.
And despite the domestic challenges a slowdown inevitably brings, Beijing
appears to be feeling its oats.
It has adopted a more assertive stance on a variety of issues.
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Its defense budget is up again at a double digit rate.
It has become more direct in its criticism of U.S. economic policy.
It has proposed changes in the structural arrangements of the international economy which would reduce the role of the dollar and require adjustments in voting rights in the IMF.
It is active in bolstering Asian defenses against economic contagion, and
testing the efficacy of new regional fora (e.g., The Three Minus ASEAN)
It recently confronted a U.S. intelligence collection vessel in its EEZ. It
seems to be backing away from the joint development of resources with Japan in contested off-shore areas.
These actions suggest that China has become more self-conscious of its
growing clout in Asia and the wider world. We should not be surprised by
this evidence of its determination to be accorded the respect and prerogatives
it believes its growing power has earned. Still, Beijing appears generally satisfied with the general contours of its relationship with the United States and
anxious to maintain them. And the Obama administration, after a few missteps, is looking forward to an April summit in Europe with Hu Jintao, and is
positioning itself for wider cooperative endeavours with the PRC.
The fruits of such collaboration will probably be tested most rigorously
in Korea. The Six Party Talks are stalled. The North, evidently preoccupied
with its own succession process, has turned more truculent – resisting verification of its nuclear declaration, dismantling its relationship with Seoul, telling visitors that they should get used to the idea of a nuclear North Korea,
and preparing to test-launch a satellite as a way of demonstrating an intercontinental missile capability. «Rolling back» a nuclear program is proving to be
a lot tougher than «freezing» it short of a demonstrated capability.
Doubts about the feasibility of «denuclearization» are growing. For
Pyongyang, giving up its «nuclear devices» and whatever weapons and capabilities it may have stashed away, would arguably weaken the regime’s legitimacy (testing a nuclear «device» was a political bonanza for Kim Jong-il),
diminish the quality of its deterrent (not least in the eyes of its own military),
forfeit an «equalizer» with the South, and relinquish a bargaining chip of established efficacy. The DPRK, moreover, probably doubts the durability of
agreements struck with either the U.S. or ROK, and this in turn fortifies a
presumptive preference for just doing what has worked in the past – manipulating the level of tension in the expectation that one or several of its interlocutors will trade tangible resources for a suspension of objectionable conduct – at least for awhile.
The Obama administration has positioned itself to persist with the Six
Party Talks, and is currently reviewing its strategy for these negotiations. It
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inherited a very tough problem and is playing with a weak hand, given its
preoccupation with other matters and the absence of acceptable military options. To be sure, policy coordination with the ROK will be easier given the
Lee government’s insistence on reciprocity and its intent to link economic
concessions to forward progress on the nuclear issue. Still, the Chinese retain
a decisive role, and seem no more eager than ever to exchange their «convenor» and «broker» role for that of lead player in pressing Pyongyang to relinquish its «nukes.»
The South Korean government has publicly avowed its eagerness to
align itself with the U.S. in a more global political partnership. It is not clear
whether we will capitalize on this opportunity. President Lee is weaker at
home now than he was a year ago. The ROK economy has been hit hard. And
KORUS – our FTA with the ROK – remains in limbo in the Congress. Further U.S. hesitation to ratify this agreement has prompted the ROK to focus
on concluding FTAs with others in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.
Whether this will spur faster action by the U.S. Congress remains to be seen.
There has also been a significant and welcome change with respect to
the other residual Cold War legacy in the region – the Taiwan issue. The atmosphere prevailing in the Taiwan Straits area is as tranquil as I can remember it. This is mainly attributable to the political changes that have occurred
in Taiwan following President Ma Ying-jeou’s inauguration. But it also owes
something to the facts that China is courting rather than threatening Taipei;
the U.S. remains strategically clear in its policy toward the dispute; and both
sides embrace the prospect of further integration of the mainland and island
economies.
Southeast Asia has been hit hard by the global recession. Some of the
worst victims have been states like Singapore whose economies are so heavily trade-dependent. But tough economic times have yielded neither inter-state
conflicts nor major internal political backsliding (e.g., Indonesia). Vietnam
remains eager to bolster political and economic ties with the U.S., and the
Obama administration has signaled a possible easing of some restrictions as
part of a new approach to Burma.
I’ve said nothing of Japan. It remains our most important Pacific ally,
and the alliance remains strong. Its economy remains second in size only to
our own, but is experiencing the consequences of the global slowdown. Its
democracy is resilient, but on matters of policy it is hard to avoid some sense
of drift. The political paralysis in the Diet, the unsettled state of electoral politics, and uncertainties as to how the DJP would approach international security issues, if it should win a parliamentary majority, leave large question
marks over the near term-future of policy coordination with the U.S. A host
of issues have been kicked down the road during our respective political
135
campaign seasons. They will have to be addressed. They include strategy toward North Korea, the nature of Japan’s role in Afghanistan, and the implementation of agreed-upon adjustments of U.S. bases in Okinawa, to mention
just a few.
Mrs. Clinton’s visit to Tokyo and Prime Minister Aso’s trip to Washington were helpful in creating an appropriately cordial setting for tackling these
problems, but the heavy lifting remains to be done. I for one am confident
that it will be
Development of Regional Institutions Especially in Trade and Financial Areas
East Asia now has large numbers of regional institutions, and the number may increase in the future. Regional institutions and new plans of institution building keep coming out, and members and issues are overlapping with
each other. Now as to the regional cooperation framework, there are trilateral
summit of China, Japan and South Korea, ASEAN+3, EAS, and APEC. The
frequent meeting of the leaders of East Asian countries also is beneficial for
the mutual confidence building, and serves as an arena to strengthen regional
identity. As to the regional free trade arrangement, regional FTA is booming,
but the «spaghetti bowl» phenomenon is especially obvious. Nearly all the
FTAs were centered on the ASEAN countries. Regional financial cooperation
is especially sophisticated. The financial cooperation of East Asia proceeds
faster than other areas, and could be a fine point for East Asian states to
deepen their cooperation. The Chiang Mai Initiative, after its startup in 2000,
now has the network consisted of 16 bilateral arrangements among the
ASEAN plus Three countries worth approximately US$90 billion. In order to
further enhance the CMI’s effectiveness, and as «a self-managed reserve
pooling arrangement governed by a single contractual agreement is an appropriate form of multilateralization», 6 on 28 December 2009, the Chiang Mai
Initiative Multilateralization Agreement was signed and took effect on 24
March 2010. A foreign exchange reserves pool worth 120 billion dollars was
created to deal with regional financial crisis. Japan became interested in regional institution building mainly for the following considerations. Globally,
international economic system is challenged in promoting the further free
movement of goods, capital and people. The WTO negotiation doesn't produce positive results in the recent Doha round. International monetary system
is also facing more and more criticism, especially after the 2008 financial crisis, for the dominance of dollar in the system and its failure to cope with regional financial crisis. Regionally, the development of China poses a serious
issue for Japan. In the 21st century, East Asia has two major regional countries competing for influence in the region. By promoting the regional institution, Japan wants to consolidate its economic position in the region, especial136
ly in Southeast Asia. Also Japan wants to balance the development of China
by accommodating China into the regional institutions. Domestically, Japanese involvement into regional cooperation could provide impetus for domestic structure reform.
Japan – Russia security relations.
Should Japan have aircraft carriers?
Aircraft carriers have been for the last few decades almost the exclusive
domain of the United States, which has a total of 11, one of them based in Japan. Although a reduced number of countries, like France and Britain, or
nearer to Japan, Thailand and India, have some of the smaller variety, Japan’s
Maritime Self Defense Force doesn’t have any such ship, and their construction or purchase abroad is not included in current naval plans.
Of course, things have not always been like this, as anyone with a slight
interest in World War II, or who has simply watched a few films set in the
conflict, will remember that Japanese carriers ruled the waves … at least until
the battle of Midway, where Japan’s Imperial Navy lost four.
The remaining ones, plus some hastily converted merchantmen and warships, were gradually sunk in the ensuing battles, until what had once been a
proud force became a shadow of its former self, and Japan was left almost
with no navy to speak of in the closing days of the war.
The surrender and occupation were supposed to give way to a «pacifist
Japan,» a country which renounced war as a «sovereign right of the nation»
and a «means of settling international disputes,» as stated in Article 9 of her
new Constitution. However, the realities of the Cold War soon meant such
noble aims had to be gradually discarded in order to add local units to American forces protecting the islands. Starting with a police reserve, Japan then
added an army, navy and airforce, if only under the awkward name of the
«Self-Defense Forces.» At this time it was decided that Japan’s navy would
however be without «power-projection tools» such as carriers.
The importance of carriers to Japan
Despite the threat posed by modern missile systems, carriers are, and are
expected to remain for the foreseeable future, the best way to project force far
from one’s shores. They are small cities, complete with their own hospital,
cinema or barbershop, and of course a wide array of aircraft plus all the support facilities (repair shops, ammunition magazines …) necessary for them to
operate for extended periods of time. American carriers are all nuclearpowered, meaning that the length of their patrols is only limited by the need
to provide crews with a rest plus the maintenance requirements of onboard
systems. Food and other supplies can be provided by support ships.
The MSDF Hyuga is classified as a carrier but some argue it is, in fact, a
destroyer.
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As mentioned, carriers are the best way to project air power anywhere
around the world, including landlocked countries like Afghanistan, where
much of allied aviation in service is aircraft-based. An aircraft means there is
no need to reach agreements with foreign countries or build expensive facilities in order to support aircraft in faraway lands. Because of their primary
use, carriers are often described as «offensive» weapons, that is, arms designed not to protect a country against invasion or foreign aggression, but rather to allow it to engage in «gunboat diplomacy» or intervene in any corner
of the world.
Because of this, it has been traditionally considered that they had no
place in Japan’s MSDF, which after all, is supposed, as its name implies, to
be used only to defend Japan and not as part of the nation’s foreign policy.
However, things have not been quite so simple.
First of all, the difference between defense and offense is not as clear
cut as some would like it to be. When faced with a determined enemy, waiting to be struck might not be the best option, whereas preempting an attack
can be construed as defense, even in accordance with international law.
Second, being an island nation, dependent on maritime trade for almost
all her energy needs and her sizeable exports, means Japan can simply not afford to be vulnerable to a blockade at sea or encroachment of Japanese waters.
… the presence of nuclear powered Chinese carrier groups, specifically,
if accompanied by a cut in the number of American ones, could leave Japan
at the mercy of her bigger neighbor.
The changing maritime landscape in the Pacific
During the Cold War, and then leading up to the present day, there has
been a division of labor between Washington and Tokyo, with the former
protecting the long lines of communication linking Japan with key areas like
the Persian Gulf (oil imports) or Europe and America (manufactured exports), while the latter concentrated on coastal defense. Due to this arrangement, and taking into account the mentioned constitutional restrictions on the
Japanese Navy, there was no reason for Japan to consider buying carriers.
However recent years have seen at least six important developments which
might change Japanese views on the matter:
The MSDF has grown to become one of the strongest navies of the
world, second only to the U.S. Navy in the Pacific. Adding carriers to Japan’s
list of military units seems a logical development.
Japan’s eternal debate on the precise meaning of Article 9 has continued
unabated, with increasingly stronger pressure to reform it or simply get rid of
it. Many politicians and broad swathes of public opinion have come to view
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the use of force or at least the possibility to have recourse to it as acceptable
and unavoidable in international relations, leading many commentators to
speak of the coming «normalization» of Japan. Last year, the then chief of
staff of the MSDF’s air force, General Tamogami, argued in a contestwinning essay that Japan should be able to enter into mutual defense treaties
(the current agreement with the United States imposes a duty on America to
assist Japan if attacked but not a reciprocal obligation on Japan) and although
immediately dismissed by the government, it is clear he is not the only one to
hold such views. On April 19, shortly after North Korea tested a missile under the guise of launching a satellite, former finance minister Shoichi Nakagawa stated Japan should develop nuclear weapons to deter the rogue state.
North Korea remains a threat to countries in the region, above all Japan.
Its nuclear and missile programs and aggressive rhetoric towards Tokyo have
prompted speculation Japan might eventually decide to carry out a preemptive strike. In that case, aircraft carriers would give Japanese planners an extra degree of flexibility in suppressing North Korean air defense systems and
getting at the selected targets.
Increased pirate activity off the coast of Somalia has not only effectively
threatened the transit of merchant ships in some of the world’s most crowded
sea lanes, but also reminded all sea-faring nations that such danger is not the
stuff of movies but a very real and serious threat. Japan’s contribution to international efforts against Somali piracy has consisted of two destroyers, plus two
P-3C surveillance aircraft based in Djibouti. Although Japan has been able to
secure the rights to have them based in the Middle-Eastern country, carriers
would enable Japan to operate aircraft anywhere even without such agreements.
The quiet but relentless ascent of China is being felt, among others, in
the naval sphere, with China developing a true «blue water» navy. Beijing
has dispatched warships to the Gulf of Aden and is developing anti-ship missiles, which some critics suggest could be deployed to prevent the United
States from coming to the help of her allies in a crisis. It is also widely rumored that China has been seriously considering building its first carriers.
Some observers expect China to soon begin work on four, with the first being
launched in six years.
Although the United States is expected to remain the dominant maritime
power in the Pacific for the foreseeable future, and nobody is seriously questioning the alliance with Tokyo, Japan cannot take for granted the willingness
or even the ability of America to intervene in a crisis with China. Recent cuts
in America’s defense budget have cast doubts on the number of future nuclear carrier groups, which currently amount to eleven. Any reduction in this
force coupled with the development of Chinese carriers could significantly
alter the strategic equation in the Pacific.
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Keeping up with China and protecting sea lanes.
All the above reasons are pushing Japan into the direction of developing
her own nuclear carriers. Now it looks like this will happen at some point in
the future. Although the main reason to do so may simply be to protect the
sea lanes so vital to the country’s economy and security, the actual timetable
is likely to be determined by Chinese plans. As long as China has no carriers,
Japan can continue to slowly develop its maritime capacities, but the sight of
Chinese carriers roaming the seas without them being followed by their Japanese counterparts, would be unpalatable to politicians in Tokyo. It was precisely Beijing’s decision to dispatch warships to Somalia which put an end to
Tokyo’s painful debate on the matter. Furthermore, the presence of nuclearpowered Chinese carrier groups, specifically, if accompanied by a cut in the
number of American ones, could leave Japan at the mercy of her bigger
neighbor.
Some observers however are not convinced and see carriers as an expensive distraction in times of economic crisis. Even if the country can afford
them, come Japanese are afraid the vessels might be perceived by other Asian
countries as a sign of Japanese expansionism reminiscent of the pre-war period, sparking an arms race and sowing mistrust among neighbors.
Officially a destroyer … but it sure looks like a carrier
While the debate continues, not always in full view of the public, for all
intents and purposes, Japan is already building carriers … helicopter carriers
to be precise, although officially designated as destroyers. On March 18 this
year, the biggest MSDF ship to date, called Hyuga, was launched. With a
195-meter-long flight deck, it can transport eleven helicopters, of which up to
four can simultaneously land and take off. Although not designed to operate
vertical takeoff airplanes, the Hyuga could be converted to accommodate
them. In 2011, a sister ship of similar specifications will be built.
It therefore seems that although the return of Japanese carriers is by no
means a foregone conclusion, the race has already started and is expected to
heat up. As the saying goes «he who commands the sea, commands the
land,» and there is no better way to do this than with these magnificent ships.
Alex Calvo is Professor of International Relations and International
Law, European University in Barcelona (Spain); and Research and Teaching
Fellow, OSCE Academy in Bishkek (Kyrgyz Republic).
The Coexistence of Multilayered Regional Institutions; Hard to Attain Further Cooperation?
Now various regional cooperation mechanisms are flourishing in East
Asia, like ASEAN+3, EAS and APEC and so on. Katzenstein and Shiraishi
call the shaping forces of East Asia integration «hybrid regionalism». In their
view, East Asia has become a porous region, where new regionalization forc140
es and especially non-state actors are heavily influencing government policies in the regional community building process.7 But it seems that now
there’s no sufficient dynamic for East Asian countries to deepen their cooperation. After the economic crisis, regional countries began to lose tolerance
and sought to act toughly. Furthermore, the present institutions didn’t play
their expected role when problem occurred. For example, after 2008 financial
crisis, South Korea resort to signing bilateral swap agreements with U.S.,
China and Japan, not activating the regional financial mechanism. The following factors are affecting the regional integration process. First, the present
institutions are fairly enough in meeting the needs of regional actors. The institutions need time to be recognized and implemented. For example, concerning Japanese export to EPA partners, about 2/3 of Japanese enterprises
don’t use EPA/FTA, and the reasons are «don’t understand the way of using
EPA», «the cost of using EPA is larger than merit», and «the procedures are
complicated».8 As creating new framework of institutions become harder,
it’s important to get the existing ones implemented. Also when it comes to
security issues, it’s still true that maintaining balance (for U.S., it may be superiority) is important in creating a stable environment. The U.S. led alliance
system plays an important role in the region. There are also opinions in China
that China should reconsider its North Korea policy and reassure the security
of North Korea. Second, further regional integration may need transference
of sovereignty which is immature under the current East Asian environment.
Also real politik thinking prevents regional states from cooperating closer.
For example, although Chiang Mai Initiative Multilateralisation is welcomed
by regional countries and Japan also promotes that East Asia should acquire
independent surveillance capability in order to delinking from IMF conditionality, «shaping policy conditionality is demanding, requiring excellent information and sophisticated analysis, and enforcing it requires political determination.»9 On the one hand, East Asian countries are still sensitive to the
sovereignty issue. The independence of economic policy is seen as sovereignty in East Asia. On the other hand, strong regional institutions would require the major countries have the capability and willingness to afford (and
avoid) free riding of the participants. Otherwise, just as in the recent Greece
financial crisis, Greece got helped by Goldman Sachs to mask the true extent
of its deficit in order to meet Europe’s deficit rules while continuing to spend
beyond its means,10 such mistake could draw the whole region into crisis. As
now there’s no country in East Asia that is ready or capable to cover the economic miss of the other countries, it’s better now to maintain the loose and
open regionalism.
The Rise of Economic Status and Changing Economic Structure of
East Asia
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After the 2008 financial crisis, East Asia received relatively less impact
comparing to the rest of the world, regional economy began to recover very
soon, and remains to be the engine of world economic development. Through
this crisis, East Asian countries began to reflect their development models
that depend on the market of European and American market, and made up
their minds to develop Asian internal market.
(1) The economic importance of East Asia is increasing recognized by
Japan. East Asia now occupies an important role in world economy. Although the region’s GDP share of the world remains relatively the same since
the middle of 1980s, (Graph 1) 3 East Asia is showing its strength in international trade and investment market. Trade volume of Asia grows quickly in
the new century, and the share of Asia trade in the world became larger and
larger, which was mainly pulled up by the East Asian economies. (Graph 2
and 3) In 2008, the total export of China, Japan and South Korea accounted
for about 21.8 % of the world, and the export of East Asia as a whole region
exceeded a third of the total of the world. Moreover, the rise of emerging
Asia trade accounted for roughly 40 percent of the total increase in world
trade over the period from 1990 to 2006.4 As to Japan, in 2008, 42.4 % of the
export, and 43.7 % of the import happened with Asian countries, geographically and economically, Japan has close relations with Asia.5
(2) The intra-regional trade becomes more important for Japanese economy. The rapid development of intra-regional trade is the key to East Asia’s
foreign trade boom, and makes the regional states more and more economically interrelated. One of the features of this regional trade model is regional
industrial specialization, and as a result, East Asia has formed a triangular
trade structure, that is, China gets raw materials and intermediate goods from
the rest of East Asian economies, and then uses its rich labor resources to assemble these into final products and export to U.S. and European states.
From January 2008 to July 2009, the export of intermediate goods of the East
Asian countries occupied over 40 % of their total export. In this process,
China’s role in regional industrial specialization has changed greatly. Especially after the 2008 financial crisis, while the exports of East Asian countries
to U.S. and European countries have been shrinking, their exports to China
recovered at a very quick pace after the beginning of 2009. Now, China has
become the largest trade partner for Japan, South Korea and ASEAN, and all
these countries have trade surplus in their trade with China. For example, for
the first 5 months of 2010, Chinese exports to ASEAN were about 52.7 billion dollars, and imports were around 59.1 billion dollars, the trade deficit for
China is 6.4 billion dollars, about 5 times increase from the same period of
last year. The exports of China to Japan were 44.9 billion dollars, and imports
were 66.6 billion dollars, the trade deficit of China was about 21.6 billion
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dollars, a 2 times increase from same period of last year. The development of
China also changed traditional regional division of industry which was generally referred as «the flying geese paradigm». In 2001, the trade whitepaper
of MITI announced that East Asia is beginning to shift away from the flyinggeese development pattern to a new pattern, in which national economic development level no longer necessarily a deciding factor in industrial location.
In the «white paper on international economy and trade 2010», it’s observed
that now the network of production is being changed into the network of production and sale. According to a 2009 survey, now 1/3 of Japanese enterprises in China are motivated by the scale of Chinese market. China now not only hosts large numbers of labor intensive industries, also becomes the home
of R&D centers for many transnational enterprises. (3) The market of East
Asia becomes an important factor for future development of Japanese economy. European and American markets began to shrink after the 2008 financial crisis, East Asia economies, while still hope the western market could recover soon, turn eyes to the growing regional market. The increasing number
of middle class in Asia may create strong demands. According to the 2010
trade whitepaper of METI, the number of middle class in the emerging countries whose yearly income ranges from 5000 dollars to 35000 dollars, reached
0.22 billion in 2000, 0.88 billion in 2009, and will reach 2 billion in 2020.
Also regional development creates strong demands for infrastructure. From
2010 to 2020, with the development of Asian economy, the infrastructure
demands will reach about 8000 billion dollars, which include irrigation
works, rail way, nuclear energy, environmental technology and so on. It's an
important chance for Japanese enterprises as domestic economic development is lukewarm.
The Change of Balance of Power in East Asia and Security Cooperation
The political and security situation of East Asia is not optimistic as the
region still has the relics of the Cold War. The situation of Korean peninsula
is far from peace. The balance of power is still the basic security thinking in
the region, which could undermine regional stability in the long term. For example, U.S. maintains its hostile policy towards DPRK, and continues to sell
arms to Taiwan. But balance of power is just a way to maintain status quo, it
lacks the capability to solve regional problems. The regional security situation became more delicate after the sinking of South Korea’s navy ship
Cheonan, which led to the strengthening of U.S.-led hub and spokes alliance
system and shadowed regional cooperation process. Also the territorial disputes among certain countries have the potential to trigger conflicts if handled badly. But East Asia regional security situation is relatively stable.
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Regional stability is in the interest of all the regional actors. The future
of East Asia rests on its steady economic development and its capability to
act as a whole region. As economic interdependence among regional actors
greatly increases the cost of conflict, regional actors are obliged to cooperate
in the times of «complex interdependence». As the two major states in the region, China and Japan have common interests in ensuring a stable and vigorous regional environment. Also, security cooperation is taking steps among
regional actors. The six-party talks are proved to be an effective way in solving regional security problems. And regional countries are trying to establish
new bilateral and multilateral mechanisms to meet new security challenges.
As the door of negotiation is not closed in resolving regional security issues,
it’s hard to imagine that there will be major conflicts in the region.
The regional security perception of Japan changed a lot in the new century. First, regional security structure changed gradually. Although the relics
of Cold War still remain in the region, but as relations among regional countries become closer, the boundary between the west and the east has been
melting. The old security structure, in which the U.S. alliance system played
a major role, is changed gradually. With more common interests in dealing
with international issues, China and U.S. tend to cooperate more closely in
recent years. The nuclear test of North Korea poses serious challenge to the
regional security, but in a certain sense, it greatly decreased the possibility of
military conflict in the Korean peninsula, and makes negotiation the only way
to realize denuclearization. Second, Japan’s focus of security issues and the
way to resolve these issues also began to change in recent years. In the 2009
Defense Whitepaper, the main security issues were listed as: the proliferation
of NBC weapons, terrorism, sea lane security, natural disaster and contagious
disease, etc. Also, the whitepaper stresses that it’s necessary to use multiple
and complex methods like diplomacy, police and jurisdiction, intelligence,
economy to deal with these problems instead of constricting to military
methods. Recently Japan pays special attention to nontraditional security issues for that it gives SDF legitimacy of carrying out operations abroad.
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TEXTS FOR RENDERING
Сентябрь 2009 г. оказался богат на события в японской политике.
Главным из них становится окончание почти пятидесятилетнего господства Либерально-демократической партии, закончившегося после
сокрушительнейшего поражения на выборах в нижнюю палату, на которых Демократическая партия получила 308 мест в парламенте вместо
112, таким образом, почти в три раза увеличив свое представительство.
В «Манифесте», предвыборной программе демократической партии Японии, главное внимание уделяется внутренним проблемам, вопросам же внешней политики посвящено пять пунктов из пятидесяти
пяти. В качестве главных задач внешней политики обозначены следующие:
строить тесные равноправные японо-американские отношения;
укреплять азиатскую дипломатию, поставив целью строительство Восточноазиатского сообщества;
не признание права Северной Кореи на ядерное оружие;
реализация мира и процветания во всем мире;
уничтожение ядерного оружия, устранениеугрозытерроризма.
Обращает на себя внимание тот факт, что в «Манифесте» о России
говорится только в разделе, посвященном Корейской проблеме в контексте сотрудничества с разными странами, включая США, Южную
Корею, Китай.
Вступив на должность премьер-министра 16 сентября 2009 г., Ю.
Хатояма за месяц с небольшим поучаствовал в экологическом саммите
ООН, в заседаниях Совета Безопасности по ядерному разоружению и
нераспространению и генеральной ассамблеи ООН, в саммите «двадцатки» в Питтсбурге, совершил внеплановую поездку в Копенгаген на
сессию МОК. Через неделю он принял участие в трехсторонних переговорах Японии, Кореи Китая. Затем побывал на встрече лидеров АСЕАН
в Таиланде, где отдельно провел встречи с лидерами Кореи Китая. Впечатляющая внешнеполитическая активность.
Поездки и выступления Ю. Хатояма создают видимость «перезагрузки» японской внешней политики в направлении большей самостоятельности. Но перед ним стоят серьезные задачи – определить внешнеполитические приоритеты, в частности, определиться с позицией
Японии в отношениях с США. К предстоящему визиту Б. Обамы в Японию в ноябре правительству Хатоямы придется разрешить конкретный
вопрос о перенесении вертолетного аэродрома морских пехотинцев
США на острове Окинава в соседний район, решение о котором было
согласовано сторонами еще в 1996 г., но встретило протесты местных
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жителей идо сих пор «висит в воздухе». Ему также придется принять
решение о содействии антитеррористическим операциям США в Афганистане. Ясно, что для большей самостоятельности во внешней политике требуется и более активное участие страны в международных акциях,
включая военные. Новый министр иностранных дел Кацуя Окада срочно слетал в Кабул для ознакомления с ситуацией и нашел, что даже для
оказания помощи сугубо гражданского характера потребовался бы армейский контингент для самообороны. Но Япония не готова к участию
в военных операциях заграницей. Одним из важных шагов нового правительства было уведомление США о том, что Япония с января 2010 г.
Прекращает тыловую поддержку международной эскадры в Индийском
океане.
Словом, на внешней арене тоже много проблем для правительства.
Но ряд комментаторов рекомендуют премьеру уделять больше внимания внутренней политике. Потому что народ ждет от него не успехов,
касающихся его личных инициатив, а ощутимое улучшение условий
жизни.
Некоторые эксперты предостерегают премьера Ю. Хатояма от
«легкомысленного» решения территориального вопроса с Россией. Другими словами, они намекают, что если при отсутствии реальных условий для решения столь сложного вопроса подойти к нему с точки зрения любимого Хатоямой девиза о «братстве», то это ничем хорошим
для Японии не кончится.
Отношения с США
Японо-американский союз был фундаментом внешней политики
Японии, определяемой ЛДП в течение многих лет, и это казалось
незыблемым. Но после прихода к власти администрации Б. Обамы в
японских СМИ появился целый ряд выступлений политологов и политжурналистов, опасающихся ослабления союзнических отношений
между Японией и США. Чаще всего эти опасения связаны с перспективами укрепления партнерских отношений между новой американской
администрацией и Китаем. Японию волнует и то, что США стали уделять меньше внимания ее интересам в скорейшем решении проблемы
похищенных Северной Кореей японцев. Газета «Нихон кэйдзай» написала, что на фоне развертывания прямых взаимоотношений между
США и Китаем существование Японии как субъекта геополитических
игр будет «предано забвению». Цунэо Ватанабэ, видный политологамериканист Токийского фонда, отмечал, что с приходом Б. Обамы в
Белый дом Япония может потерять особый партнерский статус, которым она была наделена при первом сроке президентства Буша. После
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победы демократов в Японии эта проблема стала еще более актуальной,
учитывая стремления лидера ДПЯ Ю. Хатояма проводить более независимую политику на внешней арене. На повестку дня вышел вопрос о
формировании новых отношений с США. В этом контексте интересна
позиция специалиста по международным отношениям, профессора
Университета Киото, Тэрумаса Наканиси. Еще год назад он предостерег
правительство от излишней зависимости от США во внешней политике.
Японцы были слишком уверены, что однополярный мир во главе с
США будет незыблемым, подчеркивает Наканиси. А для того, чтобы
остаться игроком международных политических игр, каждая держава, в
том числе Япония, должна стать «отдельным полюсом», хотя бы небольшим, но самостоятельным. По мнению автора статьи, это особенно
важно в Восточной Азии, где баланс сил быстро меняется в связи с усилением влияния Китая. Признавая бесспорную необходимость сохранения альянса с США, он пишет, что в то же время Япония должна преодолеть комплекс «челобитьевской дипломатии» в отношении своего
главного союзника.
Т. Наканиси предлагает программу внешней политики Японии, состоящую из трех пунктов:
1. Создание самостоятельной системы противоракетной обороны. Она, по мнению профессора, должна быть по существу национальной, но не выходить за рамки альянса с США. Для страны, окруженной
государствами с ядерным оружием, это единственно возможная мера
для укрепления дипломатического влияния, считает Наканиси.
2. Развертывание космических программ. Это не только поднимет
технологическую конкурентоспособность Японии, но также усилит ее
влияние при решении проблем глобальной экологии.
3. Создание национального разведывательно-аналитического центра при премьер-министре и ведомства по разработке долгосрочной
государственной стратегии.
А в собственно дипломатической сфере он призывает к расширению двусторонних отношений с Индией в качестве серьезного союзника, имеющего общие с Японией интересы по вопросам национальной
безопасности. Прислушается ли новая японская администрация к рекомендациям Наканиси или нет, пока прогнозировать сложно. Но стремление к большей самостоятельности Японии явно прослеживается.
Другие японские аналитики обсуждают вероятность создания новой международной структуры – «Большой четверки» (США, ЕС, Япония, Китай), опасаясь, что если Япония не будет активна, может сложиться «Тройка», без Японии. Об опасности этого писал в октябре
Сэкияма Кэн. Некоторые аналитики допускают даже возможность появ147
ления «Двойки» (США, Китай), после того как в июле прошла встреча в
Вашингтоне, которая называлась «первый американо-китайский диалог
по проблемам стратегии экономики». Но большинство специалистов
полагают, что, скорее всего, американская администрация будет стремиться разыгрывать все карты: и Китай, и Японию, и страны АСЕАН, и
другие международные структуры. Похоже, что к этому стремится и
Китай. К. Сэкияма призывает к тому же и Японию, считая, что сложнейшие международные вопросы лучше обсуждать не в многостороннем формате, а с основными «акторами» внешней политики.
На первой своей встрече в Нью-Йорке с Председателем КНР Ху
Цзиньтао Ю. Хатояма предложил «…выработать идею Восточноазиатского сообщества, выстраивая доверительные отношения, признавая
взаимные различия». Некоторые наблюдатели явно поспешили объявить о готовности Японии Китая к созданию некоего союза.
После встречи Хатоямаи Ху Цзиньтао в Нью-Йорке в сентябре2009
г. было сообщено следующее:
1.Премьер-министрЮ. Хатояма предложил курс на стратегическое
укрепление отношений взаимного благоприятствования, реализацию
идеи Восточноазиатского сообщества Азии, сохранение приверженности заявлению Мураяма.
2. Председатель КНР Ху Цзиньтао предложил укрепление двусторонних отношений на основе обменов визитами руководителей и развития связей на уровне общественности, подчеркнув необходимость подходить к решению взаимных проблем в широком плане и глобальном
контексте.
3. Премьер-министр подчеркнул необходимость превращения Восточно-Китайского моря в море дружбы посредством совместной разработки газовых месторождений.
4. Оба руководителя сошлись во мнении о необходимости прилагать усилия в направлении ликвидации ядерного оружия на Корейском
полуострове.
5. Председатель Госсовета высоко оценил курс премьера на сокращение выбросов «парниковых» газов.
6. Премьер-министр-социалист Мураяма Томиити, который в 1995
г. принес официальные извинения от имени Японии китайскому народу
за действия в период оккупации. (Заявление 15 августа 1995 г., в котором было заявлено, что Япония остро осознает свою ответственность за
огромные бедствия и ущерб, причиненные китайскому народу ее прошлой агрессией против Китая, и выражает глубокое раскаяние в связи с
этим).
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7. Тайсе косе – может переводиться несколько иначе, но главное
содержание этого термина состоит в том, чтобы не ограничиваться узкими рамками двусторонних отношений, а смотреть на них шире в контексте глобальных и многосторонних отношений в Азиатском регионе и
во всем мире. Из всего этого набора наибольший интерес комментаторов и наблюдателей вызвали предложения о создании Восточноазиатского сообщества. Причем, обе страны сфокусировали свое внимание не
на вопросах экономического характера, а на сфере дипломатии. Если
говорить конкретнее – на четвертом пункте, в соответствии с которым
стороны сошлись во мнении относительно необходимости совместных
усилий по ликвидации ядерного оружия на Корейском полуострове, а
китайская сторона заявила, что будет продолжать усилия, направленные
на возвращение Северной Кореи за стол переговоров в рамках шестистороннего диалога.
2009 г. Был насыщен двусторонними российско-японскими контактами на высшем уровне. В феврале состоялась встреча Президента РФ с
премьером Т. Асо на Сахалине на церемонии пуска завода в рамках
проекта«Сахалин-2», затем в мае – визит премьер-министра В.В. Путина в Японию.
23 сентября 2009 г. в Нью-Йорке Президент РФ Д.А. Медведев
встретился с Ю. Хатояма на сессии ООН, поздравил его с победой на
выборах и назначением на пост главы правительства. Д.А. Медведев заявил, что премьер-министр Японии хорошо знает Россию, и это важный
фактор, который должен способствовать укреплению двусторонних отношений, развитию не только торгово-экономического сотрудничества,
но и сотрудничества по всем остальным вопросам, включая наиболее
сложные.
Ю. Хатояма, в свою очередь, подчеркнул, что между нашими странами существует территориальная проблема и «…мы хотели бы окончательно решить этот вопрос и заключить мирный договор в нынешнем,
нашем поколении». Заметим, что и Т. Асо, и Д. Медведев в начале года
говорили о том же. Из этой встречи следует, что российская сторона
возлагает определенные надежды на новое правительство и премьерминистра в частности. Чувствуется надежда, что Япония изменит жесткую позицию в территориальном вопросе.
Хотелось бы обратить внимание на традиционную российскую позицию в отношениях с Японией. В обобщенном виде она представлена в
выступлении заместителя министра иностранных дел России А.Н. Бородавкина на Шестом российско-японском форуме «Перспективы российско-японского сотрудничества в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе в
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условиях глобализации» (Иркутск, 3 окт. 2009 г.): «…ситуация в мире и
в АТР буквально диктует необходимость качественного развития взаимодействия наших стран перед лицом многочисленных и, к сожалению,
растущих современных вызовов и угроз».
А.Н. Бородавкин отметил, что на глобальном уровне речь должна
идти о серьезном укреплении российско-японских отношений, о решении таких проблем, как мировой финансово-экономический кризис,
глобальные изменения климата, распространение ОМУ, международный терроризм, наркопреступность, бедность, ухудшение окружающей
среды, дефицит энергоресурсов, инфекционные заболевания и др. В выступлении прозвучало, что у новой России, прочно вставшей на демократический и рыночный пути развития и проводившей прагматичную
де-идеологизированную внешнюю политику, и у Японии нет и не может
быть принципиальных стратегических разногласий. «Нас не разделяет
идеологическая или военно-политическая конфронтация, мы в отличие
от эпохи «холодной войны» не принадлежим к противоборствующим и
политически несовместимым лагерям, у нас единые ценностные ориентиры. Мы не являемся антагонистами в мировой экономике, не конкурируем друг с другом на зарубежных рынках, наши экономические
структуры, как ни банально это напоминание, взаимодополняемые».
Подобные заявления делались представителями России в разных вариантах практически на всех последних встречах и на разных уровнях.
Поэтому российской стороне не понятна позиция Японии, которая не
откликается на подобные, казалось бы, логические высказывания. Этим
непониманием и вызвана обостренная реакция летом 2009 г. на новый
закон, принятый в Японии, где речь идет о «японской исконности Южных Курил». Отсюда и утверждения, что не стоит связывать развитие
экономических отношений с территориальным вопросом, который
осложняет двусторонние отношения
В 2002 – 2007 гг. экономика Японии, преодолев, в общем-то, длительную экономическую депрессию, последовавшую за крахом экономики
«мыльного пузыря», показывала положительную динамику. Хотя темпы
роста были скромными, однако продолжительность подъема оказалась
максимальной за последние десятилетия. Вместе с тем и политическое руководство, и бизнес осознавали необходимость формирования новой модели экономического развития, которая позволила бы стране создать базу
устойчивого экономического роста в условиях глобализации, сосредоточить ресурсы на наиболее перспективных направлениях, повысить свою
международную конкурентоспособность, сохранить и упрочить позиции в
мировой экономике в качестве одного из мировых лидеров.
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В апреле 2006 г. Министерство экономики, торговли и промышленности опубликовало «Глобальную экономическую стратегию», а в июне
того же года – «Стратегию нового экономического роста». Характеризуя
цели «нового роста», разработчики отмечают, что в течение 40 лет Япония
была «второй экономикой мира», однако с учетом нынешних темпов роста
ВВП в ближайшие годы уступит это место Китаю. Целью Японии должно
быть непросто поддержание себя в качестве одной из крупнейших экономик, но и превращение в сильную экономику с доминирующим присутствием в мире. Причем понимается экономика, противостоящая рискам и
неопределенностям, обладающая высокой конкурентоспособностью в
международном сообществе, устанавливающая высокий уровень доходов
надушу населения, или «привлекательная Япония», которая приносит своему народу и всему миру все новую пользу.
Не анализируя «Стратегию нового экономического роста» детально, отметим лишь основные положения, которые важны для понимания
сути внешнеэкономической стратегии на предстоящие годы:
I. Цели «Стратегии нового экономического роста».
1.Новый рост в условиях сокращения численности населения. Акцент делается на рост производительности труда, усиление НИОКР, изменение структуры промышленности в пользу высокопроизводительных отраслей.
2.«Спираль удачи» инноваций и спроса. Под этим понимается, что
инновации порождают спрос, а спрос стимулирует инновации. Особо
подчеркивается значение двух «спиралей удачи»:
а) экономического роста Японии Азии (инновации в Японии ведут
к экономическому росту Азии, развивают региональную специализацию, порождают доходы, которые ведут к новым инновациям);
б) региональных инноваций и спроса.
3. Яркое будущее по завершении реформ. Япония становится мировым центром инноваций; происходит оживление регионов; народ рассматривается как сокровище страны; происходит рост национального
благосостояния; возрождение экономики поддерживает систему социального обеспечения; Япония становится страной привлекательной и
уважаемой другими странами.
ВНЕШНЯЯ ПОЛИТИКА КАБИНЕТА ХАТОЯМЫ
Валерий Кистанов, руководитель Центра исследований Японии,
д.и.н.
Курс Японии в сфере внешней политики в течение более полувека
определялся ставкой на военно-политический альянс с США, которые в
обмен на свои базы в Японии обеспечивали ее безопасность.
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Юкио Хатояма, который стал премьер-министром 16 сентября 2009
года в результате сокрушительной победы Демократической партии
Японии над либерал-демократами на выборах в нижнюю палату парламента 30 августа, признал, что японская дипломатия находилась в состоянии застоя в течение нескольких десятилетий правления ЛДП.
В своем выступлении на Генеральной Ассамблее ООН в сентябре
Хатояма обнародовал свою внешнеполитическую концепцию. По его
словам, смена власти в Японии поможет стране стать «мостом» для всего мира в решении проблем экономики, окружающей среды, укрепления
мира и других проблем.
Этот «мост», по замыслам Хатоямы, должен строиться в духе понятия
«юаи», являющегося ключевым в его работе «Моя политическая философия»,
опубликованной незадолго до прихода к власти. Как пояснил Хатояма, «юай»
– это «способ мышления, которое уважает собственную свободу и человеческое достоинство, уважая также свободу и человеческое достоинство других».
Очевидно, что, внося коррективы во внешнюю политику страны в
соответствии со своей политической философией, японский руководитель будет стремиться усиливать ее азиатский вектор. Улучшение отношений с азиатскими соседями, прежде всего с Китаем, является приоритетной задачей нового премьер-министра.
Выполняя обещание, данное в предвыборной платформе, правящая
ДПЯ намерена также проводить более независимую от США внешнюю
политику и выстраивать более равноправные отношения с ними. Вместе
с тем Хатояма заявил, что США остаются краеугольным камнем японской внешней политики.
Вашингтон, со своей стороны, не может скрыть настороженности по
поводу указанных действий Токио, однако подчеркивает, что Япония продолжает оставаться главным партнером США в их азиатской стратегии.
Китайский фактор (растущая экономическая и военная мощь КНР)
не может не учитываться как в Токио, так и в Вашингтоне.
«Сверхзадачей» правительства Хатоямы и последующих японских
кабинетов явится нахождение «золотой середины» в отношениях с двумя
экономическими и военно-политическими гигантами – США и Китаем.
Хатояма рассчитывает, что в этом деле, как и в укреплении позиций Японии в Азии и на мировой арене в целом, его стране поможет создание Восточноазиатского сообщества, которому отведено большое,
если не центральное, место в его «Политической философии».
Как представляется, правительству Хатоямы будет непросто осуществить в духе заявленного в его «Политической философии» «братства»
походы к ряду внешнеполитических проблем, ставших уже хроническими, таких как проблема ракетно-ядерного потенциала КНДР и др.
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К приоритетным направлениям внешнеэкономической политики
Японии на ближайшие годы отнесены следующие:
интегрированные меры внутри- и внешнеэкономического характера;
развитие инноваций в «зоне объема» (на развивающихся рынках);
глобальное развертывание «низкоуглеродистой революции» (сокращение вредных выбросов);
многоуровневое сотрудничество, включая промышленную кооперацию со странами, богатыми природными ресурсами.
Интеграция мер внутри- и внешнеэкономического характера предполагает, что в дополнение к стимулированию внутреннего спроса Япония будет прилагать усилия, направленные на экономический рост в
Азии вместе с Азией, имея в виду формирование здесь глобального центра роста.
Ставится, в частности, задача продвижения концепции удвоения
размеров азиатской экономики. Для расширения спроса планируется сотрудничество в реализации инфраструктурных проектов и формировании системы социального обеспечения. Япония возлагает большие
надежды на созданный в 2008 г. по ее инициативе Институт экономических исследований АСЕАН и Восточной Азии (ERIA), который в перспективе призван стать «мозговым трестом», азиатским аналогом Организации экономического сотрудничества и развития (ОЭСР). Кроме
того, Япония планирует в полной мере использовать свои возможности
как страны-организатора саммита АТЭС в 2010 г. по развитию экономического сотрудничества в регионе.
Другая практическая задача – все большая либерализация торговли
и нвестиций, а также предотвращение протекционизма. В частности,
предусматриваются расширение сети соглашений о свободной торговле
(ССТ) и экономическом партнерстве (СЭП) как двустороннего, так и
многостороннего характера, а также усилия по успешному завершению
переговоров в рамках Раунда Доха ВТО. Отметим, что Япония уже имеет действующие ССТ и/или СЭП с отдельными странами АСЕАН, а так
же с АСЕАН в целом и ведет соответствующие переговоры с Китаем и
Кореей (в двустороннем и трехстороннем форматах).
Япония ведет мониторинг выполнения странами и регионами международных договоренностей по режиму торговли, в том числе в условиях кризиса, и свою позицию по поводу принятия протекционистских
мер доводит до соответствующих правительств и организаций. Вопреки
устойчивому мнению о Японии как о стране с высокими протекционистскими барьерами статистика и анализ внешнеэкономических мер
японского правительства, скорее, говорят о том, что здесь сформировался один из самых либеральных внешнеторговых режимов, а в усло153
виях экономического кризиса правительство практически не использовало дополнительных защитных мер. Например, с сентября 2008 г. по
июнь 2009 г. в Китае было принято 7 мер по ограничению импорта, в
России – 9, в США – 9, в ЕС – 13, в Японии – всего одна.
Развитие инноваций в «зоне объема» подразумевает нацеленность
на сегмент среднего класса в странах Азии и других развивающихся экономиках. В частности, предполагается разработка технологий снижения
издержек при сохранении качества, активный маркетинг в указанном
сегменте, поддержание условий для производства лицензированной продукции (через инвестиционные соглашения и соглашения об охране прав
интеллектуальной собственности), отмена двойного налогообложения и
др. Если до сих пор японские компании ориентировались в основном на
верхний слой среднего класса и имели прочные позиции (с высокой нормой прибыли), то теперь речь идет об освоении среднего слоя (норма
прибыли низкая, но потенциально высокий объем).
Глобальное развертывание «низкоуглеродистой революции» означает формирование системы международного сотрудничества в целях
сохранения энергоносителей и сокращения вредных выбросов, в первую
очередь, углекислого газа, а также продвижение стратегии по созданию
за рубежом производств, основанных на чистых технологиях, в которых
Япония является лидером.
ПОЛВЕКА ЯПОНО-АМЕРИКАНСКОМУ ДОГОВОРУ
БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ
Нелидов Владимир Владимирович, магистрант МГИМО (у)
В период холодной войны японо-американское сотрудничество
развивалось от состояния, напоминающего отношения метрополии и
протектората в 1950-х годах, ко все более и более равноправному союзу.
Однако о полном равенстве сторон речи не шло – несмотря на конкретизацию и повышение роли японской стороны, основной задачей сотрудничества была, прежде всего, защита Японии от возможной советской или китайской агрессии и превращение ее в верного младшего
союзника США в Азии.
Первым
документом,
заложившим
фундамент
японоамериканского союза, был «Договор о гарантии безопасности между
Японией и Соединенными Штатами Америки» 1951 года, предоставивший США право на размещение в Японии и вблизи ее вооруженных
сил. В 1960 году этот документ был заменен Договором о взаимном сотрудничестве и безопасности, и поныне определяющим развитие японоамериканского оборонительного сотрудничества. В 1978 году приняты
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Руководящие принципы японо-американского сотрудничества в области
обороны, содержавшие четкие указания относительно действий сторон
в случае нападения извне.
Стороны не ограничивались подписанием двусторонних документов по вопросам обороны: была создана разветвленная система двусторонних органов, обеспечивавшая реализацию взятых сторонами на себя
обязательств, и служившая инструментом для разработки новых документов и программ. На протяжении всего послевоенного периода в
Японии продолжали базироваться американские войска, пребывание
которых хотя и вызывало нередко негативную реакцию местного населения, но, тем не менее, было одним из ключевых элементов японоамериканской системы безопасности. Еще одним направлением оборонительного сотрудничества двух стран являлось совместное укрепление
боевой мощи японских Сил самообороны, созданных с одобрения и при
поддержке американской стороны и развивавшихся в значительной мере за счет американской помощи. К середине 70-х годов создаются кадровые вооруженные силы, по боевой мощи не уступающие ни одной из
азиатских держав, за исключением КНР и КНДР. Приоритеты их развития были уточнены, когда в 1976 году были приняты Основные направления национальной обороны – рассчитанный примерно на 20 лет документ, ставший основой для концепции «базовых вооруженных сил»,
предусматривавшей ограничение целей военного строительства «минимально необходимым для самообороны уровнем».
В результате укрепления японского военного потенциала, уже с
начала 1980-х годов Япония становится не просто «подопечным», но
реальным военным союзником США. Но вплоть до конца 1980-х годов
японские войска, несмотря на весь количественный и качественный
рост боевой мощи, так и остались неспособными вести длительные действия даже по обороне собственной территории. Интересы Японии
ограничивались получением гарантий, что в случае нападения третьей
державы американские войска придут на помощь – как при помощи
обычной военной силы, так и с использованием стратегического ядерного оружия.
С окончанием холодной войны вся отлаженная система двустороннего оборонительного сотрудничества разом потеряла смысл существования. Стороны были вынуждены искать новые формы для развития сотрудничества в условиях постбиполярного мира. В начале 1990-х имел
место короткий период неопределенности, когда стороны не были уверены, стоит ли им продолжать тесное сотрудничество в военной области. Но уже к середине 1990-х годов и японские, и американские правящие круги поняли, что охлаждение отношений может повредить их
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интересам в регионе. Намерение сторон продолжить укрепление союза
было выражено в подписанном 17 апреля 1996 года на саммите в Токио
президентом Клинтоном и премьер-министром Хасимото документе –
«Совместной декларации о союзе безопасности на XXI столетие».
Япония, стремясь стать активным и эффективным союзником США
на мировой арене, стала активно расширять свою вовлеченность в решение международных вопросов безопасности. С начала 1990-х годов
был принят ряд законопроектов, позволивших отправлять военнослужащих сил самообороны за рубеж для проведения миротворческих и
спасательных операций, хотя на их деятельность и налагался ряд серьезных ограничений.
Новые тенденции в развитии союза были зафиксированы в новых
«Руководящих принципах японо-американского сотрудничества в области
обороны» 1997 года, в «Основных направлениях программы национальной обороны» 1995 и 2004 годов. В сферу действия японо-американского
союза фактически вошла часть Восточной Азии к северу от Филиппин,
Тайваня, а также Корейский полуостров. Среди потенциальных угроз, которым должны противостоять японские Силы самообороны, – терроризм,
последствия стихийных бедствий, угроза со стороны КНДР и КНР.
Значительный импульс развитию японо-американского союза был
придан после террористических актов 11 сентября 2001 г. Японский
парламент принял «антитеррористический» пакет законов, которые,
среди прочего, позволили силам самообороны направлять в Индийский
океан танкеры для дозаправки находящихся там американских судов,
участвующих в антитеррористической операции в Афганистане. В июле
2003 года был принят закон о специальных мерах по восстановлению
Ирака, позволивший Японии направить туда контингент инженерных
войск, проработавший в стране до июля 2006 года. С 2009 года японские военно-морские силы принимают участие в международной операции против сомалийских пиратов. Одним из приоритетов двустороннего
сотрудничества также является активно осуществляемое строительство
системы противоракетной обороны японской территории.
Двустороннее оборонительное сотрудничество не обходится без
трудностей: существующие в Японии конституционные ограничения все
еще ограничивают ее свободу действий в области развития оборонительного потенциала; на протяжении 90-х годов остро стояла проблема статуса
американских войск на Окинаве; замедлить развитие союза могут финансовые сложности. Не ясно, каким будет видение японо-американского союза у нового правительства, которое будет сформировано после парламентских выборов 30 августа 2009 года. Наконец, приход в США новой
администрации может привнести существенные коррективы в развитие
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японо-американского сотрудничества в области безопасности. Но в любом
случае, это будет означать не отказ от союза с Японией, а лишь модификацию целей и задач этого союза, уже доказавшего свою гибкость и способность приспосабливаться к новым условиям. Сегодня, как и на протяжении всего послевоенного периода, сотрудничество с США остается для
Японии внешнеполитическим приоритетом.
ЯПОНО-КИТАЙСКИЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ
НА СОВРЕМЕННОМ ЭТАПЕ
Киреева Анна Андреевна, магистрант МГИМО (у)
За долгую историю отношений, насчитывающую практически две
тысячи лет, отношения между двумя странами сменялись с дружеских и
добрососедских на враждебные и агрессивные, включая две Японокитайские войны 1894-1895 гг. и 1937-1945 гг. За чуть более чем полвека,
прошедших со времени окончания Второй мировой войны, японокитайские отношения пережили несколько этапов, последний из которых
начался в 2006 году с визита премьер-министра Синдзо Абэ в Китай и его
встречи с председателем КНР Ху Цзиньтао после продолжительного периода охлаждения отношений с 2001 по 2006 гг. Новый этап взаимоотношений характеризуется потеплением отношений в политической сфере
при тесном экономическом сотрудничестве и гуманитарных обменах, а
также подписанием четвертого документа, на основе которого строятся
отношения между двумя странами, – Совместного китайско-японское заявления о всестороннем развитии стратегических взаимовыгодных отношений 7 мая 2008 года. С потеплением отношений в политической сфере
начал набирать силу культурно-гуманитарный обмен, которой очень важен для двух стран, так как он является позитивным фактором для поддержания нормальных отношений и в политической сфере. 2007 год превзошел все ожидания, став беспрецедентным по количеству встреч
руководителей, в области двухсторонней торговли и гуманитарного сотрудничества. В 2008 году же исполнилось 30 лет со времени заключения
китайско-японского Договора о мире и дружбе. Этот год побил рекорды
предыдущих: было проведено шесть встреч на высшем уровне, в том числе прошел первый за последние 10 лет со времени приезда Цзян Цзэминя в
Японию официальный визит КНР Ху Цзиньтао 6-11 мая 2008 года. В 2009
году положительная динамика продолжилась, и руководители провели несколько встреч на высшем уровне, констатировав значительный прогресс
в двухсторонних отношениях. В связи с приходом к власти в Японии Демократической партии начались дискуссии о возможном изменении взаимоотношений между Японией и Китаем, связанных с заявлениями ее лидеров о пересмотре японо-американского союза и об азиатской политике
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как важном приоритете Японии. Демократическая партия в своей программе отводит важное место отношениями между Китаем и Японией и
планирует все больше углублять сотрудничество во всех сферах, в том
числе в создании Восточноазиатского сообщества.
В действительности в китайско-японских отношениях, несмотря на
позитивную динамику и декларирование лидерами стран настроенности
на всестороннее сотрудничество, все еще остается множество неразрешенных противоречий, что обуславливается тем положением, которое
страны занимают в мире. В настоящее время Япония и Китай являются
ключевыми акторами в регионе Восточной Азии, они предстают в виде
двух полюсов, формирующих региональный баланс сил и региональную
подсистему международных отношений. Неудивительно, что Китай и
Япония оказывают большое влияние друг на друга, а также на всю Восточную Азию. Отношения между двумя странами имеют продолжительную историю и характеризуются разнообразием противоречивых и
взаимодополняющих тенденций, изменяющихся под воздействием
множества разнонаправленных факторов. Китайско-японские отношения отличаются необычайной многомерностью, так как они включают
не только политическое и экономическое измерение, но и отношения в
сферах безопасности, энергетики, экологии, культуры и других.
В политической сфере взаимоотношения между странами определяются тем, что Китай, стремящийся стать одним из полюсов формирующегося международного порядка при партнерстве с Россией, в своих притязаниях на лидерство в Восточной Азии сталкивается с Японией, главное
целью политики которой является приведение внешнеполитической мощи
в соответствие с экономической, как второй по величине экономики мира.
Китай и Япония являются стратегическими соперниками за лидерство в
Восточной Азии, но одновременно являются и стратегическими партнерами, что проявляется в их взаимоотношениях в рамках различных интеграционных группировок, таких как АСЕАН +3, АРФ, АТЭС, ВАС, которое сочетает в себе элементы сотрудничества и противостояния. В целом
же в отношениях между Китаем и Японией сохраняется военнополитический баланс, поддержанию стабильности которого способствуют
внутре – и внешнеполитические факторы. Между Китаем и Японией существует целый ряд нерешенных проблем, обусловленный вышеперечисленными факторами. Их условно можно разделить на проблемы, вытекающие из статуса двух держав как полюсов силы в регионе (проблема
Тайваня, взаимодействие в рамках региональных организаций и интеграционных группировок), территориальные проблемы (спор вокруг островов
Сэнкаку, или Дяоюйдао) и проблемы, вытекающие из наличия разных
представлений об историческом прошлом.
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Проблема Тайваня, связанная с тесными связями Японии с Тайбэем
и геополитическими вопросами, до сих пор остается одним из краеугольных вопросов в отношениях между Китаем и Японией. Острова
Сэнкаку (Дяоюйдао) являются важной территориальной проблемой, так
как на них претендуют Япония, КНР и Тайвань. На них часто происходят инциденты, связанные с высадкой японских, китайских или тайваньских активистов и разработкой газовых месторождений на шельфе
Южно-Китайского моря. Один из основных факторов, который оказывает большое влияние на формирование японо-китайских отношений –
это различное понимание ими истории и даже наличие различных картин мировосприятия. Для Китая и Японии проблема исторического
прошлого долгое время была самой острой проблемой в двухсторонних
отношениях, приводившая к конфликтным ситуациям, порождавшая
недоверие и взаимные обвинения. С этим связана проблема извинений,
фальсификации истории, учебников и посещения синтоистского святилища Ясукуни в прошлом премьер-министром Коидзуми.
Японо-китайские отношения являются хорошим примером практического подхода японской стороны к отношениям с другими странами, когда
экономические и политические отношения тесно переплетены, и экономическое сотрудничество являются движущей силой политического диалога
в частности и двухсторонних отношений в целом. Во многом благодаря
экономическому наполнению двухсторонние отношения характеризуются
большой степенью стабильности и устойчивости. Колоссальных размеров
экономическое сотрудничество привело к тому, что экономики двух стран
стали очень сильно зависеть друг от друга, таким образом, что сложилось
даже своеобразное международное разделение труда: Япония поставляет в
Китай технологии и капитал в виде инвестиций, а Китай предоставляет
свои трудовые ресурсы и производственные мощности. Для Японии, которая с 2000-х перешла на инвестиционную модель, огромное значение
играет прибыль от вложенных инвестиций, большая часть которых сосредоточена именно в КНР. Китай, имеющий трудности в получении технологий непосредственно из США, видит в Японии прежде всего их источник, как японских, так и американских, прошедших через японский рынок.
Японские технологии и японские инвестиции выступают ключом к модернизации китайской экономики. Для Японии же в свою очередь потенциально огромный растущий китайский внутренний рынок является залогом роста ее собственной экономики, так как она гарантирует постоянный
спрос. Также возрастающая мощь экономики Китая заставляет экономику
Японии претерпевать изменения, связанные с изменением ее характерных
черт для повышения конкурентоспособности, именно из экономики Китая
в Японию приходят стимулы развития.
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Также гуманитарный обмен на протяжении всей истории японокитайских отношений способствовал развитию политического диалога.
Кроме этого, важным измерением в двухсторонних отношениях в начале
XXI века стало энергетическое, так как Китай наряду с Японией стал одним
из самых больших потребителей энергетических ресурсов. Китай также как
и Япония, заинтересован в диверсификации источников энергии как гарантии своей энергической безопасности. Для японской стороны вопрос экологии является одним из самых важных в ее внутренней и внешней политике.
Япония придает большое значение вопросу экологии в Китае и выделяет на
различные экологические проекты значительные средства.
Таким образом, на современном этапе отношения двух стран вновь
показывают положительную динамику: ведется тесный диалог в политической сфере, происходят частые контакты на высшем уровне, до
начала финансового кризиса происходило увеличение товарооборота,
страны видят в сотрудничестве друг с другом средство скорейшего выхода из кризиса, активизируется культурный и гуманитарный обмен,
восприятие в массовом сознании населения обеих стран улучшается,
проводятся совместные экологические программы и т.д. Однако Китай
и Япония остаются стратегическими соперниками в регионе Восточной
Азии, и их отношения отягощены проблемами интерпретации прошлого, наличием спорных территорий, вопросом Тайваня, экологическими
проблемами, конкуренцией за новые энергетически рынки и другими
спорными моментами. Эти страны имеют различную внешнеполитическую и идеологическую ориентацию, и вряд ли представляется обоснованным говорить о разрешении всех спорных проблем в ближайшем будущем. Таким образом, невозможно говорить о превалировании
тенденции к сотрудничеству или соперничеству в китайско-японских
отношениях. Между странами сохраняется большой потенциал для решения спорных вопросов и сотрудничества в политической сфере и в
сфере безопасности, расширении экономических связей, культурного
обмена, но все это может быть реализовано только при наличии политической воли со стороны руководителей Китая и Японии. Так или иначе, именно отношения Китая и Японии будут определять вектор развития и будущее Восточной Азии и, в потенциале, возможность
превращения региона в центр экономического роста в новом столетии.
ЯПОНИЯ И ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКАЯ ИНТЕГРАЦИЯ В АТР
Клоков Н.С.
Япония была и остается второй промышленной державой мира и
наиболее продвинутой в технологическом отношении страной Восточной
Азии, и она может сыграть решающую роль в развитии экономик Севе160
ро-Восточной и Юго-Восточной Азии. Если Япония будет направлять
свои инвестиции только в Китай, Южную Корею, Тайвань и Гонконг, тогда экономическое разделение в Восточной Азии еще более увеличится.
Но если она распределит свои зарубежные капиталовложения как в страны АСЕАН, так и государства СВА, то разделение между экономиками
может быть сведено к минимуму. Но для того, чтобы стать привлекательным рынком для ПИИ из Японии, странам АСЕАН необходимо форсировать структурные реформы своих экономик, а также активизировать
и сделать более тесным сотрудничество между собой с эффективным
внедрением зоны свободной торговли АСЕАН, зоны инвестиций АСЕАН
и соглашения о свободной торговле в сферах торговли и услуг.
В прошлом модель развития Восточной Азии часто описывалась
как полет стаи гусей, в соответствии с которой в регионе существует
лидер (вожак стаи), за которым, выстроившись клипом в зависимости от
уровня экономического развития, следуют другие государства региона.
Япония первой начала экономический рост в регионе. Во втором эшелоне за ней последовали Корея, Тайвань, Гонконг и Сингапур, которым
удалось сменить статус своих экономик с развивающихся на развитые.
В качестве третьего эшелона выступают экономики стран АСЕАН – Таиланд, Малайзия, Индонезия и Филиппины. В итоге сложившейся в результате развития инвестиций и торговли взаимозависимости сформировался региональный цикл экономического оркестра, который связал
все экономики Северо-Восточной и Юго-Восточной Азии и обеспечивал устойчивый динамичный рост региональной экономики на протяжении двух десятилетий. Однако после кризиса процессы глобализации
революции информационных технологий привели к тому, что модель
«гусиной стаи» стала менее работоспособной. Различия в скорости приспособления разных стран региона к новой экономической обстановке,
скорости осуществления структурных реформ в ответ на вызовы, порождаемые глобализацией и революцией информационных технологий,
привели к нарушению сложившегося порядка в региональном развитии.
Теоретически промышленное развитие по модели «гусиной стаи» имеет две характеристики: традиционное последовательное развитие индивидуальных промышленных структур, которые охватывали полный цикл
производств, и новую организацию трансграничных производственных сетей через прямые иностранные инвестиции. В условиях усиливающейся
интеграции мировой экономики наличие полного цикла производства утрачивает значение, а сетевые компоненты становятся доминирующими.
Возникающая в Восточной Азии модель развития представляет собой такую, в которой формируются региональные кластеры при появлении каждого нового прорыва в технологиях. Они представляют собой
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кластеры, ориентированные на производство определенной продукции,
в которые включаются экономики, находящиеся на различных стадиях
развития, расположенных в этом районе государств.
Больше не существует единственной экономики, которая ведет за
собой всю стаю (гусей), но возникают различные лидеры для каждого
технологического кластера. Так, например, Южная Корея ведет за собой
Японию в производстве чипов памяти типа RAM, Тайвань сосредоточил
у себя производство персональных компьютеров, а Китай стал центром
производства трудоемкой, а также капиталоемкой продукции.
Несмотря на все свои проблемы, Япония остается крупнейшей экономикой Восточной Азии, которая по своим параметрам в 3-4 раза превосходит китайскую. Китай в настоящее время вследствие быстрого
развития превратился в мотор экономического роста Восточной Азии.
Однако развитие китайской экономики во многом обеспечивается за
счет японской официальной помощи развитию, притока японских инвестиций и трансферта технологий. В той же степени и экономики стран
АСЕАН развиваются за счет этих трех факторов. В среднесрочной перспективе Китай будет занят решением своих внутренних экономических
и социальных проблем. Поэтому именно на Японию падает ответственность за оживление и развитие региональных экономик. Япония может
стать катализатором экономического восстановления Восточной Азии,
поскольку она располагает необходимыми для этого техно-логиями и
капиталами. Конечно, это еще вопрос, сможет ли Япония стать региональным лидером, однако, в минимальном объеме она располагает необходимым экономическим и промышленным потенциалом для трансформации восточноазиатских экономик. Одновременно экономическое
восстановление и динамизм Восточной Азии должны обеспечить эффективный механизм для устойчивого восстановления японской экономики. Это формула обоюдной выгоды и для Японии, и для региона.
Проблема заключается в том, как сформировать долженствование и механизмы, которые должны выработать импульсы развития стран
АСЕАН. Китай, Япония и Южная Корея являются основными составляющими восточноазиатского экономического сообщества.
Быстрое изменение международной и региональной обстановки делает крайне необходимыми глубокие изменения в политике и обширную
структурную перестройку экономики. Внешние перемены вызываются радикальными переменами в сфере информатики и коммуникаций, либерализацией и дерегулированием в торговле и инвестициях. В результате этих
внешних и внутренних перемен сформировавшиеся в прошлом в мире и в
Восточной Азии индустриальные и производственные структуры подверглись большим изменениям. Конкуренция обострилась, а производ162
ственный цикл стал короче. Развитые и развивающиеся экономики в регионе требуют апгрейда и реструктуризации. В противном случае они будут
превзойдены развивающимися экономиками через изменения в международном разделении труда и смещение сравнительных преимуществ.
Вступление Китая в ВТО означает для АСЕАН огромные вызовы и одновременно новые возможности. Предложения о развитии внутри региона
системы свободной торговли, которые происходят вследствие перспектив
растущей конкуренции со стороны КНР и более динамичной игры рыночных сил, были инициированы между АСЕАН и Китаем и между АСЕАН и
Японией. Альтернативно зоны свободной торговли, всеобъемлющее экономическое партнерство и сотрудничество могут быть интерпретированы
как инициированные политикой меры, направленные на максимизацию
потенциальных выгод и сокращение потенциальных негативных последствий глобализации и либерализации торговли и инвестиций.
Япония может сыграть критическую (решающую) роль и апгрейде
асеановских экономик. В этом смысле Япония должна решительно поддержать создание экономического сообщества АСЕАН как логический
шаг и направлении более тесного и эффективного экономического сотрудничества. В свою очередь более конкурентоспособные экономики
АСЕАН могут внести большой вклад в восточноазиатское экономическое сообщество посредством предоставления себя в качестве «хаба»,
соединяющего между собой потенциальных конкурентов за лидерство в
Восточном Азии в лице Китая и Японии. Стабильность и баланс отношений между Китаем и Японией является жизненно важной предпосылкой для процветания и мира в Восточной Азии.
Для Восточной Азии, как для группировки возможны три пути формирования соглашений о зонах свободной торговли. Первый – самый идеальный, это немедленное начало переговоров о создании региональной зоны свободной торговли. Но, похоже, это преждевременно. Второй путь
состоит в том, чтобы сформировать трехстороннюю (Китай, Япония, Республика Корея) зону свободной торговли. Но здесь имеется трудность, которая состоит в том, что Китай избегает заключения трехсторонних соглашений, хотя с другой стороны, Китай сам предлагал подобную идею в 2003
г. Еще более сложной ситуация может стать в случае подключения к этому
процессу Тайваня. Третий путь – через различные двусторонние соглашения между странами АСЕАН и государствами Северо-Восточной Азии.
Этот вариант может оказаться очень сложной задачей в том случае, если
двусторонние соглашения не будут в перспективе ориентированы на конвергенцию. Все это требует разработки ряда общих принципов для региона, которые могут оказаться приемлемыми в перспективе и для всего мира.
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ANSWERS
UNIT 1 JAPANESE FOREIGN POLICY
Ex.3. 1f 2g 3h 4b 5i 6a 7c 8e 9d
Ex.4.1-F, 2F, 3T, 4-T, 5-F, 6-T, 7-T, 8-T, 9-F, 10-F
Ex.6
1. Japanese diplomatic policy has been based on partnership with the United
States since … (Since the surrender after World War II and the Treaty of San
Francisco)
2. In the Cold War Japan supported … (the US) and opposed … (the USSR)
3. Japan’s relations with China and South Korea are … (negative)
4. In 1960’s Japan became … (one of the major powers in the world.)
5. Japanese government decided to participate in the Peacekeeping operations
by the UN, and sent their troops to … (Cambodia, Mozambique, Golan
Heights and the East Timor in the 1990s and 2000s.)
6. Japanese naval vessels have been assigned to resupply duties in the Indian
Ocean after … (September,11)
7. Japan aims at developing … (close relationship) … with the US.
8. China is regarded as a … (threat to Japan)
9. The closest ally of Japan is … (the USA)
10. In the early 1990’s Japan’s economic development was … (high, rapid, a
threat to the USA)
Ex.7. 1-J 2-D 3-I4-B 5-G 6-C 7-A 8-H9-E10-F
Ex.8. 1-e 2-f 3-k 4-g 5-d 6-h 7-i 8-j 9-c 10-a 11-b 12-l
Ex.9. 1 – b 2 – a 3 – b 4 – c 5 – c
UNIT 2 JAPANESE SECURITY
Ex.4. 1-c; 2-b; 3-e; 4-a; 5-d; 6-f
Ex.8. 1-f 2-f 3-f 4-t 5-t 6-t 7-t 8-f 9-f 10-t
Ex.9.
1. aircraft carriers
2. Japan ruled the waves
3. a «means of settling international disputes»
4. repair shops, ammunition magazines
5. the need to provide crews with a rest plus the maintenance requirements of
onboard systems
6. to intervene in any corner of the world
7. afford to be vulnerable to a blockade at sea or encroachment of Japanese
waters
8. only to defend Japan
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9. the US protecting the long lines of communication linking Japan with key
areas like the Persian Gulf (oil imports)
10. to protect country from foreign invasion
Ex 11. 1-d, 2-a, 3-b, 4- c, 5-a,6-b 7-d, 8-a, 9-10-b
(navies-fleet, eternal-endless, rogue-aberrant, speculation-thought, strikeblow, lanes-ways, stuff -matter, ascent-rise, cut-reduction, aboveaforementioned)
Ex.12.1-T 2.-F 3-T 4-F 5-T 6-T 7-F 8-F 9-T10-T
Ex.13.
1. The MSDF has grown to become one of the strongest 1navies of the world.
2. Many politicians have come to the conclusion that Article 9 should be reformed.
3. On April 19 North Korea tested a missile under the guise of launching a
satellite.
4. In the case of preemptive strike aircraft carriers would give Japanese planners an extra degree of flexibility in suppressing North Korean air defense
systems and getting at the selected targets.
5. The ascent of China is a threat to Japan.
6. Japan should develop nuclear weapons to suppress North Korean air defense systems.
7. Beijing has dispatched warships to the Gulf of Aden and is developing antiship missiles.
8. Japan cannot take for granted the willingness or even the ability of America
to intervene in a crisis with China.
9. Recent cuts in America’s defense budget have cast doubts on the number
of future nuclear carrier groups.
10. Pirate activity threatened the transit of merchant ships in some of the
world’s most crowded sea lanes.
Ex. 16. 1-T,2-F, 3-T, 4-F,5-T, 6-T, 7-T
Ex.17.
1. The sight of Chinese carriers roaming the seas without them being followed by their Japanese counterparts is 166nacceptable to Japan.
2. The presence of nuclear-powered Chinese carrier groups could leave Japan at the mercy of her bigger neighbor.
3. Some Japanese are afraid the vessels might be perceived by other Asian
countries as a sign ofsparking an arms race and sowing mistrust among
neighbors.
4. The biggest MSDF ship is called Hyuga.
5. The Hyuga could be converted to accommodate to operate vertical takeoff
airplanes.
6. «he who commands the sea commands the land»
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7. The return of Japanese carriers is a foregone conclusion.
Ex.19. crossword
Ex.20.
1 get rid of
2 preemptive strikes
3 under the guise of launching a satellite
4 merchant ships
5 sea lane
6 cast doubts
7 reciprocal obligations
8 to intervene in a crisis
9 serious threats
10 for the foreseeable future
Ex.21
1. вид китайских авианосцев, бороздящих моря – the sight of Chinese carriers roaming the seas
2. положить конец – put an end
3. в милости большого соседа – at the mercy of her bigger neighbor
4. во всех отношениях – for all intents and purposes
5. разжигание гонки вооружений – sparking an arms race
6.взлетать и садиться одновременно – simultaneously land and take off
7. тот кто правит на море, царит и на суше -»he who commands the sea,
commands the land
Ex.22 1-c2-b3-e 4f 5-d 6-g 7-a
Unit 3 JAPAN – UNITED STAES ECONOMIC RELATIONS
The Earthquake, Tsunami, and Nuclear Accident in
Northeastern Japan
The effects of the March 11 earthquake and related events in Japan are
likely to dominate the U.S.-Japan economic relationship, at least for the foreseeable future. These events are still unfolding; therefore, any economic impact assessments are at best preliminary. The effects could be profound in the
near term and on specific sectors and firms for which trade and investment
with Japan is particularly important. The earthquake crisis is expected to diminish economic growth in Japan in the near term; therefore, U.S. exports
could decline, depending on the extent of the impact. One forecast estimates
that the Japanese economy will experience a recession in 2011 with a decline
in GDP of 1…3 % as a result of the crisis. Others estimate the crisis will di167
minish the rate of GDP growth by 0.3 % to 0.5 % GDP. 10 Most forecasts
indicate that Japan’s GDP will increase as the country begins reconstruction.
Some sectors of U.S.-Japan trade are likely to be directly affected. For
example, close to 35 % of U.S. imports from Japan in 2010 consisted of passenger cars and auto parts. Some Japanese auto manufacturers, such as Toyota Motor Corp., have assembly operations in the immediate vicinity of the
earthquake. Other manufacturers who may not be directly located in the
earthquake area have been affected by power outages and other effects of the
disaster and have had to curtail operations, reducing output. Japanese auto
manufacturers have also been adversely affected by disruption of operations
of parts suppliers.11
In addition, U.S.-based auto manufacturers may also be affected by the
problems in Japan. Some Japanese-owned companies in the United States
have had to curtail operations because they cannot obtain parts from Japan.
For example, some models assembled in the United States by Toyota,
Mitsubishi, Nissan, and Mazda import engines and/or transmissions from Japan.12 Also, some U.S.-name plate manufacturers have been affected. Ford
Motor Co. depends on imports of Japanese-made memory chips and batteries.
In addition, a significant portion of U.S. imports from Japan are in machinery
(20.6 %), including printers and computers, and electrical machinery
(15.2 %), including semiconductors, shipments of which could be interrupted
because of the crisis. The full extent of the effects of the problems in Japan is
yet to be determined.13
Trade in services could also be affected. Hawaii already has experienced
cancellations of tours from Japan. Japanese tourists accounted for $1.9 billion
in revenue in Hawaii, 18 % of tourist arrivals there, and numbered second only to arrivals from other parts of the United States.14 For the United States as
a whole, about 3.5 million tourists from Japan arrived in 2010, placing Japan
in fourth place after Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom.
Another factor that affects trade flows is exchange rates. Over the past
year, the Japanese yen has attained historically high values in terms of the
dollar and other currencies as investors sought a safe haven during the financial crisis. Less than four years ago the yen was valued at $1=.122. On March
17, 2011, the value was $1=.78.8, which was the highest value since the end
of World War II. It has depreciated slightly since then. On March 28, it was
$1=.81.7. Recent yen appreciation may be caused in part by speculatio that
Japan will need to repatriate funds from abroad to finance the reconstruction.
The higher yen in terms of the dollar makes Japanese exports more expensive
and U.S. exports less expensive
1C, 2A, 3 D, 4B
Vocabulary
168
1C, 2G, 3H, 4K, 5B, 6J, 7A, 8L, 9E,10M,11F, 12D
Unit 4 JAPAN – UNITED STAES POLITICAL RELATIONS
Ex.12
1L, 2P, 3T, 4Y, 5I, 6W, 7Q, 8V, 9AA, 10A, 11U, 12B,13D,14 C,15H,
16Z,17E, 18X, 19G, 20J, 21F,22K, 23R, 24S, 25N, 26 27
Unit 5 JAPAN – EAST ASIA POLITICAL RELATIONS
Ex.2
1f, 2t,3f, 4t, 5f, 6f, 7f, 8t
Vocabulary
1K, 2Q, 3S, 4I, 5M, 6R, 7A, 8C, 9B, 10D, 11P, 12Aa13E, 14F, 15T, 16H,
17G, 18J, 19L, 20N, 21O
UNIT 6 JAPAN – CHINA RELATIONSHIPS
Ex.3. 1f 2f 3t 4t 5t 6t 7t 8f 9f 10f
Ex. 4.
1. … because of colliding with two Japanese coastguard vessels in the territorial waters of the Senkaku Islands.
2. …if the Chinese fishing boat captain was not released immediately and
unconditionally.
3. … territorial dispute.
4. … an integral part of Japan’s sovereign territory.
5. … seabed resources and fishing rights.
6. … fish in the territorial waters of disputed islands.
7. … lead to a direct confrontation with the Japan Coast Guard.
8. … has been rising.
9. … China’s overt diplomatic hostility towards Japan.
10. … slow development in economic and trade realm.
Ex.6. 0-A 1-E 2-C 3-G 4-B 5-D
Ex.7. 1 temporary detention 2 shallow level of goodwill 3 threatened additional retaliatory measures 4 immediately and unconditionally 5 next move is
unclear 6 an invasion of the Senkakus 7 integral part 8 the issue is overlaid
by 9 а harsh response 10 direct confrontation 11 mutually exclusive 12 bilateral treaty 13 joint development 14 seabed exploration 15 over diplomatic
hostility
Ex.9.1-B 2-C 3-B 4-C 5-A 6-B 7-D 8-A 9-B 10-C
Ex.7 1-b, 2-d, 3-a, 4-e5.-c, 6-g, 7-f
Ex.81-d, 2-c, 3-b, 4-c, 5-d. 6-b, 7-a
Unit 7 JAPAN – EUROPE POLITICAL RELATIONS
Unit 8. JAPAN – EUROPE ECONOMIC RELATIONS
Ex.11
1 N 2W 3i 4Q 5U 6Y 7A 8b 9D 10e 11B 12S 13C 14G 15d 16f 17E 18F 19h
20K 21H 22I 23c 24j 25O 26G 27g 28J 29P 30L 31a 32M 33T 34Z 35V
169
UNIT 9 JAPAN-RUSSIA RELATIONSHIPS
Ex.3. 1-b 2-a 3-d 4-a 5-d 6-c 7-a
Ex. 4.
1-F 2-F 3-T 4-F 5-T 6-T 7-F 8-T
Ex.6. 1-F2-T3-T4-F 5-T 6-F7-T 8-T
Ex. 7.
1. The Kuril Islands have long been a subject of … (a bitter dispute between
Russia and Japan)
2. Japan considers the Kuril Islands … (their Northern Territories)
3. Russia took control over the Kuril Islands … (after the WWII)
4. Nikolay Patrushev is … (Russia’s Security Council Secretary)
5. The island of the Tanfilieva is … (only 4 kilometers away from Japan).
6. Lavrov underlined that the negotiations on a peace treaty … (should be
held in a calm atmosphere)
7. Koichiro Gemba thanked Moscow for … (the aid iRussia had provided after the earthquake in March this year)
8. The meeting with the antiterrorist commission of the Sakhalin Region focused on such topics … (as ensuring the protection of citizens during public
events)
9. The deployment of weaponry on the Kuril Islands was ordered by … (president Medvedev)
10. President Medvedev’s visit to Kunashir … (intensified the dispute between the countries)
Ex.10 b. a newspaper article
Ex.11. 1-B 2-F 3-C 4-E 5-D 6-A
Ex.13. 1F 2F 3F 4F 5F 6T 7T 8T 9T 10T
Ex.14. 1-by 2-under 3-by 4-on,5-over 6-over 7-under 8-by
Ex.15.
1.ранее достигнутые соглашения-previously-reached agreements,
2.заключить мирный договор-conclude a peace treaty, 3. камень преткновения-stumbling block, 4.обеспечение защиты граждан-ensuring the protection of citizens, 5.вновь назначенный-newly-appointed, 6.переговоры
по поводу подписания мирного договора-negotiations on a peace treaty,
7.широкое двустороннее сотрудничество- broad bilateral co-operation, 8.
не имеет законных оснований-has no legal grounds, 9.последствия разрушительного землетрясения-the aftermath of the devastating earthquake,
10. суверенные права на эти территории неоспоримы-sovereignty over
the territories is irrefutable
Ex.16. 1-b 2-d 3-a 4-e 5-g 6-f 7-j 8-k 9-h 10-i 11-l 12-c
170
Ex.17.
4C
5C
6C
O
N
1U
2K
P
I
B
3P
C
E
O
K
A
S
T
E
N
O
I
O
P
P
F
I
O
F
O
N
D
E
M
U
7F
T
S
N
E
T
E
R
D
171
N
Ex. 19.
1
M
A
I
N
2P
T
3F
U
E
A
R
N
C
C
A
I
H
N
L
A
4V
C
I
S
U
E
T
5E X
C
L
U
S
I
V
E
N
6S
U
R
7G U
9O F
10
P
O
F
W
E
E
N
R
R
N
S
-
E
N
D
E
R
D
S
U
T
D
I
E
A
A
A
E
Q
O
M
R
R
B
O
I
P
L
O
M
A
N
C
Y
L
R
8D
E
E
E
M
F
E
E
N
N
P
R
O
J
E
C
T
S
I
O
N
T
O
O
L
S
E
Unit 10 JAPAN’S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. WHAT’S NEXT?
Ex.2
1B 2C 3A 4B 5C
Vocabulary
1 C, 2 F, 3E, 4 I, 5H, 6A, 7B, 8G, 9D
Ex.15
1. of 2 after 3.- 4. to 5. with. 6 about. 7. – 8. of 9. in 10. in 11. to 12. towards 13.on
172
CONTENTS
UNIT 1
JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY ....................................................................... 6
UNIT 2
JAPAN’S SECURITY .................................................................................. 13
UNIT 3
JAPAN – UNITED ECONOMIC RELATIONS ......................................... 28
UNIT 4
JAPAN – UNITED STATES POLITICAL RELATIONS .......................... 44
UNIT 5
JAPAN’S PARTICIPATION IN THE EAST ASIAN
REGIONAL COOPERATION ..................................................................... 56
UNIT 6
JAPAN – CHINA RELATIONSHIPS ......................................................... 67
UNIT 7
JAPAN – EUROPE POLITICAL RELATIONS ......................................... 81
UNIT 8
JAPAN – EUROPE ECONOMIC RELATIONS ......................................... 91
UNIT 9
JAPAN–RUSSIA RELATIONSHIPS ........................................................ 100
UNIT 10
JAPAN’S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. WHAT NEXT? ................ 113
ACRONYMS .............................................................................................. 127
TEXTS FOR SUMMARIES AND TRANSLATION ................................ 128
TEXTS FOR RENDERING ....................................................................... 145
REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 164
ANSWERS ................................................................................................. 165
173
Учебное издание
НЕТЕСОВА Мария Витальевна
ЛЫСУНЕЦ Татьяна Борисовна
ЯПОНИЯ.
МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ:
ПОЛИТИКА, ЭКОНОМИКА, БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ
Учебное пособие
Издано в авторской редакции
Научный редактор
доцент, кандидат филологических наук Е.В. Швагрукова
Компьютерная верстка О.М. Демидова
Дизайн обложки А.И. Сидоренко
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174